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PRODUCTS SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SECOND EDITION AND TECHNOLOGY BAKERY PRODUCTS SCIENCE SECOND EDITION BAKERY PRODUCTS Editor: Weibiao Zhou Administrative Editor: Y. H. Hui Associate Editors: I. De Leyn, M. A. Pagani, C. M. Rosell, J. D. Selman, N. Therdthai SCIENCE AND

Baking is a process that has been practiced for centuries, and bakery products range in complexity from the simple ingredients of a plain to the numerous components of a . While currently there are many books available aimed at service TECHNOLOGY operators, culinary art instruction and consumers, relatively few professional publications exist that cover the science and technology of . In this book, professionals from industry, government and academia contribute their perspectives on the state of industrial baking today. SECOND EDITION The second edition of this successful and comprehensive overview of bakery science is revised and expanded, featuring chapters on various and non-bread products from around the world, as well as nutrition and packaging, processing, quality control, global bread varieties and other popular bakery products. The book is structured to follow the baking process, from the basics, fl our and other ingredients, to mixing, proofi ng and baking. Editor: Weibiao Zhou Blending the technical aspects of baking with the latest scientifi c research, Bakery Products Science and Technology, Second Administrative Editor: Y. H. Hui Edition has all the fi nest ingredients to serve the most demanding appetites of food science professionals, researchers, and students. Associate Editors: I. De Leyn, M. A. Pagani, THE EDITORS C. M. Rosell, J. D. Selman, N. Therdthai Dr Weibiao Zhou (Editor) Weibiao Zhou is a full Professor and Director of the Food Science and Technology Programme at the National University of Singapore. An academic and professional scientist, Professor Zhou is an expert on the science, technology, and engineering of bakery products, among other areas of interest. He is a member of food science journal editorial boards for three major publishing houses and and advises government agencies in science, technology, and engineering. Rosell,Selman, Therdthai Editors:Associate De Leyn, Pagani, Editor:Administrative Hui Editor: Zhou Dr Y. H. Hui (Administrative Editor) Y. H. Hui is a Consultant to the Food Industry based in Sacramento, California, USA. He has authored, co-authored, edited, and co-edited at least 30 professional reference books in nutrition, health, food science, food technology, food engineering, and food laws.

ALSO AVAILABLE Bakery Food Manufacture and Quality: Water Control and Effects, 2nd Edition Stan Cauvain and Linda Young ISBN: 978-1-4051-7613-2 Gluten-Free Food Science and Technology Edited by Eimear Gallagher ISBN: 978-1-4051-5915-9

www.wiley.com/go/food

ISBN 978-1-119-96715-6

9 781119 967156

Zhou_Handbook_9781119967156_hb.indd 1 12/05/2014 10:07

Bakery Products Science and Technology

Bakery Products Science and Technology Second Edition

Editor Weibiao Zhou Food Science and Technology Programme, c/o Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, Singapore

Administrative Editor Y. H. Hui Science Technology System, West Sacramento, California, USA

Associate Editors I. De Leyn Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Department of Applied Biosciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium M. A. Pagani Department of Food, Environmental and Nutritional Sciences (DeFENS), Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy C. M. Rosell Food Science Department, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Paterna, Spain J. D. Selman Fossatello Group, Carnforth, Lancashire, UK N. Therdthai Department of Product Development, Faculty of Agro-Industry, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand This edition first published 2014 © 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Bakery products science and technology / [compiled by] Dr Weibiao Zhou and Y H Hui. – Second edition. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-119-96715-6 (cloth) 1. Baking. 2. Baked products. I. Zhou, Weibiao. II. Hui, Y. H. (Yiu H.) TX763.B325 2014 641.81′5–dc23 2013048365 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books.

Cover image: Fresh Bread © iStock/ Chelnok Cover design by Andy Meaden

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1 2014 Contents

Preface to the Second Edition vii 10. Ascorbic Acid and Redox Agents Contributors ix in Bakery Systems 183 Sarabjit S. Sahi Part 1: Introduction 1 11. and Sweeteners 199 Manuela Mariotti and Mara Lucisano 1. Introduction to Baking and Bakery 12. Lipids: Properties and Functionality 223 Products 3 Alejandro Marangoni, Avi Goldstein, Weibiao Zhou, N. Therdthai, and Koushik Seetharaman and Y. H. Hui 13. Eggs 243 Vassilios Kiosseoglou and Adamantini Part 2: 17 Paraskevopoulou 14. Dairy Ingredients 259 2. Wheat Milling and Bonastre Oliete Mayorga and Manuel Gómez Quality Evaluation 19 15. Enzymes 275 M. A. Pagani, Alessandra Marti, U. J. S. Prasada Rao and M. S. Hemalatha and Gabriella Bottega 16. Other Functional Additives 295 3. Wheat Flour: Chemistry and Biochemistry 55 I. De Leyn Francesco Bonomi, Pasquale Ferranti, and Gianfranco Mamone Part 4: Baking Science and Technology 307 4. Rye 75 Kaisa Poutanen, Kati Katina, 17. Mixing, Making, and Dough and Raija-Liisa Heiniö Make-up 309 5. Rice 89 Noël Haegens C. M. Rosell and Manuel Gómez 18. Fermentation 325 6. Barley, Maize, Sorghum, Millet, N. Therdthai and Other Cereal Grains 107 19. Baking 335 Collar Tiphaine Lucas 20. Packaging and Shelf-life Prediction Part 3: Baking Ingredients 127 of Bakery Products 355 Virginia Giannou, Dimitra Lebesi, 7. Water 129 and Constantina Tzia Peter Chung Chieh 21. Process Optimization and Control 373 8. 153 Gary Tucker Francisca Rández-Gil, Lidia Ballester-Tomás, 22. Sensory Attributes of Bakery Products 391 and José Antonio Prieto Raija-Liisa Heiniö 9. Other Leavening Agents 175 23. Nutritional Attributes of Bakery Products 409 I. De Leyn Hyunsook Kim and Wallace H. Yokoyama vi CONTENTS

24. Browning in Bakery Products: 34. 603 An Engineering Perspective 417 Noël Haegens Emmanuel Purlis 35. Production and Quality 25. Functional Bakery Products: Control 611 An Overview and Future Perspectives 431 Koushik Seetharaman Daniel Pinto, Inês Castro, Antonio 36. Bakery Products of Unconventional Vicente, Ana Isabel Bourbon, Flours 619 and Miguel Ângelo Cerqueira Perla Osorio-Diaz, Rubi G. Utrilla-Coello, 26. Rheology of Bread and Other Pamela C. Flores-Silva, and Bakery Products 453 Luis A. Bello-Perez Nyuk Ling Chin and Peter J. Martin 37. Dietetic Bakery Products 639 Selena Chan Part 5: Bread 473 27. Manufacture 475 Part 7: Examples of World Bakery Products 657 N. Therdthai and Weibiao Zhou 38. Specialities from All Over 28. Quality Control 489 the World 659 Sarabjit S. Sahi, Kim Little, and Noël Haegens Victoria Kristina Ananingsih 29. 511 39. Bakery Products of China 673 Lu Zhang and Xiao Dong Chen Shao Quan Liu 30. Frozen Dough and Par-baked Products 523 40. Italian Bakery Products 685 M. A. Pagani, Mara Lucisano, Stanley P. Cauvain and Manuela Mariotti 31. Steamed Bread 539 41. Mexican Bakery Products 723 Sidi Huang Perla Osorio-Diaz, Maria E. Sanchez-Pardo, and Luis A. Bello-Perez Part 6: other bakery Products 563 42. Bakery Products of Turkey 735 32. Cake Manufacture 565 Gözde İnan and Seyhun Yurdugül Frank D. Conforti 33. 585 Index 745 N. N. Misra and Brijesh K. Tiwari Preface to the Second Edition

Bakery products, especially bread, have a long 3. Major baking ingredients such as water, yeast history and they form an important part of the and other leavening agents, ascorbic acid and diets of humans around the globe. Bakery prod- other redox agents, sugar and sweeteners, ucts are not only popular in traditional mar- lipids, egg, dairy ingredients, enzymes, and kets such as Europe, but they are also gaining other functional additives; popularity in emerging markets. For example, 4. Science and technology of bakery production Euromonitor International recently reported with dedicated chapters on mixing and dough that China’s market for industrial baked goods making, fermentation, baking, and packaging. was valued at US$25.4bn for 2013, up from Also included are shelf-life prediction, pro- US$19.6bn in 2012. cess optimization and control, and sensory Meanwhile, today’s consumers are increas- and nutritional attributes of bakery products. ingly conscious of health issues, so producing Specific issues such as rheology, browning, high-quality bakery products presents both a and functional bakery products are also challenge and an opportunity. While there is no covered; dispute that bakery products contain a high 5. Manufacturing of a variety of bread products amount of carbohydrate and some may also con- including yeast bread, sourdough, frozen tain gluten and high levels of and sugar, they dough, par-baked bread, and steamed bread, can also be a source of wholesome food and bal- as well as their quality control issues; anced nutrients. Producing new types of bakery 6. Other selected bakery products such as , products or reformulating existing ones to increase biscuits, pastries, , bakery products from their nutritional value or raise their nutritional unconventional flours, and dietetic bakery profile is likely to remain a trend for the foresee- products; and able future. 7. An overview of specialty bakery products Since the publication of the first edition of this from around the world as well as an in-depth book in early 2006, progress in the science and analysis of bakery products from selected technology of baking and bakery products has countries including China, Italy, Mexico, and done much to address these and other challenges. Turkey. Therefore, the second edition provides a timely update and expansion to the previous edition. Despite every intention to provide a compre­ The book consists of 42 chapters that are grouped hensive reference book on baking science and into 7 parts: ­technology, we appreciate that it is not possible to claim that this book represents complete 1. Introduction to baking and bakery products; coverage. Nevertheless, we hope it serves as an 2. Characterization and properties of important essential reference on the latest knowledge and types of flours for bakery products, including technologies for professionals in the baking indus- those from wheat, rye, rice, barley, maize, sor- try, academia and government bodies, as well as ghum, millet, and other grains; for undergraduate and postgraduate students in viii PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION their study and research related to baking and We also express our sincere thanks to the bakery products. five associate editors who are domain experts We thank the contributors, all respected from five countries, for their dedication to pro- ­professionals from industry, government, and aca- ducing a book of the highest quality possible, demia, for sharing their experience and expertise and the editorial and production teams at in their particular fields. The 65 authors are from Wiley Blackwell for their efforts, advice, and 21 countries and have a diversity of expertise and professionalism. background that cover the whole spectrum of the We truly wish that you enjoy the book and find science, technology, and engineering of baking its contents informative and beneficial to your and bakery products. work, research, or study.

Weibiao Zhou and Y.H. Hui Contributors

Victoria Kristina Ananingsih Inês Castro Food Technology Department, Castro, Soegijapranata Catholic University, Pinto & Costa, Lda, Central Java, Indonesia Maia, Portugal

Lidia Ballester-Tomás Stanley P. Cauvain Department of Biotechnology, BakeTran, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología Witney, Oxford, UK de Alimentos, Miguel Ângelo Cerqueira Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Centre of Biological Engineering, Paterna, Spain Universidade do Minho, Braga, Portugal Luis A. Bello-Perez Centro de Desarrollo de Productos Bióticos del Selena Chan Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Christchurch Polytechnic Institute of Technology, Yautepec, Morelos, México Christchurch, New Zealand

Francesco Bonomi Xiao Dong Chen Department of Food, Environmental and Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Nutritional Sciences (DeFENS), College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Università degli Studi di Milano, Xiamen University, Milan, Italy Xiamen, China

Peter Chung Chieh Gabriella Bottega Department of Chemistry, Department of Food, Environmental and University of Waterloo, Nutritional Sciences (DeFENS), Università degli Waterloo, Studi di Milano, Ontario, Canada Milan, Italy Nyuk Ling Chin Ana Isabel Bourbon Department of Process and Food Engineering, Centre of Biological Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universidade do Minho, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Braga, Portugal Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia x Contributors

Concha Collar Raija-Liisa Heiniö Food Science Department, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos, Food Biotechnology/Flavour Design, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Finland Paterna, Spain M. S. Hemalatha Frank D. Conforti Department of Biochemistry and Nutrition, Department of Human Nutrition, , and Exercise, CSIR–Central Food Technological Research Virginia Tech, Institute, Mysore, India Blacksburg, Virginia, USA Sidi Huang I. De Leyn Grain Growers Limited, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, North Ryde, New South Wales, Department of Applied Biosciences, Australia Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium Y. H. Hui Science Technology System, West Sacramento, Pasquale Ferranti California, USA Dipartimento di Scienza degli Alimenti, Università di Napoli “Federico II”, Gözde nan Portici, Italy İ Abant Izzet Baysal University, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Pamela C. Flores-Silva Department of Biology, Centro de Desarrollo de Productos Bióticos del Bolu, Turkey Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Yautepec, Morelos, México Kati Katina University of Helsinki, Finland Virginia Giannou Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Technology, Hyunsook Kim School of Chemical Engineering, Department of Physiology, National Technical University of Athens, College of Veterinary Medicine, Athens, Greece Konkuk University, South Korea Avi Goldstein Department of Food Science, Vassilios Kiosseoglou University of Guelph, Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Technology, Guelph, Ontario, Canada School of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Manuel Gómez Thessaloniki, Greece College of Agricultural Engineering, University of Valladolid, Dimitra Lebesi Palencia, Spain Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Technology, School of Chemical Engineering, Noël Haegens National Technical University of Athens, Classo Foods, Vrasene, Belgium Athens, Greece Contributors xi

Kim Little N. N. Misra Campden BRI, Chipping Campden, School of Food Science and Environmental Health, Gloucestershire, UK Dublin Institute of Technology, Dublin, Ireland

Shao Quan Liu Bonastre Oliete Mayorga Food Science and Technology Programme, Regional Centre of Animal Selection and c/o Department of Chemistry, Reproduction, Valdepeñas, Spain National University of Singapore, Singapore Perla Osorio-Diaz Centro de Desarrollo de Productos Bióticos del Tiphaine Lucas Instituto Politécnico Nacional, IRSTEA Food Process Engineering Research Unit, Yautepec, Morelos, Mexico Rennes Cedex, France M. A. Pagani Department of Food, Environmental and Nutritional Mara Lucisano Sciences (DeFENS), Department of Food, Environmental and Nutritional Università degli Studi di Milano, Sciences (DeFENS), Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy Milan, Italy Adamantini Paraskevopoulou Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Technology, Gianfranco Mamone School of Chemistry, Istituto di Scienze dell’ Alimentazione – CNR, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Avellino, Italy Thessaloniki, Greece

Alejandro Marangoni Daniel Pinto Department of Food Science, Castro, Pinto & Costa, Lda, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Maia, Portugal Canada Kaisa Poutanen Manuela Mariotti VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, Department of Food, Enviromental and Nutritional Finland Sciences (DeFENS), Università degli Studi di Milano Milan, Italy U. J. S. Prasada Rao Department of Biochemistry and Nutrition, Alessandra Marti CSIR–Central Food Technological Research Department of Food, Environmental and Nutritional Institute, Sciences (DeFENS), Università degli Studi di Milano, Mysore, India Milan, Italy José Antonio Prieto Peter J. Martin Department of Biotechnology, School of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos, Science, The University of Manchester, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Manchester, UK Paterna, Spain xii Contributors

Emmanuel Purlis Gary Tucker Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo en Criotecnología Campden BRI, Chipping Campden, de Alimentos (CIDCA – CONICET La Plata), Gloucestershire, UK Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, UNLP, La Plata, Argentina Constantina Tzia Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Technology, Francisca Rández-Gil School of Chemical Engineering, Department of Biotechnology, Instituto de National Technical University of Athens, Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos, Athens, Greece Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Paterna, Spain Rubi G. Utrilla-Coello Centro de Desarrollo de Productos Bióticos del C. M. Rosell Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Food Science Department, Instituto de Agroquímica Yautepec, Morelos, México y Tecnología de Alimentos, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Paterna, Spain Antonio Vicente Centre of Biological Engineering, Sarabjit S. Sahi Universidade do Minho, Campden BRI, Chipping Campden, Braga, Portugal Gloucestershire, UK Wallace H. Yokoyama Maria E. Sanchez-Pardo USDA, ARS, Western Regional Research Center, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas del Albany, California, USA Instituto Politécnico Nacional, México, D.F. Seyhun Yurdugül Koushik Seetharaman Abant Izzet Baysal University, Faculty of Arts Department of Food Science, and Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Department of Biology, Ontario, Canada Bolu, Turkey

J. D. Selman Lu Zhang Fossatello Group, Carnforth, Lancashire, UK Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, N. Therdthai Xiamen University, Department of Product Development, Xiamen, China Faculty of Agro-Industry, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand Weibiao Zhou Brijesh K. Tiwari Food Science and Technology Programme, Department of Food Biosciences, Teagasc Food c/o Department of Chemistry, Research Centre, Dublin, Ireland National University of Singapore, Singapore Part 1 Introduction

1 Introduction to Baking and Bakery Products Weibiao Zhou1, N. Therdthai2, and Y. H. Hui3 1 Food Science and Technology Programme, c/o Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, Singapore 2 Department of Product Development, Faculty of Agro-Industry, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand 3 Science Technology System, West Sacramento, California, USA

Introduction 4 Mixing, dough making and dough Flours 4 make-up 9 Wheat flour 4 Fermentation and proofing 9 Wheat flour chemistry 4 Baking 9 Rye flour 6 Packaging and shelf-life prediction 10 Rice flour 6 Process optimization and control 10 Barley, corn, sorghum, and other Sensory attributes 10 cereal grains 6 Nutritional attributes 10 Baking ingredients 6 Browning 10 Water 6 Functional bakery products 11 Yeast 7 Rheology and bread and other Chemical leavening agents 7 bakery products 11 Ascorbic acid and redox agents 7 Bread 11 Sugar and sweeteners 7 Bread manufacture 11 and fat replacers 8 Quality control 12 Eggs 8 Sourdough 12 Dairy ingredients 8 Frozen dough and par-baked bread 12 Enzymes 8 Steamed bread 13 Other functional additives 9 Traditional and specialty products 13 Baking science and technology 9 Cakes 13

Bakery Products Science and Technology, Second Edition. Edited by W. Zhou, Y. H. Hui, I. De Leyn, M. A. Pagani, C. M. Rosell, J. D. Selman, and N. Therdthai. © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 4 CH 1 Introduction to Baking and Bakery Products

Biscuits 13 World specialties 15 Pastries 14 Bakery Products in China 15 Pretzels 14 Italian bakery products 15 Bakery products of unconventional Mexican bakery products 16 flours 14 Bakery products in Turkey 16 Dietetic bakery products 15 References 16 Examples of world bakery products 15

Introduction chapter. Table 1.1 serves as a frame of reference for the discipline. Bakery products, particularly bread, have a long history of development. Evidence from the most recent archaeological discovery indicates that Flours ­baking practice may have started as early as 23 000 years ago (i.e. ~21,000 BC) during the Wheat flour Paleolithic Period (Piperno and others 2004). At Wheat is the most versatile cereal due to the that time, people discovered wheat and learnt to capacity of its storage proteins to interact and mix wheat grain meal with water and bake it on develop the gluten network, which forms the stones heated by fire. This gave birth to the first basic framework of many bakery products. flat bread made by humans. During the period Because there is a deep crease in the kernel, flour of 2600–3000 BC, yeast was used by ancient is extracted by a sequence of breaking, sieving, Egyptians to make fermented bread. Due to the and size-reducing processes, known as the milling high cost of milling, whole wheat and whole grain process. This process makes it possible to con- bread was generally consumed. was temporaneously separate the bran and germ also available, but limited only to groups of rich regions and to break the endosperm cells into a people. Since the 1900s, white bread has become very fine product, suitable for rapid hydration common for everyone. Today, bakery products and gluten development. Milling yield and flour range in complexity from consisting of the simple refinement are closely related both to the milling ingredients of a plain pastry to the numerous conditions and the variety of wheat used. The ­components that make up a cake. The evolving of ­latter highly influences the technological per­ bakery products from the original plain and simple formance of the flour (measured by several forms to the modern varieties with specific attrib- instrument tests) and bread characteristics. As utes and functionalities using sophisticated manu- well as refined flours, increasing attention is facturing technologies has been going hand-in-hand being given to whole wheat flours that include with the progress in many related fields of science the bran and germ fractions, which are presently and technology. For today’s ­professionals, keeping considered to be by-products despite their rich- abreast of the advanced knowledge in bakery ness in several bioactive compounds. products’ science and technology is critical to ­continuously improve the productivity of current practice, identify the most important areas to direct Wheat flour chemistry limited research and development resources, and The biochemistry of the main components of launch new competitive products into the market, wheat flour (proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids) as well as to predict future trends in the industry. are presented and discussed with a focus on those This chapter highlights the topics covered in properties relevant to the baking industry. As this book using selected material from each well as considering the composition and structure­ Table 1.1 Baking science and technology: a composite picturea Materials of Baking Products Dairy products Ingredients from wheat Fresh liquid Wheat flour milling Cream Other wheat products Fermented milk products Ingredients from other grains Evaporated and condensed milk Rye Whey products Rice Cheese Barley Eggs Sorghum Fruits and nuts Corn Fruits Oat Nuts Millet Chocolate and cocoa Soy , spices, and flavorings Yeast and chemical leavening Salt Yeast Spices Chemical leavening agents Flavoring Acids Water Baking powder Production of Bread and Yeast-Leavened Ascorbic acid and redox agents Bakery Foods Fats and oils Types of yeast products Fat and oil processing Lean dough products Types of fat and oil Rich dough products Rolled-in yeast dough products Margarine Special dough products Shortening Steps in yeast dough production Vegetable oils Types of dough-making processes Fat’s role in bakery products method Yeast-raised products Sponge-and-dough method Laminated products Chorleywood bread process Cakes and crackers Production of soft wheat products Dough fat Crackers Filling fat Cookies Spray oil Commercially made cookies Coating fat Handmade cookies Sweeteners Dough mixing methods Nutritive sweeteners Types and make up methods Sucrose (regular refined ) Cakes Invert sugar Types of cakes Fondant Cake formula balancing Brown sugar Methods of mixing Molasses Baking Fructose Pastries Starch hydrolysates Shelf-life and Packaging of Bakery Products Honey The mechanism of staling Malt syrup Anti-staling additives Alternative sweeteners Packaging technologies Sugar alcohols Additional Topics High intensity sweeteners Sensory profiles Nutritional profiles Quality control Browning Computer technology, optimization and automation Functional products World specialty products Rheology aSome of the listings in this table are inspired by Lai and Lin (2006). 6 CH 1 Introduction to Baking and Bakery Products of each of the major macromolecules in flour, Barley, corn, sorghum, and other particular attention is paid to the interactions cereal grains among the various flour components and to their modification in the various phases of Developing countries with diets based on ­baking-related processes. The role of water coarse grains continue to derive 70–80% of ­transfer issues is also considered, along with its total food calories from maize, sorghum, and/ modulation by flour components or by added or millet. In developed countries, the concept ingredients. of using South American, African, and Asian traditional non-wheat cereals and ethnic grains as a template for wheat, wheat-free, and Rye flour ­gluten-free based foods, matches the interest in Rye (Secale cereale L.) is a traditional raw westernized countries for exotic foods with material for baking in northern and eastern their previously unappreciated extra nutri- Europe. The flavor and structure of tional value. Chapter 6 gives an update on the are quite different from those of wheat bread, traditional and new uses in baking of major and vary depending on flour type, other raw coarse grains worldwide. Special emphasis is materials and ingredients, dough making placed on the challenges and opportunities of ­process, baking conditions, and time, as well as using maize, barley, oat, sorghum, and millet in the size and shape of the bread. Generally composite . The evolution of the produc- ­consumed as whole grain products, rye offers a tion, consumption, share of calories, and cate- good source of dietary fiber, phenolic com- gories of use of individual coarse grains is pounds, vitamins, trace elements, and minerals. revised, and the diversity of ethnicl goods and Rye bread has also been shown to have benefi- bakery products from coarse grains across the cial physiological effects, especially for glucose continents is presented. An overview of the metabolism and satiation. Expanding research advances in coarse grain-based baked goods data strengthen the position of rye grain as an based on scientific and technological progress important raw material for healthy foods, and and on their health-promoting effects is the potential for developing novel products is provided. growing with the knowledge about its transfor- mations during milling and baking processes. Baking ingredients Rice flour Water Rice is one of the most consumed cereals, mainly The importance of water as a baking ingredient is as milled rice. However, several different value- overshadowed by its overwhelming abundance. added rice products have been developed The role of water in baking science is perhaps not prompted by the unique nutritive properties of fully appreciated by most of us, but all master this grain. Among all the processed rice-based know that water plays a major role in the products that are being launched, bakery prod- art and science of baking. The amount of water ucts have received special attention. Nowadays, controls the quality, texture, taste, odor, volume, more people are attracted to wheat-free foods flavor, and the mouthfeel of bakery products. The because of health concerns or to avoid wheat in art of baking involves using the optimum amount the diet. The chapter on rice gives a brief descrip- of quality water. tion of rice production and reviews the physico- Nearly all foods contain water, while it is the chemical characteristics of rice flours and their major component in many foods. Even dry foods use in baking. contain some water. If the baking process does Baking ingredients 7 not call for water as an ingredient, water is Each also has its limitations. The still involved, because it is present in some of working mechanism of chemical leaveners­ and the ingredients. Water reacts with the baking acidulants are discussed in Chapter 9. ­ingredients and evaporates when heated. While carbon dioxide is the most important Chapter 7 explores many facets of water with factor for leavening, other gases (ammonia gas), an emphasis on its role in baking. water as steam, and incorporated air (added ­during the mixing process) also play a role in the expansion of baked goods. Yeast Chemical leaveners are a group of leavening Saccharomyces cerevisiae has been used in the pro- agents, mostly inorganic , which when added duction of fermented cereal-based products since to dough, either singly or in combination, react to ancient times. Its domestication and large-scale produce gases. Carbon dioxide is the main propagation were key factors in the development ­leavening gas and is produced by either decom- of the modern baking industry. Here, the authors position, where ammonium bicarbonate produces­ review how the long association of S. cerevisiae­ with ammonia, water, and carbon dioxide in the pres- bakers and yeast producers has affected its make- ence of water, or by the reaction of an acidic salt up and genetic characteristics. They also look into and sodium bicarbonate in the presence of mois- how the yeast industry has achieved the low-cost ture and heat to form a salt, water, and carbon transformation of abundant feedstock, such as dioxide. molasses, in to cell biomass of high technological quality, and how genetic improvement approaches could address the demands of consumers and pro- Ascorbic acid and redox agents ducers of strains with optimized or novel proper- Ascorbic acid is commonly used as an improver ties. Finally, they discuss the possibility of using in the baking industry and in some countries it non-conventional yeast species as alternatives to is the only oxidation improver allowed. Other industrial S. cerevisiae strains. dough improvers include potassium bromate and azodicarbonamide to oxidize and sodium meta- bisulfite and l-cysteine to reduce gluten-forming Chemical leavening agents proteins. The key change affected by such materi- Leavening agents including yeast, other microor- als is the sulfhydral/disulfide reaction which plays ganisms, and chemical leaveners are important an important role in the rheological properties for their gas producing ability to give volume and of bakery systems. In Chapter 10, the effects of crumb structure to a baked product. Chemical these materials are reviewed in brief. Enzymes leaveners are interesting for their almost imme- are now used to replace or support the action of diate action when applied in a recipe. The pro- the traditional redox materials and the effects duction of carbon dioxide is responsible for the of selected enzymes in the production of bakery fermentation/expansion of a dough or and products is described. is important for crumb structure. Crumb struc- ture is the result of a certain “lightness” that is important for the properties such as volume, Sugars and sweeteners shape, flavor development, tenderness, and brit- Sweeteners are important ingredients in bakery tleness of a baked product. products. As well as providing a sweet taste, they Carbon dioxide is produced by yeast, other also affect the fermentability, appearance, flavor, microorganisms (sourdough), and chemical leaven- color, structure, and texture of the finished ers. Each leavening agent has a specific characteris- ­products. There are many choices of sweeteners tic that makes it suitable for use in some products. available, and the type chosen depends on the 8 CH 1 Introduction to Baking and Bakery Products degree of needed, its functions in the opment and physical stability, with the extent of dough or batters, and the desired appearance or this contribution depending on the product type texture of the baked product. Marketing and regu- and the presence of other ­functional ingredients. latory issues must also be checked carefully, as they can vary in different countries. Sucrose is one of the most important nutritive sweeteners used Dairy ingredients domestically and in the food industry. However, as Chapter 14 describes the effect of adding dairy a response to public interest in low-calorie prod- ingredients to gluten-containing and gluten-free ucts, there has recently been a growing interest in bakery products. The addition of dairy ingredients sucrose substitutes. This is a huge challenge, due to improves the nutritional quality of bakery prod- the detectable losses in appearance, texture, flavor, ucts but alters the rheological behavior of dough and mouthfeel of the final food caused by sucrose and batters and the quality of bread, cakes, and reduction or substitution. biscuits. Furthermore, some dairy ingredients are used as substitutes for bakery ingredients such as eggs and fats. The behavior of dairy ingredients in Fats and fat replacers bakery products depends on their composition,­ Chapter 12 focuses on the properties and functions changes during the production process,­ and on of lipids as ingredients in food applications. their interaction with other components. The Lipids may play a variety of roles in food systems chapter describes the characteristics of milk and depending on their application. Differences in the changes that occur during the production of the crystallization of fats may yield networks with concentrated, dried, and fermented , cream, altered macroscopic properties. Firstly, this chapter cheese, whey, and casein and whey protein con- discusses the role of food lipids in various common centrates. This is followed by a description of the baked-product matrices. The relationships between role of dairy ingredients in bakery products. the microstructure and the macroscopic properties of lipid networks are then discussed, focusing on the roles of crystallization, polymorphism, rheo- Enzymes logical properties, microstructure, and processing Chemical additives are often used to obtain conditions. Finally, strategies for the replacement improved bakery products. As enzymes are natu- of fats in baked products for the purpose of ral and safe, food industries prefer to use improving human health are discussed. enzymes as alternatives to synthetic chemicals. The ­enzyme-catalyzed reactions are substrate spe- cific and take place under mild conditions. Different Eggs enzymes such as amylases, proteases, peroxidases, Chicken egg is a multifunctional food material glucose oxidase, xylanase, laccase, lipase, and trans- used in the preparation of many foods (salad glutaminase are used to improve dough and bread dressings, , cakes, and so on). Its multi- quality. Use of these enzymes in non-bread, wheat- functional role originates from the differing based products is also increasing. A basic knowl- properties of the albumen and the yolk fractions, edge of enzymes is required for them to be used which are made up of protein constituents that efficiently as ingredients. Also, enzymes should be differ in molecular size and structural flexibility. sourced from a safe organism and be free of toxins. Egg constituents in food products may function as In Chapter 15, basic aspects of enzyme properties, foaming, emulsifying, and/or gel network agents, some of the important enzymes used in the baking thus contributing to the development of their industry and their effect on flour constituents in unique sensory and rheological characteristics. improving functionality, and the use of enzymes in In baked products, especially cakes, egg functional improving the functionality of some non-bread, constituents contribute to product structure devel- wheat-based products are discussed. Baking science and technology 9

Other functional additives mainly include generation of carbon ­dioxide gas (promoting dough expansion), lactic acid (con- Functional additives have been used in the tributing to dough acidity), acetic acid (acting­ ­bakery sector for almost a century. Today the as antifungal compound), exopolysaccharides selection of emulsifiers, a wide range of enzymes, (involving dough viscosity properties), volatile and oxidizing and reducing agents has been compounds (acting as flavoring agents), and extended because of the evolution of bakery amino acids (involved as precursors of ­flavoring equipment and processing and because of an compounds). In addition, fermentation may increased understanding of the complex mecha- cause some change in starch digestibility and the nisms of their interactions with different constit- availability of minerals and vitamins. Consistent uents of flour and dough. The various additives fermentation can be easier to achieve using are developed to compensate for variations in starter cultures. To monitor the kinetics of dough the processing characteristics of flours. They expansion during fermentation, non-destructive improve the machinability of dough, simplify the testing has been developed using digital video process, improve the quality of baked goods, and cameras, magnetic resonance microscopy, X-ray extend their shelf-life. Chapter 16 discusses tomography, and acoustic waves. ­oxidizing and reducing agents, vital gluten, emul- sifiers, and also briefly mentions enzymes. Baking During baking, heat and mass transfer takes Baking science and technology place in the dough simultaneously and interde- Mixing, dough making and pendently, and involves four major changes: dough make-up 1. Gases are vaporized as the temperature It cannot be stressed enough that mixing is the increases: the gas cell increases in volume most important stage of the entire baking pro- provided that the cell wall retains gases and is cess. If it is not done properly, it is not possible to deformable. correct it later. Therefore discipline is required. It 2. Starch gelatinizes as temperature increases to is not easy to repeat exactly the same process an extent depending on the local availability every 12 or 15 minutes; however, it is necessary of water; proteins coagulate. These changes and of the utmost importance. Someone who limit the dough extensibility. wants to be proud of the quality of the product 3. The initial structure with closed gas cells he has made must also be proud of the fact that ­separated by dough walls is transformed into he is capable of repeating the same process over a porous structure with interconnected pores, and over again – and that is a real challenge. In known as the dough–crumb transition. Chapter 17, the ­factors that influence mixing are 4. Under the action of high temperatures at discussed: calculating the temperature of water, the boundaries, water vaporizes in the different machines, the head and tail atmosphere. Depending on the product effect, and so on. thickness, but also on baking conditions, this supports the formation of a dry, hard in the case of or bread dough, and may Fermentation and proofing also lead to complete drying in the case of Fermentation in baking is mainly due to yeast biscuits and cookies. and lactic acid bacteria. Their metabolic activities are responsible for the quality of the dough and These different changes do not occur sequen- hence for much of the quality of the final bakery tially but overlap and they are discussed in detail products. Mechanisms during fermentation in Chapter 19. 10 CH 1 Introduction to Baking and Bakery Products

Packaging and shelf-life prediction the perceived flavor. The flavor of native grain is mild, but by bioprocessing, such as sourdough Bakery products are popular and appealing due fermentation, germination, and enzymatic treat- to their nutritional, sensory, and textural charac- ment, or by extrusion or milling fractionation, teristics. However, these qualities can start to the cereal product flavor can be modified as deteriorate immediately after baking leading to desired. In addition to containing fiber and bioac- staleness, loss of moisture and flavor, and a lim- tive compounds, whole-grain products that are ited shelf-life. Therefore, research has focused beneficial to health must be tasty so they are on the development of advanced packaging and attractive to the consumer. preservation technologies and techniques for bakery products. Inherent overall product qual- ity, as well as environmental storage conditions, Nutritional attributes influence the characteristics of bakery products Wheat bread has been an important source of and hence affect their acceptance. Thus, packag- caloric energy and protein for the people of many ing materials, methods, and conditions for differ- continents for thousands of years and continues ent bakery products, as well as the methodology to be so. Bread, particularly white wheat bread, for estimating and predicting their shelf-life, have has recently been implicated as contributing to been investigated. the chronic diseases associated with obesity, although in its whole grain forms it may also ame- liorate these conditions. Chapter 23 focuses on the Process optimization and control physiological impact of bread composition and Chapter 21 describes how the processing of baked processing on obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular­ products involves a sequence of proces­sing stages diseases. Recent research has suggested that that starts with mixing and ends with cooling. A chronic low-grade inflammation, due to the pas- structured process optimization study must con- sage of intestinal bacterial ­fragments into the sider all stages as linked because changes to any body, is a cause of chronic obesity-related diseases one processing stage will affect the other stages as and perhaps initiates obesity itself. Cellulose, ara- a result of the interactions between stages. For binoxylans, phenolic substances associated with example, increasing the proofing temperature fiber, resistant starch, amylose content, and pro- will change the gas cell expansion of bread dough cessing affect digestibility, rate of absorption, and also affect the baking process because of the intestinal tight barrier function, bile acid excre- changes this imposes on heat and mass transfer. tion, fat excretion, blood cholesterol, blood Additional difficulties in optimizing the bread ­glucose, blood insulin, and insulin resistance. making process are the timings from the start of mixing to the end of baking and how to ensure Browning that changes made to one stage are not compro- mised by another. These difficulties pose inter- Bakery products have typical quality features esting challenges for the subject of process that are diverse and depend on the particular optimization. product and its country or region of origin (for example, there are regional variations of the same product). Surface color is an important sen- sory attribute particularly associated with appear- Sensory attributes ance, aroma, taste, and with the overall quality of The flavor of a cereal product is formed by a com- bakery products. It has a significant effect on bination of the volatile and phenolic compounds, ­consumer judgment as color influences the antic- amino acids and peptides, sugars, and fatty acids, ipated oral and olfactory sensations because and their relative amounts significantly influence of the memory of previous eating experiences. Bread 11

Therefore, surface color plays a key role in the of the compounds used most frequently to add acceptance of the product by consumers, and it is value to food products. These topics are explored often used to determine the end point of the in Chapter 25. ­baking process. The formation of color in bakery products occurs during the baking stage (unless colored Rheology of bread and other ingredients or colorants are being used), which is bakery products the scope of discussion in Chapter 24. This phe- Chapter 26 introduces rheological terms useful nomenon is widely known as browning and is for food scientists and technologists in under- the result of non-enzymatic chemical reactions – standing the rheological properties of bakery the and caramelization – that products that correlate with baking performance. produce colored compounds during baking. The The properties related to the deformation of Maillard reaction takes place where reducing sug- bread dough and the flow of cake batters are ars and amino acids, proteins, and/or other nitro- characterized to obtain parameters either gen-containing compounds are heated together, through fundamental approaches involving large while caramelization describes a complex group or small deformation testing or through empiri- of reactions that occur due to direct heating cal approaches using standard test methods. The of carbohydrates, in particular sucrose and reduc- physical transformations of dough and batters ing sugars. Because of the type of reactants and that occur during mixing because of the forces products involved in the Maillard reaction and deformations arising from the mechanical and caramelization, the importance of browning actions of mixing are described. Rheological development is not only related to ­sensory aspects parameters from different measurement but also to nutritional properties. From this angle, approaches are analyzed and compared. The the Maillard reaction impairs the content and chapter highlights the problems of differing and bioavailability of amino acids and proteins, and mismatched test ranges and speeds, as dough it may be related to the formation of harmful characteristics are highly dependent on the compounds such as acrylamide and hydroxym- stresses, strains, and strain rates applied. ethylfurfural (HMF). On the other hand, some reaction products are associated with positive nutritional properties such as antioxidant activity. Bread Functional bakery products Bread manufacture Consumers’ demand for healthier food products Bread is a major food item for many people across that prevent nutrition-related diseases and the world. Varieties of bread, particularly as func- improve physical and mental well-being has led tional foods, have been developed to serve the to the accelerated growth of the functional foods needs of the consumer. Nonetheless, for almost market. Nowadays, the bakery industry seeks to all bread varieties, the bread manufacturing pro- improve the health attributes of their products cess mainly consists of mixing, fermentation and using functional ingredients. The major areas of proofing, sheeting, molding, baking, cooling, and, development involving functional foods are gas- if required, slicing. Each of the steps plays a unique trointestinal health and immunity, prevention of role in the development of dough and bread cardiovascular diseases and cancer, weight con- towards the quality of the final product; therefore trol, insulin sensitivity and control of diabetes, they all need to be carefully operated within a and mental and physical performance. ­prescribed range. Advanced process control and Fibers, flavors, vitamins, minerals, bioactive automation systems should also be designed and compounds, prebiotics, and probiotics are some implemented for bread manufacturing. 12 CH 1 Introduction to Baking and Bakery Products

Quality control sourdoughs and fermented cereal foods. The growth of LAB acidifies the dough and imparts a Bread quality is very much an individual percep- sour taste and odor, while yeast fermentation con- tion, and is therefore a contentious issue. Quality tributes to the aroma and leavening. Sourdough means different things to different people, and ­fermentation improves texture, enhances nutri- no two people share the same opinion about a tional status, and extends the shelf-life of baked particular type of bread. However, cereal scien- products and ­fermented cereal foods. LAB tists and technologists are able to identify certain ­cultures adapt to the acidic environment of sour- characteristics for each style of bread and to by developing acid-resistant mechanisms determine the attributes that add to quality and associated with arginine catabolism, glutamate those that detract from it. In Chapter 28 the issue decarboxylation, and exopolysaccharide forma- of bread quality is tackled from the European tion, as well as through thiol accumulation and prospective, and the factors that are considered beneficial interactions with the . Cereal is a to be important in the range of bread types that suitable matrix for developing functional foods are popularly consumed in the United Kingdom by ­fermentation with probiotics, biofortification, and the rest of Europe are examined. and glutamate bioconversion to bioactive Appearance is the first visual assessment of a γ-aminobutyric acid. loaf, and key factors include the volume (size) of the bread as well as the color – particularly­ that of the crust – and the shape of the loaf. The qual- Frozen dough and par-baked bread ity issues considered to be important differ for In Chapter 30, frozen dough and par-baked each style of bread. For example, a key ­factor ­definitions and technologies are discussed. Parti­ for -type bread would be the uniform cular emphasis is paid to dough gas retention distribution of small-sized bubbles, which gives properties and the roles of yeast in frozen and the bread crumb its characteristic appearance refrigerated dough. The principles of formulation and the physical strength to allow butter to be and production for frozen, pre-proved ­frozen and spread over the surface. For French , it refrigerated dough are identified and discussed. The is the crisp, flavorful crust that contributes most manufacture of par-baked products is considered. to eating quality, paired with an open and irregu- When a product is baked, sold, and consumed lar crumb. For these two bread types, the produc- locally within 24–48 h of production, changes to tion methods are essentially the same; the ­process the product quality are limited. However, if the must create the appropriate number and sizes of product is to retain its edibility for longer, then gas bubbles in the dough and ensure that they strategies which extend its shelf-life are required. survive during subsequent processing. The pro- An alternative to shelf-life extension strategies cess of creating and controlling bubble structure is to use technology to interrupt the standard therefore makes a fundamental contribution to industrial bread processes­ and use the interme- bread quality, and this chapter deals with the key diates for bake-off­ production at local sites such mechanisms of structure control available to the as ­village , railway and petrol stations, , as well details on the choice of ­ingredients, and retail baking environments. Freezing and formulations, equipment, and processing meth- par-baking represent the two most common ods that affect the quality of the final product. means of achieving such aims. However, a major challenge for the primary manufacturer of fro- zen dough and par-baked products is that the Sourdough ­ultimate product is only determined at final Sourdough is a mixture of cereal flour and bake-off, when the conditions and practices used water fermented with lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are not usually within the primary manufactur- with or without yeasts, and includes traditional er’s control. Traditional and specialty products 13

Steamed bread …take a half a peck of fine wheat-flour … three pounds of refined sugar … dry them by the fire Chinese steamed bread is widely known as … take four pounds of butter, beat it with a cool ‘eastern bread’ and has been consumed in its hand, then beat thirty-five eggs, etc. various forms for more than 1700 years. Although it originated in China, its popularity Later recipes called for smaller amounts, but the has spread to Japan, Korea, and Southeast Asia. method of mixing was essentially the same. Steamed bread is the in the wheat There are a variety of cake products with a growing areas of northern China. It may be broad range of formulations. Ingredients, such consumed at all meals and is usually eaten hot. as flour, have improved through processing; Dough for Chinese steamed bread is made from ­therefore, cakes contain higher levels of shorten- fermented wheat flour or blends of wheat and ing, sugar, eggs, and milk. The modern cake is other grain flours. The product is cooked by characterized by a sweet taste, short and tender in a steamer. The most common types texture, and pleasant flavors and aromas. of steamed breads are either round or roughly Chapter 32 ­presents current science and technol- cylindrical in shape with a white, smooth, shiny ogy in the manufacture of cakes. skin devoid of crust. Texture varies from dense to open and the flavor is dependent upon local tastes. Biscuits Like European bread, where one piece of The word is derived from the Latin panis bread dough can be used to make different forms biscotis meaning twice cooked bread. This is of products such as pan bread, rolls, and , the because the original process consisted of baking same piece of steamed bread dough can be used the biscuits in a hot oven and then drying in a cool to make different forms of steamed products oven. Biscuit has two meanings: (i) small round such as steamed bread, steamed buns, and bread leavened with baking powder or soda, and steamed twisted rolls. Steamed products can be (ii) any of the various small flat sweet cakes. made with and without fillings. ‘Biscuits’ is the original British word used to Traditionally, steamed bread is made at home include small baked products (usually flat) based by hand. Today, in cities, almost all steamed on wheat flour with various inclusions of fat, bread, buns, and rolls are made in small facto- sugar, and other ingredients. The name ‘biscuit’ is ries. These modern factories use mechanical synonymous with ‘’ but the former is more mixing, sheeting, and even rounding. Therefore, comprehensive in meaning in the United in Chapter 31, all topics on steamed products Kingdom and Indian sub-continent and the latter refer to products made using mechanical in the United States. Wafer biscuits represent a processing. special type of baked product because they are formed between a pair of hot plates and not on a baking band or wire as are most other types. Today, biscuits are a part of , luxury gifts, Traditional and specialty dietary products, infant foods, and also come products with the addition of many expensive ingredients, such as chocolate and cream. In general, biscuits Cakes are recognized as those products that are cereal For centuries cake-making has changed very based and baked to a moisture content of less ­little. The 16th century , the 18th than 5%. The cereal component is variously ­century Nun’s Cake, even the rich of enriched with two major ingredients, fat and the colonial days required long hours of labor. sugar. The ingredients and manufacture details Old “receipts” read: for biscuits are discussed in Chapter 33. 14 CH 1 Introduction to Baking and Bakery Products

Pastries said to have had its origin when a 12th century monk rewarded children who recited their prayers The origin of and is properly. The crossed center of the pretzel form, thought to be the Turkish . Baklava is a legend has it, represented the folded hands of rich, sweet pastry made of layers of phyllo pastry prayer. Pretzels are acknowledged as a healthy filled with chopped nuts and sweetened with and are gaining popularity around the world. syrup or honey. It is characteristic of the cuisines Since the 1980s, significant advances have of the former Ottoman Empire. Phyllo dough is a been made in automating pretzel production. paper-thin sheet of unleavened flour dough used Considerable improvements have been made to for making pastries. By adding yeast to the dough, the equipment used in plants including high- puff pastry becomes Danish pastry. speed mixers, pretzel dough cutter systems, auto- In Scandinavia and in Denmark in particular, mated pretzel forming machines, and pretzel the term Danish pastry is not used. In these coun- . Several patents have also been granted for tries bakers talk about wienerbrot which literally new methods in hard pretzel manufacturing. means “bread from Vienna”. In French, the term Chapter 35 describes traditional and new meth- used for Danish pastry is , again ods in the production of pretzels. referring to Vienna as the origin of these prod- ucts. In Austria itself it is called plunder. It is generally thought that the origi- Bakery products of nated in France. While traditionally ascribed to unconventional flours the French painter and cook Claude Gelée who Unconventional flours from fruits, legumes, and lived in the 17th century (the story goes that tubers are used in the elaboration of bakery Gelée was making a type of very bread products, replacing different amounts of wheat for his sick father and the process of rolling the flour, or in products without wheat flour such as butter into the bread dough created a croissant- gluten-free products. Unconventional flours are like finished product), the origin of the croissant used in bakery products so that ingredients such lies in Vienna. The shape of the croissant is a cres- as dietary fiber and bioactive compounds that cent moon and was first made by the bakers of are not available in wheat or maize flours are Vienna during the 1683 siege of their beloved city included. This can lower the consumption of by the Ottoman Empire. They made a plunderge­ digestible carbohydrates that increase the ­glucose bäck in the shape of a crescent moon to betray the level in the blood, and could therefore have position of the Ottoman army. Years later when health benefits. Bakery products normally con- the French queen Marie-Antoinette (1755–1793) tain a high amount of starch that becomes digest- visited Vienna, she fell in love with the product in ible due to the process. The combination the shape of a half moon or lune croissant in of wheat or maize flours with ingredients rich in French, hence the name croissant in French. dietary fiber, such as unripe fruit and legume­ It is important to understand that all these types flours, decreases starch digestibility. Additionally, of products (puff pastry, croissant, Danish pastry) fruits like unripe banana present a high level of are made by creating alternating layers of dough resistant starch. Results obtained in the studies and fat by folding and rolling the dough. Chapter so far have shown a higher amount of resistant 34 explores the world of European pastries. starch, dietary fiber, and bioactive ­compounds in bakery products with added unconventional flours from unripe fruits and legumes; addition- Pretzels ally, the glycemic response of these bakery Hard pretzels were introduced to the United ­products was lower than the control samples. The States in the 1860s at Lititz, Pennsylvania and have use of unconventional flours is an alternative to since become a very popular snack food. Pretzel is produce functional bakery products. Examples of world bakery products 15

Dietetic bakery products Examples of world bakery Increased consumer income, improved consumer products understanding of nutrition, and enhanced con- World specialties sumer expectations are changing attitudes to the role of diet in the lifestyle of individuals. Global The list of speciality bakery products, especially health systems in developed and developing bread, in the world is endless and it would be countries have begun to shift emphasis from impossible to describe all of them. Suffice to say dealing with infectious disease to managing the that if there are five bakers in a town, there will be challenges presented by increases in mortality five different kinds of bread. This is because the caused by chronic diseases including cardiovas- secret of bread making does not only lie in the cular diseases, diabetes, and cancer . Therefore, in recipe but also in the way the product is ­actually recent years, assessing the health consequences made. The discussion in Chapter 38 is limited to a of food consumption habits has emerged as an number of products (and their production meth- important topic of inquiry. ods) that are distinct and well-known throughout Bakery products may be usefully adapted to the world, with some emphasis on Belgium. increase healthier eating options for consumers. ”We are what we eat” is an apt adage adopted by some consumers to inform their dietary choices. Bakery products in China It is therefore important for bakers to also be It is unquestionable that China is a gourmet conversant with the range of consumer prefer- food paradise. Among countless in ences and dietary needs characterizing the China, the delicate traditional baked foods are ­present bakery products market. significant and play a very important role as In Chapter 37, bakery products that cater for either staple food or non-staple food. Wheat the special dietary needs of consumers are was cultivated in China about 5000 years ago. ­introduced. The following dietary market oppor- At first, the grains were eaten raw, but soon the tunities are discussed: art of grinding it into flour was learned. Even though wheat is a staple food grain in the West, ●● food intolerances (specifically gluten and the Chinese have developed many more ways to ­lactose intolerance and allergy to eggs), prepare it. This very wide variety of Chinese ●● bakery products that contribute to a healthier grain products, and their level of sophistication, lifestyle (low-fat, low-sugar, and high-fiber is due to the many different methods of prepa- products), ration and cooking that have been developed, ●● bakery products required for specialized diet including frying, deep frying, baking, steaming, requirements (consumers with diabetes), and boiling. Dishes can be sweet, salty, soft, ●● bakery products for special religious diet hard, crispy, spongy or flaky. requirements (Kosher and Halal), ●● bakery products suitable for lifestyle choices (sports nutrition, vegetarianism, and Italian bakery products veganism), and In Italy, popular tradition has led to the creation ●● bakery products suitable for various demo- of different types of baked goods, both sweet and graphics of consumers (children, women, and savory, whose origins come from the broad diver- seniors). sification over the centuries of crops ­cultivated in the different pedoclimatic conditions of the Italian Each section includes a discussion on the peninsula and with the use of different fermenta- ­challenges that each dietary requirement will tion procedures, including the sourdough process. present to the baker or bakery technologist. A classification of Italian baked products based 16 CH 1 Introduction to Baking and Bakery Products on different criteria – percentage of sugar in meals, and that is bread. Turkish bread is the formulation, texture, specific volume,­ and ­consumed not only for breakfast, but also with moisture content – is ­proposed Chapter 40. The all meals at all times of the day. This is why process cards of the most popular products are almost every household either bakes its own presented after a brief description of the different bread or sends its dough to a communal bak- steps of the bread baking process. The products ery. Bread baking is such an integral part of the taken into consideration are different kinds of Turkish lifestyle that every household must bread, produced from common wheat flour or have its own baker who is an expert at making remilled semolina by straight dough or sourdough the bread. The foundation of Turkish food is, if fermentation, Neapolitan , festivity cakes anything, dough made of wheat flour. The orig- such as , and colomba, and inal white bread that is used in Turkey is called other traditional products of the different Italian ekmek and flat bread is known as pide. There regions. are other types of bread such as simit, with ses- ame seeds, and that has much in com- Mexican bakery products mon with ravioli. There is a whole family of foods that are made out of these types of bread Mexico is probably the country that has the and are categorized under the name borek. highest number of types of bread (around 1600) These varieties of bread are eaten for break- in the world. The Mexican bread industry can be fast as well as for snacks and they also accom- considered as artisanal because small factories, pany most of the daily meals. These versatile including those inside supermarkets, produce pieces of bread can be sliced, filled, fried, fresh bread that is consumed immediately. baked, toasted, grilled, and prepared in many Bread is also sold in baskets by people walking inventive ways. The Muslims of the Ottoman in the street or riding on bicycles. Mexican bread period believed bread to be one of the earliest can be divided into two main kinds: salty and forms of cuisine dating back to the time of the sweet. Salty bread is named “pan de labranza” Prophet Adam, and bread is still held as one of with names such as “”, “”, “birote”, the simplest and most honorable foods to eat. “frances”, and this kind of bread is the most Taking their inspiration from this very basic ­consumed. There is a wide variety of sweet food, they make bread a big part of their bread that is consumed during breakfast and daily lives. Some would argue that there is no dinner. There are diverse kinds of bread such as bread on Earth that tastes like Turkish bread, “” and “ de reyes” that are and you have to eat it to realize how good it prepared for festivals or special dates. The actually­ is. industry of Mexican bread and the types of products is a creativity that continues from ­generation to generation. References Bakery products in Turkey Lai HM, Lin TC. 2006. Bakery products: Science and technology. In: Hui Y H and others, editors. Bakery is full of some amazing food products: Science and technology. 1st ed. Ames, IA: ­components with which to spoil your taste Blackwell Publishing. Chapter 1. buds. However, no matter where you go in Piperno DR, Weiss E, Holst I, Nadel D. 2004. Processing Turkey and whatever it is that you eat, you will of wild cereal grains in the Upper Palaeolithic find one thing to be a constant part of the revealed by starch grain analysis. Nature 430:670–3.