Intercultural Communication Globalization and Social Justice Second Edffion

Kathryn Sorrells 50YEARS California State University, Northridge

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Los Angeles ILondon INew Delhi ISingapore IWashington DC ()SAGE Los Angeles ILondon INew Delhi Singapore IWashington DC 4 INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHAPTER 1 Opening the Conversation 5

and ethnocentrism. This chapter ends a discussion of intercultural praxis. As we "open the originator of the field of intercultural communication, were trained as anthropologists. the conversation," I invite you to engage with me in an ongoing process of learning, reflect with training programs on culture and communication for diplomats going abroad on assign In the 1950s, Edward T. Hall, along with others at the Foreign Service Institute, developed to your everyday experiences. ing, and critiquing what I have to say about intercu!tural communication and how it applies particular attention to nonverbal communication and tacit or out of awareness levels of ment. Hall's applied approach, focusing on the micro-level of human interaction with

DEFINITIONS OF CULTURE information exchange, established the foundation for the field of intercultural communica- tion (Rogers, Hart, & Miike, 2002). symbolsClifford that Geertz, people another use to highlycreate meaninginfluential and anthropologist, order in their emphasizedlives. Concerned the pivotal about Culture is a concept that we use often, yet we have a great deal of trouble defining. In the role symbols play in understanding culture. According to Geertz, culture is a web of aspects1950s, anthropologistsof our lives and Clyde the worldKluckhohn around and us. ArthurThus, Kroebereven our (1952)definitions identified of culture over 150are definitions of culture. Culture is central to the way we view, experience, and engage with all pretivethe colonial practices and that,Western for Geertz,origins areof anthropology,best accomplished he highlighted in conversation the challenges with people of understanding and representing cultures accurately. Anthropologists engage in inter- the word culture was closely linked in its use and meaning to processes of colonization. In Interpretation of Culture, shaped by the historical, political, social, and cultural contexts in which we live. Historically, from within the culture. In his widely cited book, Geertz of "others," generally characterizing non European societies as less_ civilized, barbaric, in symbols, a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means (1973) said culture "denotes an historically transmitted pattern of meaning embodied the"primitive," 19th century, and as European lacking "culture."anthropologists These colonialwrote detailed accounts descriptions treated European of the ways culture of life as

of which men communicate, perpetuate and developa system their ofknowledge shared meanings about and the norm and constructed Europe as superior by using the alleged lack of "culture" of non- attitudes towards life" (p. 89). European societies as justification for colonization. By the beginning of World War I, nine- Culture, then, from an anthropological perspective, is that tenths of the world had been colonized by European powers-a history of imperialism that areIn other passed words, from culture generation allows to usgeneration to make sensethrough of, symbolsexpress, andthat giveallow meaning human tobeings our lives. (not continues to structure and impact intercultural communication today (Young, 2001). onlyLet's men!)look more to communicate, closely at the maintain, various elements and develop of this an approachdefinition. and understanding of life. With this assumption of the superiority of European culture, the categorization system Symbols that stratified groups of people was based on having "culture" or not, which, in turn, trans- lated within European societies as "high" culture and "low" culture. Those in the elite class, At the core of this definition is the notion of symbols andcat symbol systems. or ruling class, who had power, were educated at prestigious schools, and were patrons of the stand for or represent other things. Words, images, people, ideas, and actions can all be symbols that represent other things. For example, the word is a set of symbols (the arts,movies such and as television-embodiedliterature, opera, and ballet,low culture. embodied We highsee remnants culture. Thoseof these in definitionsthe working of class cul alphabet) that combine to represent both the idea of a cat and the actual cat. A hand- whoture operatingenjoyed activities, today. The such notion as ofpopular culture theater, continues folk to art, be usedand "street"in some activities-and situations to stratify later shake-whether firm or soft, simple or complex-a raised eyebrow, a hand gesturing "ok," a veil, a tie, or "bling" are all symbolic actions or things that carry meaning. An image or groups based on the kinds of activities people engage in, thereby reinforcing beliefs about wean objectknow whatlike the these U.S. andflag, other the twin symbols towers, represent a T-shirt or that what reads they "Keep mean? Calm Are and the Partymeanings On," a cell phone, or graffiti are also symbols that stand for ideas, beliefs, and actions. How do superiorto the use and of theinferior term cultures.popular Overculture the to past reference 50 years, much struggles of what within was previouslyacademia andconsidered society of symbols somehow inherent in the things themselves, or are meanings assigned to sym inlow general culture. have However, legitimized in advertising, the practices in media and activities representations, of common and everyday in everyday people, actions leading and bols by the people who use them? While the meaning of symbols may seem natural or inherent for those who use them, the anthropological definition that was previously speech,consumption we still of see theculture use of around high and the low world, cultural which symbols coincides not with only theto signify superpower class differstatus- ences, but also to reinforce a cultural hierarchy. The growing and overwhelming appeal and offered indicates that it is the act of assigning similar meanings to symbols and the sharing U.S. of these assigned meanings that, at least partially, constitute culture. of the United States, can be understood, at least partially, as a desire to be in proximity as well The definition by Geertz (1973) also suggests that culture is a system. It is a system that as have contact with the United States, and therefore to exhibit the signs of being "cultured." theis expressed elements through of culture symbols interrelate that allow to form groups a whole. of people The toshared communicate symbols thatand toconvey develop or Anthropologic Definition: Culture as a Site of Shared Meaning knowledgeexpress meaning and understanding within a culture about acquire life. meaningWhen we through say culture their isinterrelation a system, we to eachmean other that The traditional academic field of intercultural communication has been deeply impacted and together create a system of meanings. Consider this example: As you read the brief by anthropology. In fact, many of the scholars like Edward T. Hall (1959), who is considered scenario that follows, pay attention to what you are thinking and feeling. 6 INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHAPTER l Opening the Conversation 7

* * * * * ** * *** * ** * Imagine a young man who is in his mid- to late 20s who works at a job making about ******* * * * * $70,000 a year. OK, what do you think and how do you feel about this man? Now, you find 11****** * * * * out that he is single. Have your thoughts or feelings changed? For you, and for the majority *·(****:, * *** of students like you in the United States, the picture of this man and his life is looking pretty good. Generally, both female and male students from various cultural backgrounds in the whenclassroom this scenariothink and is feelused positively in the classroom, about him. an Nowaudible you sigh find of out disappointment that he lives at comes home fromwith his parents and siblings. Have your thoughts or feelings about him changed? Without fail, - students when they learn that he lives with his parents. What's going on here? How does this information contradict or challenge the system of meaning in the dominant U.S. cul- someture that students, was being "weird," created "strange," up to that and point? "not normal." The image The of dominant this young U.S. man, culture who is was a system look- ing so good, suddenly plummets from desirable to highly suspect and, well, according to

elementsof shared ofmeanings income, age,that sex/gender,places high and value in thisand case,regard living on arrangements.individualism, Studentsindependence, in the consumerism,classroom who and ascribe capitalism, to the dominant which are cultural symbolically value systemrepresented ask questions through the like interrelated the follow

ing: Why would he want to live at home if he has all that money? Is he a momma's boy? What'sown. In his other problem? words, Does he may he have be sacrificinglow self-esteem? his independence Others, operating temporarily from similar to achieve assump his- tions, suggest that he might be living at home in order to save money to buy a house of his

Iultimate often hear (and alternative of course, preferable)interpretations goal fromof living students independently. who come from different cultural After the disappointment, disbelief, and concern for this poor fellow has settled down,

backgrounds or who straddle multiple cultural systems of meaning-making. The students tionssuggest represent that "he a livesdifferent at home system to takeof meaning care of makinghis parents," that valuesor that a "hemore likes collectivistic living with than his family," or "maybe that's just the way it's done in that culture." These students' interpreta- The students who do speak up with these alternative interpretations may feel a bit ambiv individualisticalent about stating orientation their interpretation and a more interdependentbecause they realize than independentthey are in the approach minority; to yet,life. they have no problem making sense of the scenario. In other words, the scenario is not viewed as contradictory or inconsistent; rather, it makes sense. My purpose in giving this example at this point is to demonstrate the ways in which culture operates as a system of shared meanings. The example also illustrates how we-human beings-generally assume Photo 1.1 Are the meanings associated with these images shared or contested within cultures and across cultures? that the way we make sense of things and the way we give meaning to symbols is the their"right," own "correct," frames andof reference often "superior" rather thanway. interpretingOne of the goals and negativelyin this book evaluating is to challenge other thesecultures ethnocentric from one's attitudesown cultural and toposition. develop the ability to understand cultures from within Cultural Studies Definition: Culture as a Site of Contested Meaning While traditional anthropological definitions focus on culture as a system of shared assumedIn summary, to be shared. a central In aspectfact, it ofis sharedthe anthropological meaning that definition constitutes of culture asis that a unit the of patterns exami nationof meaning in this embodied definition in symbolsof culture. that The are cultural inherited studies and passed definition along of through culture generations from a critical are and exploitation, view culture as a site of contestation where meanings are constantly perspective offers another way to understand the complex notion of culture (see Photo 1.1). meanings, cultural studies perspectives, informed by Marxist theories of class struggle

negotiated (Grossberg, Nelson, & Treichler, 1992). Cultural studies is a transdisciplinary 8 CHAPTER 1 Opening the Conversation 9 INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION culture still circulate, the cultural studies notion of culture focuses on the struggles over field of study that emerged in the post-World War II era in England as a challenge to the While older definitions of culture where a set of things or activities signify high or low positivist approaches to the study of culture, which purported to approach culture ture as a contested site or zone where meanings are negotiated appeals to and makes sense "objectively." The goals of Richard Haggart, who founded the Birmingham Centre for formeanings people thatwho are experience part of our themselves everyday lives.as marginalized Undoubtedly, from the orlogic marginalized of understanding within culthe- broaderContemporary historical Cultural and political Studies, context and others within who which followed, cultural such practices as Stuart are situated, Hall, are and to centers of power, whether this is based on race. class, gender, ethnicity, sexuality, or nation• develop subjective approaches to the study of culture in everyday life, to examine the to and makes sense for people at the centers of power or in a dominant role, whether this massto attend mediated to relations culture of beganpower toin understandingdominate over culture.local, community Simon During cultures, (1999) andsuggested as the ality. Similarly, the logic of understanding culture as a system of shared meanings appeals that as England's working class became more affluent and fragmented in the 1950s, as positionNevertheless, is based iton is race, important class, gender, to note ethnicity, that we allsexuality, participate or nationality. in and are This, constrained itself, illus by- logic that separated culture from politics was challenged, the old notion of culture as a oppressivetrates the struggle social forces.over the We meaning all, at some of the points notion in of our culture. lives and to varying degrees, also sharedlocal communal way of life lives was to no a viewlonger of descriptiveculture as an or apparatusfunctional. of power within a larger system of Throughdomination. a cultural A. cultural studies studies lens, perspective then, the notion reveals of culturehow culture shifts fromoperates an expressionas a form of perspective, culture is a site of analysis-in other words, something we need to attend hegemony, or domination through consent, as defined by Antonio Gramsci, an Italian tochallenge and critique. and struggleCulture iswith also dominant a site of intervention,or preferred wheremeanings. we canFrom work a cultural toward greaterstudies Marxist theorist. Hegemony is dominance without the need for force or explicit forms of coercion. In other words, hegemony operates when the goals, ideas, and interests of the and resistance. equity and justice in our lives and in the world in the ongoing struggle of domination people consent to their own domination, subordination, and exploitation. Developments ities and work toward social change remains today; however, the academic field of cultural ruling group or class are so thoroughly normalized, institutionalized, and accepted that The initial aim of the transdisciplinary field of cultural studies to critique social inequal-

in cultural studies from the 1980s forward focus on the potential individuals and groups studies as it has traveled from England to Latin America, Australia, the United States, and have to challenge, resist, and transform meanings in their subjective, everyday lives. John other places has taken on different forms and emphases. In the mid-! 980s, communication Fiskeals and (1992) groups stated, are both"The social consumers order andconstrains producers and oppressesof cultural people, meanings but atand the not same passive time asscholar we explore Larry Grossberg intercultural (1986) communication identified the withinemerging the and context significant of globalization, impact cultural a cultural stud- offers them resources to fight against those constraints" (p. 157), suggesting that individu- ies began to have in the United States, patticularly in the communication discipline. Today, spective, meanings are not necessarily shared, stable, or determined; rather, meanings are political context of our intercultural relations, and to see how we can act or intervene recipients of meanings manufactured by cultural industries. From a cultural studies per- studiescritically approach and creatively offers intools our to everyday analyze lives.power relations, to understand the historical and Consider, for example, the images of nondominant groups in the United States, such as constantly produced, challenged, and negotiated.American; American Arab American; or African American; Latino/Latina; Asian Indian; Globalization Definition: Culture as a Resource

tolesbian, affirm gay,positive bisexual, identities and and transgender efforts to claim(LGBT) and people. reclaim Nondominant a position of respectgroups inare society. often Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions ofGlobalization Whenunderrepresented any of us-from and represented dominant stereotypicallyor nondominant in thegroups-speak mass media leadingor act outsideto struggles the to moveInfluenced away fromby cultural thinking studies, of culture contemporary as a thing, anthropologista substance, or Arjun an object Appadurai that is shared.(1996) "norm" established by society or what is seen as "normal" within our cultural group, we Thesuggested concept in hisof culturebook as a coherent, stable entity privileges certain forms ofthat sharing we need and likely experience tension, admonition, or in more extreme cases, shunning. As we engage with media representations and confront expected norms, we challenge and negotiate cultural shared and accepted meanings within culture and society. Meanings associated with being culture.agreement Consequently, and neglects focusing the realities on the of culturalinequality, dimensions difference, of and an object,those who issue, are practice, marginal or- an African American, a White man, or Latino/Latina are not shared by all in the society; ized.ideology He arguedis to recognize that the differences, adjective contrasts,is moreand comparisons. descriptive and Culture, useful in than the contextthe noun of rather, these meanings are continuously asserted, challenged, negotiated, and rearticu•

globalization, is not something that individuals or groups possess, but rather a way of refer- groundedlated. From terrain" a cultural of everydaystudies perspective, practices-watching meanings areTV, continuallyconsuming produced, and wearing hybridized, clothes, ring to dimensions of situated and embodied difference that express and mobilize group andeating reproduced fast food inor andining ongoing out, struggle listening of topower music (Hall, or radio1997a). talk Culture, shows-and then, is representa•the "actual, understoodidentities (Appadurai, as a resource. 1996). Culture plays a greater role today than ever before because of tions-movies, songs, videos, advertisements, magazines, and "news"-where meanings theGeorge ways it Ytidice is linked (2003) to community, suggested thatnational, culture international, in the age of and globalization transnational has comeeconomies to be are contested. and politics. In the first decades of the 21st century, culture is now seen as a resource for 10 INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHAPTER l Opening the Conversation 11

economic and political exploitation, agency, and power to be used or instrumentalized for Communicative Dimensions in the form of symbolic goods, such as TV shows, movies, music, and tourism, is increas Communication and Culture aingly wide a resourcerange of purposesfor economic and growthends. For in globalexample, trade. in theMass context culture of industries globalization, in the culture, United

tionStates arecapital a major in contributorthe media, toconsumerism, the gross national and tourism. product Consider(GNP) and how function products globally are What is the relationshipanthropological between communication definition and culture? The three different approaches to as purveyors of U.S. cultural power (Crothers, 2013). Culture is also targeted for exploita- culture illustrate different assumptions about communication. by According to the of culture as a shared system of meaning, communica- sitionalmodified site; and or marketed how tourism to different in many cultural parts groups;of the world how African uses the American resource urban of culture culture to has been appropriated, exploited, commodified, and yet it operates as a potentially oppo- tion is a processcultural ofstudies transmitting definition, and sharing information among a group of people. In this case, communication enables culture to be co-constructed and mutually shared by members of a group. ing of culture, cultural practices, and cultural space into products for sale-is not new, the extentattract toforeign which capital culture for is development."managed" as Whilea resource the commodificationfor its capital-generating of culture-the potential turn and- In the culture is a contested site of meaning. According to this view, communication is a process through which individuals and groups negotiate and struggle over the "agreed on" and "appropriate" meanings assigned to reality. Through verbal and nonverbal com- as a "critical sphere for investment" by global institutions like the World Bank (WB) is new munication as well as the use of rhetoric, some views are privileged and normalized while other (Yudice,and mobilized 2003, p. as 13). a resource. In addition to being invested in and distributed as a perspectives are marginalizedglobalization or definition, silenced. Thus, communication is a process of negotiation, a struggle resourceCulture, for in economicthe context development of globalization, and capitalis conceptualized, accumulation, experienced, culture is exploited,used as a for power and visibility rather than a mutual construction and sharing of meaning. productive resource to address and solve social problems, such as illiteracy, addiction, crime, and Finally, in the culture is viewed as a resource. In this case, communication can be viewed as a productive process that enables change. We usually associate the word collective and individual empowerment, agency, and resistance. Groups of people in with positive qualities. However, "productive" here simply means that communication is a generative conflict. Culture is also used today discursively, socially, and politically as a resource for proximity to each other or vastly distant due to migration organize collective identities process. People leverage culture to build collective identities and exploit or mobilize for personal, that serve as "homes" of familiarity; spaces of belonging; and as sites for the formation economic, or political gain. Communication is a process of using cultural resources. of resistance, agency, and political empowerment. Consider how over twenty years, the

Mixteco and Zapoteco immigrants from Oaxaca, Mexico, has become a transnational STUDYING INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION Indigenousnetwork where Front indigenous of Binational people Organizations re-claim indigenous (FIOB), formsan organization of knowledge of and indigenous cultural practices to resist discrimination, reframe colonization, and re-invent their cultural lenging exercise. For students who come from the dominant culture, the response is often "I don'tIn recent really years, have when a culture." I ask students For those to speakstudents about from their nondominant culture, many groups, find itresponses a highly chal that- identities (Mercado, 2016). Or, consider how hip hop culture-transplanted and refash- point to their ethnic, racial, or religious group identification come more readily; however, ioned around the globe-uses music, dance, style, and knowledge to give voice to thepractice silenced, of culture challenge is quite discrimination, complex, located and createat the intersectionplatforms for of activism economic that and support social cultural empowerment. Today, in the context of globalization "the understanding and theirawareness replies of are their often cultural accompanied identity earlier by some in life uneasiness. than those Typically,in the dominant people group.whose culture As you can see from our previous discussion, there are various and different definitions differs from the dominant group have a stronger sense of their culture and develop a clearer justice agendas" (Yudice, 2003, p. 17). contested. experiences and social locations. Our identities develop through our relationships with others-ourCultural identityfamilies, isour defined friends, as andour thosesituated we sensesee as ofoutside self that our isgroup. shaped Our by cultural our cultural iden- titionof culture. with Theeach concept other for of usage, culture, and itself, that is there are materialThis means and symbolicthat there consequences is no one agreed or tities are constructed from the languages we speak, the stories we tell, as well as the norms, onimplications definition, attached that the differentto the use meanings of one or of another culture ofcan the be definitions. understood The as being definitions in compe pre-- behaviors, rituals, and nonverbal communication we enact. Histories passed along from

our cultural identities. Our cultural identities serve to bond us with others giving us a sense sented here-(!) culture as shared meaning, (2) culture as contested meaning, and within our cultural group in addition to representations of our group by others also shape (3)make culture sense as ofresource-all the complex offer and important contradictory and useful intercultural ways of understandingcommunication culture issues in and the group see as different from ourselves; and cultural identities can also function as bridges context of globalization. Throughout the book, all three definitions are used to help us connectingof belonging; us culturalto others identities who are also viewed provide as different. a buffer Ourprotecting cultural us identities from others intersect we or with our

experiences we live and struggle with today. 12 INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHAPTER 1 Opening the Conversation 13

and are impacted by our other social identities, including our ethnic, racial, gender, class, as a place of belonging with others who are similar and a buffer from those who perceive age, religious, and national identities. In the context of globalization, our identities are not you and are perceived as different.

unaware that the norms, values, practices, and institutions of the society are, in fact, deeply fixed; rather, our identities are complex, multifaceted, and fluid. On the other hand, people from the dominant cultural group in a society are often What definitions of culture do you think are operating in the minds of my students whenresponses asked among to speak students about from their dominantculture? How and mightnondominant their cultural cultures? identities-consciously We can see how the shouldshaped be."by andSo, infusedto return with to oura particular earlier question, cultural orientationwhat accounts and thatfor thethese differences patterns inof or unconsciously-affect their understanding of culture? What accounts for the different responsesshared meaning of my studentshave been when normalized asked about as "just their the culture? way things are" or "the way things

dominantanthropological culture definition are encouraged of culture to see as themselves shared meaning as "individuals," and culture which as somethingoften underlies that groupstheir claim possess that theyis presumed "have no in culture." the students' Since theirresponses. culture Studentsis pervasive who and identify "normal" with in U.S. the Positionality United States, European American or White students don't recognize the language, stories, The differences in responses can be understood to some extent based on differences in values, norms, practices, and shared views on history as belonging to a culture. While stu students' positionality. Positionality refers to one's social location or position within an dents in nondominant groups see themselves as having culture or a cultural identity based intersecting web of socially constructed hierarchical categories, such as race, class, gender, sexual orientation, religion, nationality, and physical abilities, to name a few. Different on the ways in which they are different from the dominant group, dominant group mem- withbers see"difference," the difference it is notof nondominant as evident because groups the and cultural label it patterns "culture," of and the theirdominant own seemgroup- words,experiences, when understanding,we consider positionality, and knowledge we areof oneself thinking and about the world how weare aregained, positioned accessed, in ingare thelack norm. of "difference" as not having culture. While the dominant culture is also infused relationand produced to others based within on one'sthese intersectingpositionality. social Positionality categories is aand relational how we concept.are positioned In other in Additionally, we can see how those from the dominant culture understand culture as a terms of power. The socially constructed categories of race, gender, class, sexuality, nation ality, religion, and ableness are hierarchical systems that often connote and confer material

resource, which others have, but which they, rather nostalgically, are lacking. Interestingly power in relation to the categories of race, gender, class, nationality, and so on-impacts andtheir importantly, culture as athe resource, fact that their people knowledge from the anddominant access group to cultural do not privilege see their and culture White as and symbolic power. At this point, consider how your positionality-your positions of a resource is highly problematic. When members of the dominant group do not recognize How does your positionality impact your intercultural communication interactions? & your experiences, understanding, and knowledge about yourself and the world around you. privilegecontested are meaning erased manifestedand invisibilized in the bydifferences and for the between dominant these group students' (Frankenberg, responses. 1993; NakayamaTo a great extent,Martin, culture 1999). or We cultural can also dimensions see the culturalof human studies interaction definition are unconsciously of culture as Standpoint Theory acquired and embodied through interaction and engagement with others from one's own standpoint theory

to viewThe ideaand makeof positionality sense of the is worldclosely around related us. to Our standpoint influences(Collins, what 1986; we Harding, see and canculture. American, When one'sAsian culture American, differs Latino/Latina, from the dominant Arab American, group (e.g., or Nativepeople American who are Jewish, within what1991; weHartsock, cannot, 1983) do not, as proposedor choose by not feminist to see. theorists.Feminist Astandpoint standpoint theory is a place claims from that which the Muslim, or Buddhist in a predominantlyor Christian society, or people who identify as Afri- haps even on a daily basis, reminded of the differences between his or her own cultural the predominantly White European American culture) then he or she is regularly, per- social groups to which we belong shape what we know and how we communicate (Wood, people from nondominant groups learn to "commute" between cultures, switching verbal 2005). The theory is derived from the Marxist position that economically oppressed classes values,and nonverbal norms, culturalhistory, codesand possibly as well languageas values and waysthose ofof viewing the dominant the world group. as they In effect, move canW. access F. knowledge unavailable to the socially privileged and can generate distinctive accounts, particularly knowledge about social relations. For example, German philosopher nant culture is different from your own are evident. eryG. is quiteHegel, different writing forin theslaves early as 19thcompared century, to suggestedmasters. One'sthat while position society within in general social relamay between two cultures. If you are from a nondominantto group, the ways in which the domi- tionsacknowledge of power the produces existence different of slavery, standpoints the perception, from whichexperience, to view, and experience, knowledge act, of slavand- Vietnamese background who are French, people who are Korean or Korean-Japanese in I' This phenomenon is certainly not unique the United States. People of Algerian or I! Caribbean, or South Pacific Islands are likely to experience a heightened sense of culture construct knowledge about the world. Japan,and cultural or people identification of Indian ancestrybecause theirwho havedifferences lived, perhapsfrom the for dominant generations, group in areAfrica, seen the as tiveAll and standpoints the perspective are necessarily of those in powerpartial in and order limited, to survive. yet feminist Therefore, theorists the standpoint argue that of significant, are pointed out, and are part of their lived experience. Cultural identities serve people from oppressed or subordinated groups must understand both their own perspec-

\ I marginalized people or groups, those with less power, is unique and should be privileged 14 INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHAPTER 1 Opening the Conversation 15

of greater power in relation to the other person, you may feel as if it doesn't matter and you groups,as it allows which for ina fullerher case and was more that comprehensive of a Black woman view. in Patricia predominantly Hill Collins's White (1986) institutions. notion youdon't of really the benefits need that of person'sother ways perspective. of seeing Fromand acting this, wein thecan world.see how If youethnocentrism are in a position com- of "outsiders within" points to the possibility of dual vision of marginalized people and bines with power to increase the likelihood of a more insular, myopic perspective. gion, nationality, or sexual orientation, do not need to understand the viewpoint of subor On the other hand, people in the dominant group, whether due to gender, class, race, reli- to ignorance, misunderstandings, resentment, and potentially violence. In late December subordinated others in order to maintain their own dominance. As put forth by feminist On a globalInternational scale, ethnocentrism Herald 1hbune can affect perceptions of one's own group and can lead dinated groups and often have a vested interest in not understanding the positions of and knowledge and sees the vantage point of those who are subordinated as a position of 2001, the reported the results of a poll of 275 global opinion theorists, standpoint theory is centrally concerned with the relationship between power leaders from 24 countries. "Asked if many or most people(Global would Poll, consider US policiesto to be 'a major cause' of the September 11 attacks, 58 percent of the non-US respondents said insightact on issuesfrom whichand challenges to challenge in interculturaland oppose systemscommunication. of oppression. It enables us to understand theytom ofdid, increasingly compared tobitter just polarization 18 percent ofbetween Americans" haves and have-nots."2001). In According response to the Standpoint theory offers a powerful lens through which to make sense of, address, and questionreport, findings of how from there the can poll be indicate such a "thatdifference much inof theperception world views between the attacks what Americansas a symp- think about themselves and what non-Americans think about Americans, authors Ziauddin the •following: We may see, experience, and understand the world quite differently based on our

Sardar and Meryl Wyn Davies (2002) suggested the following: Most Americans are simply not aware of the impact of their culture and their different standpoints and positionalities. government's policies on the rest of the world. But, more important, a vast majority • Knowledge about ourselves and others is situated and partial.

• Knowledge is always and inevitably connected to power. simply do not believe that America has done, or can do, anything wrong. (p. 9) Being a student of intercultural communication at this point in history presents unique • Oppositional standpoints can form, challenging and contesting the status quo. Ethnocentrism workplaces, entertainment venues, and communities provides an impetus and resource for opportunities and challenges. The increasing diversity of cultures in educational settings, we occupy may also assist us in avoiding the negative effects of ethnocentrism. Ethnocen- own. The accelerated interconnectedness and interdependence of economics, politics, and perspectives about cultures that are different from one's The application of standpoint theory andethno, an understanding of the various positionalitieskentron, gaining knowledge alternative to meaning center, referring to a view that places one's group at the center of the world. As trism is derived from two Greek words: (1) meaning group or nation, and (2) media,the greatest and culture and most around powerful the globe nation also oncan Earth motivate can peoplecombine learnwith anfrom unwillingness and about oth to- ers. Yet, for those positioned in the United States, rhetoric proclaiming the United States as firstargue conceptualized that ethnocentrism by William has been Sumner a central (1906), feature ethnocentrism in all cultures is thethroughout idea that history one's ownand group's way of thinking, being, and acting in the world is superior to others. Some scholars& criticallyethnocentrism examine that the harm role and of theinhibit United intercultural States in globalcommunication economic andand globalpolitical intercultural instability relations.and injustice. Ethnocentrism This can result can leadin highly to one-sided problematic, perceptions disturbing, as well and as destructive extremely formsarrogant of hascentric served approaches as a mechanism extremely ofproblematic. cultural cohesion The assumption and preservation that one's (Gudykunst own group is supeKim,- and misinformed views that are quite disparate from the perceptions of other cultural and rior1997); to yet,others the leadsglobalized to negative context evaluations in which we of live others today and makes can resultethnocentrism in dehumanization, and ethno- legitimization of prejudices, discrimination, conflict, and violence. Both historically and our intercultural communication and interactions take place. nationalPositionality, positions, standpoint, and dangerously and ethnocentric limit knowledge views are of theclosely bigger tied global to our picture cultural in identiwhich- justify colonization, imperialism, oppression, war, and ethnic cleaning. ties. Our identities, based on socially constructed categories of difference (i.e., middle class, today, ethnocentrism has combined with power-material, institutional, and symbolic-to White male, American citizen), also position us in relation to others. Our positionality gives nations to the benefits of broader points of view and perceptions. Ethnocentrism is often us a particular standpoint (i.e. "in American society, anyone can become successful if they One of the dangers of ethnocentrism is that it can blind individuals, groups, and even work hard") and ethnocentric views may emerge (i.e., "American culture is more advanced

marked by an intensely inward-looking and often nearsighted view of the world. On an alities and standpoints. When cultural identity is understood as a situated sense of self, we interpersonal level, if you think your group's way of doing things, seeing things, and believ- seeand howcivilized our positionalitythan other cultures") is not neutral, if we haveour standpoint a limited understandingis never universal, of others' and our position ethno- tudesing about and thingsactions is thewill right likely way end and any the effective better way, intercultural you are likely communication to judge others and negatively deprive centric views are always problematic. and respond arrogantly and dismissively to those who are different from you. These atti- I 16 INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION ! CHAPTER 1 Opening the Conversation 17

assumptions and views of the world. In fact, one of the main benefits of intercultural com municationThe study is theand way practice in which of interculturalit broadens and communication deepens our understanding inevitably challenge of the world our affirmingThe six ofpoints human or portsagency of entryand human in the interculturalcapacities for praxis working model collaboratively direct us toward to create ways ofchange" thinking, (Adams reflecting, et al., p.and 3). acting in relation to our intercultural experiences, allowing us to attend to the complex, relational, interconnected, and often ambiguous nature of our wetemporary live in by protection challenging from our views, taken-for-granted experiences, beliefs and realities and views that and threaten by providing one's own, alterna- but experiences. All six ports of entry into intercultural praxis are interconnected and inter- ittive has ways no long to liveterm fully benefits and forrespectfully effective oras successfulhuman beings. intercultural Ethnocentrism communication may provide in the

related. As we foreground each one individually, keep the others in your mind and consider context of globalization. how they inform1.1). the foregrounded port of entry. The six points of entry into intercultural praxis are introduced here and developed in greater depth through subsequent chapters INTERCULTURAL PRAXIS IN THE CONTEXT OF GLOBALIZATION (see Figure Inquiry One of my goals in this book is to introduce and develop a process of critical reflective

thinking and acting-what I call intercultural praxis-that enables us to navigate the com- Inquiry, as a portto of entry for intercultural praxis, refers to a desire and willingness to plex and challenging intercultural spaces we inhabit interpersonally, communally, and know, to ask, to find out, and to learn. Curious inquiry about those who are different from globally. I hope that by reading this book you not only learn "about" intercultural commu- ourselves leads us engagement with others. While it may sound simple, inquiry also religion,nication, andbut alsonationality practice are a wayreal. of Differences being, thinking, manifest analyzing, in language, reflecting, dress, and behaviors, acting in attithe aboutrequires others that wein orderare willing to see toand take interpret risks, allow others our and own the way world of viewing from different and being points in the of world in regard to cultural differences. Differences based on race, ethnicity, gender, class, view.world A to Vietnamese be challenged American and perhaps student, changed, Quynyh and Tran, that recounted we are willing an intercultural to suspend experiencejudgments together, differences exist. Yet, the challenge in intercultural communication is not only tudes, values, histories, and worldviews. When people from diverse backgrounds come tions of power. Thus, a central intention of the intercultural praxis model is to understand she had before enrolling in one of my intercultural classes. When being introduced in a aboutand address cultural the differences; intersection differences of cultural that differences are always and and hierarchies inevitably ofsituated power withinin intercul rela- business setting to a man she did not know, she extended her hand to shake his. He tural interactions. wasresponded not interested that it was in talkingagainst orhis working culture withand religionhim! to shake hands. She remembers feel- All moments in your day-when you are interacting with friends, coworkers, teachers, ing Reflectingrather put on off this and incident offended in by class, his response,she realized deciding that she without missed saying an incredible anything opportu that she- bosses, and strangers; when you are consuming pop culture in the form of music, clothes, your favorite TV shows, movies, and other entertainment; when you hear and read news and information from the media and other outlets; and in your routines of what and where thenity man'sto learn statement more about as "weird,someone strange, who was or unfriendly,"different from she herself. may have She beenrealized able that to iflearn she to could have let go of her judgments about those who were different and had not reacted to in intercultural praxis. To begin to understand intercultural praxis, I offer six interrelated of the doors of entry into intercultural praxis. Yet, by entering into reflection, she learned you eat, where you live, how and where you travel around-are all opportunities engage something and expand her knowledge of the world. She regretted not stepping through one

pointsThe ofpurpose entry ofinto engaging the process; in intercultural (1) inquiry, praxis (2) framing,is to raise (3) our positioning, awareness, (4)increase dialogue, our from this experience that inquiry, curiosity, a willingness to suspend judgment, and a desire (5)critical reflection, analysis, and and (6) developaction. our socially responsible action in regard to our intercultural to learn from others can be tremendously rewarding and informing. She could also see that what she reacted to as "weird" and "strange" was framed by her culture and positionality. interactions in the context of globalization. The intercultural praxis model provides a blue- Framing print for joining our knowledge and skills as intercultural communicators with our ability to act in the world to create greater equity and social justice. Education scholars Maurianne framing social justice learn to make available to ourselves and need to be aware of in intercultural praxis. First, the Toaching for Diversity and Social Justice; conceptI propose and action ofto "framing" suggest aconnotes range of differentthat frames perspective-taking always and inevitably options limit that our we percan- Adams, Lee Anne Bell, and Pat Griffin (2007) defined as both a goal and pro- spectives and our views on ourselves, others, and the world around us. We see things cess in their1). book "The goal of social justice is full through individual, cultural, national, and regional frames or lenses that necessarily include whereand equal social participation actors experience of all groups agency in with a society and responsibility that is mutually for others.shaped The to meetprocess their of some things and exclude others. As we engage in intercultural praxis, it is critical that we reachingneeds" (p. the goalSocial of socialjustice justice includes should a vision be "democratic of the equitable and participatory, distribution inclusiveof resources and become aware of the frames of reference from which we view and experience the world. CHAPTER l Opening the Conversation 19

shape intercultural interactions. Sometimes it is very important to narrow the frame, to zoomSecondly, in, and "framing"focus on themeans particular that we and are veryaware situated of both aspects the local of andan interaction, global contexts event, that or

important to look at the micro level differences in communication styles, how nonverbal exchange. Take, for example, a conflict between two people from different cultures. It's

havecommunication learned to enactmay be conflict used differently,differently thebased ways on intheir which enculturation. the two people However, may perceivein order theirto fully identities understand differently the particular based on intercultural cultural belonging, interaction and theor misunderstanding, ways in which the twoit is mayalso necessary to back up to view the incident, event, or interaction from a broader frame. As we zoom out, we may see a history of conflict and misunderstanding between the two groups that the individuals represent; we may observe historical and/or current patterns of

ticularinequities and between situated theintercultural two groups interaction, that position misunderstanding, them differently; or and conflict. we may As alsowe zoom be able in toand map foreground out broader the microgeopolitical, level ofintercultural global relations communication, of power that canwe needshed tolight keep on the the wider par- background frame in mind as it provides the context in which meaning about the particu lar is made. Similarly, as we zoom out and look at larger macro level dimensions, we need

day lives. "Framing" as a port of entry into intercultural praxis means we are aware of our toframes keep ofin reference.mind the particularIt also means local we and develop situated our lived capacity experience to flexibly of peopleand consciously in their every shift- our perspective from the particular, situated dimensions of intercultural communication

maintaining our awareness of both. to the broader global dimensions, and from the global dimensions to the particular while Positioning Where are you positioned as you read this sentence? Your first response may be to say you are lounging in a chair at home, in a cafe, in the break room at work, or in the library. If you

Positioning"zoomed out" as utilizinga point theof entry framing into strategy intercultural in the praxisprevious invites discussion, us to consider you may how also ourrespond geo bygraphic stating positioning your location is related in a part to ofsocial a neighborhood, and political city,positions. state, nation,As you orread region these of sentences,the world. E

,ci structed hierarchical categories based on culture, race, class, gender, nationality, religion, age, C • where are you positioned socioculturally? The globe we inhabit is stratified by socially con- ·a and physical abilities among others. Like the lines of longitude and latitude that divide, map, i' and position us geographically on the earth,are these hierarchicalthe categories position us socially, c"l • Understanding how and where we positioned in world-the locations from politically, and materially in relation to each other and in relation to power. 0 • C C C' ., which we speak, listen, act, think, and make sense of the world-allows us to acknowledge •u • ·a thaton where we, as you human are and beings, with are whom positioned you are differently communicating. with both For materialexample, and it could symbolic vary con-over • " " sequences. It is also important to note that your positionality may shifr and change based , - to the course of a day, from occupying a relatively powerful position at home as the oldest son in a family having to occupy a less powerful positionality in your part-time job as a 18 20 INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHAPTER t Opening the Conversation 21

personal assistant. Sometimes the shift may be even more drastic, as in the case of some one who is a doctor and part of a dominant group in her home culture and then shifts class 11. I am one of the only ones in my family who has the opportunity to go to college/university, and power positions when she is forced to migrate to the United States for political reasons. 12, Since the United States has a Black president, the country has basically moved beyond She finds herself not only part of a minority group, but also positioned very differently racism. when her medical degree is not recognized, forcing her into more manual work and part time student positionalities. 13, I can get financial support from my family to pay for college/university, if necessary, Positioning, as a way to enter into intercultural praxis, also directs us to interrogate who can speak and who is silenced; whose language is spoken and whose language is trivialized Now that you have read the statements, consider the following; or denied; whose actions have the power to shape and impact others, and whose actions are dismissed, unreported, and marginalized. Positioning combines with other ports of • How do your cultural frames inform your responses? entry, such as inquiry and framing encouraging us to question whose knowledge is privi- • How are your responses related to your positionality? leged, authorized, and agreed on as true and whose knowledge is deemed unworthy, • How do cultural frames and positionality intersect to shape your responses? "primitive," or unnecessary. Positioning ourselves, others, and our knowledge of both self • Share these statements with a friend, partner, or coworker and then dialogue about how your and others allow us to see the relationship between power and what we think of as "knowl- responses may be similar or different. edge." Our knowledge of the world-whether knowledge of meridians of longitude and power latitude or hierarchical categories of race, class, and gender-is socially and historically • Reflect and dialogue with the other person about how our differences in terms of and constructed and produced in relation to power. positionality impact our standpoints, • Reflect on the assumptions and judgments you may have about people who would make each of these statements. · ' · : " : : : : _, lnterc;ultural Praxis • How is dialogue with people who are different in terms of culture and positionality a step toward creating a more equitable and just world? · ." · · $ 0 :,: · _::., N tiating Differences ' "' ' '

To begin using the lntercultural Praxis model as a tool for navigating the complex1t1es of cultural power differences and differences in intercultural situations, read the following statements and Dialogue consider your response to each, On a continuum, do you strongly agree with the statement, disagree, or is your response somewhere in between? While we have all heard of dialogue and likely assume that we engage in it regularly, it's useful to consider the derivation of the word to deepen our understanding of dialogue as l. Hard work is all it takes for me to succeed in school, work, and life, an entry port into intercultural praxis. A common mistake is to think "dia" means two and dialogue, then, is conversation between two people. However, the word dialogue is derived 2, Big cities are generally not safe and people are not as friendly there, from the Greek word dialogos. Dia means "through," "between," or "across," and logos 3, In the United States, women are treated fairly and as equals to men. refers to "word" or "the meaning of the word" as well as "speech" or "thought." Physicist philosopher 4. The police are viewed with suspicion in my neighborhood. and David Bohm (1996) wrote the following:

5, Going to college/university is my primary responsibility, The picture or the image that this derivation suggests is of a stream ofmeaning 6. Gay marriage is legalized in many states, so homophobia is increasingly a problem of the past among and through us and between us. This will make possible a flow of meaning in the whole group, out of which may emerge a new understanding. It's 7. Religious freedom is what makes the United States a great country, something new, which may not have been in the starting point at all. It's 8, I have to work twice as hard to prove I am as capable and competent as others, something creative. (p. 6) 9. For the most part, I can go pretty much anywhere in my city, town, or region without feeling Anthropologist Vincent Crapanzano (1990) suggested that "dialogue" necessarily entails afraid for my safety, both an oppositional as well as a transformative dimension. Given the differences in power 10, Interracial and intercultural relationships cause problems, People should stay with their and positionality in intercultural interactions, engagement in dialogue is necessarily a own kind. relationship of tension that "is conceived as a crossing, a reaching across, a sharing if not a common ground of understanding ... " (p. 277). 22 INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION 23 CHAPTER l Opening the Conversation According to philosopher Martin Buber, dialogue is essential for building community responsible action to make a difference in the world-to create a more socially just, equi- and goes far beyond an exchange of messages. For Buber, dialogue requires a particular table, and peaceful world. quality of communication that involves a connection among pa:fticipants who are paten, Each one of us takes multiple and varied actions individually and collectively that have tially changed by each other. Buber refers to such relationships as I-Thou, where one intercultural communication dimensions and implications every single day of our lives. We relates and experiences another as a person. This relationship is quite different from an take action when we decide to get an education, to go to class or not, and when we select I-It relationship where people are regarded as objects and experienced as a means to a classes or a field of study. Our actions in an educational context are influenced by cultural, goal. Dialogue occurs only when there is regard for both self and other and where either/ gendered, national, and class-based assumptions, biases, or constraints. We take action or thinking is challenged allowing for the possibility of shared ground, new meaning, and when we go to work and when we speak out or don't about inequity, discrimination, and mutual understanding. misuses of power. Watching or reading the news is an action that affords opportunities to Dialogue offers a critical point of entry into intercultural praxis. Cognizant of differences understand how cultural and national interests shape, limit, and bias the news we receive. in cultural frames and positionalities as well as the tensions that emerge from these differ, Our consumption of products, food, and entertainment are all actions. When we know who ences, the process of dialogue invites us to stretch ourselves-to reach across :.__ to imagine, has labored to make the goods we consume and under what conditions, we confront our- experience, and creatively engage with points of view, ways of thinking and being, and selves and others with the choices we make through our actions. We take action when we beliefs different from our own while accepting that we may not fully understand or come make decisions about whom we develop friendships and long-term relationships with and to a common agreement or position. when we choose not to be involved. When we feel strongly enough about an issue, we are moved to organize and take action. What informs our choices and actions? What are the implications of our actions? In the Reflection context of globalization, our choices and actions are always enabled, shaped, and constrained While cultures around the world differ in the degree to which they value reflection and by history; relations of power; and material conditions that are inextricably linked to intercul- the ways in which they practice reflection, the capacity to learn from introspection, to tural dimensions of culture, race, class, religion, sexual orientation, language, and nationality. observe oneself in relation to others, and to alter one's perspectives and actions based on Intercultural praxis, offers us a process of critical, reflective thinking and acting that enables reflection is a capacity shared by all humans. Many cultures, including the dominant cul- us to navigate the complex and challenging intercultural spaces, we inhabit interpersonally, ture of the United States, place a high value on doing activities and accomplishing tasks, communally, and globally. Intercultural praxis can manifest in a range of forms, such as simple which often leaves little space and time for reflection. However, reflection is a key feature or complex communication competency skills, complicit actions, and oppositional tactics, as of intercultural praxis. Consider how reflection is central to the other points of entry into well as through creative, improvisational, and transformational interventions. intercultural praxis already addressed. To engage in curious inquiry, one must be able to reflect on oneself as a subject-a thinking, learning, creative, and capable subject. The practices of framing and positioning require that one consciously observe oneself and SUMMARY critically analyze ones relationships and interrelationships with others. Similarly, reflection is necessary to initiate, maintain, and sustain dialogue across the new and often difficult terrain of intercultural praxis. As we "open the conversation," it is evident that there is a critical need for skillful and informed Brazilian educator and activist Paulo Freire (1998) noted in his book Pedagogy of Free- intercultural communicators in the current context of globalization. To assist us in making sense dom that critical praxis "involves a dynamic and dialectic movement between 'doing' and of intercultural communication in the rapidly changing, increasingly interdependent, and inequi- 'reflecting on doing"' (p. 43). Reflection is what informs our actions. Reflection that incor- table world we inhabit, I introduced various definitions of culture: (1) culture as shared meaning, porates critical analyses of micro· and macro-levels of intercultural issues, which considers (2) culture as contested meaning, and (3) culture as resource. Each definition provides different multiple cultural frames of reference, and that recognizes our own and others' positioning and necessary ways of understanding culture in our complex age. Studying intercultural commu- enables us to act in the world in meaningful, effective, and responsible ways. nication in the context of globalization offers opportunities and challenges. To guide our approach and to increase our awareness, the basic concepts of positionality, standpoint theory, and ethno- centrism were introduced. Because we want to become more effective as intercultural communi- Action cators, thinkers, and actors in the global context, intercultural praxis-a set of skills, processes, and Influenced by the work of Paulo Freire (1973/2000), the concept of intercultural praxis practices for critical, reflective thinking and acting-was outlined to navigate the complex, con- refers to an ongoing process of thinking, reflecting, and acting. Intercultural praxis is not tradictory, and challenging intercultural spaces we inhabit. In the next chapter, we explore the only about deepening our understanding of ourselves, others, and the world in which historical, political, and economic factors and forces that have contributed to globalization and we live. Rather, intercultural praxis means we join our increased understanding with discuss various dimensions of intercultural communication in the context of globalization. 24 INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHAPTER 1 Opening the Conversation 25

(For example, as an American, I value independence and individualism, which are cultural KEY TERMS stantly negotiating representations of what it means to be a woman. My gender culture is a site valuesof contestation. that I share Women, with many in this others society, from are theoften United turned States. into objectsAs a woman, like resources I feel like that I am can con- be low culture ethnocentrism dimension of myself as an empowering resource. As a White American, I know my experiences standpoint theory high culture areexploited, different packaged, from other and racial sold. groups.Yet, I am I am proud learning to be howa woman I am different and experience from others this andcultural not culture as shared meaning social justice intercultural praxis popular culture from being White are resources, even or especially when I can't see these invisible advantages.) culture as contested meaning just how they are different from me as a member of the dominant group. The privileges I have symbols inquiry framing ferences among your cultural dimensions. culture as a resource b. Share your paragraph responses with your classmates, and discuss the similarities and dif- hegemony positioningreflection c. Discuss the usefulness and limitations of each definition of culture. dialogue action 2. Positioning Yourself and Your Cultural Dimensions cultural identity positionality to others in terms of race, class, gender, ethnicity, sexuality, nationality, religion, and ableness. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS AND ACTIVITIES a. Using your responses to the first activity, develop your ideas on how you are positioned in relation you engage in intercultural communication. Discussion Questions b. Discuss how your positionality influences your standpoint on the world around you and how

definition useful in understanding culture? In what ways does globalization complicate our 3. Intercultural Praxis-Group Activity defined a shared meaning. How is 1. Inunderstanding the anthropologic of culture definition, as a site culture of shared is meaning?as site of this In a group of four to five students, consider and discuss the following: a. Inquiry: What do you already know about each other? What stereotypes, preconceptions, important in studying intercultural communication? and assumptions might you have about students in your class or those in your group? What 2. What is your positionality and how does it shape your standpoint? Why are these concepts would you like to know about the cultural background of those in your group? What skills and experience do you bring to the process of inquiry? maintain relations of power in society? What are the examples of hegemonic forces that others in your group? What frames of reference are useful in understanding the members of 3_ How does hegemony-defined as domination through consent-function to and b. Framing: In what ways does your cultural background frame the way you see and experience influence your life? Where do those hegemonic forces come from? _produce your group? What can you see if you "zoom in" and look at the micro-level in terms of the cultural dimensions of your group? What can you see if you "zoom out" and look at the are 4. Do you think there are universal human values? If so, what they? Is the belief in universal macro-level in terms of the cultural dimensions of your group? human values inherently ethnocentric? c. Positioning: How are you positioned sociohistorically in relation to others in your group? How does your positionality change in different contexts and frames of reference?

5_ Thepredetermined chapter defines set of Intercultural rules and norms Praxis for asintercultural a process ofcommunication? critical, reflective Why thinking does Intercult and acting ral shaped by six ports of entry. In what ways is this approach different from learning a d. Dialogue: With whom do you frequently engage in dialogue? How can you expand the circle established rules of communication? of people with whom you engage in dialogue? What qualities are required to engage effec- the process of thinking and acting rather following Praxis emphasize self-reflexive than tively in dialogue? How do relationships of power shape the process of dialogue? e. Reflection: As you reflect on your inquiry, framing, positioning, and dialogue, what have you Activities Action: How and when can you engage in intercultural praxis? How can you use what you learned about yourself, your group, and intercultural praxis? f. the consequences and implications of lack of action? have learned in this chapter to effect change for a more equitable and just world? What are 1. Exploringtions of the culture Cultural discussed Dimensions in this Thatchapter. Shape How You do you understand your culture as a system a. Writeof shared a brief meanings? paragraph As exploringa site of contestation? the cultural Asdimensions a resource? that shape you using the defini- g. Finally, discuss the challenges of engaging in intercultural praxis. Keep your dialogue and reflections from this group activity in mind as you read the following chapters.