CEU eTD Collection A USTRIA FIN DESIÈCLE In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of F ACING THE Supervisor: Professor Anton Pelinka Anton Supervisor: Professor Department of Nationalism Studies Central European University European Central Budapest, Hungary B Philipp Decker Master of Arts Master Submitted to Submitted OHEMIA AND 2010 R By ISE OF N ATIONHOOD IN M ORAVIA CEU eTD Collection preventing escalations and destruction and preventing escalations within political the destruction system. of by motive pragmatic the primarily driven accommodatenationality were of the category to tried which reforms Legal political category. important becamean nationality where situation a ledto democratization and Liberalization of situations conflict. in certain which crystallized transmitted was commonality senseof acertain social communication through However, oflanguageimportance increasing as a cleavage. of modernization in several spheres.literacy Mass-schooling, and mass-printing led an to effects inwith combination cultural conditions rather but nationhood of rise the led to which elite Imperial the of failure the much so not was it that concludes thesis The communication. Karl by be nationalization will to explained theory Deutsch’s social referring of ledmodernization),national to alignmentlinguistic along lines.This dynamicof process combination with within society already have taken root. alignments thenational where a time at occurred which factor one only were policies state and rise of show reforms that to is going this thesis population, indifferent anationally among a category Nationalism as nationality of enforcement the and institutionalization led the to state Austrian Imperial the (as Whileof agrowinggroup historians argues thethat legal policies and performedby reforms a consequence innineteenth Moravia. and Bohemia This century with deals process thesis nationalization the of several processes of The majority of the population did not care about ‘nationality’ in everyday life. everyday in ‘nationality’ about care not did population the of majority The isin The hypothesis cultural inBohemia the that Moravia, and societal conditions and Abstract ii CEU eTD Collection ilorpy______91 ______Bibliography 87 ______Conclusion 73 4. Nationalists- Too Strong for a Weak State?______51 ______andPolitical LegalCategory 3. TheRoleof the Austrian State-Institutionsand ReformsEmbedded ‘Nationality’ as a 22 2. TheEmergence ofCzech Nationhood as a Political Factor______5 ______1. TheDevelopment of theIdea ofNationhood in Bohemia and Moravia 1 ______Introduction iii ______Contents ______ii Abstract ..Asr-axs n h ainlte usin______80 4.2. Austro-Marxism and the Nationalities Question______78 4.1. National Culture and Democracy______67 ______3.3. Nationalization of Everyday Life: Education, Associations, andWelfare 60 3.2. Institutionalization of the Nationality ______Principle through Legal Reforms 55 ______3.1. Statistics -Creating the‘Other’ 45 ______2.4. Ideas of German Nationhood 34 ______2.3. Explaining theSuccess of Nationalists in Bohemia and Moravia 29 ______2.2. Workersand Peasants as Subjects of Nationalization 27 2.1 The Bohemian Nobility______19 ______1.4. Applying Social Theory ina Historical Case Study 16 ______1.3. Culture and asSocialization a Factor of Diversity and Commonness 10 ______1.2. Three Models of Explaining “Sense ofBelonging” 8 ______1.1. Nationalists and the Concept of Nationhood Contents iii CEU eTD Collection 1 former unimportant cleavages to become the dominant issues of political mobilization. issues of becomepolitical todominant the cleavages former unimportant forimportant an increasing number of population the and the emergingmass-politics elevated more became language processes modernization of thatbecause was crucial difference languageabout in Bohemia and Moravia hasstarted long before the turn of century.the The the cultural foundation of Bohemian and Moravian society. Iam going to show that the debate and modernization asaresultof rather but state becausenot Austrian of the important became national rights. accommodating by settle conflicts to tried state Austrian the As aresult sphere. and political the many national to enforce institutions,organisations, power policies the of separation against itlacked itsof coercive asan however, weakness effect nationalists of supportive voluntarily not was originally Thestate several processes. through societal category an important became Nationality century. nineteenth the of half second inthe society Bohemian of cleavages linguistic the along politicization increasing the settling for solutions pragmatic find to throughout the thesis. the throughout society within process nationalization the of explanation the for serves theory communication social Deutsch’s Karl alignment. national of development the explaining of factor important one as serve conditions cultural The clarified. be will departure of point theoretical the field could After acritical movementnational in grow. literature of concerned the review existing societal the which on Czech intellectualsthe andthe work ground prepared developments of Language divisions within the populationwere unimportant forthe political elite of the ancient regime. In contrasttoagrowing historians of argue group Iam nationality to going that In my thesis I am going to argue that societal developments forced the Austrian state In the first chapter the foundation of my argument will be set up. Cultural bewill my set of argument foundation the chapter In thefirst Introduction 1 1 CEU eTD Collection has been illustrated in 1840s the when aLiberal politician following:stated just as Cisleithaniadefinewill to Austria.refer inevitablehow to Austria or The problem of legally belongedMoravia which Austrianhalf the to which Austro-Hungarian Empire the of I For practical work. focuses geographical onthe reasonsthisthesis of regions Bohemia and will research be summedup. further for implications and my findings conclusion the In expect. not did they situation not seen as a possibilityadapted their- thinkers ideology Austro-Marxist them - among elite anymore. political its and Party Democratic toSocial social reality.Hence, Austrian international the even and in politics Denial category influential an Liberals became Nationality of cultural differencesand Socialists and Assimilationlegislation. and conceptions were political wastheir into confrontednationality withimplement strategies to adopted nationality and finally recognized state even Austrian the a and camps all of parties political result, As a category. effective and functional a as nationality of social the reality whichcreated factors multiple were There category. political and societal Bohemia Moravia. and and in socialregions in dependingsocial strata distinct groups on seen differentiated, different be to have attachments and identification personal is that section this in hypothesis important most in the nation However, roles this key process. played Czech-speaking Bohemian exclusively an like something with themselves identified who scholars and historians Some dominant interpretations of nationality,became inexclusive terms of language and ethnicity. examined and explained. A certain conception of Bohemian nationhood, based on some At this point some basic definitions will be presented which clarify the focus of my chapterThe fourth from departs viewthe which at dominated turn the of century.the The third will chapter show the procedural institutionalization of nationality as a in In thesecond rolebe increasing of nationality the chapter sphere will political the 2 CEU eTD Collection 4 3 Reform in the Habsburg Monarchy 1848-1918 2 follownot frame anationalistconstructing groups definite of “Czechs,” Iwill and “Germans” like terms of theusage By time.avoiding that usedat names and have German beenspokenby a significant partof population,the Itry referboth to to multilingual whereCzech regions, about When writing to bereasonable. reduction appears handle.language legal hence this Especially examiningreforms regarding easierwhen to in and languages). be complexity dominant will analysis these reduced two the The were only The focus will be on Czech and German speakers in Bohemiabeit ‘Austria.’ Karl,to Emperor, decreed lastthe and Silesiawhen War the of year final the until “Austria” named not (Ilegally was am which entity awarepolitical that understanding inCisleithania, of elevennationalities people the a belonged the to who called ‘Austria’.” entity) an of half (even entity an to belonging of question no was there then sympathies, Habsburg state 1900.Thereit halfof it around Austria the was clear that one beused as was understood will was term the paper this In half. a Hungarian and Austrian Hungary.an into differentiated officially was “But terminology byestablishingchanged theofficially dualism. From 1867 the Habsburg Empire if you were Empirein general. However, asaresult of Austro-Hungarian the compromisea of 1867 the Czech or ItalianThe term with‘Austria’ strong was national commonly used in international affairs to refer to the Habsburg Ibid., 10. Jamie Bulloch, Kann, A. Robert in quoted Andrian-Werbung, von Viktor As a matter of the spatial limitation I consciously exclude Silesia from my discussion. Karl Renner: Austria Karl Renner: as to make it possible forany one to absorb the others in time. so superiormuch toany other innumbers, intelligence,or preponderant influence andwealth the history of Austria- is, together all in state all, same the small and one and of sparsepeoples various in factual the knit which material. ties historical Noneno of thesegreatness, peoples is and unity centuries-old of memories no attachments, no are There did. never there Vienna, existsAustria, no Austrian, no no Austrian nationality,and, exceptforof a span around land Italians, Germans, Slavs, Hungarians, who togetherconstitute the Austrian Empire. But there It is a conventional name fora complex of clearly differentiated nationalities … There are Austria is apurely imagined name, which means neithera distinct people nora land or nation. 3 The term Austria, which will be used in this paper refers to the (London: Haus Publishing, 2009), 7. , Vol. I.(New York: Octagon Books, 1977), 3. 3 4 The Multinational Empire: Nationalism and National ex ante 2 . Instead of writing about writing of Instead . CEU eTD Collection the idea of nationhood in and Bohemia Moravia. ideathe of nationhood of development the examine to am going I chapter following the In reality. in social imagined are which groups, social fluctuating continually and dynamic rather to but communities bounded of concept any nationalist I donotto refer in text “German” the “Czech” and “nations” I am going to refer to Czech, German and Yiddish speakers. If I use the terms 4 CEU eTD Collection institutionalized form, and ‘nationness’ as an event, shall be adopted. as like ‘nationhood’ analysis, of categories from ‘nation’, such as of practice, categories validated orfalsified. Especially in the field of analyzing historical societal processes there homogenous empirical science where dataisquantified andhypotheses becan easily analysis. scientific a social for historiographical assessing descriptions historical andanalysis andand interpretations using Reflecting on sources, motifs, and political agendas is of highestimportance when it comes to of process. this part often are historians offact, matter As a interpretations. national history by nationalizing its narratives and interpretations, and additionally, even removing a- hence, arekeen reframing historiography, and national nation-states on creating Modern many agenda of the historiography historiansnationalistic asagents of due to discourses. being in in requires andMoravia, Bohemia nationalization national awareof perspectives scheme, as [a] cognitive frame?” classificatory as[a] category, asapractical work ‘nation’ of concept the does “how rather isnot beginning:very but German the be question should nation?” “what Czechor the the the from clear made be shall premises following consideration, into studies nationalism of field inthe terminology on work scholarly distinguished Brubaker’s Rogers Taking Moravia. nationality as political and cultural forms have been institutionalized in Bohemia and 6 Contingent Event,” 5 1. TheDevelopment ofthe Idea of Nationhood in Bohemia and Ibid., 10. Cf. Rogers Brubaker, “Rethinking Nationhood: Nation asInstitutionalized Form, Practical Category, A second critical point is the usage of social theory. Social science is not a and of This how andwhynationhood the concept thesis tackles question the of Writing about ahistorical topic, namely the issue of identity politics and the process of Contention , 4/1 (Fall, 1994): 6. 5 Regarding terminology, Brubaker’s advice of decoupling Moravia 5 6 CEU eTD Collection 305 and Rogers Brubaker, the Nation. Ernest Gellner and the Theory of Nationalism 8 Nation: zur Karriere eines folgenreichen Konzepts Ernest Gellner, Ernest nation by nation its‘awakening’ national members’ orby consciousness ‘national led by revival’ a intoits before transformation of thepre-existence a bounded ethnic group which presumes is in presumed. Incontrast, thesis the argumentationthis such runs against “ethnicism” an thisand social groups abounded doesnotmean individualsof group that -ethnicornational - personal identifications and “nationhood”. constructed of concept by the replaced and beavoided “nation” will term the account into argument presumption of stable boundaries and theflaw of ‘essentialism.’ “sense or avoid terms by “nationhood” like belonging” heattempted to of the which alternative andproposed as“groupism” term analytical asan theuse‘nation’ of attacked nationalisminterpreted and limitedhistorical phenomenon,as likeRogersBrubaker a others ideology an as nationalism of logic rational the against argued Hobsbawm Eric and Gellner like scholars Ernest Whereas classic functionality. its and nationalization, nationalism, However, there is no homogenous position on the foundations and mode of operation of nationalistis activists in thoroughly accepted the currentfield nationalism of studies. substantive concept of ‘nation’. The paradigm of the nation as a modern invention created by 7 critique oninfluential withinworks thefield willbe presented in this first chapter. existingassumptions andhispositioning the clear,a theoretical regarding perspectives makein theoretical To thesis. theauthor’s andpolitical examined this processes activities social the regarding explanations and interpretations of diversity in the reflected is complexity This andschools. approaches theoretical contradictory even sometimes of adiversity exists Cf. Rogers Brubaker, “Myths and Misconceptions in the Study of Nationalism,” in John Hall (ed.), Cf. Eric Hobsbawm, Eric Cf. When writing about processes of nationalization of politics and of certain individuals certain of and politics of nationalization of processes about writing When A danger lies in assuming that there existed there that assuming in lies A danger Nationalism Nations and Nationalism since 1780 Nationalism Reframed (London :Weidenfeld andNicolson, 1997), Benedict Anderson, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996),chapter 1. (Frankfurt/Main, 1996). 6 (New York: Cambridge University Press,1998), 272- (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), per se a certain historical or even or historical acertain 8 By taking Brubaker’s Die Erfindung der The State of 7 CEU eTD Collection activism of nationalists in Bohemia and Moravia. and in Bohemia nationalists of activism the and processes societal specific the tofocus on highly important itis Hence, processes. related its and nationalism of phenomenon multi-facetted the of dimensions many explains rich the that is itobvious However, explanations. feasible ascribed topre-existinglinguistic ethnic or we have groups tocritically look for alternative be easily cannot Moravia and Bohemia in success its and nationalization of phenomenon the Since in Cisleithania? politics in legitimizing factor influential an such become modern one. However, a crucial question of this thesis is, why did the idea of nationhood ingroup pastwouldthe lead us committo teleology. ethno-cultural or existsor ethnic asanentity as aproto-national modern of concept ‘nation’ very attemptanalyze to the processes of nationalization. Startingfrom the assumption that the process. To make it clear, the category of national groups, German and Czech, would limit the of framework “the” nationalization in their explanatory factors andsocioeconomic political include ‘ethnicists,’ to languagebymodern argumentation who turned andused moderate 1848 tothePresent and Nancy M. Wingfield (eds.), 9 inherited cultural linguistic patterns.” and sprung from primarily a specificmass, setof mutually exclusive ethnic groupsdefined by have to Europe Central of East nations thatholdsthe framework implicitlargely vague, would becomeintellectuals. part If notof doingnationalist so the analysis would be based on nationalistideology discourse and itself.hence Jeremy King defines ‘ethnicism’ as “a Jeremy King, “The Nationalization of East Central Europe: Ethnicism, Ethnicity, and Beyond,“ in Maria Bucur Maria in Beyond,“ and Ethnicity, Ethnicism, Europe: Central ofEast Nationalization “The King, Jeremy It can be said for sure that the concept of an ethnic Czech nation is a fundamentally is a nation Czech of an ethnic concept the for surethat can be said It (Indiana: Purdue University Press,2001), 123. Staging the Past: The Politics ofCommemoration in Habsburg Central Europe, 7 9 King observes a tendency of changing of tendency a observes King fundus of nationalism-theories of CEU eTD Collection 13 12 Europe, 1848 to the Present Bucurand Nancy M. Wingfield (eds.), 11 Press, 1992), chapter 1. 10 reframing historiography in national terms. It is well explored that historians have beensupporting the nationalization by process 1876). likenationalisthistorian and Bohemian activists politician František the (1798- Palacký to refers and practice” of category transformative as“asocially role of the ethnicism worked on politicalthe nationalization mission ofvastlyof indifferentpeople. Heinterprets likehistorians activists nationalist a certain Kindnation? argues that Jeremy belonging to like feel to Moravia and Bohemia in population indifferent least at or a-national the persuade field.” political the blanketing of capable structurally discourse a modern to loyalty, of a form to legitimacy, political of principle a setdown ofmutuallyto andmutually exclusive variants on reinforcing populistthe ideato the not of by statehood membership butby political legitimacy. “boils Nationhood Max Weber’s classical work. of elaboration Brubaker’s basedon and nationhood, statehood between King’s distinction we have find to better categories of analysis than ‘ethnic groups’.is One proposal Jeremy explaining processes of nationalization - by explaining origins by its outcomes (teleology) - After having refused ‘ethnicism’asnotonly simplistic butevenaflawed conceptof 1.1. Nationalists and theConcept ofNationhood František Palacký, “Letter sent by František Palacký Frankfurt,” to Palacký by František sent “Letter Palacký, František Ibid., 130. Maria in Beyond,“ and Ethnicity, Ethnicism, Europe: Central ofEast Nationalization “The King, Jeremy Rogers Brubaker, 12 If it is about political legitimacy, how was it then possible for nationalist activists to activists nationalist for possible then it was how legitimacy, political about is itIf the service of my nation. ofmy service the and with all the little I possess and all the little I cando, I have devoted myself forall time to I am not a German – at least I do not feel myself to be one … I am a Czech of Slavonic blood, Citizenship and Nationhood in Germany and France (Indiana: Purdue University Press, 2001), 128. 10 Following this isunderstanding, idea the nationhood of linked Staging the Past: The Politics of Commemoration in Habsburg Central 13 (František Palacký) (František 11 8 Slavonic Review, (Cambridge Mass.: Harvard University Harvard Mass.: (Cambridge 26 (1948): 304. CEU eTD Collection 15 Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2006), 5-6. 14 as conflict national nationalism the of and traditional interpretation which perceiving oppose nationalismclearly is linked tomodernization.that is in language a main social My to the Moravia. opinion as cleavage of and Bohemia reality react but it not could However, acategory. as nationality indirectly hence, and modernization which made nationalist among alignments the population promotedpowerful. state The itprocess modernization was the Infact be andquestioned. debated is to going This view aim the anation-state: creating of monarchy) canbe modernizingsuccessfully being without nationalizing simultaneously with amultiethnichow languagesin (Austria state itsofficial recognized eleven halfof dual- the of social theory communication. Karl by Deutsch’s paper to the referring which be societal processes argued throughout will underestimates simplistic argumentation factors of any conditions.ethno-cultural This not to pre-existing andhardideological work society.” local in very differences those constitute becametools usedto in turn behaviors and These discourses - of hostilenational relations in order to project the idea of age-old conflict onto such regions. addedbehaviors discourses later - and developed “Activists its discourse. nationalization and as andactivists forces nationalistJudson describes behindthe projectdriving organizations of indifferent. nationally been had period and area discussed in the populations the of majority Ibid., 8. Pieter Judson, A second point is about the effects of nationalism. Judson brings up two arguments society. of local improvement the to contribution distinctive own their as it presenting and change economic and social embracing agendas, [nationalist activists] repeatedly conflated the state’s modernizing program with theirown nationalist economic, and administrative modernizationcould easily occur without nationalization …[T]hey …the history of Habsburg Austria in theperiod 1867-1918 demonstrates that social, political, Moreover, Judson even generalizes that the Austrian Empire is a positive example of the Zahraarguethat Judson and Tara Jeremy Pieter his King, colleagues Similarly to Guardians of the Nation: Activists on the Language Frontiers of Imperial Austria 14 In short, he concludes that if successful, nationalists owed their success to success their owed nationalists successful, if that concludes he short, In 15 9 (Cambridge, CEU eTD Collection emperor.” the to loyalty their demonstrate to “competed movements nationalist is that argument analytical dilemma of nationalism theories. As Brubaker writes, Before turning to the development1.2. Three Models of Explaining “Sense of Belonging” of a particular nationhood, let us once from authorities.” the more discuss the treatment less tolerant far andreceived worldview class-based their rival, realizing success at less “far had Democrats Social the like movements populist non-national that occurred workof absolutism) freely and wereableto evenwithin It supranational the state. Habsburg overarching framework of the Empire.As an effect they were hardly persecuted (after the end mostlyimproving they that aboutnation’s theirthought power-relations withinpolitical the leaders ideaslooking itnationalistappears atpolitical they When have beenprobably of true. of multinational the Empire notatgaining and independence. territorial nation.” the of representative legitimate as “mostappear the to was primarily Europe, 1848 to the Present Bucurand Nancy M. Wingfield (eds.), 20 19 18 Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2006), 8. enemy.” national so-called the defeat to rarely and movements firstgainrhetoric instrument “mastery within nationalist rival to an own over as groups their 17 The Dissolution of the Habsburg Monarchy Jászi, Oscar Cf. occurred. forces political and societal centripetal, and centrifugal where, monarchy Habsburg the 16 sources of instability and the final dissolution of the Empire. Jeremy King, “The Nationalization of East Central Europe: Ethnicism, Ethnicity, and Beyond,“ in Maria in Beyond,“ and Ethnicity, Ethnicism, Europe: Central ofEast Nationalization “The King, Jeremy Ibid., 9. Ibid. Pieter Judson, Look at the brilliant study of Oscar Jászi, who analyzes different separate and also interdependent spheres of practical category, not as entity but as contingent event, conjuncturally fluctuating, and precarious [w]e should think of the nation not as substance but asinstitutionalized form, not as collectivity but as areindeed andin ones important These andsome forarguments moments actors some 19 Their struggles aimed basically at gainingbetter a position in the political context Guardians of the Nation: Activists on the Language Frontiers of Imperial Austria 20 (Indiana: Purdue University Press, 2001), 134. Staging the Past: The Politics of Commemoration in Habsburg Central (Chicago: University of Press,Chicago 1929). 10 16 17 Rather, he sees nationalist Rather,hesees He argues that the motive 18 (Cambridge, His second CEU eTD Collection analysis”, which theorizes nationness as something that happens [sic!]. happens that something as nationness theorizes which analysis”, of“eventful lack isa there that - and developmentalist calls he - which explanations historical and cultural Event,” 24 Purdue University 2001),Press, 3. Staging the Past: The Politics of Commemoration in Habsburg Central Europe, 1848 to the Present 23 Other: Ethnic Conflict and Nationalism in Habsburg Central Europe 22 inventing historical narratives. historical inventing Sorbonne, in 1882. Becoming anation thus acommonrequires forgettingwill of and inlecture Renan argued earlier hisfamous by Ernest Similarly point. important an makes he amnesia, memory childhood to metaphorically process 21 die to will the exists sometimes there crisis extreme and war of in situations that fact the by out pointed best is nation one’s towards identification of functionality serious the However, of ‘nation’, sensethe belonging aconstructed whichof to canbe termed as“nationness”. Anderson a good starting presents in point understanding the subjective and situational nature The so called reflexive model sociological of Bourdieu, Brubaker,Pierre Rogers andBenedict polyglot origins of the peoples who constitute the nation.” common …and diversity of past thesectarian, suppression the clan, tribal,of and dynastic, historical, of national ethnic,and identity roots religious of invention a mythic acts require of multiplicity of “therich that argues Anderson character. aunique nation gets often a social reality. of constructed fact that doubts Anderson’sfamous words,is reasonable without a doubt. There exists no current theorist who in Benedict itframe to community,” an“imagined nation as viewing the of trend The general Rogers Brubaker, “Rethinking Nationhood: Nation as Institutionalized Form, Practical Category, Contingent (eds.), Wingfield Nancy M. and Bucur Maria in “Introduction,” Wingfield, M. Nancy and Bucur Maria Peter Loewenberg, “The Psychology of Creating the Other,“ in Nancy M. Wingfield (eds.), Wingfield M. in Nancy Other,“ the ofCreating Psychology “The Loewenberg, Peter Rogers Brubaker, Contention dominance. of the ‘self’ and‘other’, especially at times whenone group challenges anotherfor political diverse ofa pre- and subnational reminders erase past.and - Myth and heir commemoration legitimate the help as group establish thecertain culturala with - characteristics heritage national create help creating ausable national history. Because of the myths encodedwithin them, commemorations can As the ritual articulationof myths, commemorations and public celebrations play importantan part in However, there are doubts regarding the question why the sense of regarding whythesense question aredoubts the there However, belonging of towards culture. or polity, economy, in trends developmental deep of frame of visionand basis forindividual and collective action, ratherthan as a relatively stable product , 4/1 (Fall, 1994): 8. Brubaker arguesthat existing the literature focuses mainly structural,on 23 Nationalism Reframed (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 18-19. 11 (Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2003), 247. 21 Qu'est-ce qu'unenation? 22 When Anderson compares this compares Anderson When Creating The (Indiana: at the at 24 CEU eTD Collection 2nd ed.(Cambbridge,Mass.: MIT Press, 1966), 98. 28 27 26 Other: Ethnic Conflict and Nationalism in Habsburg Central Europe communicationefficient to refers communication of kind first The communication. social and bureaucratic within nationalism.” of block building essential the as process one’s socialization family professionalintimate “the at he points work aseminal In Deutsch. Karl was level field. The secondwhole. one referssociety. Eric even Hobsbawm doubted sustainabilitythe nationalismof asideology as a to intimateandlimited processes andbecame place modernization itsof due to on successful effects and social Hobsbawm Eric of that to similarly approach, structural His nationalism. of phenomenon modern for the factors as reasons explanatory heseescultural psyche.However, based inthehuman from family childhood socialization. ‘mass-public culture’, asdistinguished theroleGellnerschool-transmitted stressed of Ernest social reality. of construction inthe processes societal and foundations social the to attention pay it not enough Secondly,national does crisis polarization. individuals incases and of for meaning effective its by is undermined it but wrong, not is legitimacy political is ideology Russia. and in Austria dynasties of the armies traditional tothe in comparison performance its and army Napoleonic French the is nation one’s with identification of power 25 symbolism.” freighted emotionally and tradition, home, and family with identifications stirring deeply evoke which identities, national die for these to willing demonstrably “People are nation. for one’s Karl W. Deutsch, Karl Eric Hobsbawm, Gellner, Ernest Cf. Peter Loewenberg, “The Psychology of Creating the Other,“ in Nancy M. Wingfield (eds.), Wingfield M. in Nancy Other,“ the ofCreating Psychology “The Loewenberg, Peter One scholar who examined the roots of the success of nationalism at a very very different ata nationalism of of success the roots the examined who One scholar The view of Brubaker and colleagues that the main function of nationalism as nationalism of function main the that colleagues and Brubaker of view The 27 , views historical development asa in whichnationalismprocess inhabitsnew a Nations and Nationalism since 1780 Nationalism and Social Communication: An Inquiry intothe Foundations of Nationality Nationalism 25 One historical impressive example whichillustrates persuasivethe (London :Weidenfeldand Nicolson, 1997). 26 Gellner rejects the idea that nationalism is ideadeeply nationalism the that Gellner rejects 12 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). 28 (Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2003), 247. He basically differentiates between differentiates Hebasically Creating The , CEU eTD Collection 34 2nd ed.(Cambbridge,Mass.: MIT Press, 1966), 37. 33 32 Other: Ethnic Conflict and Nationalism in Habsburg Central Europe 31 Goode (eds.), 30 29 of fate.’” character.’ on A‘community entirely apreceding‘community culture’of remains dependent “common Schicksalsgemeinschaft countries.” in other specialists fellow their with than countrymen their with understanding and communication mutual to closer their standards ofbeauty, their offood habits and drink, in andgames recreation, they farare communication including memories, “childhood inmarriage, in courtship, and parenthood, so sustainable. However, he does not explainso sustainable. not he of process does However, communication, the transfer, and is nationalism how of explanation” narrative hascultural-historical built“dynamic a Deutsch in the realms of taste, play, family and sexual life etc. which a sensebelonging creates of among its members through feelingof the understanding oriented, learned pattern oflife.” learnedpattern oriented, common social culture, which is “a personal,developmental,highly family- andhome- through methodsthrough of inchild culture.” rearingthis standardized language and and carriedthought, forms onthrough various of learning,social particularly communication, consisting socially of patternsof stereotyped includingbehavior, habits of Ibid., 106. W. Deutsch, Karl Ibid., 250. Peter Loewenberg, “The Psychology of Creating the Other,“ in Nancy M. Wingfield (eds.), Wingfield M. in Nancy Other,“ the ofCreating Psychology “The Loewenberg, Peter Patrick and Bottomore Tom in (1907), Sozialdemokratie,“ unddie Nationalitätenfrage “Die Bauer, Otto Cf. Ibid. Similarly to the Austro-Marxist Otto Bauer Otto Austro-Marxist the to Similarly these, but they are always present to affect them. happiness of individuals. Nationality, culture, and communicationare not the only factors that affect all the psychological,with political,- social,distress or and economic security relationshipseconomic with and that influencesellers, and the security buyers of and preferences the with inheritance, and with men’s values and the patterns of theirteamwork, with employment and promotion, with marriage At every step we find social communicationbound up indissolubly with the ends and means of life, 31 In Deutsch’s view people’s strong identification iswith nationhood groundedin a history”, that “tied together the members of a nation into a ‘community of Austro-Marxism Nationalism and Social Communication: An Inquiry intothe Foundations of Nationality , a community of , acommunity fateis thatof a “shaped bysharedexperiences”, (Oxford:Oxford University 1978),Press, 102-109. 32 29 “We found culture based on the community of 13 34 30 , Karl Deutsch defined a nation as a (Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2003), 249. 33 He describes in-group an Creating The , CEU eTD Collection 37 Harvard University Press, 2006). Judson, Battle forChildren inthe Bohemian Lands, 1900-1948 (Princeton, N.J.: PrincetonUniversity Press, 2003), Tara Zahra, Chicago Press, 1929). 36 Vienna, 2009), 65-74. Philipp Decker, in Perspective,” Psychological Social Psychology 35 Habsburgs. hand,Tyroleans Viennese, and,on Imperial other the supranational the the with or dynasty, Praguer, Budweisers, as region, the with themselves identified primarily and indifferent were nationally who in Cisleithania of people proportion wasasignificant there that flawsthe and theinherent ethnicism innational historiographies.is It argue also agreeableto nationalism toomuch by perceiving itsimply as a political ideology like any other. mentionedit authors beginning clearthat the becomes atthe an imagined reduce community, anation, belonging as conceptualized towards of sense understanding people’s andtheorizing about childhood socialization. literature in andaccessible arewell researched details these itself. Nowadays, internalization being isolated from from being their isolated cultural Cultural environment. and societal canbe practices as be understood cannot beings human that fact the isof ignorance the theoretical approach of source be inthis legitimation,political notregarding will their shared thesis. Thecritique their underestimation of nationalityimportant for the nextas section on the developmenta social of nationhood in Bohemia and Moravia. reality, issue. on this works historical in some flaws and nationalism provide authors of uswith areflection category, nationality asapolitical accepting these the as an ideologyeven and in tolerating state Austrian the of role ambiguous the and nationalization, of and Cf. Oscar Jászi, Cf. Jeremy King, Cf. Daniel N. Stern, Guardians of the Nation: Activists on the Language Frontiers of Imperial Austria However, I agree with Tara Zahra, Pieter Judson and Jeremy King when pointing out pointing Kingwhen JudsonandJeremy Pieter Zahra, Tara agree with I However, Despite the fact of their feasible critique on national historiographies and ethnicism, and historiographies national on critique feasible their of fact the Despite (New York: Basic Books, 1985), Daniel Druckman, “Nationalism, Patriotism, and Group Loyalty: A 36 Having elaborated the crucial role of nationalist activists as agents of the process Die Ablehnungsfront gegenüber der Europäischen Union inÖsterreich The Dissolution of the Habsburg Monarchy Budweisers into Czechs and Germans: A Local History of Bohemian Politics,1848-1948 The Interpersonal World of the Infant: AView from Psychoanalysis and Developmental Mershon International Studies Review 35 After having outlined three major approaches of approaches major having outlined three After 14 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press,2008), Pieterand M. 37 Moreover, these insights areextraordinarily insights these Moreover, (Chicago: University of Kidnapped Souls: National Indifference and the , 38/ 1(Apr., 1994): 43-68, and (Thesis: University of (Cambridge, Mass.: CEU eTD Collection republic 41 Research ‘homeland’ and a measure ofa specific with solidarity.”association an Compareculture, ofshared Anthonyelements memories, D. Smith, historical “Ashared Europeancestry, ofcommon Nations,” 40 39 2000): 121. 38 with his argumentation regarding theimportance of symbols and historical myths. foundations of nations as forcrucial their in successandsustainability modern Iagree society, not imply it does so when analyzing any other case study. Whenby sociologists. reflexive fits social claiming aparticular one that case,this theory does pilgrimages.” lieux dememoire influential in creating perceptions and beliefs commonness.of “This is broadthe field of the towards a nation. permits durability,the malleability and intergenerational transmission feeling of of belonging cultural Smith,framework ideologies. from This nationalism according to constructed other of by shapingforce powerful reinterpreted This every social reality differentiates, generation. and reconstructed are if they even generations, over function in their sustainable remain nation, them meaningful and whichareculturally can that to andcontents meanings the with background for nations. ethno-symbolic the as serves which an create ethno-history, to andreinvented reconstructed to theproto-national heargues past, oldthat ethno-cultural symbols, narratives, and are stories functionality, as secular religion. assecular functionality, analysis wecanfind forof nationalism,religion, viewingbased grounds some its on Durkheim’s at looking When religion. with similarity certain its is nationalism of success Cf. Anthony D. Smith, Anthony D. Smith defines ethnic communities or Cf. Anthony D. Smith, Martin Kohli, ‘The Battlegrounds of European Identity’, in Even if do not to fully agree with authors likeAnthony whoseesthecultural D.Smith not tofully authors agree Even if with do which religious thought has successively enveloped itself. There can be no society which does not feel not does which society be no can There itself. enveloped successively has thought religious which Thus there is something eternal in religion which isdestined to survive all the particularsymbols in (Oxford: Blackwell, 2008). 30(1993): 130. 38 Karl Deutsch’s theory on family socialization fills the gap which is set aside : monuments, celebrations, myths, heroes, holidays, hymns, flags, museums, flags, hymns, holidays, heroes, myths, celebrations, monuments, : 41 Another argumentfor explaining structural factors some dimension of the The Cultural Foundations of Nations: hierarchy, covenant, and Nationalism 40 These ethno-symbols provide people, who feel likebelonging These who people, to provide ethno-symbols (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2001). ethnies 15 as “a named human population with amythof European Societies 2/2 (London: Routledge, Journal of Peace 39 Referring CEU eTD Collection 1948 43 42 very few of success the prepared by itsreforms legal state Austrian the isthat Moravia find nationalism not did in afertile and ground Bohemia Moravia. ‘national reported indifference’ analyzed inisit usefulinone andtheir particular but the understanding nationalization success, processes this thesis.identification. The very playedindividual belonging, for their sense acrucial role environment then societal the of factTo state of it theclearly, Bohemia in If andMoravia. socialization century forwas influential nineteenth people’s the existence we do not claim in areas andrural urban between and of society, strata social different between identification of thata-national Karl Deutsch’sThe family socialization model provides us with a feasibleindividuals explanation formodel the differences in explains1.3. Culture and Socialization asaFactor of Diversity and Commonness alland the campaign. political also later and intellectual first intheir on drawn have nationalists, intellectuals, few only originally “nation”of on which than concept ofidentification the objects/subjects other dominant first of all a ‘category ofgender, region, city practice’.or town, profession or supranational Empire, and that nationality has been Especially levels many people identify theblind factthat generally on suchas themselves to different in the sphere of politics is mean not one that in in This does Cisleithania. politics nationalizing succeeded activists there were evidently amongacknowledged factors, whenit explainingas others, nationalistto comes and why how All in all, cultural practices, historical narratives and stories, and ethno-symbols shouldbe Tara Zahra, Tara Émile D. Durkheim (1915) quoted Anthonyin D. Smith, (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2008), 4. One generalization in certain current literature nationalism in and literature on in Bohemia current One certain generalization ideas which collective make and up its unity sentiments and its collective personality. the intervals at regular reaffirming and upholding, of need the Kidnapped Souls: National Indifferenceand the Battle for Children in the Bohemian Lands, 1900- 43 among certain Bohemians does not mean necessarily that necessarily mean not does Bohemians certain among 42 16 Nationalism (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2001), 146. CEU eTD Collection Europe, 1848 to the Present Bucurand Nancy M. Wingfield (eds.), 48 1918 Multi-National Experiment inearlyTwentieth-Century Europe 47 80. 46 (Princeton, N.J.: PrincetonUniversity Press, 2003). regions had clear majorities or have been even entirely monolingual. 45 44 existed. certainly Austrian-patriotism A degree of Emperor. certain the Imperial dynasty which was closely linked to the Administration,Budweis identified themselves primarily as ‘Budweisers’ and secondly with supranational the the army and the person of casenarrow study. surprising Itisnot thatasignificant part of in urbanthe population a such from lands Bohemian inthe nationalism regarding generalizations any draw to critical it appears more than into of account the city mixed character andstrata thelinguistically Budweis/ When lookinglanguagemaps at nineteenth century of Bohemia it isnoteworthy that identifying ageneral of trend bilingual individualsand a-national in Bohemia and Moravia. meaning itself.historical city one major aspect of personal identification is with the city Additionallyand its historical inhabitants (Budweisers), King asJeremy did, one and broad made general claims Whenfocusing bycertain Budweis andits authors. e.g.on major factor process results firstly from narrow framinga too of analytical focus in combination with too constitutesto nationalist agitators. an obstaclenationalist indifferent andleft activists nationally population overwhelmingly unprotected the to King’s claim of ‘Viennese’, andsimultaneously with supranational the Empire. themselvesstrongly people localwith or identified ‘Praguer’,the ‘Brünner’, city as similar observations have been made about urban areas like Brünn, Vienna and Prague, where Jeremy King, “The Nationalization of East Central Europe: Ethnicism, Ethnicity, and Beyond,“ in Maria in Beyond,“ and Ethnicity, Ethnicism, Europe: Central ofEast Nationalization “The King, Jeremy Cf. István Deák, Catherine Albrecht, “The Bohemian Question,” in Mark Cornwall (ed.), Cornwall Mark in Question,” Bohemian “The Albrecht, Catherine Cf. Jeremy King, Cf.ibid. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990). ý eské Bud eské Beyond Nationalism: A Social and Political History of the Habsburg Officer Corps, 1848- Budweisers into Czechs and Germans: A Local History of Bohemian Politics,1848-1948 Č jovice was characterized as “‘mixed’ Czech-German,” while other while Czech-German,” “‘mixed’ jovice as wascharacterized (Indiana: Purdue University Press, 2001), 122. 44 This simplification of complex Thissimplificationsituation of a rather and dynamic Staging the Past: The Politics of Commemoration in Habsburg Central 17 45 it does not surprise me that in such a 2 nd ed. (Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 2002), The 48 The same can be said about said be can same The Last Years of Austria-Hungary: A 46 Taken the urban social urban the Taken 47 It is that peculiar It CEU eTD Collection 1948 49 argumentation of this thesis sees legal reforms as one major factor of institutionalizing and leads weakness another us in to arguing mainly with written sources. Evenifthe This and collected stored. they not ifwere so, did write they papers,and were rarely able to educated urban as writers equals granted of rural Czech Thelatterspeaking simply peasants. urban archivesis it obviously afundamentally flawed starting position, since one takes the of commonness or commonality.bespeaking proved tohave population having notcannot had hador acertain cultural sense Czech The When population. the of part workingsignificant a among dominant identification political on the basis or cultural certain any was of ifthere research field documents scientific any from know not do simply We and texts from These processes will be examinedin 2andchapter 3. or fixed but a variable of social and societal processes they were influenced by major changes. nothing static Sinceare identifications century. of beginning nineteenth and twentieth the the a minority ofadded theira Budweiser, to weight Habsburg-loyal electoral majority, whichprevailedagainst Germans is “MorethatCzechs plausible, though, …” likethe following: generalizations critical towards and be doubtful should one that conclusion the to us leads This loyalties. and identifications political with distinct groups, of social wasadiversity layers there urban societal educated which became nationalist thedriving forceof even that Thisshows activism. the within or historical regionalisms did. identifiedinof the themselves Bohemia asthese same Moravia urban social and groups way and Styrians. However, this fact does not automatically Tyroleans as such uniqueness, historical of sense strong a with regions distinct from people prove that peasants in the rural areas Tara Zahra, Tara (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2008), 25. Especially difficult are claims about the identification of peasants in the rural areas. rural in the peasants of identification the about claims are difficult Especially Moreover, within anationalist bourgeoisurban population developed there class, Kidnapped Souls: National Indifferenceand the Battle for Children in the Bohemian Lands, 1900- 49 One has to keep in mind that the period discussed is the 18 CEU eTD Collection other factors which will be contained in the argumentation well,namely, which beas factors intheargumentation other will contained notundermine however, of does century.in This course half second the nineteenth the the of and social factors in the process of nationalizing a significant part of the Bohemian population focusesincultural on this thesis argumentthe is partof reason historians.why the one This or politicians nationalist like activism political to or reforms legal to linked directly rarely areunfortunately processes However,social getting argument. afeasible to bestway on the leads one factors with quantifiable empirically Workingstrictly social of phenomena. factors factors forthesuccessof nationalization. important maybe evenmore additional, werenoother prove that there not this does nationality principle, the embedding legal reforms the to third chapter devotes andhence legal and nationality category, as apolitical supporting following First chapters. of all, will historiographical literature be usedfor outlining particular nationalismhaving andAfter introduced most discussedsocialimportant the concerning theories the task of 1.4. Applying Social Theory in aHistorical thisCase Study subchapter is to clarify success. nationalists’ of thebasis became which the methodological alignment have several factors failed. Instead, along promoted national linguistic lines, and population of “Austrianness” majority the the among supranational of developmenta distinct approach willBohemian andGerman It willbeNationhood beelaborated. explained whythe of the from differentiation its and nationhood Czech of development the chapter following the In in andMoravia. Bohemia and workers peasants among ‘commonness’ of creation for the activism. political all, census, andabove the nationalists, regarding state Austrian of the tolerance the reforms, It is clear that laws, written texts etc. are easier to work with than cultural societal and with cultural than work areeasier to etc. texts laws, written is that It clear All in all, it is important to point out that cultural practices played an important role important an played practices cultural that out point to important is it all, in All 19 inter alia legal CEU eTD Collection 51 2009, 61. “Die Ablehnungsfront gegenüberder Europäischen Union in Österreich.“ Mag. Dipl., University of Vienna, 50 exaggerating Without by FrenchRevolution. shown the havebeen powerfully “divine right” of popular support for thelack life. The everyday people’s into influence of state’s the expansion the and centralization ancient regime and the destruction legitimacy they needed. societal of the ancientin social howreality. Tilly nationalism has shown Charles providedwith modern legitimationstates the nationalism of functionality the ofignore even or underestimate not should they entity, real a as “nation” of framing nationalists’ follow not should scientists social which in way same the In as for leaders. political an ideological tool instrumentalization its of that to function additional an has which nationalism, of functionality As Wiebe out,thereisyet haspointed Michael anotherdimensionin inherent thevery functions. particular fulfilled nationalism is that thesis in this argued assumption theoretical argumentation, which ismissingI think inthecontemporary Theliterature. first social of direction new a and insights new with thesis the supply will theories social selected distinguishedhistorians of fieldthis and critically assess the applicationthem. Moreover, of Moravian and Austrian society and its history of nineteenththe century. of Bohemian, aspects important on several perspectives andalso facts assessed collect will notbe uncritically used for the argumentation in this thesis. They will rather enable me to sources historiographical However, time. of points certain at activities and views intellectuals’ Bohemia and Moravia. Further, representative samples of statements will be provided toshow in nationalism of rise the explaining for relevant are which processes and events historical Cf. Charles Tilly, Robert H. Wiebe, H. Robert addressed basic human needs. than agigantic fraud perpetrated timeandon again mindlessthe masses, nationalism thrived because it How could people sort themselves in societies where the traditional ways no longer worked? Rather pointBased historical most Iam out the on descriptions popular to going analyses of The Formation of National States in Western Europe Who wea are: history of popular nationalism 50 51 Indirect rule shifted to direct rule as a result of 20 (Princeton, 2002),quoted in Philipp Decker, (Munich, 1975). CEU eTD Collection printing as crucial for the success of nationalism. of success the for ascrucial printing folgenreichen Konzepts Blackwell,1983). Further lookBenedict at Anderson, and cultural) as described in Gellner’s structural analysis, cf. Ernest Gellner, cf. Ernest analysis, structural Gellner’s in described as cultural) and economical, (societal, sense a broader in modernization with connection in be to seen have sovereignty popular legitimation. The modern phenomena of constitutionalism, emancipation, democratization and the conceptmodes of of political legitimation. This opened inter alia the way for nationalism as an ideology of politicalHe sees States in Western Europe (Munich,1975). ante in that and many andmodernization spheres, byprogress becharacterized Cisleithania can modernization Itisprocesses. any thattheperiodfrom without doubt in 1848 until 1918 54 2nd ed. (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1966). modernization of political effects and be put on the nationalization of politics, another focus will be put on the different reactions on will focus general ifthe Even identification. political of modes distinct their and Moravia and existence. into came nationality along alignments understanding individuals’ andthe information cultural how of actual process the of explanation of “commonality” within a community are transmitted, and hence how 53 the beginning of the at twenty-firston religion century, based ideologies e.g. political political of effects Islamism. powerful of the think Just may notice. one than quicker change nationalism. Here, the author’s position isone that does not go that far, since ideologies and/orsocial realities 52 communication. social Karl of theory Deutsch’s to 2and3byreferring chapters of in course the answered the question ofhow didalignments societal linesalong national develop. This be question will shapedfurther social reality. people’s and states, modern for functions fulfilled certain concept, successful in factan extremely qualitythe nationalismof asa one has ideology, keepby political nationalismto facts: the is ‘Political modernization’ is understood asanalyzed by Charles Tilly in his book Cf. Karl W. Deutsch, Some authors go evenso far to say that after the age of religion, the nineteenth century started the new age of evaluations in national historiographies are often flawed. inter alia The next section tries to examine different social ‘groups’ and social strata in Bohemia When looking at the societal functions of nationalism this leads us necessarily to the the political change of indirect towards direct rule as having a crucial effect on the need of new the need on effect acrucial as having rule direct towards ofindirect change political the 53 The great insight which Deutsch’s theory insight theory The which can great provideDeutsch’s uswith is afeasible (Frankfurt/Main, 1996) where Andersonsees the development of capitalism and mass Nationalism and Social Communication: AnInquiry into the Foundations of Nationality 52 54 , aspects of nationalist activism, and effects of certain of effects and activism, nationalist of aspects , Die Erfindung der Nation: zur Karriere eines 21 Nations and nationalism , TheFormation of National (Oxford: ex , CEU eTD Collection Multi-National Experiment inearlyTwentieth-Century Europe 56 76. 55 focused primarily on cultural inexpression literature and the arts,” by 1830’s.the still movement, intoasmall national and“had basically in 1780’s developed started the “cultural linguisticand bya renaissance” generated small group intellectualsof andscholars socalled the that agree mainly historians Modern nationhood. Czech of creation for the historical myths about the Hussite Revolution aside, however influential they may have been cafes.” in meetings informal and salons literary balls, organized privately to expression national space for ‘nationalists.’limits “Strict on political activity in the Habsburg Monarchy confined limited public allowed avery only state theAustrian fact that is the nineteenth the century century does not necessarilyin people end the and Bohemia Moravia thebeginning at of eighteenth the nineteenth or of the mean that certainfindcannot for anyproofs existence of the commonalityof amonga sense Czech speaking cultural and we social fact that The ‘groupness.‘ social cultural or of understandings certain with identification ties did not exist ofnoblemenattitude classesandshouldbe the educated not equalized with popularthe in their intellectuals from educated upper-class.originated the is of analysis the That or why the documents available beginningthe eighteenth the from and of nineteenth the century “sense of belonging” amonginfluencing the press, the schools and many associations. peasants nineteenth century ideas nationalists’ becameand activities visible more by openly before the twentieth century is the fact that most Ibid. Catherine Albrecht, “The Bohemian Question,” in Mark Cornwall (ed.), Cornwall Mark in Question,” Bohemian “The Albrecht, Catherine 2. The Emergence ofCzech Nationhood as a Political Factor 56 When asking for the beginning of the Czech national movement one should leave should one movement national Czech the of beginning the for asking When One limitation of analyzing the real identification in cultural or linguistic terms before terms linguistic or cultural in identification real the analyzing of limitation One As mentioned above, a main obstacle to examining if there was a Bohemian cultural Bohemian a was if there examining to obstacle main a above, mentioned As Byliberalizing of and reforms aretreat absolutism inthesecondhalf of the 22 2 nd ed. (Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 2002), The Last Years of Austria-Hungary: A 55 CEU eTD Collection out that contemporaries differentiated between Czechs and Germans in Bohemia, ‘both of ‘both Bohemia, in Germans and Czechs between differentiated contemporaries that out between the so-called German Bohemians ( Bohemians German so-called the between his among distinction Kinsky’s “Already in Bohemia. andspeakers Czech made Kinsky atthefact itfurtherGerman that points unique.”Hebetween that distinguished historically by both. “Itwas shaped also Czechs the and theirlanguage,history, and culture aloneexplain doesnot itswas meaning.neither It German nor Czechbutculturally and Hugh LeCaine Agnew argues that for the sense of forAgnew thesenseHugh arguesthat LeCaine of being wasthe byGermantowards inhabited territory which and Czechspeakers. being Bohemianconsistently a Bohemian, an Austrian and a German. First of all, Bohemia was a territory andwas[Bohemian]have didnot modern meaningthe of At the timeterm Czech. that be hecould defined usage The main languageof interesting. Czech hereis the very point that by Bohemianlate. Kinsky Austrian an was general and aBohemian whicharistocrat makesfor his plea the ofhistory Czech,whichonlybecamepopular relatively not be course and shouldequalized to patriotism [ Kinskys, gesammelte Schriften that be aware “Czech,” wehaveto English of the term especially translation, the Beingof careful 57 as follows: Joseph Kinsky defended usageCzechaslanguage byBohemiansin the (1739-1805) of 1773 Count aristocrat. an of statement atahistorical look have acloser first us Let reality. social Francis Joseph Kinsky, “Erinnerungen über einen wichtigen Gegenstand, von einem Böhmen,“ in Böhmen,“ einem von Gegenstand, wichtigen einen über “Erinnerungen Kinsky, Joseph Francis Böhmen However, why would feel Kinsky needthen defend thespecial to theCzechlanguage? German, German, then the mother tongueof a Czech [Böhmen] must be Czech. the Slavs I have phraseTo the ‘hismother tongue’Iought to add: namely,I confessCzech. as that a good of descendant inherited the prejudice that if the mother tongue of a Frenchmen is French and of a rathermeans meaning Bohemian,which’sconnotation changed the and over , 3(Vienna, Wappler, 1786), 57. Deutschböhmen 23 böhmisch ) and the Czechs ( Landespatriotismus the territorial dimension territorial the 57 Böhmen ], as loyalty as ], Landsleute Des Grafen böhmisch ) points CEU eTD Collection the Czechthe identity language an markeras hasbeen of by Bohemians reinforced continually of Theimportance bynature. assomething butrather, given forinstrumental communication, often Johannoften vonidea Herder’sdraw on of Gottfried assimilation andforming aunited Bohemian in people longthe run never became popular. languages.” learn each other’s to andCzechs onGermans realistic,called Bolzano not was since this goal one who coulda single introduce would worldfor language allhumanity. be In meantime,the makingwouldbe contribution ( the atremendous well-being nation of the to arrange it so that‘only language wouldbeone spokenby of land’all our inhabitants the could “whoever that stated and principle general a about already thought he assimilation, (Oxford: BerghahnBooks, 2003), 60. Nancy M. Wingfield (eds.), 59 Deutsche 1780 – 1918 into Bohemians, CzechandGerman one “a speaking, community loving people.” of in ideal nation lecturing inPrague.Hesawthe all of concept experienced uniting when he who students, speaking Czech and German between hostility the about concerned much,An butnevernational.isoutstanding example (1781-1848), whowas Bernard Bolzano identity,which was flexible byanoutstandingly middle werecharacterized class educated ofthe members and intellectuals, enough aristocrats, issueall. hot seen Often at a not as was language elite, educated of the groups for some be surethat seems to It analysis. careful (Oxford: BerghahnBooks, 2003), 57. For moredetails cf. JanK Nancy M. Wingfield (eds.), 58 be different.’” inmanyquite sure,butotherwise respects them, the genuine Bohemian and the German Bohemian, by birth and country Bohemians to Hugh LeCaine Agnew, “Czechs, Germans, Bohemians? Images of Self and Other in Bohemia to 1848,” in Hugh LeCaine Agnew, “Czechs, Germans, Bohemians? Images of Self and Other in Bohemia to 1848,” in In contrast to Bolzano’s idea, romantic intellectuals of the early nineteenth century nineteenth early the of intellectuals romantic idea, Bolzano’s to contrast In When he wrote about the fusion of the two peoples fusion two the about the of When hewrote a for isanecessity of society strata and groups social different among Differentiating 59 Howsoever interesting this Howsoever maysoundus,his for andreasonable ideatowards (Oldenbourg: München, 1996). Creating The Other: Ethnic Conflict and Nationalism in Habsburg Central Europe Creating The Other: Ethnic Conflict and Nationalism in Habsburg Central Europe 24 Ĝ en, 58 Die Konfliktgemeinschaft Tschechen und Volk [ Volksstämme and viewed language notlanguageviewed as and ] into one nation by Volk ), just as the CEU eTD Collection (Oxford: BerghahnBooks, 2003), 63. Nancy M. Wingfield (eds.), 61 The Other: Ethnic Conflict and Nationalism in Habsburg Central Europe (eds.), Wingfield M. Nancy in 1848,” to Bohemia in Other and ofSelf Images Bohemians? Germans, 60 in Czech Writing the nationness. Czech Bohemian or Bohemian excluded nationhood Germanfrom speakers this understandingparticular of of concept linguistic a on focus This intellectuals. Bohemian other and journalists historians, completely Czech again.” 1430 made has bycompletely the been era,when duringBohemia German about Hussite the moment“thein1791, andarguedthat greatest defense of language the nation the and came nationalists to argue in exclusive terms. However, bylinkingalinguistic it national forbecame to culture framework easier rare. not was bilingualism where ofcenturies, additionally, and in the course a mélange created cultures wheredifferent inBohemia, isespecially absurd, culture, national and unique distinct very as a notion culture, of a and reifying of essentializing concepts ideological these culture is tooopenfor Czech itelements would “Germanness.”seems destroy It obvious that if that German argued side also speaking German on the narratives nationalist versa, Vice German. automatically then becomes andtraditions, one customs keep one’sCzechlanguage, sum a zero game. They an created ideology madewhich people believe thatif doesnotone as nationhood constructing on put been has writers nationalist of focus the Moreover, fusion. by and nation assimilation aunified idea ofcreating Bolzano’s This contradicts understanding identified Bohemian nationhood with language: in enforcing the narrative of a historical struggle between Czech was and German speakers, Czech historical between struggle narrativein of the a enforcing Hugh LeCaine Agnew, “Czechs, Germans, Bohemians? Images of Self and Other in Bohemia to 1848,” in Jan Nejedlý, “O lásce k vlasti,” A typical nationalist historian was F. M. Pelcl. He published a history of Bohemia in Bohemia of history a published He Pelcl. M. F. was historian nationalist A typical customs has it adopted. and language whose one the with merging is, it that nation be the to cease would it then characteristics, traits alone it is distinguishable from allother nations; if it should alterthese twofundamental Each nationis separated from anotherby its mother tongue customs,and and according to these two Creating The Other: Ethnic Conflict and Nationalism in Habsburg Central Europe 61 60 Oneof mostthe famous historians, whoprominently participated Hlasatel ý eský 1,1 (1806): 15, quoted in Hugh LeCaine Agnew,“Czechs, 25 Herald (Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2003), 62. , Jan , Jan Nejedlý (1776-1834) Creating CEU eTD Collection appeared to be depressed and scared when they realized how indifferent the Czech speaking Czech indifferentthe how when realized they scared be depressedand appeared to down to the economic opportunities theirof children. Tara Zahra writes that nationalists often when it indifferent nationally parentswereoften came uneducated national since community, activistspersuade parents hadgreattrouble to bilingualismthat wasabetrayal their of were seen broaden greatopportunity as to children’s and social education chances. Nationalist institutions. other or administration in Imperial the later career a be for prepared to opportunity mobility manyfor VisitingBohemians. school aGerman Gymnasium wasor already a good ‘Germanness’ assimilation towards tobeappeared awaywhich provided upwardsocial andcultural sincebilingualism that wrong indeednot strata society.of Thiswas educated time focused on nationalists’ perception an ongoingof ‘Germanization’ of higherthe Nationalism inHabsburg Central Europe and Other in Bohemia to 1848,” in Nancy M. Wingfield (eds.), 63 Ethnic Conflict andNationalism in Habsburg Central Europe Bohemians? Images of Self and Other in Bohemia to 1848,” inNancy M. Wingfield (eds.), 62 Czechs.” bythe practices waysand German of and rejection “Czech history in general consists mainly of a struggle with Germandom, or of the acceptance writing, when agenda nationalist his forward drives still he However, professional. more and In his workas later a distinguished historian, Palacký’s formulations soundless enthusiastic inhe wrote a letter in following: 1819 Prague andmoving historian becoming apopular Before Moravia. to František Palackýfrom František Palacký, (1908), quoted in Hugh LeCaine Agnew, “Czechs, Germans, Bohemians? Images of Self František Palacký to Josef Jungmann, 14 July 1819, quoted in Hugh LeCaine Agnew, “Czechs, Germans, with every word. nations. I ought not to write about the ruinof those countries: Iwould write flames into the tyrants’ souls apart countries, raise againstup robbers’ the hands holy against livesrights, the of glorious but unhappy a farce to make high-sounding proclamations about equilibrium in the political system of Europe, and tear are doing to us is what they recently did to the Poles, too,without having suffered any injury from them. Itis Some Fate ruinous placed our good Slavs amidst the gaping maws of thieving nations. What Germans the Not only butalsoGerman schools exchange for programs children ( 62 (Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2003), 64. 26 (Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2003), 64. Creating The Other: Ethnic Conflict and 63 This political agenda of that Creating The Other: Kindertausch ) CEU eTD Collection 1948 theirideological campaign in ethnic terms and usedphrases like blood’, ‘Czech beto framed They rougher. became nationalization of mission in this participated who journalists identification by historians, politicians used historical and region).with Thetone one’s 64 noble of concept countered traditional the nationhood amorelinguisticBohemians. Thisdevelopment towards cultural and sense of Bohemian exclusive sense ofCzech nationhood, promoting that the Czech speaking peasants are the true Bohemian and Austrian, andthe new Czech speakingintellectuals, whosupported an ethnic it anideologicalclear theas created upperclasses,identifying that themselves between barrier identification. exclusive any of to concept in general,opposed which,classes were upper assimilated the to contrast in bearerof ‘Czechness’ or trueBohemians asthe peasants pointing atthe wasto activists eachequated with identifications. by their bynationalistof patterns Astrategy other used be mustnot hence and practices and cultural socialization bydistinct areas werecharacterized Czech of rural the uneducated Czech speaking the bourgeoisie, and speakingpeasants petty urban elites, members of the Imperial administrationpolitical awareness identification and social among different Asmentioned above,groups. and in the varieties and supranationaldifferences significant recognizing of point crucial the to us leads officerThis corps, the 2.1 TheBohemian Nobility was a factor which German languagesupported use. rural nationaltheirpopulation ideas.towards was Tara Zahra, Tara (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2008), 24. As the idea of Bohemian nationhood became more ethnic and exclusive itbecame ethnic exclusive and more became nationhood As theidea of Bohemian Kidnapped Souls: National Indifferenceand the Battle for Children in the Bohemian Lands, 1900- 27 64 Onemobility issure: economic upward Landespatriotismus (a form of political CEU eTD Collection the nationalization of the political sphere. As Eagle Glassheim concludes from his analysis: regarding of a phenomenon an interesting observation to usdirectly nationalism leads towards reaction nobility’sthe of examination language.adaptnationalist The to didnot nobles joining the Conservative camp - until the very end of the Empire. the of end very the until - camp by Conservative the mostly - joining loyal remained but Empire the towards loyalty their from withdraw not did they However, adaptation. of rapidness and by its flexibility characterized wasespecially class their century nineteenth the During capitalism. and industrialization of age the into benefits Bohemian nobility remain itswas able and resources and to powerful transferring wealthy, The nationalists. Czech by elements indifferent national as seen being of situation the nation. aCzech Slavic Bohemia as speaking, 2005), 61-88. imagined newly lead term the to concept ethnic an on based and Marsha L. Rozenblit (eds.), Rozenblit L. Marsha and 67 66 (Oxford: BerghahnBooks, 2003), 67. Nancy M. Wingfield (eds.), 65 nation.” political German of wider the Czechs part beyond ofmost the attitude German Bohemians, whogenerally Bohemiaconsidered andthe went they this In nations. European other the nation among andequal exists asaseparate to right their of evidence was imagery, Hussite the in particular past, the from drew intellectuals Czech “What claims. legitimized their that imagination historical a Czech with nationalists language and Bohemia as theirhomeland. Czech the on andfocused asbrothers’, ‘considerother each to patrioticlove’, ‘awakened to Cf. Eagle Glassheim,“Between Empire and Nation: The Bohemian Nobility,1880-1918,” in Pieter M.Judson Ibid., 69. Hugh LeCaine Agnew, “Czechs, Germans, Bohemians? Images of Self and Other in Bohemia to 1848,” in a broad population they claimed to lead; they were not tools of the aristocracy or a reactionary conservative a reactionary or cabal. Nationalism aristocracy of the in fact made a mess tools of the not political spectrum. were they Many liberals lead; were to nationalist; many claimed they population broad a for and themselves for power wanted Nationalists bureaucracy. and monarch ofthe tendencies authoritarian In Bohemia, nationalism was aNew Regime force, anassertion of popularsovereignty oppositionin to This ‘ethnicization’ putof Bohemian nationhood Jewsnobility Bohemian into andthe Palacký’s and his colleagues’ vision of Czech Czech pastprovided the vision ancientthe his colleagues’ of Palacký’s and Creating The Other: Ethnic Conflict and Nationalism in Habsburg Central Europe Constructing Nationalities in East Central Europe 65 28 66 This discourse of Bohemian nationhood ý echen 67 This does not imply that (Oxford: Berghahn Books, [the Czech], meaning CEU eTD Collection 68 These mass-politics. modern and democratization participation, political increasing ground for toe have prepared and Anderson, Tilly, by described modernization, Gellner, mainly Czech speaking peasants, andlesspopulation, the workers? the educated rural the of identities of layers and loyalties the of state the was How Empire. supranational and less and the with dynasty the identification significant bya characterized were urban population, educatedpart of the a significant nobility, the and The upperclasses, von Herder. Johann Gottfried thanideas of romanticist drawon when writers earlier but century in nineteenth start the not did theThis activism. in nationalist urban participated actively have journalists, and politicians, historians, middleamong the Austrian population, wehave seen already thethat pettybourgeoisie, mainly class. nationalism’ hypothesis ‘indifferenceDeriving toasageneral Tara Zahra’scategory of from Processes2.2. Workers andPeasants asSubjects of Nationalization of Empire. supranational dynasty the and the by loyalty towards isdemonstrated Czech remaining of concept ‘ethnic’ their nation.This an language its was functionalityrather for gaining political legitimacy than beliefany true in the nationalist to adapting for reason The ideology. apolitical as nationalism of formability languagereach nationalist own conservativeprimarily shows usually the to goals their used by they created That modernization. newto the interaction environment, political and social their adapted they Empire, the and dynasty the towards loyal basically remain if they Even sphere. political the of nationalization of dynamics the exemplifies nobility Bohemian The Ibid., 82. century, sensing that without it they would be doomed to political impotence. politics and interests. Nobles too tentatively employednationalist a vocabulary the in late nineteenth conservatives were nationalist; evensocialists were nationalist. Nationalism was, above all, a language of First of all, there are some peculiarities of these two big groups. Both haveBoth been big two groups. of these peculiarities some are there of all,First 29 68 CEU eTD Collection 71 Event,” 70 1948 69 nationalism.” radical of nationalists. “It may seem paradoxical viewto indifference as an agent of change or as a cause nationalismindifferent to and this caused frustrations butalso activism stronger among was population Bohemian the of majority vast the century twentieth the of beginning before the that argues Zahra masses. Tara popular the of beleaders to claimed who activists, nationalist of attention of focus the into class working the and peasants the put developments have been part of of aprocess. been havepart people somehow and induced asense national belongingof amongAll them. factors these events” “contingent without accomplished and workers peasants analyzed regionhappen rapidly not did and suddenly, neither was nationalizationthe of However, we have to revise his general view in this case. The process of nationalization in the world. social the of division’ and vision of ‘principle organizing an classification, social of comprisedand forms[,] a argues, nationhood nationality “as institutionalized system pervasive somethingthere nation, like existinga asafixedandAs Brubaker enduring community. itself. phenomenon the explain not itself. process hason the It been nationalists’factor for butdoes activism,surely a motivating neither succeeded, nationalization why reasons the on light new much not sheds nationalism Bohemia indifference inpeasants’ Moravia and asgrounded towards and workers’ socialization in nationalist clubs and book in Zahra her Tara argues nationalist framing of narratives and the reification of the practical category of nationality. Ibid., 8-9. Rogers Brubaker, “Rethinking Nationhood: Nation as Institutionalized Form, Practical Category, Contingent Tara Zahra, Tara (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2008), 5. Contention As theorized at the beginning, there are no pre-existing, primordial nations. Neither is Neithernations. arenopre-existing, beginning,As theorized primordial there atthe Kidnapped Souls: National Indifferenceand the Battle for Children in the Bohemian Lands, 1900- , 4/1 (Fall, 1994): 7. 69 Viewing the roots of the succeeding nationalization processes in Kidnapped Souls Vereine 30 , and the emerging welfare system socialized how education by nationalist teachers, bynationalist education how 71 , which reinforced 70 CEU eTD Collection Europe, 1848 to the Present Bucurand Nancy M. Wingfield (eds.), 72 a from been inthe landssincehistoriography was written loyalists have there Bohemian “Ethnicism” and teleology. of cautious still itsince we are prove we cannot but in national terms, re-interpreted be which could patterns ethno-historical and suitable ethno-symbols existed avariety of there hypothesis the successthat Its supports etc.). in inFrance, history Italy England, (e.g. process greatness.” greater for even soon people, destined and great anancient seem like nation aswell) German the necessarily nation (and make Czech to the helped people such At sametime, the future. their communities from the past, to downplaying their presence in the present, and thus blightingto Wenzig, and “all Czech non-nationalethniciststo erasing contributed categories and Smetana, likePalacký, Nationalists Czechnation. the landsfor Bohemian whole historical the claimed Palacký like nationalists which through movement, Bohemian in the rights’ identifications. workers’ become and thepolitical peasants’ nineteenth century innationalizing to sphere, successful focusshould grounds allowed on and nationalists specifications existing which inthe we Rather, mind. her or in his elaborated ‘nation’ of concept modern the have to century itis definitely useless and wrong toexpect any peasantor worker living in nineteenth the why reason is the That mind. in nation-state homogenous and independent a totally of idea the bore themselves activists nationalist the of none Probably impossible. even and undesirable languages, many life cultures, andways of be different have appeared probably would to homogenoushaving ideal as nation-states inheterogeneous and a units intermingledworld of Jeremy King, “The Nationalization of East Central Europe: Ethnicism, Ethnicity, and Beyond,“ in Maria in Beyond,“ and Ethnicity, Ethnicism, Europe: Central ofEast Nationalization “The King, Jeremy Here we face two problems. On the one hand we cannot know how many Habsburg many how know cannot we hand one the On problems. two face we Here ‘state of tradition is the ‘ethnicists’ Czech helped have could which argument One To beclear, has one toavoidflaw the 1918themereideateleology. of Before of 72 Thatis exactly happenedwhat during every nation-buildingother (Indiana: Purdue University Press, 2001), 134. Staging the Past: The Politics of Commemoration in Habsburg Central 31 CEU eTD Collection 74 (Oxford: BerghahnBooks, 2003), 83. in Nancy M. Wingfield (ed.), between national-historiography carefully differentiate Onehas to generalizations. simplistic is tomake it dangerous isHowever, frame. its linguistic nationhood of concept Czech nationalistideology. A more obvious which factor has been implemented into the ethnic by instrumentalized being for - etc.) commonality of narratives transmitted intergenerational ethno-historical basis in - inherent popular vernacular historical memories (stories, expositions of Czech history.” madedifficulties in the frequent coexistenceofCzechsandthe a Germans key in theme their inJi examples 73 foundinganda kingdom.” totheirvictories, countries realm, annexingother violent resisting attacks, the incursionsof nationsunfriendly near from and far,gaining many from country their defended always had They there. own their held and lands German the hadbeen mostdeveloped Slavic the because“they hadpeople, in settled almost of midst the Bohemians the historian whoarguedthat FrantišekEnlightenment Martin Pelcl (1734–1801), narratives. intergenerational dominant other place.bewe still sureif took narratives But families therewere historical cannot in peasant of nationalization the before centuries, last of the course the over continuities are certain if there and poems and novels ancient analyze be to could culture, vernacular rural Bohemian beand in avoided.has examine One possiblenarratives, approach to evident to historical the bemerespeculation would Czech nation-building from success any the of conclusion general inevident rural Bohemian and Moravianpeasantfamilies between 1100 and1848.Drawing narratives historical of the noempirical research exists there Secondly, perspective. national Ibid., 82. Ji Ĝ i Štaif, “The Image of the Other in the Nineteenth Century:Historical Scholarship in the Bohemian Lands,” By comparing historical narratives one could bring to light if wasacertain light there to one bring narratives could historical By comparing As an of example a possiblenarrativemight serveonepresented historical by such the Ĝ i Štaif’s article show that “as far back as the Middle Ages, some chroniclers some Ages, Middle backas the “as far that show article i Štaif’s Creating The Other: Ethnic Conflict and Nationalism in Habsburg Central Europe 74 32 73 Further CEU eTD Collection 76 Habsburg Lands, 1526-1918 (London: University of Washington Press, 1984), 196. by nationalists. hasCzech which causedattention 75 completed. population and by1775full ‘Germanization’ of school the system in Bohemia was speaking theGerman increasing was Theresa Maria under ‘Germanization’ Silesia. small the Bohemia, 70 30 into Moravia, and 22.5 42.5to percents plus 35 percent who spoke Polish,in inGermans 40 as ratiosofCzechsthe endof the 60to eighteenthcentury the to toward count Bohemian Estimations rim. the areas, intheperipheral especially speakers, of German pressing issue.” of Czech in government andin secondary and highereducation increasinglyan real and even make use the to of was society rest the with lowerclasses Czech-speaking of the integration increasing the Furthermore, greatly. alsohelped education primary secular widespread peasants, and by their subsequentpersonal emancipation of 1781. The introduction of the of obligations the hadlimited service 1775, which patentof the inabsolutism, particular by formation hand,modern nation reforms wasfavored of enlightened Czech the of the the ethnic ones, asthey inhad demonstrated majorthe uprising in Bohemiain 1775. On other the issues than economic and social with more concerned naturally, were quite who, peasants, Czech-speaking wasthe movement for a national strength of potential reservoir “The largest clear atthe time. wasnot process” “Germanization the of effect century. The of eighteenth the last quarter to the movementnational Czech beginningthe of the haveKann amore dated stance. neutral and David whotake and historians reflective Ibid. Robert A. Kann and Zden magistracies. In the first half of the nineteenth century, Czech persisted as an internal official language only official agenciesin the internal still left an as outside the formalpersisted framework Czech of century, state officialdom, nineteenth particularlythe of half in manorial first the In magistracies. town the and Moravia) and Bohemia both (in Land ofthe Courts the as such bureaucracies, state from internal the operations of those administrative andjudicial disappeared agenciesLands that had beenconverted Bohemian the into within Czech of use the century eighteenth ofthe end the before Even A fact which made the situation complex was the existence of a significant percentage of significant existence wasthe a complex madethesituation A factwhich 76 Centralisation caused a further decrease of official use of the Czech language, Czech the of use of official decrease afurther caused Centralisation 75 Č k V. David, A History of East Central Europe, vol. VI: The Peoples of the Eastern 33 CEU eTD Collection population identified fall themselvesOn with Empire.intothe hand,onemust not other the of the relict a repressive as Austria impact perception the WWIhad definitely on before andNationalistan of during propaganda 2.3. Explaining the Success ofNationalists inBohemia and Moravia by was nationality recognized state. the principle after the compromises Empire The nationalism. to indifferent even or indifferent nationally was wasmajority the that not a supranational one anymore, but a multinational, where the of nation-states, the majority of the population was still characterized by loyalty with the with loyalty Empire. by characterized still was population the of majority the nation-states, of Urbanitsch arguethatwhile thenationalist already elites political elaboratingwere their plans inhis and of 1916.Wandruszka death wasthe more effect serious Francis Joseph. The symbol Empirethe important 1918.An until figurewas definitely Emperor oldthe of the many of by loyalty majority by performed the so has atthe received,and showed sacrifices respect which developmentthe within half the Austrian between Empirethe of 1848 and1918 the at point They Empire. multinational the and unity of symbol supranational a as Emperor the with identified majority a that examination historical distinguished in their showed populations andhence became 1918.AdamWandruszka Urbanitsch after andPeter powerful nationalist historical interpretations of AustriaImperial andits relationship its towards support forwaramongAustrian narrative the population. Thiswithsome iscongruent of the as Empire the interpreting of propaganda Entente in atrend clearly was there hand, one the On (Vienna: Verlag derösterreichischen Akademie derWissenschaften, 1980), XV. Wandruszka and Peter Urbanitsch (eds.), 78 77 Adam Wandruszka and Peter Urbanitsch, “Notwendiger Völkerverein oder ’Völkerkerker’,“ inAdam ’Völkerkerker’,“ oder Völkerverein “Notwendiger Urbanitsch, Peter and Wandruszka Adam Ibid., 199. Völkerkerker Czech as a ceremonial language, particularly to open and close the diet. the close and open to particularly language, ceremonial a as Czech offices and in the councils of towns too small to have a formal magistracy. In addition, the estates used 78 One has to be careful before drawing conclusions from that. This does not imply [dungeon bymeans [dungeon motivated peoples],of which was weakening of the Die Habsburgermonarchie1848-1918 III: Die Völker des Reiches ancien régime 34 and overwrote the fact that a majority of the of a majority that fact the overwrote and 77 CEU eTD Collection der Wissenschaften,der 1980), 504-505. Habsburgermonarchie 1848-1918 III: Die Völker des Reiches empirically proven and remains speculative. The two historians Ji historians two The speculative. remains and proven empirically 80 exception. no meetings were atsuch thousands ten participation of the that reported authorities state official the However, million. half a and one the towards participants of number have been forty.around Thenationalist opposition press in Bohemia probably the exaggerated Ireland), gatheringsin ten with of Bohemia.thousands people Silesia InMoravia and there in (like “meetings” of than hundred one more years were there In thesethree each other. 79 ( bourgeoisie wassomethere ‘commonness’ Czechspeaking through the senseof which urbanpetty of the Bohemian massesbelieve reasons yearsthe from was when period to politicization that 1868until 1871 that the reached its peak. At constitutional Hungarianreform (the namelycompromise), 1867. these Historiansto found good political events individual action” and collective it became obvious contingent event,conjuncturally thatfluctuating, and precarious frame ofvision and basis for locality. their with identification people’s above and Empire, the with identification of that below of thatprovideinterestingevents evidence some of ‘feeling commonness’ existing uswith roots of commonality loweramong classes, the Bohemian wecanfinduneducated some different Whenaspects and of at possible look Czech nationhood. we success of concept the sometimes very diverse interests of political for actors,legitimacy claiming for there tool ispolitical a still as nationalism the of social usage the and phenomenonpropaganda, of the the danger of argue in an “either … or” fashion. Despite the fact of nationalist and entente Ji Rogers Brubaker, Ĝ í Ko Following Brubaker’s view of ‘nationhood’ as “practical category, not as entity as butas entity not category, as “practical view‘nationhood’ of Following Brubaker’s Ĝ alka and R.J. Crampton, “Die Tschechen,“ in Adam Wandruszka and Peter Urbanitsch (eds.), Urbanitsch Peter and Wandruszka Adam in Tschechen,“ “Die Crampton, R.J. and alka 80 The reasons for the success of (nationalist) mass mobilization can not be not can mobilization mass (nationalist) of success the for reasons The städtisches Kleinbürgertum Nationalism Reframed 79 , wehave look to at yearthe of publiclythe hotdebated (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 18-19. ), the rural andworkers, couldpeasants identify with 35 (Vienna: Verlag der österreichischen Akademie Ĝ í Ko í Ĝ alka and Die R.J. CEU eTD Collection 82 Event,” 81 consequences” “transformative their and events” “contingent through nationalization asprimary reasons. and disaffection unrest of feeling common a and for Hungary, reform one-sided politically the crisis, see economical Crampton mobilization andits mobilization as usage a tool by in all almost actors century. nineteenth He political the as ideology as institutionalizedanda political nationhood mass category, explains action.” collective and individual crystallizes …asa conjuncturallycontingent, fluctuating …frame ofvision and basisfor is that“suddenly seen assomething ‘nationness’ nationalization. Rather, success of andargue. Culture play society not would developmental this inunderstandingrole the Hobsbawm Eric and Smith, D. Anthony Anderson, Benedict Gellner, Ernest as developments thinking and feeling” he views human identities as being formable within moments. of evaluation, and of perception frames, interpretative and narrative of nationalization pervasiveof ‘nationalization’ privatepublic life” and whichhaseven “involved the “the suddenand as relatively When he suchprocesses “happening”describes suddenly. social andphenomenaits of nationhood establishmentas justa social not reality are must be rejected as teleological and even nationalist itself. national consciousnesses’ of as‘awakening view meetings to these modernof nationalists nation” the modernpetty bore “thebourgeoisie concept themselves) inmind.Any of attempt the of activists nationalist the even not (probably participants the of any that imply not does This process. a dynamic as be seen to has Nationalization participants. the among belonging’ meetings of ten thousands of Bohemians and Moravians reinforced as an effect a ‘sense of Ibid., 9. Rogers Brubaker, “Rethinking Nationhood: Nation as Institutionalized Form, Practical Category, Contingent Contention A further reason which can be added here is that - following Brubaker’s conceptof following Brubaker’s - hereisthat be which can added A further reason If following Brubaker, ‘nationness’ has in factless dowith to structural historical disagreesin insightful But with pointauthor Brubaker’s argumentation. the The one , 4/1 (Fall, 1994): 9-10. 82 He does not doubt the effects, namely, that Nationalism 36 81 -these CEU eTD Collection Nations and Nationalism in a Global Era Blackwell, 2008), Anthony D. Smith, conditions. their and nationalization, to lead which processes individual the explain to fails he However, -‘ethno-history’. reconstructed nationally - apersuasive for constructing andnarratives symbols historical of importance and strength the explains hand, other the on symbolism”, “ethno- of theory Smith’s D. Anthony events. contingent of consequences” “transformative by studying the an “eventful perspective”, Brubaker’sof approach besame about said can The mobilization. of roots the explain could which theory feasible any find to nationalism of modernbefor scholars difficult to appears it community” of “imagined concept an refusing any factors objective acouple mademobilizesupport By of itreasons whynationalization masses. possible to the theories Modernist nationalization. for effective asbasis developments andsocietal cultural 87 Question Stalin, V. Joseph Cf. factors. of ‘objective’ anumber to referred 86 85 84 Huber(ed.), Macro-Micro Linkages Sociologyin (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1990), 59. 83 collectively. gosuch there to insights andmeet whyindividually reasons the decideevents of to people providewith any “an not us eventful Brubaker’sperspective” does of out that proposal point to have we nationness, of crystallizations situational the and nationalism of dynamics” for understandingthe “processual Even if “events” theimportance of surely agree to we can politics? spendbotheringtimetheirand about willedto Bohemians gathering andMoravians cause.” as itsnot stable underlying action,’ collective nationnessargues that similar should beunderstood like identity:“as a ‘changeable productof Cf. Anthony D. Smith, Aclassical “essentialist” approachof conceptualizing nation and nationalism is Ibid.,the one 8. by Joseph Stalin, who Cf. ibid., 9-10. Ibid. Additionally Brubaker refers to Craig Calhoun, “The Problem of Identity in Collective Action,” inJoan However, the crucial question remains unsolved. Why were ten thousands of thousands Whywere unsolved. ten remains crucial the question However, (New York: International Publishers, 1942). 84 I share of perspective “developmentalists” the so called structural The Cultural Foundations of Nations: hierarchy, covenant, and republic 86 Nationalism and merely following the subjective paradigm of Anderson’s (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995). (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2001), and Anthony D. Smith, 37 83 Joseph Stalin: Marxism and the National 85 (Oxford: , who view, who 87 CEU eTD Collection ed. (Cambridge Mass.: MIT Press, 1966), 88. Two comments: first, community is in italics in original as well 90 Contingent Event,” 89 fluctuating, and imagined social construct, similar toAnderson’s ‘imagined community’. 88 asfollows: culture He defines nation. of understanding subjectivist an intootherwise andsocialization ‘aculture’ role of common includes the he where social Karl communication of theory classical come to Deutsch’s back and even more often since the beginning of the nineteenth century. That is the point where we time to time from happening are which coincidences mere as people of thousands of meetings people.highly “indifferent” agree with Brubaker in viewing “collective action” as something happening by surprisingly not “identity we agreewith viewof the collectiveas achangeableproduct wedo of action” ‘communities’ of images self- and self-understanding the reinforced or/and havecreated events framed nationally reasons formobilized popular massesinnineteenth century Bohemia and Moravia. If in process. a dynamic reconstructed andeveninreality/social process reality mind, if their and permanently constructed imagine they since beings, human for real fact isin reality social That reality. social peoples’ as institutionalizedform,and cultural political wehave for tolook social inherent facts in nationhood or an‘imaginedcommunity’, ofnation as ifwefollowparadigm the state? Even classeducated nationalist from the claim beable Austrian supranational to power the political would why and thousands in ten gather they did why indifferent, nationally been have century Karl W. Deutsch, Karl Cf. Rogers Brubaker, “Rethinking Nationhood: Nation asInstitutionalized Form, Practical Category, Here, the term “community” is not used in anessentialist, bounded, ‘groupist’ way. Rather, it is seen as a boundaries. Inso far as a common culture facilitates communication, it forms a communication; it is usually easierfor men to communicate withinthe same culture thanacross its and behavior,A commonculture … is a common set of stable, habitual preferences and priorities in men’s attention, as well as in their thoughts and feelings. Many of these preferences may involve Departingfrom such an understanding of social reality we arepreparedfor finding the If Bohemian and in Moravian the and middle of thenineteenth peasants workers the Contention Nationalism and Social Communication: an inquiry into the foundations of nationality 88 , 4/1 (Fall, 1994): 3-14. as nations, what have been the conditions for such events? Even if Even events? such for conditions the been have what nations, as 89 There might be coincidences and fortunes, but we do not take not do we but fortunes, and be coincidences might There 38 community . 90 2 nd CEU eTD Collection ed.(Cambridge Mass.: MIT Press, 1966), 92. Deutsch makes is the difference between Society community. and Society makes between isthedifference Deutsch a physical by informationprocess iswhich within transmitted society. Herethe crucial point within acommunity are transmitted. This process of communication necessarilydoes include of process how cultural information and the individuals’ understanding of“commonality” insightThe great whichDeutsch’s theory can provide is us an with explanation actual the of society society and culture conceptsof including andinformation. of communication theories theseparate Heexplains understandings of the same phenomenon occurs. Deutsch tries to overcome this difficulty by 93 streetsor and intersections in atraffic pattern.” Ibid.,284. ownpast states and by their in part determined by manner, otherspecific things ina orevents distributed of events, which function collection changing of a as consists their It channels,entity. an and as updrafts do in a flame, 92 91 text. original the in any author of imply the not intention sexist probably does and women and men to refers “men” term the of usage author’s the second, and carried.” culture are of andchannels habits the memories and minds whose “in individuals living of collective the to refers usually likefactors whereas‘community’ andpreferences, objectiveinstitutions, habits (material) for used isoften ‘culture’ term the fact that the on attention reader’s the draws Deutsch Karl W. Deutsch, Karl His definition of ‘culture’ is as follows: One has to view it like a flame or a traffic pattern; Ibid., 89.it “is both a process baffling cases cited by the Professor are Here Chadwick: minors. members German bythe of different vicariously peoplesshared be may may liveexperiences through owners’ the mine same German of the some about information particular, in be shared; can but they owners, mine German and minors German of those as such dissimilar, quite be may individuals ofcertain experiences many communication same miningthe in town,miners German but and they Czechs of those are were as not necessarily similar, be may society common their in shared.experiences On the other hand, within each community of little information. They may have very few complementaryrelatively but services and channels goods of exchange communication.may they years Formany Many Bengal. in of Hindus their and Moslems or inBohemia, Germans and Czechs as such society, one in lived often cultures ofdifferent Individuals … patterns other about information convey to as arranged as standardsdances, or models of graceful Or behavior. they may be patterns of preference, of do’s don’ts, and such of moralityof culture … [C]ulture communicates patterns … They may be patterns of action, suchas games, andinformation taste.services. and goods channel and select, produce, Societies Or, finally, they may be codes and symbols, that is, patterns so Nationalism and Social Communication: an inquiry into the foundations of nationality . A railroad or a printing press is a matter of society. Atraffic code oran alphabet is a matter 92 and theirinterrelated processes by it: exemplifying 91 The problem of The of problem developing links aconceptboth which 39 93 Cultures produce,select, andchannel 2 nd CEU eTD Collection 96 95 [ Cambridge University Press, 1945), 1. Additionally one has to point out that the term “community of fate” 94 tradition.” and culture, language, of ties the outweigh thus may class barriersof “certain andplacesthe times thatat writes Deutsch and prestige. security, wealth like byfacts in careers, education, separated community the classes whoare rich social and poor distinguish can one phrasing simplest the In classes. social of reality social the of observation Disraeli’s to herefers First, complexities. of a couple at he points where critique a adds consciously Deutsch However, be simple. seems to conceptualization look firstthis At ‘a people’: of definition functionality of nationality is wide complementarity of social communication. Hence his over awider with onelarge range members of subjects, of than group with outsiders.” The nationality. Technically hethe in ideaWith of a people’ ‘membership describes ‘a idea of people’ socially. he explains it leadculture as ustothehow does question culture influenceof the of possibility the transmitting “the ability to communicate of impact and the society and community between differences the This conceptualization of more effectively, and Austro-Marxist circle,which on bewill in focused the third partof the thesis. national lines on Austrianthe half of Empirethe upis which question the comes alongwhy alignmentdid succeed over international class alignment, an issue highly debated in the Schicksalsgemeinschaft Ibid., 98. Ibid., 96-97. Ibid., 95-96. Karl Deutsch refers here to H. M. Chadwick, facilities are what we call apeople. we call what are facilities that is, to a culture …; and the individual who have these complementary habits, vocabularies, and willthey up toan add integrated patternconfigurationor of communicating, remembering, acting, and libraries, statues, signposts, and the like; …If these elements are infact sufficiently complementary, and preferencespainting, calculating, etc. They include informationstored inthe living memories, associations, habits, ofsymbols which is a language,its and any number of auxiliary codes, such as members,alphabets, systems orwriting, call apeople … The communicative facilities of a society include a socially standardized systemandof A larger group of personsin linked by such complementary habits itsand facilities of communication we may material facilities for the storage of information, such as opposed. bitterly even or behavior, events for generations and yet emerge from thissupposed ‘community of fate’ quite dissimilar in ] was introduced by Austro-Marxistthe thinker and politician OttoBauer. 94 95 40 The Nationalities of Europe 96 By focusing work our (Cambridge: CEU eTD Collection others, it had the real effect of integrating certain societal communities within Bohemia and Bohemia within communities societal certain integrating of effect real the had it others, or terms national in defined If community. one’s within communication social effective organizations and meanswere, asexplainededucation above, for widening and deepening welfare The nationalization. of thesuccess foundation for and societal cultural in adeeper Deutsch brings agitators, hardwork of ideological nationalist of the as mereobjects children boards. theeducation schools and organizations, of welfare and agenda divide nationalist Moravia. They and in Bohemia system andeducation welfare the influence of of crucial the examination argue that by Zahra’s indirectly andTara Judson’ssupported are and Pieter social communication the reason thesis thatsocial andtheThis observations integration underlying increase societal reforms for nationalization and national separation was the und die Sozialdemokratie Whenpointing at Otto Bauer’s account, he refers to following section in Otto Bauer, Imperialism: The Highest State of Capitalism Bismarck Prussian Chamberof Deputies in 1865, long before socialhis reforms of 1880’s. the LookErich in Eyck, 97 trying understand to the processes nation-buildingof on Bohemia andMoravia: of integration. Especiallylevel an advanced at anation becoming (idealistically of integration a people to the is related for the workingeffective accounthe andwidesocial into that communication develops the hypothesis Bauer class and peasants this seems to be crucial when strata of the different nations are separated from each other.” each from separated are nations different of the strata national education, in … differences willthe mark , through … off society the socialist entire … [The] peoples language standard sp sharply the national and life, fromcultural each other,national as today only the educated sharply the lowerclasses of the various nations from each other, forthey, too, gain a share in national education, Ibid., 99. When pointing at the historical observations Karl Deutsch refers to Bismarck’s speech in the in speech Bismarck’s to refers Deutsch Karl observations historical atthe pointing When 99. Ibid., However, where they see the culturally and societal totally indifferent parents and parents indifferent totally societal and culturally the see wherethey However, other. each from off marked sharply more but internally, unified more Bauer peoples Otto as different may leave progress, predicted, social and of democracy periods and compatriots; middle-class of their that to workers of outlook the assimilate to tend may observed, Lenin as wages, high closely; more people communicationwithin the social of people than acrosscomplementarity borders. effective Socialmore far reforms, as probably Bismarck these, knew,of all may knit aresult a as and, intermarriage, across class lines, more conviviality and informal social association, more vertical mobility and fact. There will be a greater stock of common experiences, agreater flow of social communication ties to theirown people, to its folkways the there and livingprestige, standards,and security education areaccorded and and tradition, country’ the in will ‘stake be economic strong and in political a have if they find not merely factories and slums but schools, parks, hospitals, and better housing; where they By taking classical experiencesandthought of Bismarck,political Lenin and Otto , vol.II (Zurich: Eugen RentschVerlag, 1943), 36. Lenin’s knowledge he derives fromI. V. Lenin, 97 , 2 nd ed.(Vienna: Brand, 1923), 135.“Modern capitalism slowly demarcates more , translation (New York: International Publishers, 1939), 105-108. 41 Die Nationalitätenfrage CEU eTD Collection the importance of such kinds of alignments: increasing of factor major the as modernization views he Anderson and Gellner to Similarly 100 Ibid. marriage.” and courtship recreation, associated with one’s particularcommunication group) suchin matters as buying andselling,work, food and 99 98 social and involve economic preferences which themobility and of persons” goods “acquired identifies he As second, habits.” communication of “complementarity is the basis center and aleading group.” and political alignmentof individuals from social different classes andoccupations, around a “aforms economic, asocial, people that Deutsch’s explanation, to we refer when surprising own political powerand legitimacy in the name popularof the masses doesnotcome social saw the groups rising language popularity nationalistof asa chanceincreasing of their especially these That participation. political for their claim increased class which educated middleloweritwas new or the Rather, class. thewealthy or upper nobility, aristocracy, in supranational past. the or etc.) (Imperial/Austrian) sense very Moravia, Praguer belonging locally Budweiser, was of whose defined (e.g. rather Hereby, Deutsch means simply “widespread preferences for things or persons of Ibid., 101.‘one’s own kind’ (that is, Ibid., 101-102. national movement. is sufficiently strong, respected, and locally accessible become to factin the ‘leading group of the and social leadership may devolve uponthe next class below it, orstill farther downto whicheverclass finally, it has come to care only forits own group interests in a quite narrow manner, then the national elsewhere, perhaps outside the country,orif it has accepted alienspeech, habits or religion, orif, not be, indirectly from to link link directlyand the withthecenter … A ‘leading social …may group’ be, butneed establishedand leading social groups by channels of social communicationand economic intercourse, both alignment of large numbers of individuals from the middle and lowerclasses ‘upper linked to regional centers successfor …Inthe political and social struggles of the modern age, class’by social and technological change, exposed to the risks of economic competition, and taughtof to hunger rewards forsuccessful the group alignmentspsychological and to economic tense offer and insecure which economy individuals market - momentto menmodern the and women and uprooted industrialism of rise the … If its main interests and ties, however, lie Following three factors are identified by Deutsch as the basis of alignment. The first The alignment. of basis the as Deutsch by identified are factors three Following As examined in sectionsthe theleadingabove nationalisthave groups been not the 100 98 42 nationality , then, means an means , then, 99 . CEU eTD Collection Books, 2005),61-88. Judsonand Marsha L. Rozenblit (eds.), 101 regime. old the to linked closely still were they language, nationalistic adopted When taking a look at the Bohemian elite, the nobility, we can conclude that even if they above’ heabove’ means: ‘being By movement. national the of shape the of influence has but time over changing being “above”themain being groups led moment. at certain The leading social itself is group even this highlights pointby he stating that refers tothe upperclass iswhich perceived as Deutsch time.during changeanddoso individuals meanscan of group who group acertain viewing‘group’ and themassomething naturally stable, biologically or given. Here,social “groupism”, well flawed by of the analytical conception aware of the concept of essentializing connotation of the term “group”. As explainednationhood. Czech) (or Bohemian of understanding in the beginning nobility Jews inregardof andlinguistic theposition uncertain of ethnic, developing the of this thesis the author Bohemian the role of problematic the explains communication social basedon ‘community’ is of conceptualization sametheoretical very The belonging’. of develop a‘sense appear to why in There exist certain remain indifferent? some social certain arguments groups situations rather toadopt and community language social one whydidnotthey than groups or another, regions certain within atendency if was there However, thought. asauseful be taken to has Thisintoindividuals account. life viewof aspects choosing language useand other of societal asmerely individual practical interpreted considerations often taking and economical choice, choice of one’s national belonging innineteenth century Bohemia and Moravia has been often hence and choice Language Vienna. of centre imperial the outside regions the in legitimacy canbeexplainedby for political Nationalistic interest. struggle language very their their in been has Empire supranational the with loyalty there view of point economical an from Cf. Eagle Glassheim, “Between Empire and Nation: The Bohemian Nobility, 1880-1918,” in Pieter M. Pieter in 1880-1918,” Nobility, Bohemian The Nation: and Empire “Between Glassheim, Eagle Cf. The concept of a ‘leading social group’ should not be overthrown by the critical Constructing Nationalities in East Central Europe 43 (Oxford: Berghahn 101 Especially CEU eTD Collection 103 ed.(Cambridge Mass.: MIT Press, 1966), 102. 102 and does not get caught in either Habsburg nostalgia in century andnationalization the nineteenth process grounds of ofthis foundations particular ignoring the social fact of nationality which it isdistinguishes this workfrom showsothers that societal, cultural, political and nationalization processvariations in history, among different but the regions particular significant is are there fact that The phenomena. and arestandardized itself process societal the times. The one claim in of Bohemiathis thesis isand not Moravia.to explain every The aim psychological effects on seeking self-esteem in joining the category of nationality. initsbe social must underestimated becausenot language of etc.) institutions one’s These experiences of belonging toa lower social class (sometimes even humiliation in public or badgrammar. accent their Czech lack of German, of because their with discrimination experiences on, childhood from lives, their in occasions several on had Moravia and Bohemia that amajority writes thissupports Borkenau speakers in lineof Czech of argumentation. Borkenau by Franz argument psychological An additional nationality. of join category the to classes lower the motivated have might individuals of rise social the to barriers of lessen number of people.significant which nationalists the Bohemian andMoravian mobilize wereableto a persuade and by theoreticalKarl structure Deutsch appears tobe for useful understanding theon ground a into framing their and nationality of functionality the on observations general These Cf. Franz Borkenau, W. Deutsch, Karl Following Deutsch’s theory does not imply that the foundations of nationalization and nationalization of foundations the that imply not does theory Deutsch’s Following social and equality opportunity of out promised the that aspectspoint All thenoted jobs. and marriages to deals business from opportunities, And it promises security, forit promises to reduce the probability of outside competition forall sorts eliminateof orlessen linguistic, racial, class, orcaste barriers to the social rise of individuals withinit. culture, nationality is an implied claim to privilege … It promises opportunity, forit promises to as some sociologists have termed it, of ‘moving vertically in society’ …In acompetitive economy or joiningon this ‘leading group’ would have insome sense a real experience of ‘rising in theworld,’ or, social opportunities, skills, wealth, organization, and the like, so that a memberof another social group, at least interms of current prestige, and usually in the long run interms of economic, political, and Nationalism and Social Communication: an inquiry into the foundations of nationality, Austria and After (Faber andFaber: London, 1938). 44 102 2 nd 103 CEU eTD Collection 105 (1980),1/1 114. 104 especially the after in thestate, needed something love”“Brotherly wassurely building. any ethnicmodern,nationhood, but understandingof a enlightened conceptnation- of the common administration,for language one choosing of idea very The nationhood. “German” a building of universities,instrument an as trade, seen been not has language run, longer thethe in solidarity economy,for basis the and understanding, politics etc. was not driven by able tounite his indominions “brotherly love”. be language would only German the had ideathat II the Joseph culture. shared languageand model shouldwhich befollowed. Hefound thebasis of solidarity French inand loyalty their and toFrance as looked state his multi-ethnic somehow implications and multi-lingual the of culture.” by common unified administration for an Joseph leadership France theneed “Competingmonarchical II recognized forof Europe, with morebecame German. content history their of course the during However, cosmopolitan. ideal.imperial institutional forms The within monarchy the were self-consciously withbasically army,cosmopolitan and the the monarch upheld the bureaucracy, together imperial The be useless. to appeared finally attempts these all II, Joseph her son and Theresa likeMaria rulers absolutist byenlightened attempted was ‘Germanization’ of certain degree Even attempt by a the of concept ifcentralization of a nation-state. supportingand unification political the realize not elite could state’s Austrian like England the France or in states Unlike 2.4. Ideas ofGerman Nationhood framing of past. the nationalist or in ‘ethnicism’ nor feature, powerful emerging politically and socially a as Ibid., 115. John A. Armstrong, ‘Administrative Elites in Multiethnic Polities’, in Similar to Bolzano, who saw a common language asamedium forand language whosawacommon tolerance Bolzano, Similar to 45 105 104 He definitely recognized the complex International Political Science Review , CEU eTD Collection Erfindung der Nation: zur Karriere eines folgenreichen Konzepts of a lost war of instead independencebrothers, between (aswar as it was narrative, in reality)a national as by- reframed States the southern United of the states myth founding - a lookas war in Benedict Anderson, foundations of nationality fragmentation, in Austria. Cf. Karl W. Deutsch, process legislated by political elites, there was institutionalizationof the nationality principle, and a civilhence war which would have functioned as a founding myth, and the following assimilation/nation-building Habsburg state, and the Emperor as an object of loyalty and identification. The crucialnumber in different both states is spokethat asignificant insteadeven if other of languages. language, state official Secondly, one implement to his intent own had Both book States. shows United ofthe one the the very from significance of Austria, the adopt nationalist language. I would go not as far asKing and see the idea of Austrian nationhood so much away 2003), 13. Even if he noted that this formulation is“from an ethnic perspective” itis not wise for ahistorian to and Germans: A Local History of Bohemian Politics,1848-1948 or German by nationhood must be Czech or German by ethnicity as well.” Jeremy nationhood andby King,citizenship.From an ethnic perspective in Habsburg Centralby Europe,though, someoneAmerican but Czech by ethnicity African or ofItalian sense the in so on, and African-American, American, civic strong a has component, nationhood where ‘ethnic’ oftenStates, denotes United a culturalthe “In quality Europe: that distinguishesCentral some Habsburg Americanin from others:statehood and thus Italian- 106 in of nineteenth late nationhood century. toany contrast concepts the ethnic of concept French the to becompared can Empire function the for and its His Austrian-German culture idea of modernizing state. idea the of Joseph II’s supportfor implementing German as state-language shouldbe seen as enlightened ishistoriansmixing periods getcaught two behindand“Germanization” these motifs the up. by The misunderstandingof developed Czech nationhood. which some anethnic-concept who movement nationalist Bohemian the of elites nationalist the by but elites, state’s reversed. been have reforms yearsII’s only Joseph after reign, of ten However, regime. ancient the of symbol the and outdated as seen became right divine by rule of principle Slavs have been culturally influential in the past, Bohemia was “practically a completely Germanmeantthe language). they “German (mainly culture” theycalled of what qualities assimilatory of successful the be very self-confident to appeared elite Austrian speaking The German nation-state. German to ideajoiningthe breaking agreater and Empire upthelogically Empire of opposed were part of the aninherent mission as a cultural German theideaof supported who of people the Forexample Jeremy King distinguishes from his view the two opposite cases of US- American nationhood Interestingly, the revival of was “Germanization” notby revivalof driven Interestingly, term the the Austrian the The native Budweiser, Franz Schuselka wrote in 1843 confidently that even if in1843 The nativeconfidently they even Franz wrote Schuselka Budweiser, that 2 nd ed. (Cambridge Mass.: MIT Press, 1966), 32-37 and the examinationof the civil Nationalism and Social Communication: aninquiry intothe 46 la missioncivilisatrice (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, (Frankfurt/Main, 1996). Budweisers into Czechs , and hence is in 106 The majority The Die CEU eTD Collection 112 111 Habsburgin Central Europe Other inBohemia to 1848,” in Nancy M. Wingfield (eds.), rights of my nation.” Quoted in Hugh LeCaine Agnew, parents “Czechs,from on Germans,passing Bohemians?to children. possession, Images Whoever undying of only Self suppresses its and away take to my languagemeans alsoa nation wantssuch of to rob me language of the my reasondebase or and way of life, the honor and intellectual treasury entire Its of traditions, fathers? ofits history,language the than it religion,to dearer and principles anything have one, lives in uncultivated an it, all especially its heart[Volk], and soul. To take away 110 109 108 (Oxford: BerghahnBooks, 2003), 59. Nancy M. Wingfield (eds.), 107 documented. well Moraviabefore hasstarted 1800and has since then never totally until disappeared is 1945 language. political nationalists’ Bohemian assoon started trends leadtotheexclusionas around 1800butfinally in of speakers German ethnicnationhood of based concept Bohemian language ontheCzechhistory. These and given bybirth. Theystarted to construct their ideamodern of “Czechness” by constructing an ideas of CzechJohann viewedthe vonHerderand naturally Gottfried language assomething Bohemia. for best been have would language one and assimilation developmentbetweenin speaker Bohemia,hasCzech been thatand German convinced uneven the criticized harshly who Bolzano, Even Austria. and city region, the with being inmostly beena-national, the 1830sand1840shave loyalties theirprimary as perceived and land.” German the Bohemian identity that was shared by the upper classes.” by upper the was shared identity that Bohemian the language another from the separatingCzechnationalism step toward the patriots took the of and middle andlowerclass] [mainly peasants of common people the “identification described wereCzech.” bourgeoisie small-town the and “only peasantry of the that part with changingthe meaning “being tackledof theJewish, Bohemian” Yiddish German or Ibid., 65. Ibid., 60-64. Karel Hynek Thám, forexample, asked his listeners in Prague’s Old Townin 1803: Ibid., 60. “And does any nation Ibid., 59. Hugh LeCaine Agnew, “Czechs, Germans, Bohemians? Images of Self and Other in Bohemia to 1848,” in Things became more complicated when tothe turned Things becamemore nationalists Czech speaking complicated 107 Many of his contemporary his Many contemporary Bohemian German speakers of theview possessed 111 The question is rather: how did the German speakers react when this Creating The Other: Ethnic Conflict and Nationalism in Habsburg Central Europe (Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2003), 61. 110 That the debate about language in Bohemia and Bohemia in language about debate the That 47 Creating The Other: Ethnic Conflict and Nationalism 112 The very same confrontation same The very 109 108 Most writers CEU eTD Collection 115 (Oxford: BerghahnBooks, 2003), 67. Nancy M. Wingfield (eds.), 114 Yearbook III(2002-2003), 111-123. L. Miller, Habsburg Moravia, in Moravia, Habsburg For more details cf. movement. Michael L. Czech-speaking Miller,the join to Voicedecided and number Vulnerability:a significant The nationalism, VagariesGerman supporting of Jewish secretly of National Identity in scapegoats, into turned been have ‘Jews’ socalled some and aggressive extremely became agitation nationalists 113 through “social communication” historiography wastransmitted stereotyping which and nationalist of a century half through laid already was alignment of success the for basis the However, other’. ‘the of stereotyping the and rivalry historical of vision nationalist the happenings Many of 1848 aresurely in such an events occasion. 1848 createdand supported revolutionary The of events. effect nationalizing the analysis of forthe perspective change.began to frightenedcampaigningfor byCzech nationalist avery long from However, period. 1848 this classes in the partially upper educated the German speakers, loyal many Habsburg atabove.Interestingly, pointed German speaking cities/towns was is which self-confidence thereasons the probably of until 1848. One significantly react of Bohemia and MoraviaCzechness already established among theirnational movement, Germanthe speakers not did did not feel found interpretation leaderslike While Czech revolution.of theirhistorical (ethnic) Palacký the of year the in 1848, different very been have nationalists German and Czech of position the etc. historiography national spreadof the nationalistcampaigning, some decadesof of make “to in solelanguage German the used Austrianmonarchy.” the anywhere “enemies” of their language, “Germans and, alas! Some threacherous Czechs,” who attempted and hence, simply did notfit. speaking inhabitants who weresuddenly defined by Bohemian nationalistsin national terms, Look atthe section which explains Karl Deutsch’s theory of ‘social communication’. Hugh LeCaine Agnew, “Czechs, Germans, Bohemians? Images of Self and Other in Bohemia to 1848,” in At the beginning most Yiddishspeakers joined the Austrian, Bohemian-German community. Onlywhen At this point, we come back to Brubaker’s proposal of adopting an “eventful” campaigning inAlready the 1810’sCzech linguistic started activists nationalist against Reluctant Kingmakers: Moravian Jewish Politics in Late Imperial Austria Simon Dubnow Intitute Yearbook Creating The Other: Ethnic Conflict and Nationalism in Habsburg Central Europe 113 48 (Vandenhoeck &Ruprecht, 2006), 159-171 and Michael , in CEU Jewish Studies 114 As a result 115 . CEU eTD Collection 118 Reiches Adam Wandruszka and Peter Urbanitsch(eds.), 117 (Oxford: BerghahnBooks, 2003), 92. in Nancy M. Wingfield (ed.), 116 political language this gavetrend for some support German nationalists, whofollowed the even privatethe spheres. Following discourses havebeen used bynationalists: andslowly framing public, political, the bynationalists wascharacterized found themselves nation”. the “enemy terms, nationalistof on “other” or constructed oncreatingartificially an aimedconsciously discourses is nationalist these The fact that supranational Monarchy anda Monarchy regional supranational the with attachments their by characterized been traditionally have Austrian-Germans The reactionary conservative, the to switched even leaders nationalist Czech the revolution the of phase leaders. critical In the andnationalist the Czech than radical liberal, more democratic, quite Bohemianthe in lands-mainly industrialized the regions Austriahavebeeninof general - and Austria Lower inVienna, German speakers the that He states some sources. to referring democracy and liberalism. That this narrative is an invention is shown by Berthold Sutter, interpretation of 1848revolution,the viewing the Czech movementnationalist as fighting for in common. nationalities all have which something is liberalism strong force in Austrian supports thispolitics view. German Liberals believed that ideal the of political goals in gaining more fact Thevery liberties. German-Liberalism that hasbeen a Ibid., 167. Berthold Sutter, “Die Politische und Rechtliche Stellung der Deutschen inÖsterreich 1848 bis 1918,” in Ji Ĝ i Štaif, “The Image of the Other in the Nineteenth Century:Historical Scholarship in the Bohemian Lands,” (Vienna: Verlag der österreichischenAkademie der Wissenschaften, 1980), 167-181. history history as that which Palacký givenhad the Czech side. 1860s, however, German the sidecould not underpin its nationalism with as aconceptrefined of nation songs, they tooka particularly on uncompromising andoffensive street and character … Until endthe ofcaricatures, the press, the in polemics histories, ofpopular part became arguments these When … Culture German to solely progress and civilization all owed lands Bohemian the that argument the Bohemia to emigrants who than more no had were always Germans that assertion the damaged with Germans the the assailed country. Czechs The The Germans attempted to wound the Czech side with people a-national even or indifferent nationally mainly before inwhich situation The Lager to gain advantages. to Creating The Other: Ethnic Conflict and Nationalism in Habsburg Central Europe 118 Landesbewußtsein Die Habsburgermonarchie 1848-1918 III: Die Völker des In the dynamics of an increasingly nationally framed nationally increasingly an of dynamics the In 49 116 [regional patriotism], and saw their 117 There is one nationalist Thereisone CEU eTD Collection (Princeton, N.J.: PrincetonUniversity Press, 2003), 112. Czechness. of that to similar Germanness, 1879-80 which lead toawithdrawal liberalism andof totheaddition an of ethnic strandto of shocks political the were movement liberal German the concerning politics Austrian in aggressive in tonationalizetheir attempts institutions and A associations. crucial pointturning more became akin, speaking Czech and German sides, both on nationalists and worsened diminishing nationalist over language debates use, especially regarding thesituation schools, of Instead results. bythe contradicted even were reforms their of goals political the In fact, 121 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2006), 12-13. 120 119 opposing democracy. federalism, however, for the reason of guaranteeing individual civic rights and not for In liberalsethnic nationhood. their indeedoppose German sense did claims of political German liberals saw the German language as necessary lingua franca and not as basis for an democratic and Habsburg-Germanthe againstrevolutionary forcesreactionary iswrong. asradical movement national Czech the image of the Second, historians. by nationalist cleavages through ran nationalistthe which movements as homogenous where not as reported influential. romanticist the Czech was movement, string. national to these not Comparing group Jeremy King, Pieter M. Judson, Guardians of the Nation: Activists on the Language Frontiers of Imperial Ibid.Austria language, more serious public transactions would takeplace German.in a vernacular in betransacted might relations domestic or local although that belief a was decision this in individuals to use theirown languages in normal daily intercourse whereverthis was practical. Implicit the claims that individuals might make as corporate groups; they had merely recognized the right of constitutional standing to so-called nations. They had not intended to lend constitutional recognitionto language diets. Intheir1867 constitution most German liberals regardeduse the clause guaranteeing equality of a guaranteelegislated, the liberals fought any program that would devolve significant state powers to the provincialofdominated diets to trample basiconthe civic rights, educational policy, and religious reforms they justhad civilThe German liberals were strict political centralists. Believing thatrights federalism would allow noble for the individual and certainly not as a way to give political-ideological the nationalism despite first, that out point to important is It Budweisers into Czechs and Germans: A Local History of Bohemian Politics, 1848-1948 121 50 120 119 CEU eTD Collection formulated as follows: as formulated 1848asdecisiveafter in nationalists’ factors King, exampleis success. One who Jeremy 122 from nationhood. Ashistorian has Robert distinguished elaborated, the Kann of the time the Czech of discourse an itsintoethnic embedding and language Czech the of strengthening a inarguing for narratives could become powerful wars, Hussite from the such as narratives, historical Asresult, asecond andMoravia. inBohemia speakers Czech and German between cleavage, linguistic significancethe of theincreasing language of importance explains Theincreasing identity. social marker of language becameasignificant was that effects print-media societal literacy) and supported changes nationalism. supportive of One of the hadnationality category societal of multiple reasons. or political the repress and fight actively to reluctance state’s of the factor The ideology. a supportedas political nationalism thesuccessof factors many aschapter 1explained,But, patriotismState and Army administration hardtokeepsupranationaltried loyalties strong. policies. state’s the of because merely successful not surely was nationalism relativize: should accepted nationalistmovements rather than social democratic or religious ones. Here, one supportedleast orat Habsburg the is of The implicithypothesis state this argument that Ibid., 5. 3. The Role ofthe Austrian State -Institutions andReforms Embedded ‘Nationality’ as a Political and Legal Category institutionalize them as subcitizenships among whichcitizens had to choose. or Aryans.conflict ‘the people’ to make popular sovereignty in butnot ‘nations’ workers peasants,and Christians, Aftermovements. That policy perhaps contributed to the failure 1900,by believers in class, religious, or racial Czechs. the HabsburgThemovements Habsburg influenced- powerfullywhich the political content and statedemographic statedimensions of individual nationalkindsBetween1848 and 1918,by enforcingand setting many politicalrules to the was game, Habsburgthe state evenof Budweisersalso embracedmore acceptingtended toa clusterbecome of national Germans, of nationhoods,formovements example, andthan which of byotherkinds moving A of growing see group historians the made by political decisions Austrian the state kinds ofto First of all,structural changes in society, economy etc. (such as mass schooling, rise of 51 122 CEU eTD Collection 124 Habsburg Lands, 1526-1918 (London: University of Washington Press, 1984), 29-30. communication in German, tied to aculture sphere within cultural a partial Czech culture as Vladimír Macura, has in a writtencomplex give-and-take with the rise of centralized states and social mobility. One scholar,of a ‘shift in by driven “massenlightenment thought: literacythe innewly vernacularscodified was emerging, center of gravity By the promotionfrom literacyof and elementary mass education the anstate followed a general understandingtrend Czech. or German either of versions standardized teaching in Bohemia, schools of elementary of Bohemian society in the second half of the nineteenth century. find pragmatic politicization for solutions settling increasing linguistic the the of cleavage of tabula rasa nineteenththe be century seenshould not ashaving from arisen a cultural and historical 1615 shows theserious historical of topic.past this in issue political hot a as law language of fact mere the ineffectual, remained legislation by 123 could hold offices in towns and in lands.” the least of generations only natives three forat that and the right of domicile, was aprerequisite Czech of knowledge the that parishes,andschools, in courts, the beused only could Czech “that 1615 in aresolution on insisted even diet Bohemian the century seventeenth early the In number of German speakers: Hussite wars on,language became an issue. This was alsoreinforced by increasingthe Ibid., 30. Robert A. Kann and Zden Already in the eighteenth century the Austrian state began to develop a dense network a dense develop to began state Austrian the century eighteenth the in Already in Moravia in Bohemia and main cleavage language asa of importance The increasing of the of the Habsburg kings. Germanthe languageon bestowed and a statuspreachers foreign akinintroduced which to thatLutheranism, of of spread Latin the was factor in theAnother CatholicBohemia. northern Church. in particularly Finally,areas, frontier the there into peasants was of German the influencepenetration and towns, inGerman of advance Bohemia … The century sixteenth the during setbacks, certain with though continued, wars and MoraviaThe position of strength was which the Czechdue language had gainedpartly in public life in the wake toof the Hussitedemographic factors: the influx of German artisans into as some modern historians try to argue. Societal developments forced the state to state the forced developments argue. Societal to try historians modern assome Č k V. David, A History of East Central Europe, vol. VI: The Peoples of the Eastern 123 124 52 Evenifatlanguage protection theseattempts CEU eTD Collection should nevertheless pay attention to the symbolic power of such a historical narrative. The narrative. historical a such of power symbolic the to attention pay nevertheless should we nationalism,” of form modern the of “invention first the movement century fifteenth language “underclasses.” of the particular the and religion to it linking by movement social and national a formed elite century Bohemia against in fifteenth lower and aristocracy peasants the of Czechspeaking He views the riots the the German lords as a social revolution, where the lower political in perspective 1938: Borkenau’s Franz is a narrative such of example An illustrative activism. nationalist 1918 often phrased narratives intothese nationalist terminology and hencebecame partof civilization, of mission thecultural their for latterclaim their legitimize to first the for nationalists, Czech and claimingGerman the right both, by used been has to (national)narrative This century. eighteenth the to back traced be can and emancipation. Historiographynew is not assimilate developed to too were culturally settlers who German imageof the This after Moravia 126 (Princeton, N.J.: PrincetonUniversity Press, 2003), 18. followingnarrative among Bohemian (German Czechand historians:speaking) research Worldbefore War IIbyinterviewing people and in historians Bohemia, reports cleavage in Moravia. and Bohemia 127 125 configuration.” and [ independent self-contained an Czech an cultureof as understanding toward Elizabeth Wiskemann, Elizabeth Franz Borkenau, Franz Jeremy King, , 2 modern form of nationalism, and performed one of the first typical social revolutions of European of revolutions social history. typical first the of one performed and nationalism, of form modern social than of a religious movement. Infact the Czechs have a right to claim that they first invented the with the religious coupled was heresy movement taughtThe by JanHus. merchants. But ‘Hussitism’ and lords was German in realitythe muchmoreagainst of a nationalrevolted and aristocracy, lower the with together craftsmen, and peasants underclasses, Czech the century fifteenth of the beginning the In nd ed. (MacMillan: New York, 1967), 1. 127 Budweisers into Czechs and Germans: A Local History of Bohemian Politics, 1848-1948 grounds that they were socially more advanced. more socially were they that grounds general the on beassimilated, to – refused England to came who Protestants French the or weavers Flemish the –unlike have they century, eighteenth or the sixteenth the or twelfth the in whether arriving because, complication, political a created everywhere have settlers German 125 Austria and After Its effects shall become influential for the rise of language as a dominant Czechs & Germans: A study of the struggle in the historic provinces of Bohemia and (Faber andFaber: London, 1938),25. Even if reject we can in histeleology inherent calling the Elizabeth Wiskemann, an American historian who did her 53 126 celistvý ] CEU eTD Collection (Oxford: BerghahnBooks, 2003), 40. in Nancy M. Wingfield (ed.), 129 2nd ed.(Cambbridge,Mass.: MIT Press, 1966), 104. 128 in the that from assumption the departs Hebasically game. the comesinto ‘nationalities’ of theory Deutsch’s where is This men. fellow indifferent originally their on power exercise symbols etc. upon which nationalist intellectuals could build, existed already: issection howsuch canbe The narratives power exercisedbynationalists. historical and forming hegemonic asocial of‘nationality.’ discourse The question iswhich tackled in this Both factors finally become questions of power, how whichprocess, following Deutschmay on two majordepend factors: nationalistsadditionally can exercise largenational of individuals.alignment groups Hisof provide theoretical elaborations us powerwith foran explanation for social preparedthe explaining ground Karl communication of and theory two Deutsch’s one in chapter argued already have I As them. reframed who nationalists by instrumentalized for the strength historicalmany symbols over wereprocessed and transmitted finally generations, and of a developingspeaking lords. patriotic mobilizedCzech massunited against anddistinct and speaking German was revolted or nationalisthistorical facts do not really matter forits social function for creating the myth that long ago a András Vári, “The Functions of Ethnic Stereotypes in Austria and Hungary in the Early Nineteenth Century,” Nineteenth Early the in Hungary and Austria in Stereotypes of Ethnic Functions “The Vári, András Karl W. Deutsch, Nationalism and Social Communication: An Inquiry into the Foundations of Nationality, The question which is of major importance for this thesis is how nationalists could nationalists how is thesis this for importance major of is which question The employed. still was before years forty some created of stereotypes set the and occurred during secondthe of half century,the nineteenth throughthe end of 1820s suchthe no redrawing had for severalinfluential generations. remained Although that these stereotypes characterizations and were redrawn pictures in produces more divisive literature This nationalist fashion intellectuals. anational literature containingThe age of Enlightenment provides a starting point, however, becausesets at this time a substantial bodyof of ethnic stereotypes appeared. The bias in these works is that of a group of changes in their old ways of life. without the cooperationof their rulers, for realignment with the new nationalist movement and the new Second, it may depend of the extent to or alignment. which the alliance, masses entry, of the peoplecommunication, havefor becomeclasses mobilized, ofother with members or the to accessible remains outwardFirst, it may depend on the extenttrappings, to which the ruling class itself promotes thisprocess, not merely in its but in its social substance; the extent, therefore, also to which the ruling class and narratives such how level, social the on identified be can explanation A second Creating The Other: Ethnic Conflict and Nationalism in Habsburg Central Europe 128 54 129 CEU eTD Collection 132 131 2nd ed.(Cambbridge,Mass.: MIT Press, 1966), 104. 130 explained by Deutsch. The nationalist elite are striving for power: group symbols.to elite of cohesion individuals,and enforces attachment large whose status a certain group of Its its members.” behaviour of the over control of effective own dynamicacquirea measure to hadbeen“pressing that wasapeople “a nationality” nineteenth century and how such power can be processed are plausibly recognition by the Imperialits and etc.) census (statistics, science social of rise the constitutes nationality state. of discourse The choice of categories An interestingin turning point Austrian the rolestate’s viewingand of and shaping political the ascription through which the 3.1. Statistics -Creating the‘Other’ in processes century nineteenth Bohemia and Moravia by them. exemplifying theory of social Karl by to Deutsch’s referring processes” “nationalization ofoperation modes general of communication, anation itself …” considers symbols,itoften group to attachment the following sectionsinstitutions andrelevant compel adds of its state to the power this “cohesiveness to and of control gain to will enough strong itself finds nationality a If show communication. of channels the functioning nationaliststheir power national by strengthen social alignments elaborating adequate of such These processes of nationalization follow the processes of social communication. By using Ibid., 104-5. Ibid. Karl W. Deutsch, Nationalism and Social Communication: An Inquiry into the Foundations of Nationality, into line … line into the nationality leads them to ask for more. Formally or informally, dissenters find themselves pressed all together, make up the social fabric of the nationality. All group powerthis acquired by members of communication, the preferences of behavior, the political (and sometimes economic) alignments which, instrumentseducational oreconomic institutions, or throughthe machinery of government. Whateverthe evenmore strongly throughformal be exercised can social It or political symbols. organizations, ofnational prestige the through and the opinion, administration ofgroup of pressure arrangements, social of compliance habits with enforcement probabilities, such power canbe exercised through informal ofprobable to aid in thespread of habits of voluntary compliance with them [the people]. interplay Asthe power,with some machinery of compulsion strong enough to make the enforcements of commands sufficiently they are used to strengthen and elaborate those social channels of 131 55 130 Hence, nationality describes the describes nationality Hence, 132 Having explainedsome CEU eTD Collection ‘German,’ or ‘mixed,’ according to “the language used by residents in motheras used by tongue their “thelanguage residents according to ‘German,’ or‘mixed,’ inways. better population Hethen he that as explained had communities ‘Czech’, classified serve the that policies itdevise language might so that data should collect state the that his very first paragraph, he equates language with ‘nation’ or ‘people’ ‘nation’ language ‘people’ he [ his very with equates first paragraph, or became a member of the Austrian ofthe a member became 135 134 (Princeton, N.J.: PrincetonUniversity Press, 2003), 20. 133 Jire by Josef Czech) (in survey waswritten 1850, butbased primarily languageon summaries of used by in priestsparish 1829, the an Czech example, gives support to nationalists the Imperial elite tried to stop it. for a generation.” ethnicity languageor of …avoidedsubject the his successors … 1850s,and appear until the behind mutually state the system anethnic, classificationstudy …[h]is exclusive not did of von Czoerning’s reasons, the “Whateverignored. was Bilingualism exclusive continued languagecategories. theirof usage themonarchy.”throughout and enough granted resources to begin on work firstthe official study languageof use Statistics Administrative of a Directorate into enlarged in Vienna Office Statistical a small for administration anecessity modernizing“Onlythe seen for was rather as in state. 1841was language A common a priority. as ‘Germanization’ in viewing reluctant usually were policies language German itssupported dominance, hence state as promoted official the and Habsburg Imperiallittle. language perspective mattered Habsburg ExceptJoseph II’s policies which “divided” forpopulation is understanding insociety. the was From an of crucial cleavages Josef Jire Ibid. Jeremy King, However, after such 1848itHowever, became support fashionableas to nationalist views the and studies on relied older Czoernig) von (Karl Baron The head directorate the of þ ek (1825-1888) was a scholar and active politician supporting education inthe Czech language. He Budweisers into Czechs and Germans: A Local History of Bohemian Politics, 1848-1948 134 As soon as it became obvious that categorization by ethnic distinctions Ethnographic Survey of the Bohemian Kingdom Ethnographic Surveyof 133 Reichsrat Ethnography of the AustrianMonarchy Ethnography of in 1879. in þ ek 56 135 , a man active in Czech circles in Prague. In placed the authority of , shows. “Published in národ ], andargues ], CEU eTD Collection 140 Central Europe Century,” in Nancy M. Wingfield (ed.), 139 1900-1948 138 137 (Princeton, N.J.: PrincetonUniversity Press, 2003), 20. 136 century, nineteenth the In “message”. a political contain they often isthat science statistical difference between the oldimages and patterns of stereotyping andthoseappearingin so-called the of sideeffect highly powerful a However, campaigns. The event of both nationalists1880 provided “scientific”side on factsforwith their political Imperial Census of 1880 asacrucial which event gavenationalist support to agitation: Austrian Zahraviewsthe Tara projects. promote their to liberties usedtheir nationalists intercourse.” communal communities.” differentfit andvaluesattitudes, into that differenttypes and political of societies Joseph Emperor IIandthe his ideaofinternationalism. monarchy, socialthe were supported bythe and political reforms enlightened-absolutist second between1700and firstgroup, authors 1800.The of wherever they incame from the generations statisticians. The of groupof first authors wasborn between 1745 and 1770, the lookingworks characterizations.for group stereotypical embedded statistical descriptive of a variety Váriexamined András statistical works. busy with creating study society,of wasits political consequences.Long before 1880 scientistssocial hadbeen bilingualism.” over “glossing Ibid., 41. Nineteenth Early the in Hungary and Austria in Stereotypes ofEthnic Functions “The Vári, András Cf. Zahra, Tara Ibid. Jeremy King, identifying language use with national belonging. not stop nationalists from depicting the census as a measure of the nation’s demographic health, orfrom use.’ Although the census deliberately ofeveryday ‘language askedtheir citizens record only to citizens about language use, Austrian all not nationality, asked census the did this time, first the for year, That loosened, werecontinually state Austrian of the policies reactionary Since the According to András Vári, ethnic stereotypes “exemplify different ways of life, (Ithaca: Cornell University Press,2008), 49-50. Kidnapped Souls: National Indifferenceand the Battle for Children in the Bohemian Lands, (Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2003), 39-55. Budweisers into Czechs and Germans: A Local History of Bohemian Politics, 1848-1948 140 Ethnic stereotypes have often antecedents from the past however, the however, from past the antecedents haveoften stereotypes Ethnic 136 Yet he barely Yet his he category,used third and in Kohl thusfollowed 137 As wesee, thesources used back date to1829. Creating The Other: Ethnic Conflict and Nationalism in Habsburg 57 138 Statistik 139 He looked attwo looked He , the empirical the , CEU eTD Collection settlements) in impression of modernization. of in impression settlements) influential: been have various things people, and counted measured (roads, houses and normal people, but the only not impress to tried they also Secondly, liked them. perhaps readers firstly the are that the political elite,stereotypical and thirdly characterizations he sees the remain for about sixty years, until the 1850s? Vári’s answers pursuing a reasoned discourse over matters of of interest.” public matters over discourse pursuing areasoned “of wasthat practice thecommunicative usually was and education Whatcounted everyone. to open classes weretheoretically the educated since backgrounds from camediverse learned, their of horizon.” was the republic motherland, which was home to manyhomemotherland, peoples, nations. The to whichwas groups, “The authors seldom acknowledged national affiliation, and when they did it was to a patria, a [prigs] of progress and civilization, in contrast to the “wildin peoples,” the tothe and contrast of civilization, [prigs] progress as of positiveGermans” asthe “the educational influence quality) cultural the (with asomewhat these attitudes and andmodernity promoted civilization understandingof 145 144 (Oxford: BerghahnBooks, 2003), 45-46. in Nancy M. Wingfield (ed.), 143 in Social Psychology Behaviour 142 141 explained by Tajfel’s “orienting function” in complex societies. iscommonly stereotypes Thepopularity of social-psychological andprocesses. related the masses. mobilizedistinctions among the politically nationallyand indifferent cultural to andgroups” charged “politically proliferate wereusedto stereotypes ethnic nationalists campaigning Ibid. Ibid., 46. Century,” Nineteenth Early the in Hungary and Austria in Stereotypes of Ethnic Functions “The Vári, András Henri Tajfel, “Social Stereotypes and Social Groups,“ inJohn C. Turner and Howard Ibid., Giles 41-42. (eds.), The intellectuals of The intellectuals newof generation by first the intellectuals were accompanied who Statisticians of the first analyzed group clearly supported Joseph Joseph Statisticiansfirst clearly of supported analyzedII’s enlightened group the 141 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1981), 144-67 and Henri Tajfel, Unfortunately here isno spacefor explaining the functionssocial of stereotypes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981). Creating The Other: Ethnic Conflict and Nationalism in Habsburg Central Europe 144 58 Human Groups and Social Categories: Studies 142 145 Why did the annexes of annexes the did Why Zeitgeist Gelehrtenrepublik Naturmenschen of the epoch as Musterknaben Intergroup , the , . 143 CEU eTD Collection (Princeton, N.J.: PrincetonUniversity Press, 2003), 22. exaggerating.” he was earlier, years forty gathering asingle on in caved roof the had perished have might ‘nation’ Czech entire the that said historian, Czech the Palacký, when 1860s, the “At end the before nationalists of 1815: pointinglackBohemian supposed is of atthe worth It agitation. nationalist Czech hence in little[Bohemian] life place for was there course, public 148 147 146 ( civilization” of “mission implied the supported development, was withobviously transported descriptions of imagescultural and stereotypes. images. cultural Themain motive supporting writers, of the aprogram social of change and these used century nineteenth the of end the at nationalists that surprising not is it Hence out. points András Vádri as in literature, the existed already “others” of discourses nationalist later of Additionally, patterns movements. the for nationalistand crucial become would slowly influenced political influence nineteenth century which theeducatedclasses gained of ethnic distinctgroups. animage created -they newcomers” were people first andwhich region which hadoccupied people on“which speculations subjective unscientific rejected also - and terms “nationalist” many empathically writers of these thinkingrejected inexclusive, would nowadays say one people were quite suitable toimpress public and élite alike.” “[f]ragmentary descriptions of of then until collectiveunfathomable of behaviour groups Jeremy King, Ibid., 49. Ibid., 47. All in all, these authors had no nationalistmotive at all. In factit was the case that they Before 1848theimperial-royal [ Important for us here is to point out that these authors From on 1815 onliterature increaseddescriptive statistical work significantly. if Even at the beginning of the Budweisers into Czechs and Germans: A Local History of Bohemian Politics, 1848-1948 148 The reality was rather that through structural changes (modernization,mass- 147 kaiserlich königlich 59 la mission civilisatrice ] authorities pursuedareactionary ] authorities 146 ) and the CEU eTD Collection (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2006), 13. 149 of local institutionsgovernmental hadthat a liberal decidedly stamp. Infact, governancein as (Cisleithania) quality Austrian state the of well the ensured acknowledged bureaucracy which Imperial the was there hand one On the out. pointing worth is well which century, nineteenth half of the second during the process democratization the to attention paid haverecently demands by elitespolitical speakforsuch leadersclaimedand who to masses.the Historians is butmainjust uphere statewasnotto the reacted brought The argumentthe that actor, wholestate: Austrian liberals,in became language factor nationalist amajor political concerningthe discourse opposing theImperial Austriansupranational Especiallystate. 1848, after when nationalists were original aimsleave anyof placethe forconstitutional nationally inideology, not into accountthe nationalistadditionally logicvery which does take inherent indifferent social languagesetting, meaningful whereformed marker acultural identity, of one has to peoplereforms the or understanding for is those communication social of theory the useful and whopushedinsightful Howsoever primarily forward identified 3.2. Institutionalizationwithby of the Nationality Principle through Legal Reforms thethe German nationalists in participating life public and discourses increased. schooling, andliteracy political etc.) changesfor (liberalism, emancipation) opportunities Pieter M. Judson, Guardians of the Nation: Activists on the Language Frontiers of Imperial Austria Rechtsstaat life. linguistic goals helped validate the concept of nationin populardiscourse and informally institutionalin ‘nation’ as a legal category, of the realization legitimacy of the nationalist programs recognize to through refused the attainment governments the and of courts specificallythe Although envisioned. themselves constitutional language guaranteesbroader inafar document’s manner the than liberalauthors had administrative interpretations of the constitution reinforced nationalist demands by construing the languages, respective their in beestablished should as faculties welluniversity often and schools as secondary insupported German state- that successfully argued (or, nationalists Ukrainian inand Slovene, the Italian, later, and, case Polish, Czech, of Galicia, in Polish). Subsequent Supreme Court and 149 [guaranteeing the rule of law]. On the other hand there was the “development the was there hand other the On law]. of rule the [guaranteeing 60 de facto CEU eTD Collection 152 (Princeton, N.J.: PrincetonUniversity Press, 2003), 134. 151 2005), 68. originally Bohemia to onlybutwith intention extendto them Moravia).to languageby accommodatingin Badeni languageordinances (applied Czechthe demands Socials. Czech National Czechs and bythelinguistic rejected Young which was ones,”aproposal its with coincide boundaries administrative internal Bohemia’s made have would “that legislation government 1900the proposed movementsnever In were satisfied. nationalist movements) orswitchinga moderate form to ethnic in federalization of 1890 -however, in by with historical and Hungarian 1871(whichwasvetoed German federalists the a settlement proposing whether - solutions pragmatic find to times many tried Joseph Francis ininterest. opposed Czech - were and German - Moravia and Bohemia in movements national both that was elite Imperial the for dilemma The fundamental centralization. focussed on narrowly being than rather solutions findingnineteenth century workable was one ofHabsburg attribute duringthe policies However, in centralization. itsideal butsaw rather ideasfederalization of nationalist welcome increasing of power itselfnationalists political since state Habsburg the originally not did and Marsha L. Rozenblit (eds.), Rozenblit L. Marsha and 150 combined elementsof both bureaucratic anddemocratic rule.” that system political hybrid a of function a was Monarchy Habsburg the of lands Austrian the Ibid., 134-35. Jeremy King, EagleGlassheim, “Between Empire and Nation: BohemianThe Nobility,1880-1918,” Pieterin M.Judson In 1897 the government has already tried to settle the political conflict regarding settle conflict the political to hastried already governmentIn 1897the national, centralist solutions had grownless legitimate. federalization …as a workable solution to domestic conflicts. As those conflicts had grownmore programrights Habsburg … leaders,for their part,had pursued centralizationnot somuchstate- or Bohemian ofthe basis onthe instead, federalization historical advocated had and federalization, movement,despite continuing to understand nationhood inprimarily terms,ethnic hadopposed ethnic centralizationof Cisleithania to pursuing its partitionorfederalization into ethnic units. The Czech Since 1867, the German movement had gradually shifted from pursuing the administrative and political Democratization, liberalization and enfranchisement played an important role for 152 Budweisers into Czechs and Germans: A Local History of Bohemian Politics, 1848-1948 Constructing Nationalities in East Central Europe 61 151 150 (Oxford: Berghahn Books, CEU eTD Collection A Multi-NationalA Experiment in earlyTwentieth-Century Europe 154 2002), 81-82. 153 “Alongpolitical expanded both the camps. consequence theradicalization with on was between Czechs and Germans and led to a climate of social pressure and hostility. A third both camps, German and Czech, successfully used the summer to mobilize their supporters. governmentin reconveneJune to itin September 1897.Whatisis important activists that of Bohemian economic life became more dominated by Czechs. Finally, Badeni suspended Bohemians, whoenjoyedpositions theirdominant in Imperialthe administration hence end would German have meantthe which in many of the educated careers of effect, ordinances the against public mobilization with of campaigns started In reaction Germans its legitimation. its andmobilization of politicization society alongnational lines werefar-reaching. ofmass- effects the much Nevertheless been earlier. created have andfoundations alignments placereason was thatthese took events in summerthe and societal autumn 1897, the of the mass-mobilization. Whatever of massivethe effect hassurely supported nationalists Czechs resultedThe attemptby Austrian the governmentto find alegal solution for demands the of the in the total destruction of the parliament. The political campaigning of Ibid., 82. (ed.), Cornwall Mark in Question,” Bohemian “The Albrecht, Catherine a siege created mentality province, and strengthened ofthe the borderlands rolethe of in national protectionminorities Czech societies. or areas Czech predominantly in minorities impositionof martial law inPrague inDecember … Demonstrations, particularly against German initiated its owncounter-demonstrations public Czech the inPrague In response, and other November. citieslate in in did Bohemia,he which which ledresign, to to Badeni the upon called Vienna parliamentary obstruction, whichescalated to the point of violence Novemberin … Demonstrators in 1897. Efforts topass … jointthe budget in theautumnofof 1897 failed because of remainder continuedthe throughout common were violence street and boycotts economic Demonstrations, of Czech. command sufficient a have not did Bohemia in officials German but many ordinances, the satisfy to enough well German knew required to gain competencyboth languages in of province by the 1901 …Czechofficials generally Bohemiathe bureaucracy (the ‘outerlanguage’) and (the butcitizens also communicationin between among statecommunication officialsexternal inonly in all parts not of beused to language Czech the ‘innerallowed They language’). As a result, all state officials in the affected ministries would be Albrecht identifies three main effects on Bohemian society. First, the parliament lost parliament the First, society. Bohemian on effects main three identifies Albrecht 154 Second, economic boycotts damaged traditional commercial relationships commercial traditional damaged boycotts economic Second, 62 2 nd ed. (Exeter: University of Exeter Press, Exeter of University (Exeter: ed. The Last Years of Austria-Hungary: 153 CEU eTD Collection 2 Die österreichischen Verfassungsgesetze österreichischen Die opposite of a nation-state (e.g. France, Germany). Forthe Austrian constitutional law is thein detail:protection cf. and E. Bernatzik,promotion of the distinctof the character national the Hence groups. Following by legislation. equality von and Herrnritt existence such individual astate to right is the the each Nationalitätenstaat Mähren und derin Bukowina,“ in 159 158 (Princeton, N.J.: PrincetonUniversity Press, 2003), 114-115. 157 156 155 German fact as Officially,the languages. inhabited that aspecial status Nationalitätenstaat recognized category by the state. In legal termscentury. Austria multinationalwas at state thedue to the legally. Hence,heargues that thesupra- reforms a-nationalor Austrian Imperial state a intoturned time which tookdefined place in the ofnationalists,nationalitydefinedbut framework even recognized as a political category second half of asthe nineteentha only not King, Jeremy Compromise,The reinforced thelinguistically asarguedby Moravian the Germans and by the Czechs. demands, both oneby the shouldaccommodate remained asolution which state searchingfor nationalist parties. It numberinovertly an increase of and to strength the also contributed crisis franchise, the radicalized both their tactics and their demands.” a result the more national parties interestingly suffered relative losses. relative suffered interestingly parties more national the a result May 1907 meninCisleithania as voted (enjoying equalsuffrage) Asmassa single, electorate. In legitimacy. ethnic gain to federalization of principle the following districts of redrawing nd Cf. Rudolf v. Herrnritt, “Die Ausgestaltung des österreichischenNationalitätenrechtes durch denAusgleich in Ibid., 135. Jeremy King, Ibid., 86. Ibid., 83. ed. (1910). The focus of this section is the legal aspect of institutionalization of nationality as a nationality of institutionalization isof of The focus thelegal aspect section this Germans. and Czechs both among elites class The … Compromise Czechs the forestalled and electoral Germans the reform and bolstered aristocracy, the the positionof representing thearistocracydiet, middle-and Moravian the in houses separate three The Moravian Compromise of 1905, forexample, ended direct national competitionby establishing 157 Afarmore positive effecthad electoral the 1906-07 includedreform which the Budweisers into Czechs and Germans: A Local History of Bohemian Politics, 1848-1948 von Herrnritt means that Austria is a state that consists of a majority of peoples, which enjoy . 159 Legally there was equality among Legally officially equality therecognized eleven was there Österreichische Zeitschrift für öffentliches Recht 2 nd ed. (1911), XV A.and Fischel, 156 63 Das österreichische Sprachenrecht 1/5-6 (Wien, 1914), 583.By 158 Nationalitätenstaat 155 The Austrian CEU eTD Collection national national language. marker language, externally only individualizing of isits andapeople clear their obvious the that idea the to points Herrnritt Von confession. by choice religious of institutionalization feelings. personal and consciousness makes application the legislation legislation grab this problematic.of Theaperson’s cannot mixed inwardness arecontinually and doinga dailybasis. soon nationality of this Especially peoples havegot physical different since membersof orareuseless criteria any ethnographic psychological relationship, a question of consciousness and imagination. He states clearly that mental, asa nationality see scholars of majority vast the that concludes He nationality. discussion in sees 1914Rudolf von the Herrnritt complexity regarding adefinition of can a of group singleindividualizedas people beseen In people? one a distinguished How “apeople”. “nationality” and meaning of interesting usis the for More subjects. other “equal”in comparisonto one subject state anyequality Itonly of rights. describes positive juridicaldoes isnot not but a “equality”value lawmean?Equality It this a does term. what closer.look By to has one legal category a as nationality of institutionalization the Regarding belonging, but due to the easier evaluation of language than of personal consciousness, ithad consciousness, than language personal of of easierbutdue tothe evaluation belonging, Mähren und derin Bukowina,“ in 162 161 160 ispeoples in different state declared: the equality the among 1867 of December constitution the In article 19of reasons. administrative Vermittlungssprache Rudolf v. Herrnritt,“Die Ausgestaltung des österreichischen Nationalitätenrechtes durch denAusgleich in Art.19, StGG [Austrian constitutional law], 21.December, 1867,RGBl.Nr. 142. (translated by author) Ibid., 584. The proposed up by broughtsolution is analogy The with andan religion the proposed secondlearna language. such away that every people is able to receive the resourcesfor education without the obligation to countries… In inhabited by peoples,multiple institutions the of public educationshall be arranged in spokenlanguages [ distinct nationality [ All peoples of the state are equal, and every people anhas inviolably right to protect and cultivate its 162 160 He does not think language is the only criteria of one’s sense of Landessprachen [official language for mediation] was a bare necessity for Nationalität 161 Österreichische Zeitschrift für öffentliches Recht ] and language … The equality [ equality …The language ] and ] in schools, administration andpublic life is recognized by the state 64 Gleichberechtigung 1/5-6 (Wien, 1914), 585-86. ] of all historically CEU eTD Collection 164 163 be equality all historically of languages used of [ regions the should inwhy insaying 19addsaterritorial there secondparagraph dimension article that the languages institutionfinds inevery thisprinciple itspublic limits. practical is This reason the all impossibility applying However,of important. due tothe not theoretically of were peoples allocation the and residence of place meansthe This rights). (language rights hernational or his which isensured one to principle, according ruling isthe principle general personality the In account. into principles both takes version general its in constitution the of 19 article Basically, law. particular the on depends right nationalities the for relevant becomes principle unique casein granting autonomy level.Whetheron a cultural thepersonality territorial the or homogenization. like in is policies tomodernideology nation-states’ cultural inclearcontrast of groups protecting France, with language groups) (certain lawcultural national andprovides rights. groups Italy determination subjective of nationality nationality the islaw in mainly practice a language oras a that resulthe of the concludes law. Inshort nationality the applying for implications Germany where a top priority policy goal was linguistic given whichground, was categorizing territories againstnational minorities. The personality was principle territorial the effective, more administration the making about was it where their language reaches the necessary limit which is definedby law. The general logic was that nationality must proveLandessprache that the number of officially be recognized has an to language First the mixed regions. in of language schools children who are not yet enrolled in a school of Ibid., 589. Ibid., 587. Its special Its personalitythe regard towards madethe principle constitution a of 1867 The third paragraph of The thirdarticleof bothprinciples paragraph it 19combines tothe when comes in the concerned region/district. Second, members of concerned the members of Second, region/district. concerned in the 65 Landessprache ]. 164 163 This state CEU eTD Collection ideas of ‘national cultural autonomy.’ cultural ‘national of ideas on four, especially in section chapter the in further nationalities be will equality discussed of legal of of conceptions implications the political these and language.The different exclusive an for This created childrenandenforcedatmosphere competitive of nationalists’ competition instruction.” in if of language intothe school an are proficient they elementary accepted “[a]s amay stated: for Moravia’s rule It be children reaching consequences children. only Bohemia and Moravia supported the second, the Bohemian position. second,theBohemian the supported Bohemia Moravia and [ languages laws fact,individual in languagethe both Bohemia. In thewholeof usageof the every guarantee should personality principle viewthatthe the Bohemians supported the hand, other the On communication. administrative external the to limited be should 167 166 165 ( Bohemian of usage The domination. German recognizedesirable status German aprotected to theof rim speaking closed and create as viewof territorial wasseen point the principle Bohemia German Moravia. Inthe and personality is shouldprinciple dominate crucialfor understanding arising the conflicts in or territorial whether of question as category. The nationality of an institutionalization andled autonomy to andtheLanguagerights Austrian cultural among Imperial elite. scholars inefficiency because of a multilingual bureaucracy. principle hand ontheother viewed and equality ahigher as goal costs than administrative the Österreichs, 1848 - 1918 Sprachenverordnungen Cit. in Gerald Stourzh, Ibid., 590-92. Ibid., 590. Especially paragraph 20 of Especially thesocalled paragraph20of Moravian the compromise, This betweendiscrepancy principles twothe and created theirdiscussions effects ( Wien: Österreichische AkademieWissenschaften,der 1985),216. Die Gleichberechtigung der Nationalitäten in der Verfassung und Verwaltung ], especially the Stremayrsche Sprachenverordnung 66 böhmische Sprache, böhmische 165 166 not “Czech language”) not“Czech Lex Perek Lex of April of for 1880 , had far 167 CEU eTD Collection 169 Wissenschaften,der 1980), 508. Habsburgermonarchie 1848-1918 III: Die Völker des Reiches speaking schools expanded and a dense network of high of schools and network speaking latereven elementary schoolsexpandedadense and withingroups the Habsburg Monarchyin 1900. literacyregarding Czechspeakers rankedremarkable that the of top the on language all is It language. Czech in the masses the educating of aim nationalists’ Czech of hands participated. bourgeoisie workers andthe andeventhe petty be extremely successful appeared to population Czechspeaking the community fundedby Praguerself-organization (e.g. the national Fundraisingtheatre). among vitality a notablethrough amount of cultural institutions and which associations were all insense decades its nationality of of Czech lifeshowed public lastcentury. (speaking) the a with speakingpopulation Czech the of of us animpression penetration high degree the of since out beingis it gives pointed well aspect life.Hereone worth of organizations everyday 168 industry whichindependent was of German corporations. competitors. even major was infact only electro-technical industry the The Czech German electro-technical its with fields specialized in compete could it that successfully show to industry was able TheCzech speakers[Deutschböhmen]. by German boycotted Bohemian the focusthe of attention public bigat the in exposition economic Praguein1891,which was into put was A highlight century. nineteenth the of decades last in the visible outstandingly The vitality Czech a separated of in became Moravia speaking community Bohemiaand 3.3. Nationalization ofEveryday Life: Education, Associations, and Welfare Ibid., 510. Ji Ĝ í Ko Concerning this aspect the Imperial Austrian democratization policy the into Austrian played policy Imperial democratization Concerning thisaspectthe informal formal and nationalizing importance tothe of haspointed Karl Deutsch Ĝ alka and R.J. Crampton, “Die Tschechen,“ in Adam Wandruszka and Peter Urbanitsch (eds.), Urbanitsch Peter and Wandruszka Adam in Tschechen,“ “Die Crampton, R.J. and alka 67 169 (Vienna: Verlag der österreichischen Akademie From 1849 on the number of Czech 168 Die CEU eTD Collection slices of life” has to be seen critically. He obviously does not take the ongoing processes of processes ongoing the take not does obviously He critically. be seen to has life” of slices economic institutions.” “through formal social or political organizations, through the administration of educational or pressure opinion,group of national symbols,” of andthe orevenmorestrongly, prestige arrangements, social “informal through exercised was which power more increasingly As outlined in Karl Deutsch’s theory As inKarl Deutsch’s outlined theory the according toJeremyKing: Budweis/Bud 2nd ed.(Cambbridge,Mass.: MIT Press, 1966), 104. 174 173 (Princeton, N.J.: PrincetonUniversity Press, 2003), 46. majority stateapparatusremainedforitsthe vastHabsburg. However, multinational. lessnational became more and Politics generally conflict. political about rolein more play important a discourse to became category as apolitical nationality institutions of a nation-state. of a replacement as communities and associations self-help other and cultural economic, systems separated of developedpolitical, expandedincreasingly two areas. Both andgroups system in many in state participating the of with rejection the visible and became Morava 172 171 170 level. respected reached aninternationally its with research soon faculties speaking its Czech became in splitand eventhe Prague Finally, university has been developed. Karl W. Deutsch, Nationalism and Social Communication: An Inquiry into the Foundations of Nationality, Ibid., 46-47. Jeremy King, Ibid., 517. Ibid., 512-13. In my King’s judgement thethat people’s choiceopinion in“concerned only 1871 thin Bohemia’s two languages. between choice a offer to beginning only were which schools, and read; not did people many which Budweisers could not vote; of associations,majority great whichthe which the greatin majorityelections, could life: of notslices ordid notthin only join; the concerned press, though, choice, That Jeremy King argues between that a“political1848 and 1871 flux” began where andin system the Bohemia nation-state between a traditional The crucial difference Č Budweisers into Czechs and Germans: A Local History of Bohemian Politics, 1848-1948 jovice did notreally reach importance for majoritythe its population,of 174 171 173 68 modus operandimodus 172 was that nationalists gained nationalists that was The choice of nationality in nationality of choice The 170 CEU eTD Collection 1900-1948 178 Wissenschaften,der 1980), 509. Habsburgermonarchie 1848-1918 III: Die Völker des Reiches 177 (Princeton, N.J.: PrincetonUniversity Press, 2003), 48. 176 Wissenschaften,der 1980), 510. Habsburgermonarchie 1848-1918 III: Die Völker des Reiches Ji 175 follows: andbecame politicsmore also national.He Budweiserlifedescribes during as period this school. children’s lifelanguagehad acategory become one’s before 1871sinceoneeveryday couldof choose choice of seethat can one schools elementary figuresspeaking of Czech atthe looking when Especially, account. into channels communication various by communication social people from regions. peoplespeaking from Czech the Czech nationalism bygrowingin from 157.000 to514.000in 1850 1900 bymainly attracting of centre national asthe was Prague’sfactor development Another before. identified been has society of forBohemian nationalization factor as asupportive of democratization The process behind radicalism.” nationalistescalating force adriving itself “was nationalism to indifference isthat argument main Her parents. their to than communities national to rightfully more belonging as children viewing of claims made which culture createdapolitical activists nationalist 1945, where between 1900 and situation the describes She indifference. national against werefighting boards education originally mixed rather cities. Ĝ Tara Zahra, Tara Ji Jeremy King, í Ko Number of elementary schools teaching where was inCzech only: 1864;3.222; 1884: 4.129; 1914: 5.439; Cf. Ĝ í Ko Ĝ alka and R.J. Crampton,“Die Tschechen,“ inAdam Wandruszka and Peter Urbanitsch (eds.), nonbourgeois -at the same time many that did they matter, that becamefar So, political actors forcontestation. inarenas their own important right. became shopping and shops both and actors intown. Municipal enterprises, the census, new and less local associations, the labour market, a bourgeois elite,and together spaces, with political imperial-royalof principal list the officials, exhaust to ceased ceased to press the exhaustand the schools, list of principalassociations, politicalElections, Tara Zahra argues in her book that nationalist associations and their influence on local on influence their and associations nationalist that book her in argues Zahra Tara Ĝ alka and R.J. Crampton, “Die Tschechen,“ in Adam Wandruszka and Peter Urbanitsch (eds.), Urbanitsch Peter and Wandruszka Adam in Tschechen,“ “Die Crampton, R.J. and alka (Ithaca: Cornell University Press,2008), 5. Kidnapped Souls: National Indifferenceand the Battle for Children in the Bohemian Lands, Budweisers into Czechs and Germans: A Local History of Bohemian Politics, 1848-1948 175 King also argues that public life King duringand arguesthat public 1880sexpanded the also 1870s 177 178 Similar trends can be observed with regards other 69 (Vienna: Verlag der österreichischen Akademie (Vienna: Verlag der österreichischen Akademie 176 Die Die CEU eTD Collection 180 179 belonging and nationalists provided communicationHowever, with channels. permanent the senseof increasedpeoples’ nationalization further and massschooling course century Of on. for their own national associations and cultural institutions from the middle of the nineteenth twentieth century. belonginglinguisticfirst along national andlater lines before started beginningthe of the a senseof that I argue However, social communication. of byDeutsch’s theory supported welfare associations, schools, kindergartens, sports That associations“nationality.” played the a crucialestablish to rolebefore is power enough possessed they but nation”, “a called camps) summer and clinics, health nurseries, orphanages, centers, institutions of welfarethe system identifies,(which Zahra like day-care Kindergartens, state- over gaintraditional tomore power nationalists wereable even after 1900 that rather these existing alignmentsbutthey created its not did basis. Following it Karl was Deutsch, national lines. must there already existed have withinan alignmentlinguistic society, Bohemian along and myaround 1900 ideology that nationality argument tothe supports of cleavage wasconnected in has Bohemian visible become which society, during theBadeni this of crisis 1897. That languagein even of cleavages mentiondominantthe factone not thatdoes 1900was around national, then they wouldhave rather followedclass alignments or other cleavages. Zahra This argumentation is very simplistic and one sided. If a significant number of people were a- Ibid., 9. Ibid. One powerful argumentsupporting this claim is thatpeople hadbeen willingto pay and institutionalized incorporated welfare 1900 after systems separated The nationally apathy, of national promotion the opportunism, and for sideswitching. newspaper no and Party, People’s Nonnational no Indifferent, orcelebrated withfestivals and songs. There was no Associationfor the Protectionof the Nationally newspapers, broadcast inspeeches andpolitical manifestos,memorialized throughpublic monuments, Indifference to nationalism was rarely a memorable historical event. It was not typically recorded in It may seem paradoxical to view indifference as an agent of change oras acause of radical nationalism. 179 70 180 to create what they CEU eTD Collection A Multi-NationalA Experiment in earlyTwentieth-Century Europe weakness. manystate’s factor the only illustrates fiscal of one which system was archaic system sufferedfrom Austria’s inability adapt to to thedemands of a modern The state. Habsburg elites to look for a pragmatic solutionbe carefully has to differentiated. categories in nationalist case reinforced reluctance state’s ofAustrian the that political argumentation the hand, other conflicts. The accepted as politicala main reason for the success of national alignment and mass mobilization. On the be scientifically cannot it however, persons particular some motivate might this nationalists, process can be dismissed. If people were soindifferent to nationalism and this outraged in the factor asamajor indifference National nationalism. of forsuccess the explanation mono-dimensional is no there However, education). welfare, (parties, nationalized century. course In the of timeinstitutions and became gained, morepowernationalists the social communication and the developmentof national duringalignment the nineteenth 2002), 86. 183 182 181 people preferably gave money exclusivelyto nationalist welfare associations. when the Czechs got autonomy in the realm of social welfare. institutions? Zahraonly mentions thesuccess offinancial for the support welfare system spend money, especially why wouldworkers pay even for cultural and associations national community and fundamental question remains open:why peoplewere morepay willing to for their own than for the Austrian state? If they were indifferent, why did they Catherine Albrecht, “The Bohemian Question,” in Mark Cornwall (ed.), Cornwall Mark in Question,” Bohemian “The Albrecht, Catherine Ibid., 99. Ibid., 94. various parties in Bohemia to work with each other to resolve crucial problems. crucial to resolve other each with work to Bohemia in parties various failed to keep pace with the fiscalthat demands system of a modern collection state, tax it was anarchaic also to due inpart to due the inability was of province the ofthe collapse financial the Although until 1913.On26 July Franz Joseph1913, Emperor diet becauseclosed the Bohemia was insolvent. The Bohemiandiet was subject to boycottsrepeated andacts ofobstructionthe inperiod from 1883 forced the which its weakness by was characterized state Austrian the all, of First of concept theoretical Deutsch’s Karl of validation the to point allobservations fact, In 71 2 nd ed. (Exeter: University of Exeter Press, Exeter of University (Exeter: ed. 181 The However, she even adds that adds even she However, Last Years of Austria-Hungary: 183 182 CEU eTD Collection solutions for Austria’s nationalities question. nationalities Austria’s for solutions beginning nineteenth of the lastcentury. In the Iwant chapter tooutline possible political at the started which rolein this process, a significant have played factors societal and cultural, historical, is that chapter this of conclusion The implausible. is success nationalist’s of event even or year exact the identify to aim mere The account. into dynamics processual sustainably suppress oreven remove nationalists andnationalism from politicalthe scene. institutions, this doesnot mean thatitwould been have even easy or possiblefor state the to with state ifAustriastrong Even hadbeen a strong conflicts. decrease potential nationality to of category the accommodate to wasrather strategy Austria’s However, power. their increase to attempts nationalists’ of in theory Deutsch’s asargued functions state, of over the take to organisations and associations by nationalist used surely was weakness state’s The Imperial A further argument based on Deutsch’s theory is that one has always to take the take to hasalways one is theory that Deutsch’s based on argument A further 72 CEU eTD Collection 185 Wold Politics 184 like fora in building wasit to Austrian nation-state possible France case? How traditional the nation- of form modern enforce a able been to have could elites political mean that that Does danger of essentialism, seeing the nation as a quasi-natural entity. used by politicians. Bybeingits awareof instrumentalization, not Deutsch does fall into the alignment nationalalong lines ethnicor isnot in only successful acompetitive world, butalso he social that concludes of number ties, effect significant onthe of people. Bydrawing phenomenon “groupness,”of and on largerthe scale, afeeling of commonality among a social bethe can there why explaining on focus its puts theory communication Social arbitrary: as simply be seen not which should people of coalition be seenasalarge-scale can idea community national of the societal dynamics of social cooperation,based on his theory of social communication. The explainnational broadercontextalignments.Inhisearly of works the explain Deutsch tries to to going am I all, of First state. multinational a of framework the within question nationalities the solve to inability the for bore elites political its and state Austrian Imperial the Ibid., 184. Karl W. Deutsch, “The Growth of Nations: Some Recurrent Patterns of Political and Social Integration,” in this contest. powerpolitics; those and who carry outpolicies such totend be rewarded by long-runoutcomethe of on the ever broaderknit them together in an evenan ever in tighter network of communication andcomplementarityand based moreTo develop thusthe economic, intellectual,thorough and military resources of a territory and a population, and to participation of the masses of the populace - all this is sound competitive world. national alignments oftencombine the greatest strengthand resilience withthe greatest adaptability to a which may be tried in the competitive game. Yet of all these probable patterns of organization,nation-state … Organization ethnicGerman ofa along or ethnic emergence ornational the to lines is eventually by means no the lead to only were type of that alignment results with followed, that century the policy along these lines became the nationality.basis Machiavelli’s of advicethe of to militaryprinces ties to the rely onsoldiers apeople, make that native links to powertheir onthe kingdom degree some was to of sound: depend a thus the will rulers ofsuccess chances Their of Brandenburg-Prussia participants. ofthe habits communication and structures, personality in patterns, culture the on and inpolitics and economics such coalitions will depend to a significant degree onsocial communication This last chapter is going togive an answer to the question howof much responsibility , 5/2 (Jan., 1953): 183-184. 4. Nationalists -Too Strong a Weak for State? 185 184 73 CEU eTD Collection 188 187 Society, 186 of“casteism” “tribalism”. in and andhad success no social context aspirations the national modern signify strategies Replacement fragile. and fragmented more and more where ethnic identity does not play a major role in politics failed as well and the state became system state federal a into division the in Nigeria and today reality social dominant the still is system caste the of structure social the India In cases. both in failed has it out points Zwart very different from case to case. Engineered social construction is hard to control and as de and is difficult replacement of incases be successful has to which process construction social federal state. the of creation Nigeria’s and castes) denying (officially action affirmative areIndia’s policies constructs as “a governmentpursues benefitsredistribution ethnic, racial that caste, but or groups, its own social‘replacement’, being acompromise between total ‘denial’ and‘accommodation’. Hedefines it categoriesOneis byFrank possible answer presented de Zwart’s presented policy option of etc.)? country they Basque the Bretagne, la Provence, (la nations minority potential or replace.” regions the get rid of or atleast oppress the sub-state national/provincial identities, the strong identities of replacement fail, they rather support oppositional collectives. fail,oppositional established they support replacementrather of policies national if the Second, redistribution. concerning usually is it off better mobilization capacity, the group’s asocial/ethnic better the First, modern for democracy. Thisproblems structures. than theirestablished failureposes to two whostick people old the federal government’s policies isgroups social the still that of reality persists traditionalthe groups becausethe national, of replacement failed. One can blame the governments rather Ibid., 158. Ibid., 154. diversity,” cultural and categories Administrative of recognition: dilemma “The de Zwart, Frank 34 (2005): 140. De Zwart criticises both iscriticisesboth De Zwarthaving unsuccessful.policies for the that obvious It been One could argue that the essential problem causing inequality struggle inequality between and One essential the problem argue that causing could 74 186 Historical examples of replacement 188 187 Theory and CEU eTD Collection by a dominant coercive centre failed. While in France the nationalization process failed. by coercivehas been centre While process a dominant nationalization inFrance the building with the result of a patriotic sense of “Austrianness.” The attempts of nation-building nation- of instead successful in andMoravia, Bohemia nationalisms of distinct development for the crucial been haveprobably aftermaths in their and effects the andII Joseph Theresa Maria of absolutism. reigns enlightened of period The the have caseduring the been opposite the Rather likehave beensuccessful. inFrance would or“replacement” “denial” of is ifanypolicy questionable It thatof supra-national Empire. the oppose interests “national” where states, historical federalized in easily implemented be cannot centre the by driven reforms fiscal and Centralisation state. one of framework the within question nationalities the (following ideaof the where the historical unity of the Bohemian lands has basically always remained unchanged Thecase in paper, analyzed this state. andmultinational old of the a Austria, nation-state are broken. regionalisms formerand historical size very similar areof France of continental All departments clear. becomes result the France similar size and had the was of Every –wasintroduced. samedepartment form departments - the provinces, anewunitary constitutional basis. and regions of different policy. Instead replacement asuccessful beseen as andcan dramatic If one looks at the map law status of enjoyed centre.in Thechanges tothe different of 1789/90 were relationship their of contemporary which had very different sizes,identities and own histories. Due tothese differences they also historical system. country inseveral was divided and regions Before1789the provinces secondin ground forfunctioning the constitutional change 1790,preparedthe republican regions. The introduction of with identification republicanideals eventhe of unitary inthe state most historical the Here we can see the very difference between the policies of France as a traditional as France of policies the between difference very seethe Here wecan is asuccessful France there where of classic example tothe letus turn However, Staatsrecht départements ) shows that autonomy and federalization was not solving not was federalization and autonomy that shows ) in yearof the revolutionthe 1789 and finally with a 75 CEU eTD Collection 193 Blackwell, 2008). 192 190 1992). Press, University Stanford California: 191 Nationality 189 Deutsch in one ofhis articles in 1953 explained awareness” “group as follows: language the Karl asamain in muchmore situation society. cleavage However complex. was of increasingat the can importance path the Moraviaalonglinguistic linesone point took Frenchmen” into “peasants transforming as Weber Eugene by described pointedly nationalism.” “banal phenomenon this termed has life in everyday belonging of symbols embed which routines on work his in Billig Michael identification. personal their and belonging life and become routine fromconcluding that historical traditional symbols, especially when they are embedded ineveryday early childhood on, haveDeutsch, a strong effect on people’sastonishing. looking findings state. DeZwart’s arenot By social Karl atthe of theories sense of simultaneously identification primary alongexpect category, another Imperial the Austrian lines Bohemianthe of lands, cultural autonomy along ethnicandlinguistic lines, and historical old the along federalism and autonomy grant to impossible was It been. have must avariety into as can be of peasants nationalities. described process nationalization Austrian Cf. Michael Billig, Cf. Anthony D. Smith, Cf. Karl W. Deutsch, Cf. Michael Billig, Cf. Eugen Weber, Eugen Cf. the realm of objective fact, in experiencesto a wider supra-nationalway allegiance give to at until expected be least a basishardly can It for stay. to the asappeal be there of may real, widerawareness symbols group as national has againfrequent developed together, members in in daily life of individuals,foundations and for ethnic the as group exist, and social mobilization andcommunication continue to weld its to it … A streaminstitution, oftenfor a purpose that has nothing to do with nationality, orwhich might evenbe opposed ofsome are aspectsofgrouplife disseminatedrepeated and and over overby and organizationagain or an memoriesonthe other hand,awareness, seems clearlyGroup a mater probable. of more social institutions.awareness such has Somemake secondary which symbolssituations psychology, are attached social are to there of personal though been even matter bea to appear may people and language startedone’s of awareness Individual that is partly self-regenerating, and so long as the When the it question explainingto whynational alignments comes of inBohemia and De Zwart’s empirical findings show how serious the dilemma of the Austrian state 190 , 2nd ed. (Cambbridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1966). Michael Billig Michael 193 Peasants into Frenchmen: the Modernization of Rural France, 1870-1914 Banal Nationalism Banal Nationalism Nationalism and Social Communication: AnInquiry into the Foundations of The Cultural 191 and Anthony D. Smith D. Anthony and Foundations ofNations: Hierarchy, Convenant, and Republic (London: Sage,1995). (London: Sage,1995). 76 192 wefind enough arguments for (Stanford, (Malden: 189 the CEU eTD Collection are founded. nationalizingFinally, likesinging associations athleticsocieties, organizations, schools and language. native the formerly despised promote try and to circles organizers literary found history ancient and symbols nationalized have people these After etc. documents ancient standard high language which forthey writingused national historiography,folk epics,collect revivecreate a They heritagetried andtried language to the of cultural purified their group. intellectuals of scholars, ambitious a group started has “group consciousness” of this process Karl Deutsch describes the same process as it has been in the Bohemian, Moravian case. After awareness of institutions and wereproduced unintentionally: group often quite symbols Moreover, reforms. legal its by movements nationalist consciously promoted state nationalist activists enforced consciously such social institutions neither Austrian that the supra-national awareness a wider undermined national group category. asasocietal institutionalized This allegiance became nationality etc.) classes history education, like associations, institutions social with the inexplainsThis description situation where(based exactly the Bohemia and Moravia on Austrian Imperial state. This does not mean that only 197 196 195 Wold Politics 194 and toreproduce this became for possible group itAdditionally a largenumberof people. Ibid. Cf. ibid.188. Ibid., 187-88. Karl W. Deutsch, “The Growth of Nations: Some Recurrent Patterns of Political and Social Integration,” in followed. language Czech of the teaching of the revival the and soldiers, Czech-speaking their better command thanconscripts or taxpayers, artisans, peasants, of numbers large with wascommunication direct more require the casesymbols there appearthe institutions of moderneconomic life ofand the before.modern state, all of which Virgin Czenstochowa forPoland, turned into patriotic battle cries … Reinforcing the impact of these Inregions, the eighteenth suchwas promotedas St. Stephan as toturnthem into agencies of group awareness,sometimes regardless of original their purposes. This nationalism century, for byA process of social mobilizationHungary,a supra-national may even transform the function of existing symbols or institutions so Austrian St. Wenceslas church … The officers fornames Bohemia, of patron St.saintswere Patrick of taughtprovinces for Ireland, and Czech, or the so as to those experiences which provided the basis for the awareness of nationality. awareness the for basis the provided which experiences those were as thoughts, their and communications, their language, their to concerns, personal their to relevant As a result adense network of social communication channels was established among , 5/2 (Jan., 1953): 185-86. 197 195 77 194 196 CEU eTD Collection 2005), 69. itself: system political the within influential more alignments become overlaid with class alignments. Instead national cleavages became even national did, bySocial Democrats, asexpected system. political Nor the legitimacy for more Democratization in the second half nineteenth century the of asliberalsdidnot, hoped, lead to 4.1. National Culture and Democracy idea ofinAustro-Marxist’s nationality accommodating a form of cultural autonomy. and Democracy, Social and by Liberals the as promoted failed: democratization alternatives state in Bohemia of limited Austrian the power and the ofexplainingprocess nationalization framework the and Moravia. In the last two sectionsit.” preceded localisms tribal that I am going tolargely butorganization supra-national feudalthan the passive layer-cake society the or or show why politicalform of Czechthat the old structure nationhood, of the Austrian Imperial state found whichitself face to face accordingwith a societal to Deutsch, “represents a more effective and Marsha L. Rozenblit (eds.), Rozenblit L. Marsha and 200 199 198 of symbols anditems of thought.”knowledge, habit, or as aswell resources human and social, economic, of new combination form a or re-allocate, redirect, “theto capacity as Deutsch describes what of some degree developed learning” there “social of sort some By transmission. their guarantee to and memories, and symbols absorb EagleGlassheim, “Between Empire and Nation: BohemianThe Nobility,1880-1918,” Pieterin M.Judson Ibid. Ibid., 190. parties, finding little commonbourgeois Czech cause the as with theirAustro-German nationalist as almost were counterparts.democrats social Czech century, nineteenth late a cross-class ‘internationalist’ alliance against the nationalist parties was also unlikely. Moreover, by the representation, and bourgeois parties tended to be nationalist. Givensocialist hostility to the aristocracy, … the ever-widening curial system gave the middle classes of all nationalities substantial We have arrived at a point where we have set up several arguments into a feasible Constructing Nationalities in East Central Europe 199 78 198 These processes were responsible were processes These (Oxford: Berghahn Books, 200 CEU eTD Collection meant in fact to speak the Parisian language and not Breton or Provençal nor any other any nor Provençal or Breton not and language Parisian the speak to fact in meant French being that situation the led to this case French the adapt. In forced to was periphery and in some cases even to ethnicandin some casesevento cleansing. in his book assimilation of minorities into an ethno-cultural hascore beenincluded. Michael Mann argues federalized. it became however, nationally character international 1891. May in party labour “Bohemian-national” a of foundation the to led which movement, democratic social nationalist Czech an opposing of centre the became Prague party, of character theinternational the inaccepted inBrünn/Brno and Czech headquarter Vienna of forces Czechspeaking organisation.appeared centrifugal the within Whilethe parts the model implicitlyand ignored any aboutconcerns nationality at the beginning. Soon there University Press, 2005). 203 202 (Vienna: Europa Verlag, 1963), 156. 201 the model of hegemonic as the functioned centre of the construct of organisation. basis asthe Austrian the state Polish)the within accepted All groups (except party unique one. the Austrian its Social a declared in1889 Democratic Party, was which conciliation Hainfeld, theory which from departs class-basedpredominant alignments. However, the role the of overtrumping Marxist national the social of the alignments acknowledge and political reality goals but rather nationalists’. Austria’s finally system supporting were political that the resulting not effects realized their The German Liberals liberalization which demandedoriginally further and democratization of Cf. Michael Mann, Ibid., 185. Hans Mommsen, 202 In the traditional discourse of democracy and liberalism no critical stance on the The Social Democratic Party suffered from similar experiences and had to and similar experiences from suffered Party Democratic The Social Insum, speaking German the main organisation remainedof S.D.P. the inits The Dark Side of Democracy The DarkSideof Die Sozialdemokratie und die Nationalitätenfrage imhabsburgischen Vielvölkerstaat The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing 201 The Austrian party viewed the German Social Democratic Party as a that democratization leads to coerced assimilation coerced leadsto democratization that 203 79 In many historical examples the ethno-cultural the examples historical many In (Cambridge: Cambridge demos toward which toward the CEU eTD Collection Shift?,” 206 1991), 124-25. 205 John Hopkins University Press, 1994), 142. 204 shown is time that of community scientific Austrian inthe position dominant a holding was That the question question. nationalities the on attention socialists’ many draw automatically of state nationalitiesmultinational and theandis problemsthe within environmentthe the that national the Itobvious question? search for a politicalFirst of all,how does Austro-Marxist thought fitssolution into the context of Marxism and its ideas on of national4.2. Austro-Marxism and the Nationalities Question conflict Marxistperception nationality of be will presented. accommodation. Next, the role of the originally international Social Democracy and Austro- idea of and the with wereconcerned leaders Democratic Social Marxism, traditional Liberalism by ideologically rejected was cultures national of accommodation if Even exist.” necessary workingpublic opinion to the cannot government of representative “[a]mongfellow-feeling, people without iflanguages, especially they thedifferent united that states He thought. liberal Mill’s Stuart John in found is rights minority of dismissal languages have been spoken, French is the constitutional language public of republic.the French asaforeign learned of languagepercent of schoolchildren the and where dozens language.regional itis Historically impressive in that France, wherein fifty more1863 than compensation,’ or to be ‘obliterated’ in the course of struggle.” democratic of the in course the be ‘obliterated’ to or compensation,’ be totally assimilatedfreedom.by “The solution peoples totheseMarx and offered was unfortunate Engels to either cultural identitiesinto worth being because protected of intrinsicthe value of democracy and the ‘superior’ German or Magyar nations with ‘democracy as JohnStuart Mill, quoted in Ephraim Nimni, “Nationalism, Ethnicity and Self-determination: a Paradigm Nimni, Ephraim Jeff Spinner, Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism The price of The of price democracy issimilarly find byMarxandEngels whodiddescribed not The Boundaries ofCitizenship: Race, Ethnicity,and Nationality in theLiberal State Marxism and Nationalism: Theoretical Origins of a Political Crisis , 9/2 (2009): 320-21. 80 (London: PlutoPress, (London: 205 (Baltimore: The same 206 204 CEU eTD Collection 209 (Amsterdam: John Benjamins B.V., 1981), 254. Gestalt:Philosophy and Literature in Austria-Hungaryand her successor states 208 successor states Hungary,and 1848-1918,“ 207 Bernstein’s revisionism intellectual the and critiquepowerful Marxism of orthodox from the to as reaction a critical orthodoxy; Kautsky’s of ossification the against reaction generational a as equally be “understood must It socialism. of school intellectual Austrian distinct a of crystallization the for were crucial International Second the after developments the that would in the long run enable the creation of a peaceful and just socialist society. which state of a welfare development the and education, of democratisation, support the was direction basic political Their system. in the economic inherent and frictions paradoxes and national conflicts like monarchy the of problems the andsolve reform state to the tried thinkers lead by Austro-Marxist the Party, Democratic Social time wherethe is alsothe Ageof Security”. “theGolden period pre-war this calling of phrase the former coined bad.prevailed. Afeeling security (false) of as necessarily reform anddemocratic liberalism men being guidedbyirrational psychic forces.The wealthy middle classviewed defeatthe of objectivism, and, otherthe on hand, of byFreud`sconcept psycho-analysishis image and of asfollows: developments paradoxical these expressed nationalism. Schorske success of by many decline Moreover the of authors. liberalsthe became tremendous the with definitive the one hand, in the arguments of arguments in the hand, one the be is history reflected,inof on saidto structure The liberals’ the of rational confidence loss Ibid. J. C. Nyíri, “Philosophy and National Consciousness in Austria and Hungary, 1848-1918,“ Shorske, “Politics in a New Key,” quoted in J. C. Nyíri, “Philosophy and National Consciousness in Austria Turning to the historical development of Marxism at that time, one has to point out That situation isby like described Zweigauthors Stefan Arendt. and Hannah undermine its confidence in the rational structure of history. to challenge the trusteeship of the educated middle class, to paralyze its political system, and to nationalism, Pan-Germanism, –Czech Christian movements Socialism, mass Social antiliberal Democracy,new The … lower of the and Zionism explosion – rosethe from belowoccasioned classes upper During the last quarter of the nineteenth century, the program which the liberals had devised against the , ed. by Barry Smith (Amsterdam: John Benjamins B.V., 1981), 252. Structure and Gestalt: Philosophy andLiterature in Austria-Hungary and her fin-de-siècle 81 Austrian Platonism or theories of logical 207 , ed. by Barry Smith Structure and 209 208 This The CEU eTD Collection prepared the condition for the ‘national popular collective will.’ collective popular ‘national the for condition the prepared which led state, political cultural national the of French.and tothe unity process Hence this and the cultural obliteration of nationalthe minorities speaking otherlanguages than Parisian- rural hegemony of the Paris Hearguesthat Franceaccepted vanished. which simply totally eliminate Gramsci seems somehow supportthe ideaunifying to of Jacobinsandthe theiraim to Marxism Marxism a as social whichprovidesscience theframework for social Adleranalysis. thought clearlybyMaxdeveloped Adler’s most science, namely of of philosophy understanding the part of the solution for overthrowing the bourgeois elite: as Gramsci’s nation-state understandingby withinMarxistto of aunified referring thought state. multinational the Austrian within cultural collectives as legitimate nationalities they for thisrecognized work, andespeciallyimportant state), bourgeois repressive the viewof traditional the to (in contrast system economic the organize and control also can which for social asapossibletransformation tool positive state existing the to recognize 212 211 1991), 131-132. 210 school of economics.” from Marginalist Viennese the theory Marxist economic neo-Kantian ethical socialists of the Marburg school, and as a response to the criticism of Ibid. 112-113. Ibid., 112. Nimni, Ephraim the nation and the state of unity is to moral and be found in intellectual theof the unity problem ‘The of language.’ process: same ofthe aspects different all are culture of the national phenomenon… For Gramsci, national state, national language and the organizationof privileging anotherdimension - the political arena -instead of constructing a non-reductionist analysis However,conceptualizing a form of autonomy forthe politicalby realm - initself not an insubstantial achievement.overcomingthat itiscapable of comprehending the political importance of the cultural dimension as well as developed by theoreticians the of Second the and Third Internationals (Austro-Marxists analysis the excluded) in over advantage major a has community one national of the conceptualization Gramscian The form of reductionism - that of economism - GramsciFollowing appears to quotationbe provides one with the different views The pointisinon that contrast to the Marxisttraditional view, Austro-Marxists the tended the role of nations The most distinctive feature of the Austro-Marxist school is the theoretical basis theoretical is the school Austro-Marxist of the feature distinctive most The les patois Marxism and Nationalism: Theoretical Origins of a Political Crisis - Breton, Catalan, Occitan, Basque as well as many other languages well asmany other Basqueas Occitan, Catalan, -Breton, 82 211 212 (London: PlutoPress, (London: 210 CEU eTD Collection Contemporary Critics 218 217 216 University Press, 1978), 18-19. 215 pseudonym K.Karner (Vienna: WienerVolksbuchhandlung, 1904). 214 213 legal institutions. of functions social of the study Hans Kelsen’s ‘purelaw’. Karl theory of Austro-Marxist alternativeRenner developed ina an whereas for rational Menger’s like pureuniversal model humanprinciples action, Carl of or humanity’. ‘socialized of byintroducingtheconcept a theory society Marx of that constructed dimension intoaccount. Here his Marxist background becomes visible: theterritorial takes state in this represented interests and group state the of His understanding system. and economic the structure Austro-Marxiststhe that clear especially becomes it Hilferding Rudolf and Renner Karl of writings the In saw the important role of the state in organizing and changing the social However, Renner is totally aware that this simply conclusion is When is afallacy.he asks: conclusion Renner that simply this totally However, aware coincide. and must nation the the state machinery state, of forthe the resistance possible Renner’s personal dimension of collective cultural rights. Karl Renner, “State and nation“, 1899, in Ephraim Nimni (ed.) Gellner, Ernest Cf. Ibid., 26. Bottomore and Goode, “Introduction”, in Bottomore and Goode (eds.) Goode and Bottomore in “Introduction”, Goode, and Bottomore Cf. Karl Renner, Ibid., 16. territory are conceptually inseparable, whereas the nations mingle withinthe territory while pursuing is dominated by the sphere of material interest of thedominant groups inthe state. State and state reason astate is not conceivablewithout exclusive territorial domination. State territorial development Like all material, they existspace in and canbe realized only within aparticular territory.this For reflection of economic conditions. of economic reflection roleactive an attributes clearly quite Renner … structure to economic its in changes law particularly and society, in changes to response in infunctions their change could conserving norms legal same the how investigating by direction oranalyzed modifying and interpretedRenner in itsexisting own right, but… he thentook proceededsocial toas extend relationshis his inquiry starting in a sociological and does point not regard the lawconception as a mere of law as a system of norms which could be and development resistance merely to achieve other objectives. other achieve to merely resistance development and appear to the state to be so much more important that it patiently accepts the aforementioned frictional other tasks than has that of state guaranteeing the thebecause best Precisely possible level coincide? of nationalcompletely intellectual never nation culture, and tasksstate that in reality that then it is how modernistSimilar of arguesfor theorists nationalism, to theleast that Rennertoo 213 For them a Marxist theory of society was basically a sociological theory, Die Soziale Funktion der Rechtsinstitute, besonders des Eigentums (London: Routledge, 2005), 26. Nationalism (London: Weidenfeld Nicolson, and 1997). 215 216 The following part of this subchapter focuses on Karl 83 214 National Cultural Autonomy and its 218 Austro-Marxism , published underthe (Oxford: Oxford (Oxford: 217 CEU eTD Collection lawful state of affairs, but one of nascentor open civil war.” because a nation can protect by isbecause noone the his nation, protected provide acorrective to territorial principle, no one except not does existence intra-state because land, his own within native the protection than greater by means of reprisal, foreigner among Austria, than us each protection greater within isabroad nationality accorded of revenge. This is not“In eachAustrian signsbecausehe isonCzechsoil. aword, German speak display German, a not may who German-Czech the than in Prague rights national more enjoys Englishman the where sovereign-states, of interaction to Herefers minorities. of oppression the to necessarily its isdomination.” essence compromise struggle itbecause produce andequalrights; oppression,can onlyproduce and cannever … principle Theterritorial minorities the domination them of because itguarantees 221 220 219 Czechssupport this Young reason the For … majority the of minority settled the by not if minority, the of majority the by heldfast byhis property, of propertyless,the whomust follow demand itwhere leads,least at of domination the inhabitants isby newcomers,by the established who the propertied, the mydomination, law andis my language! the It expression of of not domination, equal right; enforced life“if you territorial youstate the in principle: my aresubjectmy to territory, modern the However, languages. and Roman the people remained cultures their provinces destroying Empire, in united many languages. without theirtribes which culturesand Even Carolingian the a tribe. to Herefers not was class, usually aneconomic dominantgroup the ideal. past, Inthe nation-state modern the system with feudal the compares Renner Ibid. Ibid., 28. Ibid., 26-27. Renner adds an additional strong argumentagainst theterritorial principle, which leads terms, the nation is not aterritorialIn conceptual entity. together. them mixing of effect the has existence for struggle the interests; material their 220 Staatsrecht 219 84 for territory of the Crown of St Wenceslas, 221 CEU eTD Collection primary fact is the state, and the nation is the object of patronage … Capitalism is now whenpassing he fromwrite its that industrial“it is not the nation as a basic and primary phenomenon which uses the state and furtheras its tool; try the to expand monopolies cartels, and as create they a because result createclasses wealthy and the dumping in industrialists other the countries.serves system this Similarlycompetition is Karl Renners analysis 225 224 Marxism 223 222 labour’ of division ‘international national law,the for of through guarantees framework general which cultures and principles ends.” establish endsandmakebe anintelligenthis meanstothose andthe to enabled own choice of individualthe beliberated from localrestricted traditions the of broaden hisviews,circles, “Only in can this way democracy’. Jürgen ‘deliberative conceptof comparedHabermas’ to reasoning conscious individual and shouldbe createsomethingchoices which could rational Deliberation, as awhole. society in participate and become educated to history equal for firsttimethe in society, the community of all get they opportunity socialist the organizational principle.” an as play to role significant a have will principle territorial the then individuals, of constitutivetheseparation the brings union andthe principle nationalities the about of which should beimplemented due to its organizational “If function. personality the forms principle territorial principle territory,without peopleno the exist Since as thebasis regulation. of within the nation.” the within particularism abolish time, first the for will, society socialist … culture national in the share “only a whole givethe that a‘societal people socialism will Bauerargues culture’, participate to people of necessity liberal the and multiculturalism liberal of argument Kymlicka’s to Similar linkages. close socialism of realization the and nations of power in the saw but Bauer refers to the classical model of David Ricardo and argues that due to national protection and protection national due to that argues and Ricardo of David model classical the to refers Bauer Ibid., 111. Otto Bauer, ’Die Nationalitätenfrage und die Sozialdemokratie’, (1907), in Bottomore and Goode, Ibid., 29. 224 His proposal Hissolve proposal intoleranceto thisinherent is establishto personality the principle Another Austro-Marxist thinker, Otto Bauer, was less concerned about minority rights, (Oxford:Oxford University 1978),Press, 110. Otto Bauer’s international utopia was that there should be an international be an should there that was utopia international Bauer’s Otto 223 By enablingparticipate individuals to the in national the cultural 222 225 people andnational communities would be abletomigrate 85 Austro- CEU eTD Collection a critical debate critical a International Law: Does it Still have a Chance?,” in Omid A. Payrow Shabani (ed.),Kant’s accommodation ideas cf. JürgenHabermas, “The Kantian Project of the Constitutionalizationof instead of territorial struggles (which are Hungarian Empire. of One foundingthe fathers of ideathe of legal accommodation on aninternational level 227 Marxism 226 for secessions. isnoneed there inawaythat national cultures accommodate whichis to able legalframework constitutional Internationale), in Bottomore and Goode, commodities] cf. Karl Renner, The Development of the National Idea (from Marxismus,as capital itself.” Krieg und[But Renner is aware that the economic volume in total is still dominatedto facilitate by exportexports … it is not so much manufactured goods, commodities, use-values, that are to be exported,into its finance-capitalist stage … It is s cartel tariff, which is intended not so much to hinder foreign imports, as ideas. their implement to states. nation by within a justglobal system economic and wouldnot be culturally linguistically and oppressed The underlying idea was to find a solution at the global level, inspired by the problems in the Austro- Otto Bauer, ’Die Nationalitätenfrage und die Sozialdemokratie’, (1907), in Bottomore and Goode, (Oxford:Oxford University 1978),Press, 113-17. (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2007), 205-18. 226 In sum, the very aim of Austro-Marxist theory was basically to frame a 227 However, as history showed, they However,history nevershowed, they the opportunity as got de facto Austro-Marxism zero sum games) was Immanuel Kant. For a discussion of 86 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978), 122. Multiculturalism and Law: Austro- CEU eTD Collection rights). language one’s for demonstrations or nationality other the of shops against boycotts as (such in situations certain active and crystallize become could which difference or commonality does not mean that theymajority of the populationwere surely did notcare about nationality in everydaynot life. However, this socialized nationalism asadominant phenomenon orevenuntil longer1900 can bein refused. The a way which toward Indifference century. nineteenth transmitted the in institutionalization its and alignments a certainnational of strengthening the to led nationalism sense and communication social of dynamics of division. this followed population the among alignments national result, a As literacy). and print-media of which tothe increasing oflanguageimportance were supportive (suchasmass rise schooling, further developments andto economy structural etc. led insociety, to changes modernization three, in chapter explored hand, as other the On foractivism. nationalist ground in landswasafertile Bohemian the the cultural asshowninone, condition However, chapter of modernization. based very nationalism the isfact that accompanying on several processes franca the as German (promoting ‘Germanization’ and from state centralization the prevented withconfronted national alignment whichmainly followed linguistic cleavages and hence sawitself state the Rather, its weakness. of because mainly andthose state Imperial and the Austrian political sphere had multiple reasons. Only a few of them were caused by the of the Austrian state). Austrian of the The very process of nationalization is explained by social communication. The communication. bysocial is explained nationalization of The very process because indifferent nationally was population the century eighteenth the of end the At In this thesis I have shown that nationalization of the Bohemian and Moravian society Conclusion 87 lingua CEU eTD Collection not only the state which was forced to recognize nationality as a powerful societal category. societal apowerful as nationality recognize forced to whichwas state only the not it minded. was narrow Moreover, be success would as nationalists’ causeof state Imperial the which liberalizationwas given importance through political and democratization. the Viewing alignment national of reality wasthesocial state by the principle arecognized as nationality communities. asense certain leads among of to commonality communication social that feasibly argues theory communication social were, meetings mass of participants money or food. Even if we cannot proof empirically what exactly the incentives for innot have moments been groups certain “meetings” for particular andThe incentives joining possible gather. mass-mobilization that thousandsof madeit people for condition which the situations, apre-existingcommonality senseof communication) bysocial provides (explained and framed events nationally certain at crystallized if Even “nationness” participated. peasants of “meetings” is whereten of parts thousands Czechthehappeningof population the speaking identities. cultural theseoriginally politicize able to were movements national modern Finally, discourse. (Cisleithania) speakersGerman further in feedfor provided nationaliststate Austrian the (surrounded by mainly a population)German speaking hegemonic the and status of the region ina minority theirgeographical speakerswere Czech factthat language. The history Czech uniqueness and Slavicthe Hussite the the revolution, and of ethno-cultural ‘a sense ofbelonging’ which nationalizedwas byhistorians using the old narratives of the and controlling institutions. social Even in nineteenth the early century probably existed there mobilizingpeople, money, in acquiring successful were activities nationalist ‘national’ terms, As I have argued and shown in this thesis, the main reason for the adoption of The best example of the existence of a sense of “commonality” among significant in (modern) themselves identify not did majority if the even that shown have I 88 CEU eTD Collection regime guarantees an expanding set of rights which makes national citizenship less important in the long run. long inthe important less citizenship national makes which of rights set expanding an guarantees regime Advocates of a post-national perspective likeYaseminSoysal evensupport the thesis that the international law play a dominantrole in modern societies and hence‘post-national’ 233 different interpretations.” between struggles for “anarena but as fixed something as not nationality defines he community ofthe members subjective dimension. Since culture of a large group of individuals cannot be interpretedand Nationalism in one single way by all 231 230 229 Recognition’ 232 Citizenship in Diverse Societies Jeremy Waldron,’Cultural Identity and Civic Responsibility’,Will Kymlicka and Wayne Norman (eds.), to Culture’, (Princeton:Princeton University Press, 1998). Avishai Margalit and Moshe Halbertal, ‘LiberalismWilliams, and the Right 228 national theaccommodating for sceptically. of cultures: Heargues in liberal rights democracies. thought. political in their alignments national of reality social the recognized Even Austro-Marxist thinkers,ideologically who should rejectanyimportance of nationality, individual equality only. by granting realized principle equality see by the liberalswho istraditional attacked trend this hand other the On state. existing the within autonomy for claim their accommodate ideas andclaims nationalminority movements of in established states and tries to supports the maintain Ingeneral Kymlicka’stheory culture. societies, can complete adistinct and institutionally concentrated geographically distinct, which areculturally cultures a marginalization.” not ever-decreasing societal be will culture reduced to a access to range ofmeaningful options.” themselves, butbecauseis it only through having accesstoasocietal culture that people have Kymlicka there should be certain cultural rights because “[c]ultures are valuable, notin and of Cf. Yasemin Soysal, Jeremy Waldron, ‘What is Cosmopolitan?’, Ibid., 80. Ibid., 83. Cf. Ephraim Nimni, “Nationalism, Ethnicity and Self-determination: a Paradigm Shift?,” Will Kymlicka, state into multinationstates withenshrined collective rights forall participant cultural communities. The In an ideal world the problemof stateless nations could be resolvedby the reorganisation of the nation justifying minority certain towards years atrend thirty In theredeveloped last the Voice, Trust, and Memory: Marginalized Groups and the Failings of Liberal Representations Social Research (Princeton: Princeton University 1992),Press, 25-73. , 9/2 (2009): 329. Nimni solves difficulty the of defining ‘national culture’ by bringing in its Multicultural Citizenship Limits of Citizenship , 61 , (1994),491-505, Charles Taylor, 231 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 155-174. As Ephraim Nimni has recently argued, ‘national cultures’ argued,‘national has As Nimni Ephraim recently 228 According to the renowned liberal multiculturalist Will multiculturalist liberal renowned the to According (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), chapter 8. (Oxford: Oxford University Press,1995), 75-106, Melissa S. The Journal of Political Philosophy 229 Further, he concludes “any that isculture which 89 Multiculturalism and ‘the Politics of 233 (2000) 8: 227-243 and theories should be seen theories should 230 Whereas national Whereas Studies in Ethnicity in Studies 232 still CEU eTD Collection Nationalism again. issue political a become will principle a non-territorial of basis the on cultures national of on accommodation the debates further andaccelerates, expands migration apply stilllanguage) aterritorial national of (e.g. principle cultures within Incase the Union. member-states the now until However, possible. are constructions legal multinational that minorities. The expansion and deepening European of the Union in the lastdecades shows of existence the prevent not still would and states nation sovereign of number increasing ever an to lead in theory would and secession in solution only the sees which game sum a zero- into demands cultural transforms national self-determination of territorial principle in place. another disadvantages of cultural minority rights are not topic of this paper and have to be discussed and advantages effects, discuss thesocietal To difference. cultural accommodating nor denying neither - another than better is proposal one generally that conclude to going not am I 234 Ephraim Nimni, “Nationalism, Ethnicity and Self-determination: a Paradigm Shift?,” However, the category of nationality is still dominant in Wilson’s situations. certain nationality is still category of dominant the However, deeply divided societies when the abodes of the constituent cultural communities overlap. National Cultural Autonomy (NCA) model consociationalism and use this organisational logic in , 9/2(2009): 327. 90 Studies in Ethnicity and 234 CEU eTD Collection Bottomore and Goode, “Introduction”,Bottomore and (eds.),in Goode, Bottomore and Goode Franz, Borkenau, Michael, Billig, Bernatzik, E., Bauer, Otto, “Die Nationalitätenfrage und die Sozialdemokratie,“ (1907), in Bottomore Tom (1907), Sozialdemokratie,“ und die “DieNationalitätenfrage Bauer, Otto, Bauer, Otto, Armstrong, John A., ‘Administrative Elites in Multiethnic Polities’, in Polities’, in Multiethnic Elites ‘Administrative A., John Armstrong, Benedict, Anderson, in MarkCornwall (ed.), Question,” “The Bohemian Catherine, Albrecht, Agnew, Hugh LeCaine, “Czechs, Germans, Bohemians? Images of Self and Other in 102-109. (Oxford: Oxford University 1-44. Press, 1978), and Patrick Goode (eds.), Goode and Patrick 1923). Science Review ed. 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