Why Were the Neolithic Landscapes of Bela Krajina and Ljubljana Marshes Regions of Slovenia So Dissimilar|
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UDK 902.65(497.4) ''634''>56>581 Documenta Praehistorica XXXIV (2007) Why were the Neolithic landscapes of Bela krajina and Ljubljana Marshes regions of Slovenia so dissimilar| Maja Andri; Institute of Archaeology, ZRC SAZU, SI [email protected] ABSTRACT – This paper compares the development of Holocene vegetation in Bela krajina and Ljub- ljana Marshes (Ljubljansko barje) regions of Slovenia. The results of pollen analysis suggest that in Bela krajina the human impact on the environment (forest clearance and burning) was very inten- sive throughout the Holocene and led to changes in forest composition, increased biodiversity, and the formation of a mosaic landscape. In the Ljubljana Marshes, forest burning and clearance seem less intensive, although changes in forest composition and ‘anthropogenic indicator’ pollen types were detected. These differences between study regions are presumably a consequence of various cli- mates, hydrology, bedrock and land-use in the past. IZVLE∞EK – V ≠lanku je predstavljena primerjava razvoja holocenske vegetacije v Beli krajini in na Ljubljanskem barju. Rezultati pelodne analize ka∫ejo, da je bil ≠lovekov vpliv na okolje (sekanje in po∫iganje gozda) v Beli krajini zelo intenziven, kar je povzro≠ilo pove≠anje biodiverzitete in spre- membe v sestavi gozda, oblikovala se je mozai≠na pokrajina. Na Ljubljanskem barju je sekanje in po∫iganje gozda sicer res videti nekoliko manj intenzivno, kljub temu pa na pelodnem diagramu lah- ko opazimo spremembe v sestavi gozda in pojav 'antropogenih indikatorjev'. Te razlike med regija- ma so verjetno posledica razli≠ne klime, hidrologije, geolo∏ke podlage in razli≠ne izrabe pokrajine v preteklosti. KEY WORDS – palynology; Neolithic archaeology; Bela krajina; Ljubljana Marshes Introduction This paper aims to address the question of the diver- 1999a; 1999b) and the results presented in this sity of the environment of the first farming commu- study (a pollen analysis of ‘Na mahu 1’ core) accord nities in the region of Bela krajina and the Ljublja- with previous research. The question of past hydro- na Marshes area of Slovenia (Fig. 1). Differences in logical conditions in the area was also addressed by the composition of vegetation detected in the pollen several researchers using sedimentological, geomor- record will be analysed in order to estimate whether phological, archaeological and multidisciplinary pa- they were a consequence of specific natural charac- laeoecological data (e.g. Melik 1946; πercelj 1966; teristics of the regions studied, dissimilar land-use in πifrer 1984; Budja 1995; Velu∏≠ek 2005; Gaspari the past, or the size of the study sites. and Eri≠ 2006; Verbi≠ 2006; Mleku∫ et al. 2006; An- dri≠ et al. in prep., and many others). This led to In recent decades an extensive pollen analysis of se- various interpretations of the complex hydrological dimentary cores and samples collected during archa- conditions in the basin (most complex in the Neoli- eological excavations was carried out on Ljubljana thic; many researchers would probably agree that in Marshes, so the general development of vegetation the early Holocene the area was covered by a fresh- in the area is very well known (e.g. Culiberg 1991; water lake, whereas later it became a floodplain and πercelj 1996 and references cited there, Gardner in some parts a peat bog). In contrast to Ljubljana 177 Maja Andri; Marshes palynological, research in Bela krajina was less exten- sive, and both palynologically in- vestigated sites in the area (Mla- ka and Griblje, Andri≠ 2001; An- dri≠ in press) are presented in this paper. To date, no studies of past hydrology have been carried out in the area. Therefore, since hydrological conditions on Ljub- ljana Marshes were very complex, whereas (presumably much sim- pler) hydrological conditions in Bela krajina have not been inves- tigated at all, more (detailed) re- search is needed in both regions in the future. Palynological rese- arch was much more intensive, and for that reason this paper will focus on only one aspect of both Neolithic landscapes: the composition of vegetation as re- vealed by palynological studies. The main reasons for the variety of flora in Slovenia include its geographical position, diverse cli- mate, relief and bedrock (Wraber Fig. 1. Bela krajina and Ljubljana Marshes study regions and the po- 1969; Kladnik 1996; Ogrin 1996; sition of palynological cores. Perko 1998). The distinctive vegetation of Slovenia’s was investigated and compared with Mlaka to assess phyto-geographic regions became apparent after c. also the intra-regional variability of Bela krajina ve- 8800 calBP, whereas the onset of an intensive, large- getation. scale forest clearance, burning and the formation of the present-day landscape is dated between late The Bela krajina study area prehistory and the medieval period (c. 3000 calBP – 1000 calBP). Palynological research also suggests Bela krajina (Fig. 1) is located in south-eastern Slo- that the human impact on the vegetation was impor- venia, between high Dinaric Plateaus in the west tant and contributed to increasing biodiversity (An- and the Kolpa River and Pannonian Plain in the east. dri≠ and Willis 2003). Neolithic/Eneolithic farming More than half of its territory lies below 400 m a.s.l., communities (c. 7000–5000 calBP) lived in an envi- on predominantly Mesozoic limestone and dolomite ronment where differences between regions had al- bedrock (Gams 1961; 1984; Buser 1984). The cli- ready become apparent, but large-scale forest clea- mate of Bela krajina is moderate continental-sub-Pan- rances had not yet occurred. In such environments nonian, with a sub-Mediterranean precipitation re- it is very difficult to distinguish the natural from the gime (primary precipitation is highest in autumn), anthropogenic causes of environmental change. The- and hot, dry summers. The annual amount of preci- refore, in order to better understand the human im- pitation is between 1200 and 1300 mm in western pact on the vegetation, the vegetation history in the parts. The average temperatures of the warmest vicinity of archaeological sites was studied in detail. month are between 15 °C and 20 °C, and of the col- Sedimentary cores for pollen analysis (Fig. 1) were dest month, between –3 °C and 0 °C (Bernot 1984; collected at Mlaka (Bela krajina) and ‘Na mahu 1’ Ogrin 1996; Plut 1985). (Ljubljana Marshes) coring locations in order to esti- mate the similarity/dissimilarity of vegetation deve- The composition of Bela krajina forests varies accor- lopment during the Holocene in both study regions. ding to altitude, land-use and soil type. Predomi- In addition to this, the vegetation history at Griblje nantly beech forests are characteristic of higher alti- 178 Why were the Neolithic landscapes of Bela krajina and Ljubljana Marshes regions of Slovenia so dissimilar| tudes, whereas patchy oak-hornbeam forests grow The sedimentary core presented in this study (‘Na in the lowlands (Miklav∫i≠ 1965; Wraber 1956; Ma- mahu 1’) was collected in the eastern part of the Lju- rin≠ek and ∞arni 2002; ∞arni et al. 2003). Mea- bljana Marsh basin (Fig. 1). Archaeological sites, mo- dows, fields, pastures and human-managed birch stly dated to the 7th and 6th millennium calBP, were (Betula pendula) forests (‘steljniki’), which were discovered in the vicinity of the coring location (e.g. originally used as spring/summer grazing areas, Resnikov prekop and Maharski prekop, Dimitrijevi≤ spread into the lowlands due to intensive human im- 1997; Budja 1995; ∞ufar and Koren≠i≠ 2006; Ve- pact in the last centuries. lu∏≠ek 2006; ∞ufar and Velu∏≠ek 2004; Bregant 1974; 1975) Both palaeo-ecological study sites presented in this study (Mlaka and Griblje) are small lowland marshy Methodology areas with diameters of c. 30 m and without inflo- wing/outflowing streams (Fig. 1). Numerous archaeo- The pollen record of three study sites, Mlaka and logical sites, including Neolithic/Eneolithic settle- Griblje (G3) in Bela krajina, and ‘Na mahu 1’ in Lju- ments, are located close to Mlaka and Griblje (e.g. bljana Marshes (Fig. 1) is presented and compared Pusti Gradac and Griblje, Arheolo∏ka najdi∏≠a Slo- in this study. The detailed methodology and results venije 1975; Dular 1985; Mason 2001; Phil Mason, for individual study sites have been published (for personal communication 2005). Mlaka and Griblje see Andri≠ in press) or are cur- rently in preparation (‘Na mahu 1’, Andri≠ et al. in The Ljubljana Marshes study area prep.), therefore only selected data will be presen- ted in this paper. Ljubljana Marshes lies in central Slovenia (Fig. 1) at about 289 m a.s.l., on predominantly carbonate bed- All sedimentary sequences were collected by Living- rock, with Triassic and Jurassic limestones and dolo- stone piston corer, and standard laboratory proce- mites in southern and western parts of the basin, dures (Bennett and Willis 2002) were used for pol- whereas Palaeozoic sandstones, conglomerates, sha- len analysis. The age was determined by AMS radio- les and limestones prevail in the north and east carbon dating of organic carbon extracted from the (Mencej 1989). The bottom of the basin is covered by sediment. The radiocarbon dates at Mlaka and Grib- thick layers of Pleistocene and Holocene alluvial and lje were calibrated by the BCal program (hosted by lacustrine sediments (Mencej 1989; Grim∏i≠ar and the Department of Probability and Statistics at the Ocepek 1967; Tancik 1965; πercelj 1965; 1967). University of Sheffield, Buck et al. on-line), which The climate on Ljubljana Marshes is temperate-conti- incorporates the IntCal 04 calibration dataset (Rei- nental, with a sub- continental precipitation regime mer et al. 2004), and these results were used for (precipitation highest in the summer) and annual age-depth modelling in PSIMPOLL (general linear precipitation between 1000 and 1300 mm. The ave- line-fitting by singular value decomposition for Grib- rage temperatures of the coldest month are between lje, and a combination of general linear line-fitting –3 °C and 0 °C, and in the warmest month the ave- by singular value decomposition and linear interpo- rage is between 15 °C and 20 °C (Ogrin 1996).