Why Were the Neolithic Landscapes of Bela Krajina and Ljubljana Marshes Regions of Slovenia So Dissimilar|

UDK 902.65(497.4) ''634''>56>581 Documenta Praehistorica XXXIV (2007)

Why were the Neolithic landscapes of Bela krajina and Ljubljana Marshes regions of Slovenia so dissimilar|

Maja Andri; Institute of Archaeology, ZRC SAZU, SI [email protected]

ABSTRACT – This paper compares the development of Holocene vegetation in Bela krajina and Ljub- ljana Marshes (Ljubljansko barje) regions of Slovenia. The results of pollen analysis suggest that in Bela krajina the human impact on the environment (forest clearance and burning) was very intensive throughout the Holocene and led to changes in forest composition, increased biodiversity, and the formation of a mosaic landscape. In the Ljubljana Marshes, forest burning and clearance seem less intensive, although changes in forest composition and ‘anthropogenic indicator’ pollen types were detected. These differences between study regions are presumably a consequence of various climates, hydrology, bedrock and land-use in the past.

IZVLE∞EK – V ≠lanku je predstavljena primerjava razvoja holocenske vegetacije v Beli krajini in na Ljubljanskem barju. Rezultati pelodne analize ka∫ejo, da je bil ≠lovekov vpliv na okolje (sekanje in po∫iganje gozda) v Beli krajini zelo intenziven, kar je povzro≠ilo pove≠anje biodiverzitete in spremembe v sestavi gozda, oblikovala se je mozai≠na pokrajina. Na Ljubljanskem barju je sekanje in po∫iganje gozda sicer res videti nekoliko manj intenzivno, kljub temu pa na pelodnem diagramu lah- ko opazimo spremembe v sestavi gozda in pojav 'antropogenih indikatorjev'. Te razlike med regija- ma so verjetno posledica razli≠ne klime, hidrologije, geolo∏ke podlage in razli≠ne izrabe pokrajine v preteklosti.

KEY WORDS – palynology; Neolithic archaeology; Bela krajina; Ljubljana Marshes

Introduction

This paper aims to address the question of the diver- 1999a; 1999b) and the results presented in this sity of the environment of the first farming commu- study (a pollen analysis of ‘Na mahu 1’ core) accord nities in the region of Bela krajina and the Ljublja- with previous research. The question of past hydro- na Marshes area of Slovenia (Fig. 1). Differences in logical conditions in the area was also addressed by the composition of vegetation detected in the pollen several researchers using sedimentological, geomor- record will be analysed in order to estimate whether phological, archaeological and multidisciplinary pa- they were a consequence of specific natural charac- laeoecological data (e.g. Melik 1946; πercelj 1966; teristics of the regions studied, dissimilar land-use in πifrer 1984; Budja 1995; Velu∏≠ek 2005; Gaspari the past, or the size of the study sites. and Eri≠ 2006; Verbi≠ 2006; Mleku∫ et al. 2006; An- dri≠ et al. in prep., and many others). This led to In recent decades an extensive pollen analysis of se- various interpretations of the complex hydrological dimentary cores and samples collected during archa- conditions in the basin (most complex in the Neoli- eological excavations was carried out on Ljubljana thic; many researchers would probably agree that in Marshes, so the general development of vegetation the early Holocene the area was covered by a fresh- in the area is very well known (e.g. Culiberg 1991; water lake, whereas later it became a floodplain and πercelj 1996 and references cited there, Gardner in some parts a peat bog). In contrast to Ljubljana

177 Maja Andri;

Marshes palynological, research in Bela krajina was less extensive, and both palynologically investigated sites in the area (Mla- ka and Griblje, Andri≠ 2001; An- dri≠ in press) are presented in this paper. To date, no studies of past hydrology have been carried out in the area. Therefore, since hydrological conditions on Ljub- ljana Marshes were very complex, whereas (presumably much sim- pler) hydrological conditions in Bela krajina have not been investigated at all, more (detailed) research is needed in both regions in the future. Palynological research was much more intensive, and for that reason this paper will focus on only one aspect of both Neolithic landscapes: the composition of vegetation as re- vealed by palynological studies.

The main reasons for the variety of flora in Slovenia include its geographical position, diverse climate, relief and bedrock (Wraber Fig. 1. Bela krajina and Ljubljana Marshes study regions and the po- 1969; Kladnik 1996; Ogrin 1996; sition of palynological cores. Perko 1998). The distinctive vegetation of Slovenia’s was investigated and compared with Mlaka to assess phyto-geographic regions became apparent after c. also the intra-regional variability of Bela krajina ve- 8800 calBP, whereas the onset of an intensive, large- getation. scale forest clearance, burning and the formation of the present-day landscape is dated between late The Bela krajina study area prehistory and the medieval period (c. 3000 calBP – 1000 calBP). Palynological research also suggests Bela krajina (Fig. 1) is located in south-eastern Slo- that the human impact on the vegetation was impor- venia, between high Dinaric Plateaus in the west tant and contributed to increasing biodiversity (An- and the Kolpa River and Pannonian Plain in the east. dri≠ and Willis 2003). Neolithic/Eneolithic farming More than half of its territory lies below 400 m a.s.l., communities (c. 7000–5000 calBP) lived in an envi- on predominantly Mesozoic limestone and dolomite ronment where differences between regions had al- bedrock (Gams 1961; 1984; Buser 1984). The cli- ready become apparent, but large-scale forest clea- mate of Bela krajina is moderate continental-sub-Pan- rances had not yet occurred. In such environments nonian, with a sub-Mediterranean precipitation re- it is very difficult to distinguish the natural from the gime (primary precipitation is highest in autumn), anthropogenic causes of environmental change. The- and hot, dry summers. The annual amount of preci- refore, in order to better understand the human im- pitation is between 1200 and 1300 mm in western pact on the vegetation, the vegetation history in the parts. The average temperatures of the warmest vicinity of archaeological sites was studied in detail. month are between 15 °C and 20 °C, and of the col- Sedimentary cores for pollen analysis (Fig. 1) were dest month, between –3 °C and 0 °C (Bernot 1984; collected at Mlaka (Bela krajina) and ‘Na mahu 1’ Ogrin 1996; Plut 1985). (Ljubljana Marshes) coring locations in order to estimate the similarity/dissimilarity of vegetation deve- The composition of Bela krajina forests varies accor- lopment during the Holocene in both study regions. ding to altitude, land-use and soil type. Predomi- In addition to this, the vegetation history at Griblje nantly beech forests are characteristic of higher alti-

178 Why were the Neolithic landscapes of Bela krajina and Ljubljana Marshes regions of Slovenia so dissimilar| tudes, whereas patchy oak-hornbeam forests grow The sedimentary core presented in this study (‘Na in the lowlands (Miklav∫i≠ 1965; Wraber 1956; Ma- mahu 1’) was collected in the eastern part of the Lju- rin≠ek and ∞arni 2002; ∞arni et al. 2003). Mea- bljana Marsh basin (Fig. 1). Archaeological sites, mo- dows, fields, pastures and human-managed birch stly dated to the 7th and 6th millennium calBP, were (Betula pendula) forests (‘steljniki’), which were discovered in the vicinity of the coring location (e.g. originally used as spring/summer grazing areas, Resnikov prekop and Maharski prekop, Dimitrijevi≤ spread into the lowlands due to intensive human im- 1997; Budja 1995; ∞ufar and Koren≠i≠ 2006; Ve- pact in the last centuries. lu∏≠ek 2006; ∞ufar and Velu∏≠ek 2004; Bregant 1974; 1975) Both palaeo-ecological study sites presented in this study (Mlaka and Griblje) are small lowland marshy Methodology areas with diameters of c. 30 m and without inflowing/outflowing streams (Fig. 1). Numerous archaeo- The pollen record of three study sites, Mlaka and logical sites, including Neolithic/Eneolithic settle- Griblje (G3) in Bela krajina, and ‘Na mahu 1’ in Lju- ments, are located close to Mlaka and Griblje (e.g. bljana Marshes (Fig. 1) is presented and compared Pusti Gradac and Griblje, Arheolo∏ka najdi∏≠a Slo- in this study. The detailed methodology and results venije 1975; Dular 1985; Mason 2001; Phil Mason, for individual study sites have been published (for personal communication 2005). Mlaka and Griblje see Andri≠ in press) or are currently in preparation (‘Na mahu 1’, Andri≠ et al. in The Ljubljana Marshes study area prep.), therefore only selected data will be presented in this paper. Ljubljana Marshes lies in central Slovenia (Fig. 1) at about 289 m a.s.l., on predominantly carbonate bed- All sedimentary sequences were collected by Living- rock, with Triassic and Jurassic limestones and dolo- stone piston corer, and standard laboratory proce- mites in southern and western parts of the basin, dures (Bennett and Willis 2002) were used for pol- whereas Palaeozoic sandstones, conglomerates, sha- len analysis. The age was determined by AMS radio- les and limestones prevail in the north and east carbon dating of organic carbon extracted from the (Mencej 1989). The bottom of the basin is covered by sediment. The radiocarbon dates at Mlaka and Grib- thick layers of Pleistocene and Holocene alluvial and lje were calibrated by the BCal program (hosted by lacustrine sediments (Mencej 1989; Grim∏i≠ar and the Department of Probability and Statistics at the Ocepek 1967; Tancik 1965; πercelj 1965; 1967). University of Sheffield, Buck et al. on-line), which The climate on Ljubljana Marshes is temperate-conti- incorporates the IntCal 04 calibration dataset (Rei- nental, with a sub- continental precipitation regime mer et al. 2004), and these results were used for (precipitation highest in the summer) and annual age-depth modelling in PSIMPOLL (general linear precipitation between 1000 and 1300 mm. The ave- line-fitting by singular value decomposition for Grib- rage temperatures of the coldest month are between lje, and a combination of general linear line-fitting –3 °C and 0 °C, and in the warmest month the ave- by singular value decomposition and linear interpo- rage is between 15 °C and 20 °C (Ogrin 1996). lation for Mlaka). The conventional radiocarbon dates used for age-depth modelling are marked on Ljubljana Marsh is currently covered by meadows, each diagram. The age-depth modelling for ‘Na ma- fields and patchy woodlands of pine (Pinus), birch hu 1’ core was a linear interpolation between the (Betula), alder (Alnus) and oak (Quercus robur). median values of 14C dates (the lower two dates Only very small peat-bogs with ombrotrophic spe- were excluded from the age-depth modelling due to cies have remained (Martin≠i≠ 1987). Predominantly an error, presumably caused by the reservoir effect). beech (Fagus) forests grow on the hills surrounding The percentage pollen diagrams of selected taxa the area (∞arni et al. 2003). In the 18th century it was were plotted by PSIMPOLL 3.00, 4.25 and PSCOMB much wetter than today, and mostly covered by peat- 3.01, C programs (Bennett 1998; Bennett on-line). bogs, smaller ‘puddles’ and springs (Melik 1927) and They were divided into zones using binary splitting drier heather lands, with spruce (Picea), pine, alder by sum of squares, and the number of significant zo- and birch trees. However, in the second half of the nes was determined by the broken-stick model (Ben- 18th century, the first drainage works in the area nett 1996; 1998). Dots on the pollen diagram indi- started, and by the end of 19th century almost all the cate values lower than 0.5 %. Palynological richness peat had been burnt or cut in order to obtain dry (rarefraction analysis) was also calculated by PSIM- land needed for agriculture (Melik 1927). POLL. Microscopic charcoal (in two size classes:

179 Maja Andri;

<40 µm and >40 µm) was counted with the pollen forest was replaced by a more open landscape, with (‘Na mahu 1’ and Griblje cores) and, in addition to higher percentages of pine (Pinus) and Trilete spo- this, the concentration of microscopic charcoal was res than at Mlaka. In contrast to Bela krajina, the hills determined according to Clark’s (1982) point count surrounding Ljubljana Marshes basin remained very method at both Mlaka and Griblje. much forested with beech (Fagus), and after 7600 calBP also fir (Abies) (Fig. 2c). No such increase in Results fir (Abies) was detected in Bela krajina, although the forest started to regenerate at the beginning of the The results are presented on percentage pollen dia- 7th millennium calBP. grams of selected taxa (Fig. 2) and compared in Ta- ble 1. Landscape openness, the microcharcoal record After c. 7000 calBP, hazel (Corylus) and oak (Quer- and palynological richness of all three study sites are cus) at Mlaka, increased and between c. 6700–6100 also compared (Fig. 3). More detailed results are be- calBP hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) woodland was ing published in separate publications (Andri≠ in growing around the coring location. The Griblje fo- press, Andri≠ et al. in prep.). The mismatch of Mlaka rest also regenerated, and beech (Fagus), alder (Al- and Griblje pollen diagrams (compare Fagus curves) nus) and hazel (Corylus) started to increase again, for levels older than c. 6000 calBP are most proba- but in contrast to Mlaka, there was no hornbeam bly a consequence of problematic radiocarbon dating (Carpinus b.) phase. The human impact on the envi- at Griblje, where levels between 50 and 61 cm seem ronment around both study sites was significant and to be up to c. 900 years ‘too old’ (Andri≠ in press). can be associated with the Neolithic/Eneolithic sites at Pusti gradac and Griblje. Small-scale forest burning Early Holocene (increased micro-charcoal concentration), agriculture At the beginning of the Holocene (between c. 11 500 and grazing (anthropogenic indicator taxa: Cerealia- and 9000–8750 calBP) an open, predominantly broad- type, Centaurea, Plantago l., Chenopodiaceae, Arte- leaved woodland with oak (Quercus), hazel (Cory- misia, Compositae lig. and Compositae tub.) was lus), lime (Tilia), elm (Ulmus), pine (Pinus), birch most intensive at c. 6100 calBP (Fig. 2a, 2b). (Betula) and spruce (Picea mostly around Ljubljana Marshes) was growing in both study regions (Fig. 2, What happened at the same time on Ljubljana Mar- Tab. 1). The increased concentration of microscopic shes? A major change in the composition of vegeta- charcoal suggests that forest fires were common, pro- tion occurred between 6750 and 5600 calBP (roug- bably due to the arid early Holocene climate (e.g. hly at the same time as Carpinus b. phase at Mlaka), Kutzbach and Guetter 1986; COHMAP Members when beech (Fagus) and fir (Abies) declined, whe- 1988). reas oak (Quercus), alder (Alnus) and hazel (Cory- lus) increased (Fig. 2c), but an increase in hornbeam Later (at c. 9000 – 8750 calBP) the forest composi- (Carpinus betulus, best seen at Podpe∏ko jezero, tion suddenly changed, and thick, mostly beech (Fa- Gardner 1999b) was less significant than at Mlaka. gus) forest started to grow in Bela krajina and Lju- An increased percentage of herb pollen after 6600 bljana Marshes (Fig. 2, Tab. 1). In Ljubljana Marshes calBP and anthropogenic/grazing indicators (Plan- this beech forest persisted until c. 6750 calBP, whe- tago l.) suggest that the landscape became slightly reas in Bela krajina the development was much more more open, which can be associated with human ac- dynamic. Slight fluctuations in beech pollen curves tivity at the Resnikov prekop settlement, located c. (some of them coincide with charcoal peaks and even 1.5 km south of the coring location. with Cerealia-type pollen grain at Griblje) suggest that the forest in Bela krajina was less dense than in Middle Holocene the Ljubljana Marshes region, and occasional small- In the second half of the Holocene, shade-tolerant scale landscape fires probably caused minor open- tree taxa started to increase in both study regions. ings in the canopy. After c. 7800 calBP beech (Fagus) In Bela krajina, beech (Fagus) forest spread again at the Mlaka site started to decline, and by c. 7300 after 5700 calBP, but forest composition changed at calBP the percentage of tree pollen had significantly c. 4800 calBP, when beech was replaced by fir (Abies) declined (with the exception of lime (Tilia), which (Fig. 2a). Similarly, an increase in beech on Ljublja- increased), whereas herbs and monolete fern spores na Marshes is dated after c. 6000 calBP, but this was (Filicales) increased, suggesting the opening of the very soon replaced by fir, which remained the most landscape (Fig. 2a). A similar change in vegetation important tree taxon until c. 4500 calBP, when spruce was also detected at Griblje (Fig. 2b), where beech (Picea) and alder (Alnus) increased (Fig. 2c). The de-

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181 Maja Andri;

182 Why were the Neolithic landscapes of Bela krajina and Ljubljana Marshes regions of Slovenia so dissimilar|

Figs. 2a and 2b (on previous page) and 2c (up). Mlaka, Griblje (G3) and ‘Na mahu 1’ percentage pollen diagrams of selected taxa. * hiatus due to peat cutting/burning on Ljubljansko barje. velopment of vegetation on Ljubljana Marshes in sub- the landscape remained very much forested (as al- sequent millennia cannot be reconstructed, since the ready demonstrated by previous research, Gardner younger sediment was destroyed by peat cutting and 1999a; 1999b) and the development of vegetation burning in the 18th/19th century. much less dynamic than in Bela krajina. Does this mean that in Bela krajina, Neolithic/Eneolithic settle- Discussion ments were more numerous and farming activities more intensive (or earlier) than on Ljubljana Mar- The human impact on the environment shes? Not necessarily. The differences between Bela After comparing the pollen record from both study krajina and Ljubljana Marshes could be a conse- regions, it appears that the intensity of human im- quence of the natural features of the study sites (Fig. pact on the environment in Bela krajina was very 1). Both sites in Bela krajina, Mlaka and Griblje, are considerable. Constant small-scale forest burning small basins with diameters of c. 30 m and without and cutting associated with the appearance of an- inflowing or outflowing streams. In such small ba- thropogenic indicator taxa and increased biodiver- sins, which receive pollen deriving mainly from lo- sity (palynological richness, Fig. 3) was detected from cal vegetation, small-scale local changes in vegetation at least c. 6000 calBP, which led to changes in forest are very visible (Jacobson and Bradshaw 1981). In composition, increasing differences between the Mla- bigger basins with complex hydrology, such as Ljub- ka and Griblje study sites and the formation of mo- ljana Marshes, regional pollen prevails (Jacobson saic landscape (Andri≠ in press). and Bradshaw 1981), so local, small-scale forest clearance is less visible in the pollen record. Consi- The human impact on the environment on Ljubljana dering palynological theory, therefore, these results Marshes seems much less intensive; here, thick beech were expected. and beech-fir forest persisted until c. 6750 calBP. At c. 6600 calBP a minor forest clearance (Fig. 2c, 3) Despite all these differences between Bela krajina and and anthropogenic indicator taxa were detected, but Ljubljana Marshes, there is one similarity: an increase

183 Maja Andri;

Fig. 3. Landscape openness, microcharcoal record and palynological richness at Mlaka, Griblje (G3) and ‘Na mahu 1’ study sites. * hiatus due to peat cutting/burning on Ljubljana Marshes.

184 Why were the Neolithic landscapes of Bela krajina and Ljubljana Marshes regions of Slovenia so dissimilar| in biodiversity (palynological richness, Fig. 3) at the ginning of the 9th millennium calBP was presumably beginning of the 7th millennium calBP (c. 7000 calBP associated with climatic change – an increase in pre- at Mlaka and 6700 calBP at ‘Na mahu 1’ core), al- cipitation. A similar increase in shade-tolerant tree though no major landscape forest clearance has been taxa also occurred in other regions of Slovenia (An- detected on pollen diagrams. This could probably be dri≠ and Willis 2003) and neighbouring countries associated with small-scale forest clearance and the (Abies expansion in the lowlands of the southern activities of early farming communities. Alps, Tinner et al. 1999; Gobet et al. 2000; Tinner and Lotter 2006; and Fagus increase in Dalmatia, Human impact versus climate Schmidt et al. 2000) and it seems that this palaeo- Changes in forest composition and differences be- environmental change was of regional extent. It was tween the study regions can be a consequence of cli- limited to the areas south of the Alps, where a conti- matic fluctuations and/or human impact. Today, sum- nental climate regime had already been replaced by mers in Bela krajina are warmer and drier than on an Atlantic climate regime at about 9100 calBP, whe- Ljubljana Marshes, and it is possible that a similar reas north of the Alps, the Atlantic climate is associa- contrast existed in the past. Therefore, less fir (Abies), ted with the 8.2 ky BP event (Tinner and Ammann which needs a humid climate (Ellenberg 1988) was 2001). growing in Bela krajina than on Ljubljana Marshes. However, fir is susceptible to fire (Tinner et al. 1999), At the beginning of the 8th millennium calBP, beech and it is possible that in Bela krajina it was suppres- (Fagus) in Bela krajina started to decline, and by c. sed by anthropogenic burning of the landscape. The 7300 calBP, the beech forest had been replaced by charcoal record suggests that the vegetation around a more open landscape. Fagus decline is limited only Ljubljana Marshes was not burnt so often. Why not – to Bela krajina (the Ljubljana Marshes region remai- because the lake/marshy landscape of Ljubljana Mar- ned very much forested), so it seems unlikely that it shes was more difficult to burn, and this landscape would have been triggered by cold global climatic was used instead for hunting, fishing and gathering? fluctuations, such as the 8.2 ky BP event (Alley et al. Due to the complex hydrological conditions, more 1993; Meese et al. 1994; Stager and Mayewski 1997; open land probably already existed (or was regu- Haas et al. 1998; Alley and Ágústsdóttir 2005). How- larly formed) near the edge of the lake and/or along ever, the impact of precipitation fluctuations might floodplains, and very extensive forest clearance for have been more important than the temperature, es- agriculture was not needed (Willis 1995)? pecially since the 8.2 ky event is assumed to have been dry in the lowlands (Haas et al. 1998), with lo- Palynological research also demonstrated that diffe- wer lake levels north and south of 50°N and 43°N rences in the composition of vegetation occurred not respectively (Magny and Begeot 2004). It is possible only between the phytogeographic regions of Slove- that in the 8th millennium calBP climatic differences nia, but also within each individual region. This can between Bela krajina and the Ljubljana Marshes were best be demonstrated by the differences between more pronounced than today, and forest composition Mlaka and Griblje, where, although the study sites in Bela krajina was affected by warm and dry sum- are located only c. 10 km apart, the vegetation his- mers, whereas at the same time no major change in tory was very dissimilar. While at Mlaka (located on forest composition took place on the Ljubljana Mar- predominantly limestone bedrock) human pressure shes. on the environment was intensive throughout the Holocene, and the present-day open landscape had Is it possible that Fagus decline was caused by the formed by the medieval period at c. 1000 calBP, the impact of hunter-gatherers and/or farmers on the landscape at Griblje (on sand and clay) remained landscape? Yes. Admittedly, no archaeological sites predominantly forested up to the present. This sug- reliably dated before c. 7000 calBP have been disco- gests that areas more suitable for agriculture were vered in Bela krajina, but this option cannot be com- probably most intensively used. pletely ruled out, and further archaeological and multi-proxy palaeo-ecological research of the regio- Climate nal climate is needed. To date no studies of local (regional) climate have been carried out, therefore changes in vegetation After c. 6700 calBP, the percentage of beech (Fagus) (e.g. forest composition) can be only compared with and fir (Abies) was low in both study regions. This the global (Northern Hemisphere) climate. In both is most probably a consequence of significant human study regions beech (Fagus) establishment at the be- impact (forest clearance and burning), and coincides

185 Maja Andri; with a major climatic reversal after 8.2 ka calBP (Sta- While at Bela krajina, where all the study sites are ger and Mayewski 1997; Alley and Ágústsdóttir small marshes without inflowing/outflowing streams, 2005), when the oceanic early Holocene climate with the local Neolithic impact on the landscape is very enhanced westerly airflow was presumably replaced visible, the Ljubljana Marshes study site is much big- by a more meridional flow pattern, with anti-cyclonic ger and has a more complex and changeable hydro- summer conditions, and thus a dry climate and lo- logy, which affected the pollen source area. Here, a wer lake levels in the period between c. 6800– weak local human impact on the vegetation is more 5700 calBP (Seppä and Birks 2001). difficult to detect.

After c. 6000–5700 calBP, beech (Fagus), and later How to proceed: more archaeological research is ne- also fir (Abies), increase in both regions, with a sli- eded in both regions in order to better understand ghtly decreased human impact on the environment. the economy of past societies and their impact on This could have been associated with the cold and the vegetation. Especially in Bela krajina, where na- wet climate in the 6th millennium calBP (Mayewski tural conditions are not very favourable for the pre- et al. 2004; Haas et al. 1998; Magny 2004; Magny servation of archaeological sites or animal and plant and Haas 2004; Denton and Karlén 1973; Seppä remains, more information about archaeological set- and Birks 2001; O’Brien et al. 1995; Bond et al. tlement patterns and the economy during the transi- 1997). tion from hunting-gathering to the first farming communities would be very valuable. More multi-proxy Conclusions palaeo-ecological (palaeo-climatological and palaeo- hydrological) research is also needed, since the im- The above described differences between Bela kraji- pact of climate fluctuations on the vegetation and na and the Ljubljana Marshes are presumably a con- hydrology was significant. sequence of different climates (wetter/colder in the Ljubljana Marshes region?), hydrology, topography and bedrock, as well as archaeological settlement ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS patterns and land-use (more frequent landscape burning in Bela krajina) in the past. However, different This research was funded by the Slovenian Research natural characteristics and thus the pollen source Agency, project no. Z6–4074–0618–03. I am very gra- teful to Mateja Belak, who prepared the figures. area of individual study sites should not be ignored.

∴

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