Intercultural Communication Globalization and Social Justice Second Edffion Kathryn Sorrells 50YEARS California State University, Northridge SAGE was founded in 1965 by Sara Miller McCune to support the dissemination of usable knowledge by publishing innovative and high-quality research and teaching content. Today, we publish more than 850 journals, including those of more than 300 learned societies, more than 800 new books per year, and a growing range of library products including archives, data, case studies, reports, and video. SAGE remains majority-owned by our founder, and after Sara's lifetime will become owned by a charitable trust that secures our continued independence. Los Angeles ILondon INew Delhi ISingapore IWashington DC ()SAGE Los Angeles ILondon INew Delhi Singapore IWashington DC 4 INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHAPTER 1 Opening the Conversation 5 and ethnocentrism. This chapter ends a discussion of intercultural praxis. As we "open the originator of the field of intercultural communication, were trained as anthropologists. the conversation," I invite you to engage with me in an ongoing process of learning, reflect with training programs on culture and communication for diplomats going abroad on assign In the 1950s, Edward T. Hall, along with others at the Foreign Service Institute, developed to your everyday experiences. ing, and critiquing what I have to say about intercu!tural communication and how it applies particular attention to nonverbal communication and tacit or out of awareness levels of ment. Hall's applied approach, focusing on the micro-level of human interaction with DEFINITIONS OF CULTURE information exchange, established the foundation for the field of intercultural communica- tion (Rogers, Hart, & Miike, 2002). symbolsClifford that Geertz, people another use to highlycreate meaninginfluential and anthropologist, order in their emphasizedlives. Concerned the pivotal about Culture is a concept that we use often, yet we have a great deal of trouble defining. In the role symbols play in understanding culture. According to Geertz, culture is a web of aspects1950s, anthropologistsof our lives and Clyde the worldKluckhohn around and us. ArthurThus, Kroebereven our (1952)definitions identified of culture over 150are definitions of culture. Culture is central to the way we view, experience, and engage with all pretivethe colonial practices and that,Western for Geertz,origins areof anthropology,best accomplished he highlighted in conversation the challenges with people of understanding and representing cultures accurately. Anthropologists engage in inter- the word culture was closely linked in its use and meaning to processes of colonization. In Interpretation of Culture, shaped by the historical, political, social, and cultural contexts in which we live. Historically, from within the culture. In his widely cited book, Geertz of "others," generally characterizing non European societies as less_ civilized, barbaric, in symbols, a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means (1973) said culture "denotes an historically transmitted pattern of meaning embodied the"primitive," 19th century, and as European lacking "culture."anthropologists These colonialwrote detailed accounts descriptions treated European of the ways culture of life as of which men communicate, perpetuate and developa system their ofknowledge shared meanings about and the norm and constructed Europe as superior by using the alleged lack of "culture" of non- attitudes towards life" (p. 89). European societies as justification for colonization. By the beginning of World War I, nine- Culture, then, from an anthropological perspective, is that tenths of the world had been colonized by European powers-a history of imperialism that areIn other passed words, from culture generation allows to usgeneration to make sensethrough of, symbolsexpress, andthat giveallow meaning human tobeings our lives. (not continues to structure and impact intercultural communication today (Young, 2001). onlyLet's men!)look more to communicate, closely at the maintain, various elements and develop of this an approachdefinition. and understanding of life. With this assumption of the superiority of European culture, the categorization system Symbols that stratified groups of people was based on having "culture" or not, which, in turn, trans- lated within European societies as "high" culture and "low" culture. Those in the elite class, At the core of this definition is the notion of symbols andcat symbol systems. or ruling class, who had power, were educated at prestigious schools, and were patrons of the stand for or represent other things. Words, images, people, ideas, and actions can all be symbols that represent other things. For example, the word is a set of symbols (the arts,movies such and as television-embodiedliterature, opera, and ballet,low culture. embodied We highsee remnants culture. Thoseof these in definitionsthe working of class cul alphabet) that combine to represent both the idea of a cat and the actual cat. A hand- whoture operatingenjoyed activities, today. The such notion as ofpopular culture theater, continues folk to art, be usedand "street"in some activities-and situations to stratify later shake-whether firm or soft, simple or complex-a raised eyebrow, a hand gesturing "ok," a veil, a tie, or "bling" are all symbolic actions or things that carry meaning. An image or groups based on the kinds of activities people engage in, thereby reinforcing beliefs about wean objectknow whatlike the these U.S. andflag, other the twin symbols towers, represent a T-shirt or that what reads they "Keep mean? Calm Are and the Partymeanings On," a cell phone, or graffiti are also symbols that stand for ideas, beliefs, and actions. How do superiorto the use and of theinferior term cultures.popular Overculture the to past reference 50 years, much struggles of what within was previouslyacademia andconsidered society of symbols somehow inherent in the things themselves, or are meanings assigned to sym inlow general culture. have However, legitimized in advertising, the practices in media and activities representations, of common and everyday in everyday people, actions leading and bols by the people who use them? While the meaning of symbols may seem natural or inherent for those who use them, the anthropological definition that was previously speech,consumption we still of see theculture use of around high and the low world, cultural which symbols coincides not with only theto signify superpower class differstatus- ences, but also to reinforce a cultural hierarchy. The growing and overwhelming appeal and offered indicates that it is the act of assigning similar meanings to symbols and the sharing U.S. of these assigned meanings that, at least partially, constitute culture. of the United States, can be understood, at least partially, as a desire to be in proximity as well The definition by Geertz (1973) also suggests that culture is a system. It is a system that as have contact with the United States, and therefore to exhibit the signs of being "cultured." theis expressed elements through of culture symbols interrelate that allow to form groups a whole. of people The toshared communicate symbols thatand toconvey develop or Anthropologic Definition: Culture as a Site of Shared Meaning knowledgeexpress meaning and understanding within a culture about acquire life. meaningWhen we through say culture their isinterrelation a system, we to eachmean other that The traditional academic field of intercultural communication has been deeply impacted and together create a system of meanings. Consider this example: As you read the brief by anthropology. In fact, many of the scholars like Edward T. Hall (1959), who is considered scenario that follows, pay attention to what you are thinking and feeling. 6 INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHAPTER l Opening the Conversation 7 * * * * * ** * *** * ** * Imagine a young man who is in his mid- to late 20s who works at a job making about ******* * * * * $70,000 a year. OK, what do you think and how do you feel about this man? Now, you find 11****** * * * * out that he is single. Have your thoughts or feelings changed? For you, and for the majority *·(****:, * *** of students like you in the United States, the picture of this man and his life is looking pretty good. Generally, both female and male students from various cultural backgrounds in the whenclassroom this scenariothink and is feelused positively in the classroom, about him. an Nowaudible you sigh find of out disappointment that he lives at comes home fromwith his parents and siblings. Have your thoughts or feelings about him changed? Without fail, - students when they learn that he lives with his parents. What's going on here? How does this information contradict or challenge the system of meaning in the dominant U.S. cul- someture that students, was being "weird," created "strange," up to that and point? "not normal." The image The of dominant this young U.S. man, culture who is was a system look- ing so good, suddenly plummets from desirable to highly suspect and, well, according to elementsof shared ofmeanings income, age,that sex/gender,places high and value in thisand case,regard living on arrangements.individualism, Studentsindependence, in the consumerism,classroom who and ascribe capitalism, to the dominant which are cultural symbolically value systemrepresented ask questions through the like interrelated the follow ing: Why would he want to live at