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The Protection of Cultural Properties in Japan (1)

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The Protection of Cultural Properties in Japan (1) The Protection of Cultural Properties in Japan (1) Donatella Failla Introductory Note by Stacey Steele PART ONE I. Introduction II. The Political Perception of Culture and the Arts from the Late 18th to the Mid-19th Century, from the Bakumatsu to Meiji Restoration The Abolition of Feudalism and Meiji Reforms: Consequences for Cultural Heritage III. The Birth and Evolution of the New Ideology of Culture in Meiji Strategies of Political Pragmatism 1. The First Period of Internationalization of Japan: the Contribution of the Iwakura Diplomatic Mission of 1871-73 to the Views of Art and Artistic Culture 2. Aims and Results of the Surveys of Japan’s Cultural Heritage Guided and Sponsored by the State in the 1870s and 1880s 3. The Re-evaluation of the Feudal Past and the Birth of the “Edo period”, a New Historical and Cultural Entity, at the End of the 1880s IV. The Western Influence on the Art Productions, the Art History, and the Scientific Culture of the Meiji Period 1. The Contribution of “Hired Foreigners” to Modernisation and the Introduction of Western Art Techniques 2. The Birth of Scientific Archaeology: Edward Sylvester Morse and William Gowland 3. The Historical and Aesthetic Re-evaluation of Japanese Art Traditions: Ernest Francisco Fenollosa and Okakura Tenshin V. The First Half of the 20th Century 1. The Mingei Undô Movement for the Folk Crafts 2. Summary of the Legislation Relating to Cultural Properties and National Heritage Between the two World Wars and after World War II until 1950 PART TWO ** [VI. The Second Half of the 20th Century and the Beginning of the 21st: Contemporary Japanese Policies on the Protection of Cultural Properties, 1950-2004 VII. Contemporary Japan’s Policies Promoting Cooperation and International Exchange in the Field of Cultural Properties] This essay has been revised and translated into English by the author from its original Italian version: D. FAILLA, La Tutela dei Beni Culturali in Giappone, in: G. COFRANCESCO (ed.), I beni culturali. Profili di diritto comparato ed internazionale (Roma 1999) 217-284. I express my deepfelt thanks to Ms Stacey Steele for her comments on drafts of this article. The transliteration of Japanese terms follows the Hepburn system. Japanese names of persons in the text are always in the original form “Surname and Name”, i.e. different from the usual style of the Journal. The names of the Japanese cities Kyôto, Ôsaka, Tôkyô, are transliter- ated respecting the original phonetics, except for the bibliographic quotations employing the transliterations Kyoto, Osaka and Tokyo. ** Part Two will be published separately in the next issue of the Journal. 68 DONATELLA FAILLA ZJAPANR / J.JAPAN.L INTRODUCTORY NOTE It is my pleasure to introduce Dr Donatella Failla and her Article to the readers of this Journal. Dr Failla is a Japanese art historian and Director at Museo d’Arte Giapponese “Edoardo Chiossone”, Genoa, Italy. When I met her at International House in Tokyo in June 2004, I was fascinated to hear about her research on national cultural properties (bunkazai) and her activities as curator of various exhibitions. This Article is an historical introduction to contemporary legislation relating to the protection and regulation of art and culture in Japan. As Dr Failla points out, the Japa- nese legislative approach to art and culture reflects an evolving philosophy about the place of government and private actors in this sector. It is also inextricably connected to changing social and economic circumstances in Japan. This historical analysis is an important step to understanding the modern conception of bunkazai as legislated for by the Japanese Diet. In Part I of this Article, Dr Failla details historical developments in Japan as they relate to art and culture during the Edo and Meiji periods. She also explains the contri- butions of important non-Japanese scholars and artists to Japan’s awareness and knowl- edge of theories of art and culture and its related ideologies. In Part II of this Article, which will appear in the next issue of this Journal, Dr Failla will discuss historical developments relating to the legislative approach to bunkazai from 1950 to the present. She concludes that as modernization has accelerated in Japan, the theories and ideolo- gies underpinning the relevant legislation have moved away from concepts of private ownership and sponsorship to State-involved protection, funding and regulation. Dr Failla has researched bunkazai extensively in Japan and the Editors are delighted that her contribution further broadens the range of authors and content of the Journal. The genesis of this Article was a previous work by Dr Failla in Italian. She has up- dated her work for this Article and provided an interpretation in English of her histo- rical framework and references. Rather than present a traditional, legalistic critique of the contemporary legislation, the Editors hope that Dr Failla’s presentation of its histo- rical context in English will suggest ideas for further research in the area of the law relating to bunkazai. Stacey Steele Asian Law Centre, University of Melbourne Law School Cf. supra note *. Nr. / No. 18 (2004) THE PROTECTION OF CULTURAL PROPERTIES 69 I. INTRODUCTION The history of 19th century Japanese art and art productions is set against the lively galaxy of events including, up to 1867, the “end of the Shogunate” (bakumatsu) and, thereafter, the restoration of imperial power, the modernization of the state apparatus and the Westernization of political institutions. This Article explores perceptions of art products in Japan and their evolution from feudalism to modernization, by showing how all those phenomena and events had an influence on: (1) the dispersion of the accumulated patrimonies of art and history, (2) the traditional and contemporary arts, (3) the course of their formal and technical development, and (4) their political and utilitarian conception as a source of prestige and enrichment for Japan. It is necessary to take into preliminary consideration that, as observed with great clarity by Carol Gluck, in Meiji Japan «as elsewhere, the process of establishing a national ethos in a changed and changing social setting was a trial-and-error affair. Ideologies of the sort imperial Japan produced were neither created ex nihilo nor adopted ready-made. Without a text or a revelation to serve as a canonical source, views of state and society evolved fitfully, often inconsistently, into changing amalgams of past and present, near and foreign».1 The events of this volcanic period of Japanese history reverberated on the traditional artistic productions and determined a new classification of Japanese art, influenced by the post-Renaissance European model. They also stimulated the birth of the first historical approach to the national cultural heritage. Finally, they exerted an important influence on the commerce in antiquities and works of art, as well as on the new phenomenon of the international collecting of “things Japanese”. Direct contributions to the new era also came from “hired foreigners” (oyatoi gaikokujin), including from Western scientists, academics, technicians, professionals and artists who, invited by the imperial Japanese government, worked in Japan as special consultants on contract. Their work included facilitating the formation of the modern administrative, legal, political, military, industrial, economic, financial and cultural apparatus of the country, by training and imparting methods and fundamental notions to new generations of Japanese. Among the yatoi active in the cultural field, several contributed to the knowledge of the artistic and historical national wealth and its understanding, documentation and utilization. Certain yatoi introduced important technical refinements into contemporary Japanese artistic productions, others taught Western techniques of design and engraving, painting, sculpture and architecture (see 1 C. GLUCK, Japan’s Modern Myths: Ideology in the Late Meiji Period, Princeton University Press (Princeton, New Jersey 1985) 4. Gluck’s book on the state ideologies during the late Meiji is exemplary and unsurpassed on account of its clarity, interpretive acumen and richness of historical articulation. 70 DONATELLA FAILLA ZJAPANR / J.JAPAN.L below, at 4). All of these contributions reinforced the varied phenomenon of cultural and political internationalisation in Meiji Japan. The first part of this article presents the evolution of the Japanese perception of the national cultural heritage and the cultural policy from the late Edo period to the Meiji period. This represents a most interesting case of the ideology of culture, the most part of which was “built” during the modernization of Meiji. And if it is undeniable that “art is a culturally constructed entity that may be endowed with values and meanings that change not only from one cultural context to another, but also at different times within the same cultural context”,2 it is equally undeniable that this is particularly true in Japan. In fact, “from the time Japan began its deliberate pursuit of “civilization” in the mid-nineteenth century, ideology appeared as a conscious enterprise, a perpetual civic concern, an affair, indeed, of state”.3 II. THE POLITICAL PERCEPTION OF CULTURE AND THE ARTS FROM THE LATE 18TH TO THE MID-19TH CENTURY, FROM THE BAKUMATSU TO MEIJI RESTORATION Governed by the bakuhan system from 1185 to 1868, Japan was divided into domains (han) administered by feudal lords (daimyô) dependent on the central authority of the Shôgun, the generalissimo or supreme military head. The latter held the political and administrative regency of the country, governing in the name of the Emperor and on his behalf. Down the centuries the Shogunate or “tent government” (bakufu) had estab- lished its seat in places other than Kyôto, the historic and cultural capital of Japan, where the Imperial Household continued to reside uninterruptedly until 1868 in condi- tions of marked isolation and political insignificance. The capital of the Shôgun was established in Edo (today’s Tôkyô) by TOKUGAWA IEYASU (1543-1616).
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