DNA and Indigeneity

The Changing Role of Genetics in Indigenous Rights, Tribal Belonging, and Repatriation

SYMPOSIUM PROCEEDINGS

October 22, 2015 Vancouver, British Columbia Canada Attribution and Copyright Notice CCM Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs CC-BY -NC-ND

www.sfu.ca/ipinch

2016

This research was made possible, in part, through the support of the Intellectual Property Issues in Cultural Heritage (IPinCH) project, a Major Collaborative Research Initiative funded by the Social Sciences and Humani- ties Research Council of Canada.

Report To Be Cited As:

Walker, Alexa, Brian Egan, and George Nicholas (editors). 2016. DNA and Indigeneity: The Changing Role of Ge- netics in Indigenous Rights, Tribal Belonging, and Repatriation. Symposium Proceedings. Intellectual Property Issues in Cultural Heritage (IPinCH) Project, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, B.C.

ii DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings Acknowledgements

Symposium proceedings compiled and edited by Alexa Walker, Brian Egan, and George Nicholas.

This event was developed by the Bioarchaeology and Genetics Working Group of the Intellectual Property Issues in Cul- tural Heritage (IPinCH) Project. Funding was provided by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Coundil (SSRHC) of Canada through a SSHRC Connections Grant, and through Major Collaborative Research Initiative funding. Additional support was provided by Simon Fraser University and the SFU Archeaology Department.

Event planning was the responsibility of the Bioarchaeology and Genetics Working Group co-chairs: Alan Goodman, Dorothy Lippert, and Daryl Pullman, along with George Nicholas, Alexa Walker, and Brian Egan. Kristen Dobbin coordinated publicity, developed the program and related materials, and formatted this volume. The design of this volume was inspired by the Indigenous Presence report (Kovach, Carriere, Montgomery, Barrett, and Gilles, 2015), accessible via the University of Regina here: http://bit.ly/1WMX21b. Additional assistance was provided by Chelsea Meloche, Elizabeth Peterson, and Sarah Lison.

Transcripts have been lightly edited for clarity and continuity.

iii DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings TABLE OF CONTENTS

Genetics, Identity, and Justice PART ONE: Daryl Pullman...... 23 Introduction...... 1 Repatriation and the Limits of Genetic DNA & Indigeneity Identity Alexa Walker, Brian Egan & Dorothy Lippert...... 27 George Nicholas...... 2 Provenancing Indigenous Human Case Studies...... 3 Remains for Repatriation Purposes: Kwäday Dän Ts’ìnchi...... 3 A Case Study for Exploring Anzick Child...... 4 Perceptions of Biological and Social Kennewick Man...... 4 Identity Dodge and Lucy Islands...... 5 Cressida Fforde...... 32 China Lake...... 5 Big Bar Lake...... 5 Theme 3: Genetic Research with Indigenous Communities: Current Challenges and Future PART TWO: Directions...... 38 Presentations...... 6 Anthropology, Genomics, and Whiteness Who Are We?: Symposium Introduction Kimberly TallBear...... 39 George Nicholas...... 7 Exploring Indigenous Identity at Theme 1: Constructing Biogenetic the Intersection of Medical Identities—What are the Genetics Discourses Limitations?...... 9 Rosalina James...... 45 Bringing the Ancient One Home: Partnerships with First Nations of Genetic Data and the Case for British Columbia on Studies that Repatriating Kennewick Man include DNA Analysis Armand Minthorn...... 10 Ripan Malhi...... 49 The Risks and Benefits of Inferring Relatedness, Identity, and Cultural Affiliation from Ancient DNA PART THREE: Deborah Bolnick...... 13 Conclusion...... 54 Lives in Motion: Cautionary Notes Towards a Better Understanding of on Using Human Biology to Infer Indigeneity and DNA Identity, Cultural Affiliation, and George Nicholas & Alexa Walker...... 55 Ancestry Alan Goodman...... 19 APPENDICES Theme 2: Biogenetics, Justice, and the Repatriation of Human A: Workshop Participants...... 58 Remains...... 22 B: Workshop Program...... 60 C: Workshop Bibliography...... 63

iv DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings INTRODUCTION PART ONE SIX CASE STUDIES

1 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings DNA & Indigeneity ALEXA WALKER, BRIAN EGAN, AND GEORGE NICHOLAS

Rapid advances in human genet- efits in the short-term but could The primary focus was on the im- ics are changing the way we think have long-term drawbacks if DNA plications of these issues for Indig- about our identity and connect is seen as necessary to substanti- enous peoples in North America, to our ancestors. The analysis of ate or “prove” oral histories and but we also had an opportunity to DNA collected from ancient human traditional knowledge. consider them in a broader inter- remains, for example, can provide national context, aided by presen- insights into human evolution, mi- These pressing issues were at the tations focused on Australia and gration patterns, and, in rare cases, heart of a public symposium and Mexico. establish genetic links between workshop held in Vancouver, Brit- ancient peoples and their contem- ish Columbia, in October 2015. The The three-day event began on porary relatives. These powerful event, entitled DNA and Indigene- October 22nd with a well-attended new technologies have many other ity: The Changing Role of Genet- public symposium held at SFU’s applications, ranging from their ics in Indigenous Rights, Tribal Harbour Centre campus in down- use in criminal investigations to Belonging, and Repatriation, was town Vancouver. The symposium learning more about family history hosted by the Intellectual Property focused on current and prospec- through genetic ancestry tests. Issues in Cultural Heritage (IPinCH) tive applications of genomics in -ar However, as with all new technolo- project1, an international and chaeology and anthropology, with gies, there are potential drawbacks interdisciplinary research initiative presentations by ten individuals and ethical challenges associated based at Simon Fraser University who also participated in the two- with the many different uses of hu- (SFU). The event had two main day international workshop held man genetics, and THUS a need for objectives: 1) to examine the ethi- on October 23-24th . Following an caution in the application of this cal, legal, and scientific prospects opening song and prayer by Victor powerful new tool. and perils surrounding the use of Guerin of the Musqueam Nation, genetic information to inform and, the symposium was introduced by For Indigenous peoples worldwide, in some cases, substantiate claims George Nicholas, IPinCH Director genetic technology raises many of identity and cultural affiliation; and Professor of Archaeology at questions. Issues of identity are of and 2) to identify the real-world SFU. particular importance given that implications of genetic analysis in scientific pronouncements about relation to Indigenous rights, tribal The first session focused on the identity claims may have pro- enrollment, and the repatriation of promise and perils of using ge- found social, cultural, political, and human remains. nomics to construct and interpret economic consequences for Indig- Indigenous identities and featured enous peoples. In particular, DNA presentations from Armand Mint- is increasingly perceived as being horn, a religious leader and mem- able to substantiate claims to land 1 The IPinCH Project (2008–2016) is an ber of the Board of Trustees of the and other identity-based rights, to international research collaboration providing Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla provide genetic criteria for tribal research, knowledge, and resources assisting Indian Reservation, Deborah Bol- academic scholars, descendant communities enrollment, and to adjudicate the and others in negotiating equitable terms of nick, Associate Professor at Uni- repatriation of ancestral remains cultural heritage research and policies. For versity of Texas at Austin, and Alan to descendant communities. Using more information on IPinCH and to access the Goodman, Professor of Biological wide range of resources it provides, visit DNA in this manner may offer ben- www.sfu.ca/ipinch Anthropology at Hampshire College.

2 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings The second session explored the and 3) Genetic Identities and Tribal on them. These are: 1) Kwäday potential for genetic information Belonging (see Appendix B). Dän Ts’ìnchi; 2) Anzick Child; 3) to assist with the repatriation of Kennewick Man; 4) Dodge Island human remains. Speaking to this Ultimately, the workshop was suc- and Lucy Island Ancestors; 5) China topic were Daryl Pullman, Profes- cessful in bringing together com- Lake Ancestors; and 6) Big Bar Lake sor of Medical Ethics at Memorial munity advocates, researchers, and Woman. University of Newfoundland, Doro- practitioners to assess the current thy Lippert, from the Repatriation state of ancient DNA research and Office at the Smithsonian Institu- to begin developing ethical guide- HAPLOGROUP tion, and Cressida Fforde, Deputy lines, protocols, and safeguards to Director of the National Centre for accompany this rapidly developing A haplogroup is a ground of in- Indigenous Studies at the Austra- technology. The various products dividuals who share a common lian National University. emanating from the symposium genetic mutation that is passed and workshop, including this initial down form an ancestor on the The final session examined the proceedings volume, are intended maternal or paternal line. problematic history of genetic to help researchers, communities, research with Indigenous peoples and other stakeholders to address before turning to the present to challenges emerging at the cross- identify opportunities to work roads of genetics and identity. Kwäday Dän Ts’ìnchi together “in a good way.” Kimberly More information about the event, The frozen remains of the indi- TallBear, Associate Professor at including videos of the formal pre- vidual known in the Southern the University of Alberta, Rosalina sentations, can be found at www. Tutchone language as the Kwäday James, Assistant Professor at the sfu.ca/ipinch. Dän Ts’ìnchi (or “Long Ago Person University of Washington, and Found”) were discovered in 1999 Ripan Malhi, Associate Professor at With this, the proceedings volume, in Tatshenshini-Alsek Park, located the University of Illinois at Urbana- we detail the findings of the event, in far northwestern British Colum- Champaign, all provided their in- including transcriptions of the bia within the traditional territory sight and experiences on this topic. formal symposium presentations of the Champagne and Aishihik and a summary of the workshop First Nations (CAFN). Tests con- The public event was followed by discussions. The event highlighted ducted with permission from CAFN a two-day invitational workshop the complex and multifaceted suggest that the person found was attended by 19 scholars, practitio- questions that arise when genom- a young man between 18 to 20 ners, and community representa- ics is used in the interpretation of years old and in good health. Ob- tives from Canada, the United Indigenous identities and we’ve jects found with the Kwäday Dän States, Australia, and Latin Amer- tried to capture these concerns in Ts’ìnchi man, including a hand tool, ica2. Seeking to delve further into the pages that follow. a woven hat, several garments the broad themes introduced in made of hide and fur, and a small the symposium, workshop discus- SIX CASE STUDIES pouch believed to be a medicine sions centered on three topics: 1) Throughout the symposium and bag, were dated to approximately DNA and the Repatriation of Hu- workshop, a number of case stud- 500 years ago. Local oral histo- man Remains; 2) Land and Other ies provided important points of ries suggest that the Kwäday Dän Identity-Based Rights; reference. Some, such as the Ken- Ts’ìnchi man might have been newick Man case, were relatively a young hunter who urged his familiar to all participants and the hunting companions to leave him 2. Symposium and workshop participant bi- sympoisum audience; others not. behind after he was injured. ographies are found at the end of this volume Here we provide a brief description DNA tests demonstrate that the (Appendix A). of six prominent cases, along with Kwäday Dän Ts’ìnchi man belongs additional sources of information to haplogroup A and was found to

3 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings have close genetic affinities to the ranch owners, and Eske Willerslev, Native American Graves Protection Canadian Inuit and Chukchi people a leading expert in ancient DNA, and Repatriation Act’s (NAGPRA) from Northeast Asia, as well as the successfully analyzed genetic sam- provisions because they could not Athapaskans and Tlingit. As Hebda ples from the child’s remains. The be determined to be Native Ameri- et al. (2012: 52) point out, it was results show that this child belongs can” working under the definition important to CAFN and other com- to a population that is more closely that Native American means “of munities to connect with the Kwä- related to all Indigenous groups or relating to, a tribe, people, or day Dän Ts’ìnchi man on a person- in North America than anywhere culture that is presently-existing to-person basis because of cultural elsewhere in the world. Consulta- in the United States” (Burke and obligations they hold towards him tion was undertaken with nine Smith 2008:22) to ensure that he received proper Montana tribes about the ancient burial rites. Ultimately, 17 First DNA study. Tribal representatives Ongoing efforts to sequence Ken- Nations individuals from northern emphasized the importance of newick Man’s DNA were finally British Columbia and the Yukon reburying the individual according successful in 2015. As expected by were identified as “living relatives” to traditional ceremonial practices, many, the genetic analysis re- of the Kwäday Dän Ts’ìnchi man. which was carried out in June vealed “Kennewick Man is closer to Moreover, the living relatives’ clan 2014. modern Native Americans than to affiliations suggest that the Long any other population worldwide” Ago Person found was likely of the Further reading: Rasmussen et al. (Rasmussen et al. 2015:455). Wolf or Eagle clan (Hebda et al. p. 2014. 53). The analysis concluded that, based Kennewick Man on the genome-wide data avail- Further reading: Hebda et al. 2011; In 1996, the remains of Kennewick able, the Confederated Tribes of La Salle and Frankenstein 2015. Man, referred to as the Ancient the Colville Reservation—one of One by the local Umatilla tribe, the tribes claiming Kennewick Anzick Child were found eroding out of a river- Man—are closely related to Ken- In 1968, the remains of a young bank along the Columbia River in newick Man. Given the additional child were discovered on a pri- Kennewick, Washington. Radiocar- genetic evidence that has come to vate ranch in Western Montana. bon dating revealed the remains to light, it appears likely that the case The child, whose remains were be over 9,000 years old. An initial to repatriate Kennewick Man will dated to 12,600 years ago, is often assessment of Kennewick Man’s be reopened. referred to as the “Anzick child” remains led one anthropologist to (or Anzick-1) after the name of the claim that the Ancient One pos- On April 27, 2016, the U.S. Army family who owned the ranch. Ac- sessed a “Caucasoid-like” cranium. Corps of Engineers officially an- companying the red ochre-covered This assertion ignited a heated de- nounced the Kennewick Man was remains were carved fragments of bate over the identity and ancestry Native American4, based on recent elk bone and stone tools character- of this ancient individual, with five DNA testing, verifying what Native istic of the Clovis culture.3 Because local Native American tribes argu- Americans had proclaimed since the remains were found on private ing that he is their ancestor and his discovery 20 years ago. property they were not subject to should be returned to their care. A the Native American Graves Pro- group of scientists opposed these Further reading: Rasmussen et al. tection and Repatriation Act. claims and sought to gain access to 2015; Burke et al. 2008; Owlsley In 2009, a research team includ- and control over the remains for and Jantz 2014. ing Sarah Anzick, daughter of the scientific purposes.

In 2002, a United States court 3. The Clovis culture or tradition is considered by archaeologists to be one of the first cultural concluded that the Ancient One’s 4. See: US Army Corps of Engineers, “Corps de- traditions found in the Americas, and dates to remains “were not subject to the termines Kennewick Man is Native American,” approximately 13,500 to 12,500 years ago. April 27, 2016: http://1.usa.gov/20TP3xx

4 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings Dodge Island and Lucy Island Big Bar Lake Woman Malhi, Ripan S., Brian M. Kemp, Jason A. Individuals The remains of a woman dated to Eshleman, Jerome S. Cybulski, David G. Smith, The remains of four ancient indi- 5,000 years ago were uncovered at Scott Cousins, and Harry Harold 2007 Mitochondrial Haplogroup M Discovered viduals were uncovered during ex- a site near Clinton, British Colum- in Prehistoric North Americans. Journal of cavations from the 1960s to 1980s bia. With permission of the Canoe Archaeological Science 34: 642–648. on Dodge Island and Lucy Island, Creek and High Bar Indian Bands, Owsley, Douglas W. and Richard L. Jantz (eds.) both located along the northwest samples were sent for mitochon- 2014 Kennewick Man: The Scientific coast of British Columbia. Radio- drial DNA analysis. The woman Investigation of an Ancient American Skeleton. Texas A&M University Press, College Station, carbon dates estimated that the was found to belong to haplogroup Texas. individuals lived between 6,000- A, a common mitochondrial hap- Rasmussen, Morten, Sarah L. Anzick, 2,000 years ago logroup among Indigenous peoples Michael R. Waters, Pontus Skoglund, Michael in North America. The close geo- DeGiorgio, Thomas W. Stafford Jr, … and Eske Willerslev In 2013, the results of an ancient graphic proximity but very differ- 2014 The Genome of a Late Pleistocene DNA study conducted in part- ent genetic profiles of the Big Bar Human from a Clovis Burial Site in Western nership with the Lax Kw’alaams, Lake woman and the China Lake Montana. Nature 506(7487): 225–229. Metlakatla, and Laxgalts’ap First individuals suggest that the genetic Rasmussen, Morten, Martin Sikora, Anders Nations were released. In addition diversity of ancient populations Albrechtsen, Thorfinn Sand Korneliussen, J. Victor Moreno-Mayar, G. David Poznik, … and to the four ancient genomes, three may be greater than previously Eske Willerslev living Tsimsian, Nisga’a, and Haida anticipated. 2015 The Ancestry and Affiliations of individuals provided DNA samples Kennewick Man. Nature 523(7561): 455–458. for comparison. The authors were Further reading: Cybulski et al. able to identify a genetic relation- 2007. ship spanning over 5,000 years between two ancient individuals and a living Tsimshian person. References Cited

Burke, Heather, Claire Smith, Dorothy Lippert, The results of the study were wel- Joe Watkins, and Larry Zimmerman (editors) comed by local First Nations who 2008 Kennewick Man: Perspectives on the Ancient One. Left Coast Press, Walnut Creek, saw it as further evidence of their CA. ancestors’ long-term occupation of Cui, Yinqui, John Lindo, Cris E. Hughes, Jesse their traditional territory. W. Johnson, Alvaro G. Hernandez, Brian M. Kemp... Ripan S. Malhi 2013 Ancient DNA Analysis of Mid-Holocene Further reading: Cui et al. 2013. Individuals from the Northwest Coast of North America Reveals Different Evolutionary Paths China Lake Ancestors for Mitogenomes. PLoS ONE 8(7): e66948. In 1982, two individuals dated to Cybulski, Jerome S., Alan D. McMillan, Ripan S. over 6,000 years ago were found in Malhi, Brian M. Kemp, Harold Harry, and Scott Cousins. a single burial site near China Lake, 2007 The Big Bar Lake Burial: Middle Period British Columbia. Genetic results Human Remains from the Canadian Plateau. found that both individuals belong Canadian Journal of Archaeology 31(1): 55–78. to haplogroup M. Prior to this Hebda, Richard J., Sheila Greer, and Alexander Mackie study, haplogroup M had not been 2012 Teachings From Long Ago Person Found: found in any ancient or living North Highlights from the Kwäday Dän Ts’ìnchi American populations. The results Project. Royal BC Museum, Victoria. issuu.com/royalbcmuseum/docs/kdt_ indicate that we still have much to highlights learn about human expansion into the Americas. La Salle, Marina, and Ellen Frankenstein 2015 “Tracing Roots” Study Guide. IPinCH Further reading: Malhi et al. 2007 Project. http://bit.ly/1tsXpSH

5 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings SYMPOSIUM PART TWO PRESENTATIONS

6 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings Who Are We?: Symposium Introduction GEORGE NICHOLAS

Video available online: www.sfu.ca/ipinch/resources/videos/ nicholasguerin-dna

Welcome. I call us all together here on unceded Coast Salish territory. Thank you to the Elders and the community members who are here today to take the words that you hear and to share them beyond this room. My name is George through previous generations. Figure 1. Paul Gauguin, “Where do we come from? What are we? Where are we going?” (1897). Mu- Nicholas and I’m the Director of In other cases, we are able to seum of Fine Arts, Boston. http://bit.ly/1ExIx3Q the Intellectual Property Issues in answer these questions through Cultural Heritage (IPinCH) Project scientific knowledge and that has organized this event. other means.

To start with, the topic of today’s Living in the “Age of Ge- symposium is “DNA and Indigene- nomics” has had a sub- ity: The Changing Role of Genetics stantial impact on how in Indigenous Rights, Tribal Belong- we understand “who we ing, and Repatriation” — all topics are.” We are now able of great importance. This is espe- to trace the movements cially true because such issues af- of ancient populations fect people’s identity, heritage, and as they expanded across Figure 2. Portion of an e-flyer from AncestryDNA, everything that flows from those. the globe. one of a number of companies offering relatively inexpensive genetic profiling. I would like to start with one of my In some cases, living peoples have you are,” genetically speaking, favourite paintings by Paul Gauguin, been able to identify their genetic for only $99. But is it really that “Where Do We Come From? What ancestors. Moreover, DNA can straightforward? What is this DNA Are We? Where Are We Going?” demonstrate continual occupation test actually telling you and what of traditional land by a genetically information is it leaving out? These In one sense, this painting’s title similar group of people. And now, are some of the questions that will encapsulates the nature and goals DNA is in everyone’s hands. Every- be explored today. of Anthropology and the study of one has the tools to figure out who human diversity. But it also cap- they are through DNA tests. I had It is important to recognize that tures what we are discussing here one such offer appear in my email such DNA tests offer us a host of today—the question of “who are inbox two days ago. new ways to think about who we we?” and “how do we know who are. But—and there’s always a we are?” In some cases, we know Many of you have likely encoun- “but” when we’re talking about the answer to these questions tered similar email or magazine new technologies or a new ways because it has been passed down ads that promise to tell you “Who of thinking—if you tease apart a

7 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings strand of your own DNA, you’ll be are involved in these conversa- 2010 Beyond the Tangible: Repatriation of Cultural Heritage, Bioarchaeological Data, confronted with many intercon- tions with us today. They are here and Intellectual Property. Anthropology News nected issues, including the myth to share with you some of their 51(3): 10-11. of biological “race,” questions experiences and insights. But this O’Rourke, Dennis, M. Hayes, and S. Caryle about ownership and intellectual is also an opportunity for all of 2005 The Consent Process and aDNA Research: Contrasting Approaches in North America. property rights, biological versus us to engage in an afternoon of In Biological Anthropology and Ethics: From cultural identity, and protecting mutually beneficial understanding Repatriation to Genetic Identity, edited by T. Turner, pp. 209–230. State University of New human rights in genetic research. of, respect for, and awareness of York Press, Albany. These are some very challenging, responsibilities related to DNA and Past Horizons very slippery, and very difficult is- Indigeneity. We are all here togeth- 2013 DNA Proof Supports Metlakatla Oral sues that affect individuals, groups, er to work “in a good way.” History. 4 July. http://bit.ly/24jdUvr nations, and all humanity. And this Pullman, Daryl, and George Nicholas is just a partial list. 2012 Intellectual Property and the Ethical/ Recommended Resources Legal Status of Human DNA: The (Ir)Relevance of Context. Inuit Studies 35(1+2): 146-164. This brings me to an important Bardill, Jessica 2014 Native American DNA: Ethical, Legal, Reardon, Jenny, and Kimberly TallBear point that I’d like to emphasize: and Social Implications of an Evolving Concept. 2012 “Your DNA Is Our History”: Genomics, there are remarkable research op- Annual Review of Anthropology 43(1): Anthropology, and the Construction of 155–166. Whiteness as Property. Current Anthropology portunities in front of us. However, 53(S5): S233–S245. Boswell, Randy genetic technology brings with it a 2013 Groundbreaking Genetic Study Links Schroeder, Kari Britt, Ripan S. Malhi, and David great deal of responsibility be- Living First Nation woman to 5,500-year-old Glenn Smith Ancestor. National Post 8 July. Electronic 2006 Demystifying Native American Genetic cause we are literally dealing with document. Opposition to Research. Evolutionary people’s lives. The stakes are high http://bit.ly/1TKhv0B Anthropology 15: 88–92. in genetic research. If we are not Chennells, Roger Skloot, Rebecca aware of this from the start, then 2015 Indigenous Peoples and Genetic 2010 The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks. Research. IPinCH Appropriation(?) of the Crown Publishers, New York. such projects should not move for- Month. ward. Part of the difficulty is that http://bit.ly/1HzFkqp TallBear, Kimberly 2014 The Emergence, Politics, and Marketplace an individual may consent to have Goodman, Alan of Native American DNA. In The Routledge their DNA tested, but this analysis 2007 Toward Genetics in an Era of Handbook of Science and Technology Studies, Anthropology. American Ethnologist 34(2): edited by D. Kleinman and K. Moore, pp. 21- will also reveal information about 227-229. 37. Routledge, London. that person’s family. Thus, the de- Harmon, A. 2013 Native American DNA: Tribal Belonging cision to do a DNA test doesn’t just 2010 Indian Tribe Wins Fight to Limit Research and the False Promise of Genetic Science. involve the individual. A person’s of Its DNA. The New York Times. Available Smithsonian National Museum of the American online: Indian, Washington, DC. decision to go ahead with DNA http://nyti.ms/1TYk2rD testing might bring others into the 2011 Bitter Fight to Determine Who Is an MacKeracher, Kate, and Michael Livingston American Indian Turns to DNA Testing. Indian conversation, whether they want 2013 Vampire Projects or Long Ago Person Country Today, Oct. 13. http://bit.ly/1Uflzpe to be there or not. Found? A History of Genetic Research in First Nations Communities. History of Medicine Walker, Alexa 78(3): 27-32. 2014 An Introduction to the Ethics, Politics, We will be touching on a wide and Practicality of Ancient DNA Research in Nicholas, George Archaeological Contexts. Intellectual Property variety of topics today in this sym- 1995 On mtDNA and Archaeological Ethics. Issues in Cultural Heritage. posium and in the two-day work- Canadian Journal of Archaeology 29 (1): iii-vi. http://bit.ly/VT70k6 shop that follows. It’s important to Nicholas, George, John Jules, and Carrie Dan Alexa Walker, George Nicholas, Daryl Pullman, note that we are dealing not only 2008 Moving Beyond Kennewick: and Alan Goodman. 2014. Ancient DNA (aDNA) Alternative Native American Perspectives What is it? Why is it important? IPinCH Fact with issues of identity but also of on Bioarchaeological Data and Intellectual Sheet. politics, religion, human rights and Property Rights. In Kennewick Man: http://bit.ly/1UflGRz Perspectives on the Ancient One, edited by social justice, and much more. H. Burke, C. Smith, L. Zimmerman, D. Lippert, Wiwchar, David We have some of the leading and J. Watkins, pp. 233–243. Left Coast Press, 2000 Genetic Researcher uses Nuu-chah-nulth Walnut Creek, CA. Blood for Unapproved Studies in Genetic scholars, practitioners, community Anthropology. Ha-Shilth-Sa. activists, and religious leaders who Nicholas, George, John Welch, Alan Goodman, http://bit.ly/1TQo4UH and Randall McGuire

8 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings THEME 1

Constructing Biogenetic Identities — What are the Limitations?

Drawing upon examples from Biogenetic Identities—What are ate repatriation or land claims. cutting-edge ancient DNA research, the Limitations?,” explored these She cautions that all assessments Armand Minthorn (Confederated and many other questions. In his of genetic relatedness must be Tribes of the Umatilla), Deborah presentation, Armand Minthorn grounded in what we know more Bolnick (University of Texas at Aus- shares the story of Kennewick generally about human genetic tin), and Alan Goodman (Hamp- Man, or the Ancient One, from his diversity. Ultimately, this presenta- shire College) explore the tenuous perspective as a member of the tion explores a key question: What act of balancing the benefits and Confederated Tribes of the Uma- do—and don’t—genetic analyses drawbacks of using genetic infor- tilla, and makes the case for his re- tell us about relatedness, identity, mation to understand Indigenous patriation. At the heart of his talk is and shared culture? identity, past and present. Will the importance of respect: respect genetic analyses illuminate new for traditional lifeways and knowl- While it is typically understood connections between ancient and edge, for different worldviews, that identities are multiple and modern peoples? If yes, what and for the remains of ancestors. fluid, the same instability applies exactly do these new relationships To this day, what will be the final to human biology. Alan Goodman mean? How does genetic informa- resting place of Kennewick Man, or explores the controversial assess- tion complement or contradict the Ancient One, remains a highly ment of Kennewick Man’s skull as other forms of knowledge from debated question. an entry point into a larger discus- archaeology and oral history? On sion surrounding the subjectivity a practical level, how do we bal- Recent advances in genomic of craniometric analyses and, more ance and contextualize genetic technologies have made it increas- broadly, biological and “racial” and other biological information in ingly feasible to collect genetic categories. This presentation high- its broader historical, social, and data from ancient human remains. lights the potential shortfalls of political context? Deborah Bolnick’s presentation using biology to suggest the iden- considers the benefits and risks tity and ancestry of ancient ones, The speakers in the first sym- of using ancient DNA to establish specifically Spirit Cave and Kenne- posium session, “Constructing cultural affiliation and substanti- wick Man.

9 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings Bringing the Ancient One Home: Genetic Data and the Case for Repatriating Kennewick Man ARMAND MINTHORN

Video available online: I sit on the Board of Trustees, the REPATRIATION AND NAGPRA www.sfu.ca/ipinch/resources/videos/ governing body of our tribe. I’ve minthorn-dna been on the governing body since Repatriation refers to the return 1995 and I have the scars to prove of archaeological materials and First, in my language I’d like to it. I do. I sit on the tribe’s Cultural ancestral remains to culturally acknowledge the welcome from affiliated federally recognized Na- Resources committee as chair, tive American tribes. In the Unit- my brother [Victor Guerin] and to amongst other committees within ed States, repatriation is legislat- acknowledge the people that lived the tribe for federal and state ed by the Native American Graves here a long time ago. agencies. I was recently selected Protection and Repatriation Act by the U.S. Secretary Department (NAGPRA), enacted on November I want to thank George and the 16, 1990. NAGPRA governs the of the Interior to sit on the NAG- process by which cultural items, people that organized this. This is PRA review committee. These are including human remains, funer- only the second time I’ve been to some of the duties I have and the ary objects, sacred objects, or Canada and I found out my phone work I do with my tribe. objects of cultural patrimony, can doesn’t work here and the money be returned to lineal descendants here is different, some of the and culturally affiliated Indian “Oytpamanatity” — Can you folks tribes and Native Hawaiian orga- people here don’t want American say it with me? That’s the name nizations. Canada does not have money. I found that out. It’s good that we gave to the Kennewick any similar legislation to NAGPRA. to be here. Man. It means “Ancient One.” We Instead, repatriation is carried out as the five tribes, Umatilla, Colville, through coordination and collab- My name is Armand Minthorn, I’m oration between research institu- Nez Perce, Yakama, and Wanapum tions, museums, and Indigenous with the Confederated Tribes of have been working to have Kenne- peoples. the Umatilla and we are in Eastern wick Man repatriated since 1996. Oregon. Our tribe is composed of Ever since the Kennewick Man was NAGPRA defines “Native Ameri- three tribes: the Umatilla, Walla discovered or actually eroded out can” as “of, or relating to, a tribe, Walla, and Cayuse. Our reserva- people, or culture that is Indig- of the bank along the Columbia enous to the United States.” For tion is about 176,000 acres and our River, we have always claimed that ancestors who are thousands tribal membership just two months he is Native American. Our belief of years old, such as Kennewick ago topped 3,000 people, so we’re was only reconfirmed by Dr. Eske Man, it can be difficult to meet a fairly small confederation. We are Willerslev, a scientist in Copen- this definition of Native Ameri- a treaty tribe. We signed a treaty can. In 2002, a United States hagen, Denmark. The results of court found that Kennewick Man with the United States government the DNA analysis were released could not be determined to be in 1855 where we ceded away 6.4 in June of this year (Rasmussen et Native American and permission million acres of land, which are al. 2015) and the DNA results said was given to a small group of in the states of Oregon, Washing- very clearly that Kennewick Man scientists to continue research on his remains. ton, and Idaho. We still retain our is Native American. It was DNA treaty rights in that ceded area to submitted by the Colville tribe and Many people have asked, “why do hunt, to fish, to gather roots and the DNA matched with Kennewick you think Kennewick Man showed berries. Man. We have always said this and himself?” The old people at home we have always believed it. have always tried to show us and

10 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings tell us how important our way of studied?” I told him, because we When we were in Copenhagen, all life is. Our language, our songs, our already know. We know how this of the tribes said the same thing: traditions, our religion, our culture, world was created, our songs, our people need to be careful with sci- our Indian food, and the land we language, our traditions and cus- ence. Very careful with science. And live on: they’re all one and the toms tell us that. We know where it is good to know what science can same. Some of our old people have our ancestors lived and died. The do, but science is going to create a told us that maybe Kennewick Man archaeological record is very clear. lot of questions and a lot of people and other ancestors who we have We also know as Indian people, won’t be happy or accept those gotten back from federal agencies, wherever you come from, how this answers. This is what we told him. museums, and universities maybe world will end. Our language, our You need to be very, very careful revealing themselves was their way song, our traditions tell us that. with science. Wherever people to strengthen your way of life, your come from, we’re all going to Indian way of life, so you don’t for- Another man asked “don’t you have to live and work side by side. get where you come from and you want to know how your ancestors And we don’t want science to say don’t forget where you’re going. crossed the land bridge?” I told “you’re different” and therefore I’m Maybe this is the message they’re this man, “No, We did not cross going to treat you differently. We trying to send to you, to all of us. a land bridge. We were created don’t want that. We truly believe here.” It’s because our language, that science can have some ben- We don’t have in our culture or songs, traditions, and customs efits, but only if those benefits are tradition anything that tells us tell us that. It’s not for me or any controlled. There’s a difference. I’m how to rebury ancestors, but other person to say any different. not a scientist. I only have a GED1. we’ve adapted. We’ve adapted. This is what we believe and it’s not That’s all. However, there are many We didn’t change anything in our any different than how you may old people that still are in my heart lifeways or our lifestyle, we only believe. We as Indian people know and mind. I remember and think adapted. We didn’t change any- there is one God. We know that. about and echo their teachings so thing with our language, our songs, My religion isn’t any better than that they can continue to teach me our traditions—none of that was yours. It isn’t. And no one can say and my people. That’s what tradi- changed. We’ve only adapted and their religion is better than mine or tion and oral histories are about. now we take care of our sacred yours. In order for us to get along But again, wherever we come from ancestral remains today. with each other, we have to take people need to understand we into heart and mind those people have our own way of life, our own Our old people have told us over that were before us. I’m not here language, our own traditions, and and over and over these ancestral to convert anybody. One man said our own food. They need to under- remains are sacred. Period. End of once, “You’re a religious zealot.” stand that. As an example, I went discussion. They should be treated I said, “Okay, whatever that is.” to Chicago not too long ago. I don’t as such. Our ancestral remains are But Eske Willerslev, one of the top know what it is about people but not artifacts. They should not be scientists in the world, invited the they have to feel my hair. I don’t treated as artifacts. They are not claimant tribes to go back there know what it is about my hair. They a means for study. They are not and see his facility in Denmark, ask to feel it and they go “Are you a means for display. They are a and to see how the DNA testing Indian?” I’ve heard that so many means for us, as Indian people, to was done, and we got to see those times. And then I also hear a lot of take care of them as best we can. machines that he uses. Science “my great-great grandmother was a How to do this is for the tribes to changes fast. It’s going to change Cherokee princess.” I’ve heard that decide and not museums, universi- next year. It’s one of the fields that so many times. I have! I say “Well, ties, or federal agencies. It’s tribes are rapidly changing. that’s good!” that decide that and no one else. One man said one time “why don’t 1. General Educational Development creden- you want your ancestors to be tial.

11 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings People have to understand that not all Indians are the same. We’re not. We’re not like the Indians on TV. We’re not. Again, I just want to emphasize that we will get Ken- newick Man back. We have legisla- tion now in the U.S. Congress that Senator Patty Murray introduced and we will rebury the Kennewick Man, us as five tribes. That’s our goal. We’ve been working on it for over 15 years. But this is what our old people have told us in the past and this is what they tell us today: take care of this ancestor. We are doing the best that we can. It’s institutes like this that can help us and other tribes, but it needs to be done in a careful way.

References Cited

Rasmussen, Morten, Martin Sikora, Anders Albrechtsen, Thorfinn Sand Korneliussen, J. Victor Moreno-Mayar, G. David Poznik, … and Eske Willerslev. 2015. The Ancestry and Affiliations of Kennewick Man. Nature 523(7561): 455–458.

12 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings The Risks and Benefits of Inferring Relatedness, Identity, and Cultural Affiliation from Ancient DNA DEBORAH BOLNICK

Video available online: This means that there is an increas- DNA (DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID) www.sfu.ca/ipinch/resources/vid- ing likelihood that ancient DNA is a sequence of some three bil- eos/dna-bolnick will guide our understandings of lion nucleotides that encodes ge- identity and Indigeneity, as well as netic information. DNA is found in I want to thank everyone for hav- our inferences about relatedness, all living things, and is sometimes ing me here today. I’m here from cultural affiliation, and community preserved in ancient human, animal, or plant remains. Because the University of Texas at Austin. histories. I have three reasons for nucleotide sequences vary among I am of Eastern European and saying this. First, using ancient DNA individuals, groups and species, Jewish heritage, and my ancestors in this way would tap into wide- DNA is useful in identification and moved to the United States about spread interest today in using DNA showing genetic/evolutionary a century ago. My work focuses on to trace ancestry and population relationships. the intersection of genetics, his- history. Second, because Western MITOCHONDRIAL DNA (MTDNA) tory, and culture. understandings of relatedness is found in the mitochondria of are largely biogenetic in nature, cells and used to trace maternal As we’ve heard today, recent we give DNA substantial power to ancestry as it is passed from a technological advances have made adjudicate questions about any- mother to her children. MtDNA is more likely to be preserved in it feasible to collect a kind of data thing associated with relatedness. ancient samples because there from ancient human remains that Ancient DNA is therefore seen as are many more copies per cell many never imagined possible just being relevant to a wide array of than nuclear DNA. twenty or thirty years ago. In this social, cultural, political, and legal time, we’ve gone from the very questions—questions about iden- Y-CHROMOSOME DNA is a type of nuclear DNA that is only pres- first studies reporting the survival tity and group membership, land ent in males and used for tracing of ancient DNA in bone (Hagel- claims, and the cultural affiliation paternal ancestry. berg et al. 1989) to the publication and repatriation of human re- of complete genomes of ancient mains. And third, some Indigenous NUCLEAR DNA contains the most individuals (Rasmussen et al. 2010, groups have already started to use information about an individual, but often there isn’t enough pre- 2014, 2015). genetic data to support repatria- served in archaeological samples tion and territorial claims. for study. Only a handful of ancient genomes have been fully sequenced so far, I’d therefore like to use the next but having the ability to collect few minutes to consider the ben- stantiate these connections for the genome-wide data from ancient efits and risks of using ancient DNA purposes of repatriation and land individuals has really opened the in some of these contexts. Specifi- claims?; and 3) Are there trade- door to using ancient DNA in new cally, I want to ask three questions: offs if we use genetics in this way? ways. For example, with genome- 1) What do—and don’t—ancient In other words, could there be wide data, we can now get a much DNA studies tell us about ancestor- short-term benefits but long-term clearer picture of an individual’s descendant relationships, identity, drawbacks? genetic makeup and biological and shared culture?; 2) What are ancestry. the implications and consequences To help answer these questions, for Indigenous peoples if we rely I discuss two recent high-profile on genetics to establish and sub- ancient DNA studies where ances-

13 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings tor-descendant relationships and who participated in this study. lish or mediate land claims more cultural identity were inferred from The results fit with their oral and frequently. genomic data. The first case study, written histories, which state that First, if we use scientific data to by Cui et al. (2013), reported the their ancestors have lived in this “validate” Indigenous knowledge, complete mitochondrial genomes, territory for thousands of years. does that mean that we believe or mitogenomes, of four ancient The press release about this study, scientific knowledge is superior and three living individuals. This and the various media reports to Indigenous knowledge? Does it map shows the study area, which that followed, all emphasized this imply that Indigenous knowledge is located on the north coast of point. For example, one participant without scientific support is inac- British Columbia. and co-author of the study said: curate and to be discounted? I “Having a DNA link showing direct hope the answer is no, but I think The remains of two individuals maternal ancestry dating back at we need to consider whether were found on Lucy Island in the least 5,000 years is huge as far as these kind of genetic arguments Prince Rupert Harbour area. One helping the Metlakatla prove that could inadvertently undermine was radiocarbon dated to 5,530 this territory was theirs over the Indigenous knowledge and sover- years before present (BP) and the millennia” (Yates 2013). Another eignty. other to 5,930 BP. Remains of two commented, “It’s very exciting to other individuals were found on be able to have scientific proof that Second, we need to be cognizant nearby Dodge Island, and were corroborates what our ancestors of the potential complications that dated to 2,830 BP and 4,680 BP. have been telling us for genera- could arise if claims are based on Finally, mitogenomes from three tions” (Yates 2013). small sample sizes and limited living individuals sequenced in this genomic data. For example, in study came from Tsimshian-speak- The emphasis here is on the sci- the Cui et al. (2013) study, they ing communities that live nearby. ence proving the community’s reported the mitogenomes of territorial claims by confirming a just four ancient and three living In this study, Cui et al. (2013) direct ancestor-descendant rela- individuals. Because only a hand- found that the 5,500-year-old tionship with ancient inhabitants in ful of mitogenomes have been individual from Lucy Island ex- the region. This point was explic- published from ancient inhabit- hibited the same maternally- itly made in several other news ants of the Pacific Northwest, we inherited mitochondrial lineage as articles, including one article that don’t really know how rare or the 2,800-year-old individual from noted that “this scientific achieve- how widespread a specific mito- Dodge Island. They also identified ment is also seen to have signifi- chondrial lineage was 2,800 or one living Tsimshian speaker who cant implications for First Nations’ 5,500 years ago. This means that belongs to this same A2ag lineage. land claims and treaty rights, giving we don’t know if the A2ag lineage In addition, Cui et al. (2013) found Aboriginal groups a powerful new is found only in the ancestors of that the 4,700- year-old individual tool for demonstrating deep-root- Tsimshian-speaking communi- from Dodge Island exhibited a mi- ed links between the present and ties, or if it was more common tochondrial lineage found today in hyper-distant past” (Boswell 2013). and found in other groups as well. two Tsimshian speakers in nearby If it was found in others, and if communities. Thus, these results Thus, this is an example of ancient people moved in and out of the demonstrate that at least three in- DNA being used very effectively Prince Rupert Harbour area over dividuals living in the Prince Rupert to support an Indigenous com- time, the mitogenome alone is not Harbour area today are genetically munity’s territorial claims. Using enough to tell us if these ancient related to people who lived there genetic data in this way has some individuals were directly ancestral 2,800, 4,700, and 5,500 years ago. obvious benefits, but I also want to the Tsimshian speakers sampled to consider some potential risks in this study. It’s possible that they This was a really exciting finding for communities, especially if we were only distantly related: more for the First Nations communities begin to depend on DNA to estab- like distant cousins who share the

14 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings A2ag lineage, rather than grand- direct ancestor-descendant rela- I’d like to now turn to a second parents and grandchildren. In that tionships with certainty. In light of case study to help us understand case, they might exhibit the same this, I think we may want to con- the benefits and risks of using mitochondrial lineage, but only sider whether direct ancestry is ancient DNA to establish or adjudi- because each inherited it indepen- even necessary to justify territorial cate repatriation claims. This study dently from a much earlier mater- claims. was published in 2014 and reports nal ancestor. the genome of a young child who Finally, complications can arise was buried at the Anzick site in I do want to note, however, that when using DNA to assert or medi- Montana, approximately 12,600 there is archaeological evidence ate land claims if we don’t know years ago (Rasmussen et al. 2014). of cultural continuity in the Prince how rare or widespread a par- Known as Anzick-1 this boy’s DNA Rupert Harbour area over time, ticular genetic lineage is today. To shows that he was closely related as well as very detailed oral histo- continue with the same example, to present-day Native Americans, ries that tell the same story. Given the A2ag lineage seems rare today, and he belonged to a population this information, an ancestor- based on the individuals who have that was ancestral to many Indig- descendant relationship is more been sampled so far. However, enous Americans alive today. likely here than a scenario involv- those sampled represent just a ing population change. In addition, small fraction of the Indigenous Because the boy’s remains were more recent analyses of genome- people living in the Pacific North- found on private property, the Na- wide data from the same individu- west. What happens if subsequent tive American Graves Protection als are consistent with population research identifies the same and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) did continuity throughout time (Ragha- mitochondrial linage in other In- not apply, and the scientists did van et al. 2015). digenous groups? Would that cast not consult with any tribes before doubt on or invalidate the claims analyzing the child’s DNA because However, we do know from ge- of the Metlakatla that the ancient they saw him as culturally unaffili- netic studies in other parts of the Lucy and Dodge Island individuals ated. However, once the research- world that people do move and were affiliated with them, or that ers had enough data to be confi- diversity patterns have sometimes they have lived in their territory for dent that the child was genetically shifted drastically over time. Some thousands of years? Would that related to contemporary Native mitochondrial lineages were more give other groups the right to lay Americans, they did consult with common in the past than they claim to the same land? Native American groups about are today, and others have disap- what should be done with the peared from one group, but not I don’t have answers to these ques- child’s remains once the study was from another, just by chance. Thus, tions, but I think it’s important that completed. to establish an ancestor-descen- we consider these possibilities. We dant relationship and population do know from other genetic stud- Thus, in this case, the genomic continuity through time using ies that most mitochondrial lin- results played a critical role in con- genetics, we need genome-wide eages are not restricted to a single vincing scientists to carry out con- data and specific statistical tests linguistic or cultural group. It is sultations and accept the reburial of such a relationship. If taking therefore quite possible that future of the Anzick-1 child. This study this scientific approach, we also genetic research may identify the shows that ancient DNA can be need ancient DNA samples from same lineage in other communi- used to facilitate the repatriation an appropriate geographical area ties. Given this possibility, we need and reburial of remains that are and relevant time periods. Perhaps to carefully consider the role we considered culturally unaffiliated, the take-home message here is want DNA to play in mediating land and it could have a role to play in that ancient DNA studies can easily claims, since it could be a double- supporting or adjudicating other identify genetic relatedness, but it edged sword. repatriation claims. may be more difficult to establish

15 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings Of course, it’s important to note the age of two. Therefore, his DNA Figure 1. Comparing the degree of genetic that while ancient DNA may offer can tell us about his relatedness affinity between Anzick-1 and Indigenous populations around the world, with red circles some benefits, many Indigenous to contemporary peoples, but it indicating close genetic affinity. Reprinted with communities are still not comfort- cannot be used to establish direct permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd: able with having ancestral re- ancestor-descendant relationships. Nature 506: 225-229. mains studied in this way. It would Figure 1 from Rasmussen et al. therefore be deeply problematic if Nor does DNA tell us the cultural (2014) shows the genetic affinities ancient DNA came to be seen as an affiliation or cultural identity of an of the Anzick-1 child with various essential component of repatria- ancient individual. As many studies Indigenous groups in the Americas tion requests. Luckily, I don’t think of human genetic diversity have today. The warmer the colour (the that’s likely to happen, especially shown, there is not a simple or darker the red), the greater the in the United States, because NAG- clear-cut link between a person’s genetic similarity of that particular PRA states that remains can be genetic makeup and their cul- contemporary group to Anzick-1. repatriated to lineal descendants tural identity. In these situations, Other colours (e.g., yellow, green, or culturally affiliated tribes. though, we might be tempted to and blue) indicate decreasing ge- make a somewhat questionable as- netic similarity with him. Nevertheless, I think we need to sumption and treat genetic similar- consider how much we want to let ity as a proxy for shared culture. Thus, this figure shows that the An- ancient DNA guide our consulta- We could then try to infer An- zick-1 child is most closely related tion processes and repatriation zick-1’s cultural affiliation from his to contemporary Central and South decisions, both with lineal de- genetic affinities with present-day American populations (Rasmus- scendants and culturally affiliated individuals. In this case though, sen et al. 2014). He’s less closely groups. In the case of Anzick-1, he that would actually lead us to a related genetically to the contem- has no direct lineal descendants rather odd outcome. porary North American popula- because he died before reaching tions that were sampled. This was

16 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings a rather surprising finding, and it want DNA to be used to support or some cases, DNA can clearly help raises questions about how we adjudicate repatriation claims. identify lineal descendants or relat- should approach consultation and ed peoples, and thus may support repatriation after collecting ancient Subsequently, these case studies some land claims and repatriation DNA data. Should the ancient DNA show that there can be both ben- requests. However, DNA also has data guide our consultation and efits and risks that come with using the potential to yield unexpected repatriation efforts? If so, does the ancient DNA to infer cultural affili- results that could complicate some genetic similarity between Anzick-1 ation and substantiate repatriation claims. Indigenous communities, and Central/South Americans and land claims. I want to now re- researchers, and policy advisors mean that they should have been turn to the three questions I posed therefore need to think carefully consulted regarding his reburial? earlier. First, what do—and don’t— about whether ancient DNA should Should the cultural rituals and ancient DNA studies tell us about inform the decision-making pro- burial practices of one or more of ancestor-descendant relationships, cess in these contexts. these groups have been followed identity, and shared culture? I when the remains were reburied? think ancient DNA can readily More broadly, we also need to con- And who in particular should be identify genetic relatedness be- sider the potential consequences consulted when the genetic data tween ancient and contemporary of using genetics to answer ques- indicate that numerous groups, individuals, but it can be more dif- tions that have previously been with many different cultural tradi- ficult to establish direct ancestor- decided based on legal, political, tions, are closely related to the descendant relationships with any cultural, and historical consider- ancient individual in question? certainty. In many cases, we would ations. If we use genetic informa- need a lot more genetic data tion to infer the cultural identities In this particular case, the sci- than we currently have, including and affiliations of people who entists sidestepped all of these more sequence data from across lived long ago, does that mean we issues and consulted with the local the genome, broader geographic should use the same kind of infor- groups in Montana instead. In sampling, and denser temporal mation to determine the cultural other words, they let geographic sampling. Furthermore, we need identity or tribal enrollment status proximity guide the consultation to remember that DNA does not of contemporary people? I think process, rather than genetic relat- tell us an individual’s identity or this would be highly problematic edness. cultural affiliation. Human genetic since we know DNA is not a good variation does not map precisely proxy for culture or nationality, but As with the first case study, this onto the social and cultural group- this is something that needs to be example shows that DNA could ings in human society, and there considered. be a double-edged sword when is not a clear-cut link between a it comes to repatriation issues. person’s genetic makeup and their Finally, I asked if there are trade- In some cases, ancient DNA can identity. Most genetic variants offs to using genetics in this way, help identify lineal descendants are found in multiple cultural and particularly if there are short-term or related peoples, and it could linguistic groups, so genetic simi- benefits but long-term drawbacks. facilitate the repatriation of some larity is not always a good proxy for I think this is very much a pos- ancestral remains that were previ- shared culture. sibility. What may be expedient ously deemed to be culturally unaf- or useful in one context may have filiated. In other cases, though, The second question I asked was, unintended consequences at other ancient DNA analyses may yield “what are the implications and times or for other groups. Howev- unexpected findings that have the consequences for Indigenous er, I do think that we may be able potential to complicate the con- peoples if we rely on genetics to to minimize potential risks if we sultation and repatriation process. establish these connections, and if use knowledge of human genetic We therefore need to think care- we use DNA data to substantiate diversity patterns and Indigenous fully about how (and even if) we repatriation and land claims?” In knowledge to contextualize and

17 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings interpret data from ancient DNA Rasmussen Morten, Sarah L. Anzick, Michael R. Waters, Pontus Skoglund, Michael DiGeorgio, studies. If for example, multiple Thomas W. Stafford Jr., … and Eske Willerslev groups shows genetic affinity to 2014 The Genome of a Late Pleistocene an ancient individual but only one Human from a Clovis Burial Site in Western group has a history of living in that Montana. Nature 506:225-229. location, then we may wish to Rasmussen Morten, Martin Sikora, Anders privilege the claims of that group Albrechtsen, Thorfinn Sand Korneliussen, J. and recognize that the genetic Victor Moreno-Mayar, David G. Poznik,…Eske Willerslev affinities of the other groups may 2015 The Ancestry and Affiliations of not indicate a close cultural con- Kennewick Man. Nature 523:455-458. nection. Yates Diana 2013 Study of Mitochondrial DNA Ties Ancient Thus, if we ground claims about Remains to Living Descendants. Illinois News genetic relatedness and iden- Bureau, July 3. http://bit.ly/1P8vcVf tity in Indigenous knowledge and what we know about the genetic patterns of human diversity, we should be better able to use genetic information to benefit Indigenous communities and other stakeholders.

References Cited

Boswell Randy 2013 Groundbreaking Genetic Study Links living First Nation Woman to 5,500-Year-Old Ancestor. National Post, July 8. http://bit.ly/1TKhv0B

Cui Yinqui, John Lindo, Cris E. Hughes, Jesse W. Johnson, Alvaro G. Hernandez, Brian M. Kemp,… and Ripan S. Malhi 2013 Ancient DNA Analysis of Mid-Holocene Individuals from the Northwest Coast of North America Reveals Different Evolutionary Paths for Mitogenomes. PLoS ONE 8(7): e66948.

Hagelberg, Erika, Bryan Sykes, and Robert Hedges 1989 Ancient Bone DNA Amplified. Nature 342:485.

Raghavan Maanasa, Matthias Steinrücken, Kelley Harris, Stephan Schiffels, Simon Rasmussen, Michael DiGeorgio,…and Eske Willerslev 2015 Genomic Evidence for the Pleistocene and Recent Population History of Native Americans. Science 349: aab3884.

Rasmussen Morten, Yingrui Li, Stinus Lindgreen, Jakob Skou Pederson, Anders Albrechtsen, Ida Moltke,… and Eske Willerslev 2010 Ancient Human Genome Sequence of an Extinct Palaeo-Eskimo. Nature 463:757-762.

18 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings Lives in Motion: Cautionary Notes on Using Human Biology to Infer Identity, Cultural Affiliation, and Ancestry ALAN GOODMAN

Video available online: did his best to separate culture The title of this talk is about mo- www.sfu.ca/ipinch/resources/vid- from biology in order to fight rac- tion and movement: everything eos/dna-goodman ism. (Boas, in his time, had a hard is moving, literally. What are the time thinking about human bio- implications of constant motion for Good afternoon everybody. It is a logical variation as different from identities, biologies, and ecologies? pleasure to be here and to follow race.) Fighting racism is obviously Everything changes and gets mixed two excellent speakers. I am a past important, but I think that biology up. This can make interpretations President of the American Anthro- is something that we can and need of identities particularly challeng- pological Association and a former to see from a cultural lens. ing, as highlighted by Deborah member of the Native American Bolnick’s discussion of the Anzick-1 Graves Protection and Repatria- To clarify, biology does not equate child and the complications that tion Act (NAGPRA) National Review with genetics even though these arise over 10,000 years of human Committee. I’m also a biological terms are often used synonymous- interaction. anthropologist and an Ashkenazi ly, a practice I find problematic. Jew from Massachusetts whose The reduction of biology to genet- Even biologies such as skull shapes four grandparents fled the po- ics is common in the popular press change. This is important to con- groms in Russia/Poland and arrived and even amongst some scientists. sider, as skull shape is often the in the United States about one In reality, the interaction between most common archaeological hundred years ago. genetics and culture co-creates hu- indicator of biocultural continuity. man biology. Therefore, I think it’s While we’re surrounded by rapidly My main interest is the intersec- more useful to see biology as an developing genomic technology, tions of culture and biology. More entity created at the intersection I’m going to take a step back and specifically, I investigate how biol- of genetics and cultural processes. review what we can purportedly ogy shifts through time and the learn from skull shapes and pheno- implications this has for biology as Why is it important to understand types. Understanding the method- well as the use of biology in the in- the ways in which culture and ological basis behind this approach terpretation of cultural categories, biology interact? I’ve spent time is incredibly important given the including identity, cultural affilia- in Mexico investigating under- racist history of craniometrics. tion, and ancestry. nutrition and biological wellbeing. Phenotypes and skull shapes com- When doing so, it is impossible to plicate conversations about what So why think about the links be- ignore the role of cultural pro- race is and is not, and subsequent tween culture and biology? What’s cesses in creating these biological inferences about continuity, ances- relevant about them? We usually conditions. It’s apparent that politi- try, and identities. think about culture and biology cal and economic processes, such as separate categories, but I want as racism and inequality, can get The structure of human genetic to propose an alternative way of under the skin. variation has often been appor- thinking: biology is not a separate tioned according to the different sphere from culture. Rather, it is a Today, I’d like us to re-imagine how so-called races: African, Asian, cultural category that we employ. our cultural “readings” of pheno- and European. Study after study This is in strong disagreement with types are made to seem real and finds that most all variation oc- Franz Boas who in the early 1900s valorized in the age of genetics. curs within so called races. Native

19 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings Americans were often left out According to Stan Rhine (1998: requires yield of best function. It’s of these studies such as the one 95), the Giles and Elliot method the most common and most tested presented here by Yu et al. (2002). (which I’ll come back to in a sec- method and is considered the gold That study shows something even ond) is “greatly admired” and Alice standard for forensic identifica- more interesting about population Brues says that it is the “standard tion based on crania. For example, genetics: genetic variation is even method” for racial identification there are a number of equations greater in African populations than based on skull shape (1992: 125). developed to make bivariate splits in European or Asian populations. Another example of race-base by sex between any two racial Moreover, European and Asian identification comes from Kåathy groups. The Giles and Elliot meth- variation is basically a subset of Af- Reichs, author of the forensic od is comprised of a fairly simple rican genetic variation. What does detective novel Death Du Jour. The equation that requires plugging this mean for our interpretations quote from her book says, “I took a the cranial measurements into the of race? The take-away message is breath. The bones don’t lie…from formula in order to produce a final that humans are constantly mixing the moment I looked at Elisabeth’s number. If that number is above and interacting with each other, skull, I knew she was a person of 89.27, the cranium is assumed to and thus, the little genetic varia- mixed race.” According to Reichs, be Negro. If it is below 89.27, it is tion that is present is also largely it’s not only simple to identify an assumed to be Caucasian. superficial. individual’s race from their skull, but it’s possible to tell if the person When the best-fit calculation was The question of “race” is still pres- is of mixed race. performed the test results were ent in NAGPRA legislation because really good. In the original study, repatriation work depends to some The recent development of skull 94% of individuals were correctly degree on quasi-racial categories. measurement software claiming categorized into their socially We struggle to acknowledge that to determine race and gender defined races. They also kept a race may not be real in the histori- received a significant amount of sample of skulls from the original cal typological sense, but continue attention. What I’d like to do is test test in order to retest the method. to question whether we can iden- the accuracy and reliability of cra- Somewhat surprisingly, the per- tify individuals by race based on niometric identification of “race” centage of individuals correctly DNA differences. This still happens by focusing on the test developed identified dropped to 81.7%. The in forensic biology due to its reli- by Giles and Elliot (1962), the drop from 94% to 81.7% might ance on skull sizes and shapes. It’s only such method that has been have been a little suspicious, but not infrequent to pick up a text- retested. Giles and Elliot used the the real surprise was to follow. book today that will include a “typ- method of discriminate functions Other researchers tested the “cor- ical” Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and at a time when computers were rect race” identified in four inde- Negroid skull. The question then just being developed to crunch the pendent retests. The results drop becomes, “Is it possible to identify data. from 94%, to 81.7%, to 59%, to races based on skull shape?” The three further studies that were less answer according to many forensic The Giles and Elliot method is a than 33% accurate. anthropologists and skeletal biolo- multivariate function that includes gists is yes, and very well. 7–8 measurements that best How do forensic anthropologists discriminate between different respond to the results? First, a lot However, I want to test this as- “racial” groups. The Giles and El- of people have simply ignored the sumption by assessing the reliabil- liot method has several important study while others have pointed ity of forensic racial identification requirements: all calculations are out that regardless of the results, based on skull shapes and sizes. based on a complete skull; no the FBI requires forensic racial In popular and scientific opinion sub-adults; no Asians; no Latino/ identification. But that’s not sci- it is believed you can identify race Latinas; the test must be con- ence! Others say that the samples from skulls with 85-90% accuracy. ducted after sex is assigned; and it were inadequate. But perhaps

20 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings a more important point is that interpreted. What is fascinating Owsley, Douglas W. and Richard L. Jantz (editors) samples are always site and time are the dynamics of movement 2014 Kennewick Man: The Scientific specific. The discriminate function and migration before and after AD Investigation of an Ancient American Skeleton. method is old and inadequate, but 1492. Within this continent it is Texas A&M University Press, College Station, the problems plaguing the dis- amazing to see the movement of Texas. criminate function method are still goods and ideas across time and Reichs, Kathy present and can be traced back to space. 1999 Death du Jour. Pocket Star Publishers. the complicated nature of human Another important conclusion is Rhine, Stanley variation and movement. that we should not expect the An- 1999. Bone Voyage: A Journey in Forensic cient One to look like present-day Anthropology. University of New Mexico Press, Next, I’d like to consider the case populations because boundaries Albuquerque. of Kennewick Man, or the Ancient are fuzzy, changing, and genetic Yu, Ning, Feng-Chi Chen, Satoshi Ota, Lynn One, and what it reveals about variation greatly overlaps. Jorde, Pekka Pamilo, Laszlo Patthy, Michele skull shapes and phenotypes. In Ramsay, Trefor Jenkins, Song-Kun Shyue, and Wen-Hsiung Li 2014, Douglas Owsley and Richard A really important point here is 2002 Larger Genetic Difference Within Africans Jantz published a massive coffee that prior to the 2010–2011 revi- than Between Africans and Eurasians. Genetics table-sized book titled, Kennewick sion of NAGPRA legislation, 87% or 161:269-274. Man: The Scientific Investigation of 115,000 individuals were deemed an Ancient American Skeleton, that to be culturally unaffiliated. These detailed the numerous scientific individuals are from Middle Missis- studies conducted on Kennewick, sippian cultures and other known including craniometric analyses. Native American cultures but they For the past twenty years, Doug couldn’t be repatriated under the Owsley and his co-authors have law because they were unable to been holding on to the idea that demonstrate direct lineage affili- Kennewick Man is not a Native ation. We know these individuals American because his canonical are Native American despite what correlation analysis does not look NAGPRA states, so I’m calling them similar to that of any other con- false negatives. We know who they temporary individuals. If anything, are; we just need to have a law the results are similar to popula- that supports their repatriation. If tions from Polynesian. However, we are using biology, then we need the values for Polynesian popula- to lower the bar of expected simi- tions are not statistically different larity between ancient and modern from those for Native North Ameri- peoples and we need to use phe- cans. For me, the main point is that notypes (and genetics) with cau- Kennewick Man is over 9,000 years tion because they are not fixed. old and we should not expect his cranium to look exactly like that of modern Indigenous peoples. References Cited

What conclusions can we draw Brues, Alice 1992 Forensic Diagnosis of Race-General Race from this discussion? Phenotypes vs Specific Populations. Social Sciences & may or may not provide a good Medicine 34(2): 125-128. window into ancestry and affilia- Giles, E., and O. Elliott tion. Therefore, one has to think 1962 Race Identification from Cranial critically about context and how Measurements. Journal of Forensic Science phenotypes are being used and 7:147-157.

21 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings THEME 2

Biogenetics, Justice, and the Repatriation of Human Remains

As techniques for the extraction rador, Canada, regarding the repa- as well as cultural ones, and thus and analysis of ancient human DNA triation of Beothuk remains (Indig- cannot be defined solely based on become increasingly advanced, enous peoples of Newfoundland, genetic or biological criteria. Lip- new uses for this information are now believed to be extinct), Daryl pert points to several case studies becoming apparent. One such Pullman explores differing notions to show how difficult and impracti- proposed use for genetic informa- of identity (e.g., genetic, cultural, cal repatriation would be if it only tion is to facilitate the repatria- and otherwise), as well as various relied on genetic constructions of tion of ancient human remains. conceptions of “justice” ranging identity and affiliation. The second symposium session, from distributive, to compensa- “Biogenetics, Justice, and the tory, to retributive, and restorative Meanwhile, in Australia DNA re- Repatriation of Human Remains,” justice. As Pullman explains, how search has yet to be used for the explores the realities and feasibil- we define justice has implications purposes of repatriating Indige- ity of using ancient DNA to iden- for repatriation, tribal identity, and nous ancestral remains but discus- tify genetic relatedness between land claims. sions are beginning. According to ancient and modern peoples with Cressida Fforde, the potential—if the intent of repatriating ancestral In the United States, the Smithson- any—of genetic information to remains. Referencing case stud- ian National Museum of Natural facilitate repatriation can be found ies and examples from Canada, History repatriates human remains, in cases where there is little to no United States, and Australia, Daryl funerary objects, sacred objects, provenance information available Pullman (Memorial University of and objects of cultural patrimony within archival sources. Fforde Newfoundland), Dorothy Lippert to federally-recognized tribes. As considers the use of “biological” (Repatriation Office, Smithsonian Dorothy Lippert explains in her markers of identity in repatria- Institution), and Cressida Fforde presentation, documenting the ties tion to illuminate perceptions of (Australian National University) between existing tribes and an- Indigenous identity, the need for consider these questions from an cient peoples can utilize biological greater sophistication in research international perspective. constructions of identity, but there translation, and the implications are limits to this type of analysis. (both real and potential) if greater Drawing primarily from a recent Particularly problematic is the fact understanding is not achieved and case from Newfoundland and Lab- that tribes are political entities communicated.

22 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings Genetics, Identity, and Justice DARYL PULLMAN

Video available online: own personal identity that shifts fairly allocating the benefits and www.sfu.ca/ipinch/resources/vid- at different times, in different burdens that come about from eos/dna-pullman contexts, and depending on the living together in society. A just tax purpose for which we appeal to system, for example, ostensibly In this presentation I will discuss our “identity.” shifts some of the wealth from the the ambiguity of identity and dif- rich to help the poor? That’s part fering conceptions of justice. I will Justice is also complex and am- of what distributive justice is all give a brief review of some of the biguous, and how we think about it about. In other contexts we may events surrounding the Beothuk can vary with context. The famous talk of compensatory justice to in Newfoundland and will examine statue of Justice is of a woman ensure that those who have been some ethical tensions in the repa- who is blindfolded, indicating that wronged are properly (and fairly) triation debate, particularly as it justice is supposed to be impartial. compensated? Lately there has relates to the Beothuk. I conclude Lady Justice holds a weight and been much talk about restorative with some tentative conclusions balance to show that justice in- justice and how we can address about how we might move forward volves weighing competing claims the social and economic imbal- in this regard. and interests. She carries a sword, ance for cultural groups that have indicating that sometimes justice been offended in the past. Thus, As we’ve already seen from the has to take measures to put things depending on the context and the talks this afternoon, identity is right. Finally, she’s got her foot on question, the type of justice that complex, it’s ambiguous, and it’s the head of a snake, a symbol of we’re invoking may be different. fickle because you can decide to wisdom. The type of justice to which we identify differently in one context appeal could have implications for versus another. Think of the To- The formal principle of justice our discussions about genetics and ronto Blue Jays baseball team and is simply “to each as she or he identity. Whether our interest is how they’ve suddenly become deserves.” That’s what justice is primarily retributive, compensa- “Canada’s Team.” But they’re still about: giving people what they de- tory, or restorative justice could the Toronto Blue Jays. If you don’t serve. However, this raises the im- have significant implications for live in Toronto and you’re Cana- portant question of how to deter- how we address the issues related dian, there’s a sort of disdain for mine what each person (or group) to genetics, identity, and justice. Toronto, an anti-Toronto senti- deserves? This brings us to various ment. Although this doesn’t seem material principles of justice. The role and significance of DNA to apply when it comes to the in establishing identity varies with Toronto Blue Jays, especially when There are in fact many different the issue at hand (e.g., land claims, they’re winning! senses of justice depending on tribal identity, or repatriation) and the social issue and context. In the with the nature of the justice claim Our identity is comprised of many legal system we often talk about invoked. In terms of justice and re- different components, of which I retributive justice, which involves patriation, the philosopher, Geof- list only a few here: cultural, com- punishing those appropriately if frey Scarre (2009:72), has said that munal, ethnic, spiritual, genetic, they’ve transgressed the law. In “of all the forms of cultural appro- professional, and national. All of society in general, we talk about priation practice in the last century these interweave to create our distributive justice, which involves or two, it would be hard to think of

23 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings any that has caused greater pain or offense to subaltern communities than the removal and retention of their human physical remains for purposes of study or exhibi- tion.” I want to talk now about the remains of two particular Beothuk individuals and the issues of justice involved in this case.

Many Canadians living outside of Newfoundland aren’t aware of who the Beothuk were. The Beothuk were a Native group that inhabited the island of New- foundland and became extinct in the 19th century, largely because of the way they were mistreated and eventually exterminated by the colonizers at the time. The residing in the said Island of New- Figure 2. Gerald Squires’ statue, “The Spirit of the definitive book on the history and foundland, instead of cultivating Beothuk”, memorializes Shawnadithit and the Beo- thuk. Photo Credit: CBC (http://bit.ly/1teC2Ue) ethnography of the Beothuk is that such a friendly intercourse with the written by anthropologist Ingeborg savages inhabiting that island…. ships. There was also a lot of ani- Marshall (1998). She notes that the do treat the said savages with the mosity because the Beothuk would Beothuk woman named Shawnadi- greatest inhumanity, and frequent- rob the settlers’ traps. It wasn’t thit who died in the early 1800s is ly destroy them without the least unheard of for the settlers to kill supposedly “the last of the Beo- provocation or remorse. In order, Beothuk upon sight. This is all part thuk.” therefore, to put a stop to such of the historical context for the inhuman barbarity, and that the royal proclamation. This is an image of a statue of perpetrators of such atrocities may Shawnadithit that was commis- be brought to due punishment, it is What I want to focus on today are sioned recently by the government His Majesty’s royal will and plea- two Beothuk individuals who are of Newfoundland. It is part of the sure that I do express his abhor- very well known in Newfoundland Newfoundland community’s at- rence of such inhuman barbarity, history. Here I refer to the story tempts to acknowledge the wrongs and I do strictly enjoin and require of Nonosbawsut and Demasduit. that have been done and to make all his Majesty’s subjects to live Nonosbawsut was the Chief of reparations. in amity and brotherly kindness the last known Beothuk tribe and with the native savages of the said his wife was Demasduit. In March In a proclamation made in 1769. Island of Newfoundland (cited in of 1819, there was a confronta- Governor John Byron, the King of Marshall 1998: 92-93). tion between this small group of England’s representative in New- Beothuk and some settlers. Non- foundland, addressed the issue of Apparently the Beothuk were un- osbawsut was killed and his wife the poor treatment of the Beothuk like other groups, many of whom was taken captive. The idea was people by the settlers. The procla- set up trade agreements with the that the settlers wanted to capture mation states in part: colonizers and stuck up relation- a Beothuk who would serve as an ships. Instead, the Beothuk were emissary and help to build rela- Whereas it has been represented a very solitary people who didn’t tions with the Beothuk. It was a to the King, that the subjects want to engage in such relation- rather poor start and didn’t end

24 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings very well since Demasduit con- Newfoundland ancestors wiped However, we don’t have any similar tracted tuberculosis and died nine out this Native population a couple legislation in Canada. In fact, the months after her capture. hundred years ago. Everybody Canadian Museum of History goes After her death the settlers re- knows the story of Nonosbawsut through a somewhat quasi-legal turned Demasduit’s body to the and Demasduit and knows that process where they set their own site where she had been captured. their skulls aren’t here in the prov- rules. Under these rules, they seek There they found a burial hut that ince. For whatever reason, even for to honour existing treaties and re- included the remains of her hus- non-Natives there’s a certain sense quire that requests for repatriation band, Nonosbawsut. Apparently of proprietorship and loss about come from “an Aboriginal govern- the Beothuk had come back after these skulls. Additionally, this story ment of individuals establishing a he’d been killed and placed his has made its way into popular fic- demonstrable link to the materi- body in this burial hut. There were tion. The well-known book, River als.” This is problematic in the case other bodies in the funeral hut, Thieves, by Newfoundland author, of extinct peoples and is especially including both an infant thought Michael Crummey (2002), is a difficult when some remains, such to be the son of Nonosbawsut and work of fiction but he builds his as the skulls of Nonosbawsut and Demasduit who had apparently story around the historical figures Demasduit, reside in a foreign died within weeks of his mother of Nonosbawsut and Demasduit. jurisdiction. being taken from him. The bodies Their story is very much a part of of Nonosbawsut, Demasduit, and Newfoundland culture and history. Chief Misel Joe of the Mi’qmak their son were laid to rest together band, the only Native band on the in the burial hut. There’s been effort on behalf of island of Newfoundland, says that some to repatriate Beothuk re- repatriation is just the right thing Seven years later, William Cormack mains. Aside from the skulls in to do. He’s appealing to restorative (founder of the Beothuk Institu- Scotland, Memorial University has and perhaps compensatory justice tion1) set out to build positive the remains of 12 individuals, and when he talks about repatriation relationships with the Beothuk and another ten Beothuk individuals being the “right thing to do.”3 to learn if there were any more are in the Canadian Museum of However, Ingeborg Marshall, the Beothuk living in the province. Al- History.2 But as the Director of main scholar on the Beothuk, is though he was unsuccessful in his Archaeology at the Canadian Mu- completely opposed to repatria- search, he did return to the burial seum of Civilization says, “We just tion and cites claims of distributive hut from which he took the skulls don’t have the resources to be pro- justice, although she doesn’t use of Nonosbawsut and Demasduit active on repatriation. We have to that term (2008). She says that and shipped them to his mentor at respond to requests as they come justice demands that we maintain the University of Edinburgh. The to us.” And of course, the request these materials for all of humanity skulls of these two rather famous has to come from a community because we all have a claim on the people in Newfoundland history representative who can demon- historical record and an interest in remain, to this day, in the Royal strate a link to the human remains. what we could potentially find out. Scotland Museum of Edinburgh. But, who speaks for the Beothuk if their tribe is indeed extinct? That’s not an uncommon theme Every Newfoundland child grow- among archaeologists and an- ing up in the school system learns In the United States under NAG- thropologists. Phillip Walker, a about the Beothuk. There’s a sense PRA there are new rules that give well-known bioarchaeologist, says of remorse and guilt that our tribes authority to claim “unaffiliat- that “human skeletal remains are ed remains” that cannot be linked a unique source of information on to an existing people. the genetic and physiological re- 1. This was established in 1827 to “to open a communication with “the Red Indians of New- foundland,” to promote their civilization, and 3. Calls made to repatriate Beothuk re- to procure an authentic history of this native 2. Until 2012 this was the Canadian Museum mains, CBC News, June 23, 2012: http://bit. group.” http://bit.ly/1TLUNoV of Civilization. ly/286p4s2

25 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings sponses our ancestors made to the they call “skraelings” and brought government of Scotland for repa- challenges posed by past natural them back to Iceland. If we contin- triating the skulls of Nonosbawsut and socioeconomic environments. ue far enough down the path that and Demasduit. They should be Consequently, they provide an ex- genetic identity should somehow returned to local Indigenous repre- tremely valuable adaptive perspec- confer the right to have a claim sentatives—irrespective of any ge- tive on the history of our species” over the remains of the Beothuk, netic identity. The fact of the matter (2007: 13, emphases added). He then we might have an odd situ- is that many Indigenous peoples goes on to say that “as caretak- ation where there are people in suffered at the hands of coloniz- ers of this fundamental source Iceland who have more of a claim ers. Thus, to some degree First of information on the biological over the bones of Nonosbawsut Nations peoples in Canada share history of our species, we need to and Demasduit than do other a similar lived history and identity promote the long-term preserva- individuals who now live in New- irrespective of genetic connections. tion of skeletal collections and in foundland. Furthermore, a process needs to be this way ensure that future genera- set up for negotiation with regards tions will have the opportunity to Can we reach a compromise? As to the disposition of the remain- learn from them and in this way far as the extinction of the Beothuk ing Beothuk skeletons—an “ethical know about and understand that is concerned, repatriation of all lodge”—that gives due weight to history” (p. 24). There’s a claim remains could effectively curtail fu- continuing scientific interests, ac- about justice here for us, but also ture investigations of the Beothuk knowledges the historical injustices for future generations as well. If past and their relations to other endured by all Indigenous people we rebury all of these remains it peoples, past, present, and future. (past and present), and gives due will end the history, so to speak. However, many Aboriginal repre- respect to cultural values. sentatives acknowledge that there The skulls of Nonosbawsut and is room for negotiation with regard References Cited Demasduit have been studied using to repatriation and reburial. Even Crummey, Michael ancient DNA techniques (Kuch et al. Chief Misel Joe says, “We’re not 2002 River Thieves. Anchor Canada, Toronto.

2007). The local Mi’kmaq say that against science, but these bones Ebenesersdóttir, Sigríður Sunna , Ásgeir Sigurðsson, they’re related to the Beothuk, but have been studied enough and Federico Sánchez-Quinto, Carles Lalueza-Fox, Kári Stefánsson and Agnar Helgason it’s still ambiguous as to whether we have to do something.” Willie 2010 A New Subclade of mtDNA Haplogroup C1 found in Icelanders: Evidence of Pre-Columbian there is any sort of genetic con- Ermine, a Native scholar, talks in Contact? American Journal of Physical Anthropology nection between the two. A more his work about an “ethical lodge,” 144: 92-99. recent genetic study by Ebenesers- which refers to the space between Ermine, Willie 2007 The Ethical Space of Engagement. Indigenous dóttir et al. (2010) suggested a po- Native and Western cultures Law Journal 6: 194-201 tential genetic connection between (Ermine 2007). This space can be Kuch M, D.R. Grocke, M.C. Knyf, M.T. Gilbert, B. people in Iceland with certain opened up to allow for dialogue Younghusband, T. Young, I. Marshall, E. Willerslev, M. Stoneking, and H. Poinar Native American communities. For and potential compromises around 2007 A Preliminary Analysis of the DNA and Diet example, one headline proclaimed competing values, such as those of the Extinct Beothuk: A Systematic Approach to Ancient Human DNA. American Journal of Physical that a “group of Icelanders may related to the question of whether Anthropology 132(4): 594-604. 4 carry Beothuk genes.” or not to repatriate Beothuk re- Marshall, Ingeborg 1998 A History and Ethnography of the Beothuk. mains, and those of Nonosbawsut McGill-Queen’s University Press, Montreal and When the Vikings came to North and Demasduit in particular. Kingston. America over a thousand years Scarre, Geoffrey 2009 The Repatriation of Human Remains. In The ago, they landed in northern New- I finish by offering some tentative Ethics of Cultural Appropriation, edited by James O. foundland. It is suggested that the conclusions about the skulls of Young and Conrad G. Brunk, pp. 72-92. Blackwell, West Sussex. Vikings may have captured what Nonosbawsut and Demasduit. I be- Walker, Phillip lieve that the federal and provincial 2007 Bioarchaeological Ethics: A Historical governments should be involved Perspective on the Value of Human Remains. In 4. Alan Parker, Descendants of Newfoundland’s Biological Anthropology of the Human Skeleton, 2nd “extinct” Beothuk live on in Iceland, Toronto- in making a formal appeal to the ed., edited by M. Anne Katzenberg and Shelley R. Sun.com, July 19, 2011: http://bit.ly/1VzMjFV Saunders, pp. 1-40. Wiley-Liss, Hoboken, NJ.

26 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings Repatriation and the Limits of Genetic Identity DOROTHY LIPPERT

Video available online: remains and funerary objects and patrimony, we also have to consid- www.sfu.ca/ipinch/resources/vid- upon request from a culturally er whether these objects fit the eos/dna-lippert affiliated and federally recognized definition provided in the National tribe, return the objects to the Museum of the American Indian Hello everyone, I’m Dorothy Lip- tribe. Just to note, the Smithson- Act. A standard requirement for pert. I’m Choctaw and a Case ian is separate from NAGPRA and repatriation is to find cultural affili- Officer for the Repatriation- Of our mandate, under the American ation between the tribe making a fice at the Smithsonian’s National Indian Act, was passed in 1989, request and the community from Museum of Natural History. I earlier than NAGPRA. You can find which the remains or objects de- should note that what I’m present- out more on our website: http:// rive. This is defined as a determi- ing today are my own opinions anthropology.si.edu/repatriation. nation of a relationship of shared and do not represent those of the group identity between an earlier Repatriation Office or the National Amendments to the National identifiable group and an existing Museum of Natural History at the Museum of the American Indian federally recognized tribe. Smithsonian Institution. I would Act were passed in 1996 that direct like to acknowledge the traditional the Smithsonian to consider the Establishing this relationship relies owners of the land here in Van- repatriation of funeral objects, on understanding both the past couver and to thank you for the sacred objects, and objects of and present groups. The tools wonderful welcome to this place. cultural patrimony, which puts us used for establishing past identity It’s very nice to be here. on the same footing as NAGPRA. are listed in the repatriation laws. Thus, the Smithsonian was exempt A group may be identified using Today I would like to speak about from NAGPRA but not from repa- historical, archaeological, biologi- the intersection of DNA analysis triation. Upon receipt of a request cal, geographical, or anthropologi- and repatriation. What we’ve seen from a federally recognized tribe, cal evidence, and tribal oral history in the last ten years is an increase our office begins to construct a may also be considered. While the in the number of queries about the set of recommendations for the geographic boundaries between use of DNA for repatriation. People museum. We work based on re- existing federally recognized tribes often think that DNA may help us quests from federally recognized are for the most part clear, bound- solve cases more quickly or to a tribes who must contact us first. aries defining past groups are in- higher degree of certainty than we Once they decide that they want distinct, subjective, and embedded currently do. I believe that there to pursue repatriation, we then go within a web of authority. This fact may be a place for genetic analy- to work evaluating whether or not often goes unnoticed by people sis but it does not easily suit our we are legally permitted to follow working in archaeology who may needs at the present time. through with the repatriation. cling to a self-ascribed mantle of The Repatriation Office at the objective authority. National Museum of Natural His- The set of recommendations tory was established in 1989 by the produced by the Repatriation Of- Present-day archaeologists using National Museum of the Ameri- fice contain an assessment of the present-day theory and method can Indian Act. The act compels cultural affiliation of the human re- define the identities of past the Smithsonian Institution to mains and objects. For the sacred groups. For example, the political evaluate its collection of human objects and objects of cultural nature of the Mississippian Pe-

27 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings riod communities in the American tribes in the United States on an ad members are the subject of con- Southeast is still being debated. hoc basis. Tribes could gain recogni- gressional legislation that has For example, do the mound sites tion through treaties or adminis- expressly terminated or forbidden in and around the Macon Plateau trative decisions by the executive the federal relationship in Georgia relate to a single group branch, or through court decisions. or to multiple groups with different The federal acknowledgement Currently, there are 556 federally identities? Did the apparent differ- process established by the Bureau recognized tribes in the United ences in language and dialect by of Indian Affairs went into effect in States, but there are many more communities visited by the De Soto 1978 and is administered by the Of- who have applications pending expedition of 1540 represent dis- fice of Federal Recognition. with the BIA. Among those is a tinct polities? Or did they perceive tribe in Virginia that lacks recogni- of themselves as a greater whole? As a result, there are now seven tion due to a set of strange histori- criteria that a tribe must meet in cal events. I should note that there These questions of identity turn on order to receive recognition: was another tribe in Virginia that the information from archaeologi- was recommended for recognition cal sites and on ever shifting theo- 1) The petitioner has been identi- back in July, but at the last minute, ries of the Mississippian Period fied as an American Indian entity the Bureau received letters ques- political organization. While these on a substantially continuous basis tioning whether they had the right questions are useful and enjoyable since 1900; to be affiliated, so that affiliation is ones for archaeologists to consider, on hold. To date, there are no fed- these theories take on greater 2) A predominant portion of the erally recognized tribes in Virginia. significance when they are used petitioning group comprises a dis- to establish cultural affiliation for tinct community and has existed as Between 1912 and 1946, Walter repatriation purposes. Identifying a a community from historical times Ashby Plecker served as the Regis- site as culturally affiliated gives an until the present; trar of Vital Records in the state of extant tribe rights to the disposi- Virginia. An ardent white suprema- tion of human remains and objects 3) The petitioner has maintained cist, Plecker drafted the Racial from that site. political influence or authority over Integrity Act in 1924. It mandated its members and an autonomous that a person with African ancestry, Yet given the nature of archaeol- entity from historical times until no matter how small, would be clas- ogy as a science, the interpretation the present; sified as “coloured.” Plecker be- of evidence cannot remain static. lieved that intermarriage between Does this mean that the identity 4) The petitioner must provide a the Virginia tribes and other groups of specific individuals buried at a copy of the group’s present gov- meant that the tribes were no site shifts as present-day thinking erning documents; longer pure and that many people shifts? Logically, it doesn’t, but of African descent were classifying practically speaking it does. This is 5) The petitioner’s membership themselves as “Indian” in order to because an archaeologist assess- consists of individuals who de- escape restrictive laws and social ing the cultural affiliation of one scend from a historical Indian tribe practices. Plecker mandated that In- of these sites relies on the existing or from historical Indian tribes dians be classified as coloured and theory and available evidence to that combined and functioned as a even went so far as to re-classify determine a relationship. Thus, single autonomous political entity; Indian families by changing their new evidence could shift the affili- vital records to identify as coloured. ation. 6) Membership of the petitioning He actually went back and changed group is composed principally of people’s birth certificates who, There’s also the issue of federal persons who are not members of when they were born, identified as recognition. Until 1978, the govern- any other acknowledged group; and Indian but he altered them after the ment recognized Native American 7) Neither the petitioner nor its fact.

28 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings This has resulted in the inability 2005, I hosted a visit by members adherence to the “one drop rule.” of the Virginia tribes to achieve of the Cheroenhaka Nottoway tribe This refers to the belief that one federal recognition based on the of Virginia. The visit is proudly drop of African blood makes a per- first criteria: “that the petitioner documented on their website1 son “negro.” If this was applied to has been identified as an Ameri- complete with photos of them Indian tribes, it would mean that can Indian entity on a substan- with the remains, which is why I a person with Indigenous ances- tially continuous basis since 1900.” haven’t included any here. We dis- try would be expected to identify While not recognized by the United cussed repatriation issues and they as a Native person regardless of States Government, the tribes lectured us about tribal history. their cultural experience. For some maintain distinct cultural identities When they visited the remains tribes, the formal requirements for and political practices. Since 1677, of their ancestors, the mood was enrolment do reduce genealogy the Pamunkey and Mattaponi somber yet resolute. The Nottoway to metrics, and include or exclude Tribes have been paying a tribute knew they were related to those individuals based on blood quan- originally to the English Governor individuals. The museum had said tum. I’m grateful to Dr. TallBear for of the colony, and later the United they were related, but at that discussing these issues in a recent States Governor of Virginia. In point, all they could do was visit paper, so I won’t delve into it any addition, they’ve continued to be their ancestors and cry and prom- further here. recognized by the English crown. ise that they would work to have In essence, the identity of the them returned. On the other hand, there are Virginia Indians, according to the many people who identify as United States, rests on a set of It’s encouraging to know that Native American based on fam- insurmountable requirements that even though a formal repatriation ily stories. As former U.S. Senator result from historical inequities. cannot take place, the return can Ben Nighthorse Campbell once According to the tribes themselves, be achieved with the assistance quipped, “there were plenty of they remain what they’ve always of a federally recognized tribe. people who weren’t Indian until been: Virginia Indians. For example, in a case where we they saw ‘Dances with Wolves.’” were able to find cultural affiliation And as Armand Minthorn noted When it comes to repatriation, with a U.S. tribe for sacred items earlier today, most of these people however, these tribes cannot be that had been taken from a tribe seem to have Cherokee ancestry. considered for cultural affiliation. across the border in Canada, once It’s common for many of these Although a relationship can be we turned the items over to them, people to say that they have identified between some of the they promptly turned the items ancestry but they don’t say that Virginia tribes and human remains over to their relatives in Canada. they are Cherokee. But in fact, if in the collections of the National Additionally, we often consult with they have that mythical Cherokee Museum of Natural History, the unrecognized tribes and arrange grandmother, they might be able lack of federal recognition prohib- visits for members of those com- to enroll in the Cherokee Nation its repatriation according to the munities so that prayers and bless- because the nation requires that museum’s guidelines and proce- ings can be made. members trace their ancestry back dures. The Repatriation Office does to the Dawes Rolls2, which were not address requests from tribes Much of what fuelled Plecker’s cru- 2. As noted on the Oklahoma Historical Society that are not culturally affiliated. sade against registration of those website: “Officially known as The Final Rolls of Although repatriation likely will born in Virginia as Indian was his the Citizens and Freedmen of the Five Civilized Tribes in Indian Territory, the Dawes Rolls list not happen until a tribe is federally individuals who applied and were approved for recognized, the museum facilitates membership in the Five Civilized Tribes (Chero- visits by tribal members so they 1. Cheroenhaka Indian Tribe reconnects with kee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole). remains of ancestors removed by 1960s ar- Enrollment for the Dawes Rolls began in 1898 can be with their ancestors. In cheological dig, Tidewater News, December 1, and ended in 1906.” Source: 2005: http://bit.ly/1P8w3Fe www.okhistory.org/research/dawes

29 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings made during the dissolution of number. When the remains were “what would it be like if we used Indian lands in Oklahoma during transferred to the National Muse- DNA analysis for repatriation?” the late 19th century. It’s almost as um of Natural History in 1904, the Aside from such questions as how if these people don’t realize there’s catalogue listed them as “Indians would we get the funding for this, a difference between being geneti- [tribal name]?” who’s going to do it, do we have cally related to a tribe and actually lab space and technicians, and et- being a tribal member. The facial morphology of the cetera, I was also looking at these remains, along with an anatomical cases and thinking for the Notto- In repatriation, drawing a link variant on the cranium called os way, who are not federally recog- between the past and the present japonicum, suggested that the in- nized under the law. For them, no is often the work of archaeologists. dividual may have been of African matter what the DNA analysis said, Both of the repatriation laws direct American ancestry. Craniometric we could not repatriate. institutions to consult with tribes investigation of this individual but the degree to which this has revealed that this person classi- For the individual from Fort Washi- happened varies. Generally, find- fied morphologically as African ta, the records are not sufficient ings of cultural affiliation rest on American, using reference groups to allow for repatriation. While we the decisions made by museum composed of early 18th- and 19th- have some historical understand- workers, which are based on ar- century African Americans, Euro- ing of what the identity was for chaeological and anthropological pean settlers, and Southeastern African Americans in that tribe, the theories and practices that evolved Native American. I discussed this DNA is not going to speak to that. in the absence of input from Na- individual with the tribe as they So what are we to make of genetic tive Americans. Archaeologists had included her in their repatria- identity and its relationship to who work in repatriation often do tion request. We talked about their repatriation? At the present time, not acknowledge the deep roots historical background of relating the National Museum has no plans of their determination of cultural to African Americans. The final to use DNA analysis in repatriation affiliation, nor do they understand finding by the museum was that studies, as far as I know. I don’t that tribal practices in the past may we did not have enough evidence think it’s useless; it’s just not yet be mirrored by the present. of cultural affiliation to repatriate relevant. Currently, our repatria- her. When I talked about it with tion process is able to repatriate a One case I worked on involved an the tribe, they said that they had majority of the remains that we’ve individual listed, confusingly, in the figured that might be the case considered. We think that eventu- medical records as “cranium from but that they wanted to make the ally new technologies may help us Fort Washita,” which was in Okla- claim in case there was no other to repatriate those individuals that homa. It had the name of a tribe way for this person to be buried. are currently listed as culturally and a blank space for the nation. unaffiliated. I think DNA is one of In 1852, a U.S. army surgeon sent This tribe had a history of enrolling these new technologies, but cur- these remains to the Smithsonian African Americans, but they had rently it produces more questions Institution directly from the fort. also in the past kept African Ameri- than it answers. The cranium was accessioned into cans enslaved. The tribal identity the mammal collection as “Indian supported the possibility of includ- Human remains that are returned Cranium” and the logbook gives no ing this person whose relationship go back with a lot of things that indication as to the tribal origins. was undetermined because they they didn’t come in with. They are The cranium was transferred to the wanted to rebury her. Unfortunate- returned with numbers written on Army Medical Museum, Washing- ly, this wasn’t possible under U.S. their crania, stains from metal ob- ton, DC, in 1869. Its record reads Federal law. jects placed in their graves, stains only “cranium of [tribal nation]” from metal wires used to replace and “calvarium of [tribal name] When I was putting together my their articular cartilage when they Indian,” along with the catalogue presentation for today, I thought, were used for study. They go back

30 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings with identities ascribed to them by archaeologists: “Southern Appala- chian,” “Mississippian,” “Natche- zian,” and others. They also return with much less than what they were buried with. They mostly lack their names, but they also lack portions of their skeletons and funerary items. If we were to apply DNA testing, they would lack even more of themselves because it is a destructive process. Therefore, if we are to do DNA testing, we must make sure that the scales balance out and that it will help them to regain their identity.

The remains of ancestors were placed in the ground with care and love and they are received back by their communities in the same way. Whatever we do as archae- ologists in the repatriation process, it’s vital we do it in the same spirit.

31 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings Provenancing Indigenous Human Remains for Repatriation Purposes: A Case Study for Exploring Perceptions of Biological and Social Identity CRESSIDA FFORDE

Video available online: repatriation of Indigenous human Craniology www.sfu.ca/ipinch/resources/vid- remains housed by museums and In the 19th century, scientific eos/dna-fforde collecting institutions. Within this, interpretation of human remains probably the most consistent topic provided authoritative “truths” Good afternoon everybody. I’d like of interest has been the history about Aboriginal people and influ- to begin by acknowledging the of the concept of race and scien- enced how the dominant society traditional owners of this beautiful tific racism, and in particular how perceived and acted towards them. country in which we’re meeting, the practice of such “science” Nineteenth- and early 20th-centu- and to thank you for your wel- gathered data according to pre- ry scientific analysis of Aboriginal come. My name is Cressida Fforde, conceived notions of hierarchical human remains can be seen as I work at the National Centre for racial difference and in its proto- Indigenous Studies at the Austra- cols of measurement and analysis lian National University (ANU). “mapped” such preconceptions on We are a small, multi-disciplinary to the human body. This practice GENETICS refers to the study of heredity, or how genes are passed centre and we try as much as pos- constructed, maintained, and rei- down from parents to offspring. sible to be inter-disciplinary, which fied racial identities that had little probably shows in my talk today. to do with how people viewed GENOME: The genome, whether themselves, and continues to have human, animal, or plant, refers to I am involved in three projects at lasting impact. all of the genetic material present in a single organism. present. The first is about a num- ber of issues surrounding repatria- Through my interest in the 19th- GENOMICS refers to the study of tion, such as its effects and trans- century construction of racialised the structure and function of a formative opportunities, and its identities I have become interested genome. links to wellbeing and community in what we call deficit discourse. development; the second concerns This is a discourse that is very in- deficit discourse in Indigenous edu- vasive in Australia and consistently part of the lens through which the cation; and the third, which is just understands Aboriginal identity European culture viewed Aus- commencing, considers the impact through a lens of deficit. It is not tralia’s indigenous population. It of genomics on Indigenous iden- hard to identify deficit discourse as influenced how Aboriginal people tity in Australia. My component a legacy of the race paradigm, nor were perceived and valued, yet of this last project works with two is it hard to identify it in aspects of it in turn was upheld by pre-con- community organizations to have genomic research, such as addic- ceived notions of racial hierarchy. discussions about whether DNA tion research. A notion introduced Viewed in this way it can be seen research for repatriation purposes by the colonial project, both the as part of what Attwood (1992) has might be of benefit for them in settler and Indigenous popula- described as “aboriginalism.” Influ- their repatriation programs and, if tions may now engage in deficit enced by Edward Said’s 1978 work so, under what conditions. discourse. Can such discourse be on Orientalism, aboriginalism is a identified in these early conversa- mode of discourse that constructs, My main research area and pro- tions about DNA for repatriation guides, and constrains European fessional practice over the past and, if so, how could it be shifted? knowledge about the “Aborigines.” twenty years or so has been the Discourse is important to consider

32 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings in this space, because it speaks to incorporated into Indigenous most easily be identified in the use larger social processes in which development approaches. Repa- of craniometrics for determining production of knowledge about triation can be a counter-narrative ancestry in repatriation processes. people play a part. to deficit discourse because it is all about agency—Indigenous agency. Craniometrics The tension between concepts that In real life, it is all about adaptabili- While some archives may record approach difference as natural or ty, dignity, and innovation by those Aboriginal group names or, if lucky, mapped has been discussed by a seeking the return of the remains the names of individuals, most number of people. How genetic of their ancestors. provide information in terms of variation is used in some health geographical location from which research, pharmacogenomics, and Repatriation is also insightful be- the remains were taken. This infor- ancestry determination appears to cause it can be a window through mation varies in its specificity from promulgate or, at best, allow the which to view underlying assump- listing the entire country of Austra- former concept to resonate more tions. One such example are the lia, to exact locations. In Australia, than the latter. At the least, it is assumptions revealed by reten- geographical area enables identifi- exceptionally vulnerable to such tion arguments, and I have been cation of community of origin, with representation, leading some to particular interested in those that some exceptions such as whether describe it as the “molecularisation engage with identity and notions an area is contested or shared. of race.”1 of authenticity seen through the Place therefore identifies who has lens of race and blood quantum. I the authority to speak about these As others today have said, when include within this things like the remains. In this case, place and we focus on biology we turn our questioning of Tasmanian Ab- social identity are very aligned. The gaze away from the social world. original claims on the basis of the degree to which place, social iden- The social world—and our identi- erroneous belief that Tasmanian tity and biological identity align, ties within it—is highly complex. Aboriginal people had become may not be so straightforward. Identity is not vertical and solely “extinct” in the late nineteenth cemented in blood and lineage century, or the claim that repatria- Craniometrics is used in repatria- but is contextual, horizontal, and tion demands from Indigenous tion to assist ancestry determi- produced through our relation- Australians were purely political in nation, meaning whether the ships with others. Biology plays a motivation. Such accusations were remains are Aboriginal or not. This part, but it is a part that is much usually spurred when repatriation approach is used to try to provide less clear and much less important requests were delivered by people details when no archival informa- than most realize. who might not “look” or “act” like tion is present, and is part of a Aboriginal people “should.” Repa- suite of evidence when archival in- Repatriation triation thus disturbs a discursive formation is available. The weight The repatriation of ancestral space and in doing so can reveal a that is given to craniometric results remains is an extraordinary In- very constrained biological view of in repatriation is testament to the digenous and cross-cultural identity and culture when ascribed continuing belief in the veracity of achievement of the last 40 years. to Aboriginal people. this technique, as well as the con- Repatriation itself has achieved tinuing dominance of biology as a many things beyond the return The repatriation process can also determinant of identity. This is de- of ancestral remains and is prov- engage strongly with identity spite the critique of craniometrics ing to contribute to such things as because of the need to determine over the last ten years or so, and healing and wellbeing, and cultural communities of origin. Perhaps the quantity of work for decades transmission, and is being unsurprisingly, given the above that has sought to understand our observations, repatriation prac- social identity. tice can be a bridge to notions of 1. For a more detailed discussion see Koenig et identity based on biology. This can al. 2008.

33 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings A focus on craniometrics and biol- obtained in the 1960s and stored much attention in the popular and ogy in repatriation does not appear at Australia National University,2 science media. I was interested to to engage with the rich sociality of by an increase in Aboriginal people see how the media was going to humans, not only in terms of iden- testing their own DNA through portray this new discovery and, in tity but also in terms of how this commercial services such as 23an- particular, Aboriginal people. There informs people’s views, obligations, dMe, by discussions around DNA were some counter narratives to and responsibilities towards the research in health, and by work on the usual deficit discourse, such deceased. If we roll the “biology ancient DNA as a means of under- as the “Aboriginal Trailblazers” ball” along for a bit and follow it to standing human migration. All of described by the BBC. However, its conclusion—whether we agree these have very significant ethical in all cases in which a visual im- with it or not—one inevitable considerations, some of which are age accompanied the article, the outcome of the comparison of the being discussed and explored more photo chosen to represent Aborigi- morphology of ancestral remains than others. An additional poten- nal people was that of individuals in museums with those in a data- tial use for genetic testing that stereotypically considered to be base that are considered not to be has been identified is its use for easily recognizable and “real” Ab- of mixed ancestry, is that returning repatriation purposes in relation origines, meaning familiar shots of the remains of Aboriginal people to those remains that are poorly dark-skinned people in the desert who do not “match” because they provenanced, a topic to which I will or conducting traditional ceremo- have Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal return shortly. nies, not dark-skinned people at a biological ancestry become ques- computer or in a cockpit, or fair- tionable. All of this raises the same First of all, I’d like to consider skinned Aboriginal people in the issues with biological identity as briefly the way in which genomic desert managing pastoral stations. mentioned above, but in a repatri- science has been reported in the Nor perhaps most accurately, a ation context. It prompts questions Australian context as a means of young man at railway station in the such as: if claimants identify as understanding its vulnerability to 1920s. Aboriginal, do they have less right affirm old perceptions. In 2011, to the remains of their Aboriginal- Rasmussen et al. published ge- I should point out that the Gold- identifying grandmother simply nomic results from a strand of hair field Aboriginal Land Council retro- because her father was English? given to anthropologist Alfred Cort spectively supported the work on Indeed, do they have any less right Haddon in the early 1920s by an the hair strand and considered the to their English great grandfather? Aboriginal man at a train station in research not to have threatened If these kinds of issues are occur- Kalgoorlie, Western Australia. Their their own views of where they had ring at the level of the phenotype, article, “An Aboriginal Australian come from and their longevity in will they also have salience at the Genome Reveals Separate Human that space. Nonetheless, the repre- genotype level? Dispersals into Asia,” produced in- sentations in the media did little to formation about ancient migration counter stereotypic notions about Is there a future in DNA research routes into Australia and received Aboriginal identity. These kinds for repatriation purposes? of representations are important Because of the commendable res- today because of the history of the ervations that Indigenous people 2. The National Centre of Indigenous Ge- use of race and blood quantum in nomics, for example, curates a collection of have voiced about genetic science, around 7,000 blood samples of Aboriginal Australia as a function of control there has been little genomic re- people across Northern Australia which were and power, and continuing accusa- search undertaken with members taken in the 1970s as part of a global project tions of inauthenticity and fraudu- investigating human’s response to the environ- of Australia’s Indigenous popula- ment—the Australian hub for this project was lence, by both Indigenous people tion. This, however, is changing as ANU. After a period from the 1990s in which a and non-indigenous people— illustrated by the development of moratorium was placed on the use of this col- should people not look like their lection because of the clear ethical concerns, ethical frameworks and commu- and independent Indigenous consultative com- “type.” This is part of the legacy of nity consultation surrounding the mittee recommended that the ANU set up the the construction of identity that use of a blood sample collection Centre which is now undertaking consultation occurred in last century. The myth with communities to ascertain their wishes.

34 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings of extinction is an inaccurate claim ties of DNA research were held up living people and populations of faced by many groups who con- by museums as a reason for reten- the past, it may be necessary to tinue to fight against such misinfor- tion back in the 1990s. The de- obtain samples from present day mation, whether from government structive nature of DNA sampling, Indigenous peoples for compari- or an ignorant populace. the perception that modern DNA son and reference. The ethics of questions surrounding migration maintaining and protecting these The ill-ease articulated by Aborigi- and human origins were simply an modern samples is a further chal- nal people at some of the tech- updated version of nineteenth cen- lenge that needs to be recognized niques of genetic science that re- tury interest in skull collecting, and by all stakeholders.” quire measurements, for example, the significant problems associated of rates of so-called “admixture” with the human genome diversity There are many unanswered ques- have been documented by Kowal project are all reasons why people tions about what DNA research for and Anderson (2012). This speaks are extremely wary. However, the repatriation purposes might look to a long history and continuing research in question here was not, like. As noted above, in Australia it legacy of the role that such per- as far as I am aware, for the sole is place that determines who has ceptions have had on Australia’s purposes of assisting repatriation. the authority to speak. We do not Indigenous population, and the know if it is possible to consistently continuing salience of “authentic- In Australia, I am not aware that establish social identity from bio- ity” as a pejorative term. DNA research has yet been used logical identity using a comparison within repatriation practice, but between ancient DNA and that of DNA, Repatriation, and Provenance it is certainly on the table. The people today, but I expect not. We Against this historical and discur- Indigenous Repatriation Unit of don’t know, for example, whether sive background and the deep the Australian Government has archive records that establish place reservations that are held by many released an information sheet4 and DNA testing that establishes about any further research being for communities about scientific genetic ancestrywould lead to the undertaken on remains that have testing to assist people in their same result, and neither may be been housed so long in museum— deliberations. This sheet notes that wrong. and particularly DNA work because scientific testing involves complex of the destructive sampling re- ethical and cultural sensitivities The way to consider matters sur- quired—is there a future for DNA and in many cases can raise more rounding the repatriation of Indig- research to assist communities in questions than it answers. It notes enous human remains is to return their repatriation endeavors? that the need to balance the risks to first principles and to keep a of loss through destructive sam- firm eye on what is at the heart of It is important to note also that pling against the potential benefits this process: repatriation is about requests for retention of DNA of the knowledge gained is one of the return of control, or the wrest- samples by overseas museums has many difficult decisions Aboriginal ing back of control, and requires been met by refusal, most notably and Torres Strait Islander peoples acknowledging that Indigenous in the Tasmanian court case with face when considering whether groups have the right to determine the Natural History Museum in to undertake scientific testing. It the future of their Ancestor’s re- London.3 It is also important to also makes clear that as with any mains. So the primary issue for the remember that the future possibili- research, there is potential for er- application of DNA research to re- ror, misinterpretation, or bias, and patriation is: Who has the author-

3. See: a) Aboriginal remains fight resolved, also notes in specific reference to ity to speak and in what context is BBC News, May 10, 2007: DNA research that, “to determine DNA research being considered? http://bbc.in/1t4G8iv the genetic relationships between Three hypothetical scenarios help b) Tasmanian Human Remains – Tasmanian to explore this point. Aboriginal Centre and Natural History Museum London, Arthemis Art-Law Centre, University of 4. “Information for Communities Scientific Geneva: http://bit.ly/1TM7n7w Testing on Indigenous Ancestral Remains.” Available at: http://bit.ly/1UiZsOQ

35 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings The first is a scenario in which place, a place of memorial, griev- tors. This scenario would not be ancestral remains have been ing and education, there were a under Indigenous control and returned to the control of a re- variety of views as to why such a would require people to engage in gional community organization, keeping place should be set up, concepts of identity that might be but only have regional provenance, including that such a facility would very different from their own, and and that organization is consider- be under Indigenous control, and certainly would require them to ing ways in which more localized that it might provide opportunity engage in concepts of obligation to authority to speak for the de- for further provenancing possibili- the deceased which would be very ceased might be identified. In this ties in the future. Views were also different from their own. It would case, Indigenous control is clear expressed about the importance change the onus of determination and a community- driven project of not undertaking any further of authority to speak from place to is possible. From this can flow a testing and that remains should lineage. project that is designed by the be left in peace. In this type of community organization to suit scenario, Indigenous custodians At this stage, the question lies not their cultural protocols and their would determine the nature of in whether the results of DNA work research translation requirements, any protocols surrounding DNA may assist communities in their utilize their consultation processes, research. As noted in the National repatriation programs, but in en- and assert intellectual property Keeping Place Report, “consent by suring that should such an avenue conditions and data management traditional owners to undertake be pursued that it is community requirements on those whom they scientific research is paramount. driven and designed from a fully choose to undertake the research Understanding both the proposed informed position, which follows with. This would of course include research and the implications of the core principle of free, prior, the significant issues relating to the participating in the research from and informed consent. compilation of a reference collec- an ethical and scientific view are tion if none already exists, and issues that Aboriginal and Torres Summary extensive and informed discussion Strait Islander peoples face when There are distinct challenges that about what research results might considering the use of scientific need to be navigated should com- actually yield. research methods” (Advisory Com- munities decide to pursue DNA mittee for Indigenous Repatriation research to assist them in their The second scenario is one in 2014: 45). repatriation programs. These which ancestral remains have been include, but are not limited to, the returned to Australia but have The third scenario would be the following four considerations. not been repatriated to any group assertion by a retaining institution because they have only national that DNA testing should be un- The first is ensuring community provenance. Ancestral remains in dertaken to prove the connection control and community designed this category are currently housed between the ancestral remains processes. This is central and at the National Museum of Austra- and the claimants, or to establish includes arrangements regard- lia, but this is not a happy solution whether remains are Aboriginal ing intellectual property and data for people and there have been a or not. I have not come across this management of DNA both from number of consultation processes situation but I am sure it has been the ancestral remains themselves to try to resolve what is a deeply thought about. Biological connec- and people today (reference collec- unsatisfactory situation. A recent tion certainly has been considered tion). national consultation process by by museums as a determinant the Australian Government on the of standing for claimants in the The second challenge is to counter development of a National Keep- past, which was interesting in that deficit discourse. Because the dis- ing Place resulted in broad support biological relatedness is certainly course that has constructed identi- for such a location in Canberra. In not a criterion of ownership that ties for people is deeply embedded addition to the need for a resting was fulfilled by the museum cura- and influential, it’s important to be

36 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings aware of its presence and poten- by the undignified collecting tial power. One of our repatriation practices of people long ago may project partners has adopted a be the avenue that produces the simple strategy: if anyone wishes resolve, healing, dignity and peace to have a conversation about au- that funerals and memorials, in thenticity, they simply walk away. all their sadness, are supposed How might this play out in terms of achieve. If DNA research is also the compilation of a reference col- part of this process, it is important lection for a repatriation DNA re- that it achieves a similar purpose. search program? How much might such a program impact on identity politics and run counter to aspira- References Cited tions of healing and reconciliation that repatriation practitioners Advisory Committee for Indigenous Repatriation hold? Alternatively, DNA research 2014 National Resting Place Consultation for repatriation purposes could be Report. used as counter-narrative to deficit http://bit.ly/1t4GIfZ discourse in the same way that Attwood, Bain repatriation itself can achieve this 1992 Introduction. In Power, Knowledge end. and Aborigines, edited by Bain Attwood and John A. Arnold, pp. i-xvi. La Trobe University, Melbourne Third, it is critical to understand the role of biology and sociality in Rasmussen, Morten, Xiaosenn Guo, Yong identity. Genomics research is not Wang, Kirk E. Lohmueller, Simon Rasmussen, Anders Albrechtsen, … and Eske Willerslev currently proving to navigate well 2011 An Aboriginal Australian Genome Reveals through the popular understanding Separate Human Dispersals into Asia. Science of race and racial groupings. It will 334 (6052): 94-98. be important to understand the Koenig, Barbara A., Sandra Soo-Jin Lee, and limitations of the knowledge that Sarah S. Richardson may be produced by DNA research 2008 Revisiting Race in a Genomic Age. and how results are represented. Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, N.J. We don’t know, for example, Kowal, Emma and Ian Anderson whether archive records that es- 2012 Difficult Conversations: Talking About tablish place and DNA testing that Indigenous Genetic Health Research in Australia. In Biomapping Indigenous Peoples: establishes genetic ancestry would Towards an Understanding of the Issues, lead to the same result. edited by Susanne Berthier-Foglar, Sheila Collingwood-Whittick, and Sandrine Tolazzi, pp. 349- 368. Rodopi, Amsterdam and New Finally, communities have con- York. sidered many other options to the question of how to appropri- ately inter the remains of unprov- enanced individuals. This has oc- curred regionally and the National Keeping Place consultation shows that there are cohesive views on what could be done nationally. In the end, social answers using social processes to problems introduced

37 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings THEME 3 Genetic Research with Indigenous Communities: Current Challenges and Future Directions

What lies ahead for the field of ancestors. From both a personal James explains that, once again, ancient DNA, both from a techno- and academic perspective, Tallbear Indigenous peoples must weigh the logical and an ethical standpoint? argues that scientific narratives benefits of participation in genetic What does it mean for genetic re- continue to privilege “whiteness” research with potential risks. search to be conducted “in a good and maintain the power to define way” with Indigenous communi- biological and, increasingly, ge- In his presentation, Ripan Malhi ties? These questions are at the netic constructions of race. She describes several ancient DNA heart of the third session of the also discusses several cases of how projects in which he and col- symposium, entitled “Genetic Re- this continues today, despite most leagues have partnered with First search with Indigenous Communi- contemporary scientists’ explicit Nations of British Columbia to ties: Current Challenges and Future rejection of hierarchical ideas of conduct genetic analysis of both Directions.” Featuring presenta- race. Finally, Tallbear highlights living community members and tions from Kimberly TallBear (Uni- extra-legal strategies that can ad- ancestors, the latter through the versity of Alberta), Rosalina James dress tensions between indigenous analysis of ancient skeletal re- (University of Washington), and peoples and genome scientists and mains. These partnerships, based Ripan Malhi (University of Illinois their facilitators—ethicists, law- on mutual respect and com- at Urbana Champaign), this session yers, and policy makers. munication, were created in the considers how historical factors wake of antagonistic relationships and the current social and political Beginning in the early 21st cen- elsewhere between scientific re- landscape shape expectations and tury, the Genomic Age has seen searchers and indigenous peoples concerns around genetic research academic interests expand beyond that impeded genomic knowledge with Indigenous communities. Indigenous global migrations to among First Nations and Native health-oriented population genetic American community members. In What role does Western science research. Rosalina James examines addition to developing a more col- play in upholding the narrative of how the current environment, dom- laborative and community oriented “whiteness”? How does science inated by scientific narratives, tends research framework, Malhi leads continue to propagate power dy- to privilege race-based biological the Summer Internship for Native namics that see white people con- explanations for physical and men- Americans in Genomics (SING) trolling the research process and tal health phenomena. Similarly, workshop at Indiana University. subsequent knowledge? In her pre- academic frameworks for individual The workshop encourages discus- sentation, Kimberly TallBear first and group identity are increasingly sion on indigenous cultural values examines the abuses committed in described through a lens of genetic- and whether scientific methods the name of science in Canadian derived logic over the cultural, po- can complement or promote these residential schools before turning litical, historical, and societal condi- values, and seeks to increase the to ongoing debates over the right tions that shape social beings. With number of Native Americans in to study the remains of Kennewick the potential for genetic informa- science research, leadership, and Man and the remains of other tion to address health disparities, teaching careers at all levels.

38 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings Anthropology, Genomics, and Whiteness KIMBERLY TALLBEAR

Video available online: simply a malnourished subject?; example, it contributes to the colo- www.sfu.ca/ipinch/resources/vid- and 2) Were food supplies by trad- nial conditions that led to hunger eos/tallbear-dna ers after the Indian had been re- and malnutrition in the first place moved from his or her land inade- in Canada. Or, to take another In this presentation, I focus on all quate in light of modern nutritional example, the structural conditions of the sciences, social sciences, knowledge? Mosby’s documen- that make possible yet another and humanities in upholding tation of this type of knowledge ongoing and arguably colonial re- narratives of whiteness and the production is but the latest revela- search project, which is the inces- power of whiteness to define. In tion of technoscientific research sant examination of Indigenous May 2013, Ian Mosby published an done on Indigenous peoples and populations and bodies marked by article in Social History that de- other marginalized peoples from Type II diabetes. Like the starvation tailed shocking mid 20th-century the standpoint of a colonial state and malnutrition of 20th-century nutritional experiments conducted that shapes and dictates standards Aboriginal peoples, Type II diabe- on First Nations people in north- of knowledge production. Until tes is a condition prompted in no ern Manitoba and in six residen- recently, mainstream scientists did small part by the dispossession of tial schools elsewhere in Canada. not question these practices. Indigenous peoples from our land Aboriginal people were chronically and lifeways. Yet, 21st-century malnourished, and, according to The assumption that under- biomedical researchers are on the Mosby, “were starved and plainly pins such research is that white hunt for a genetic trigger, further not getting enough food to enable people—usually heterosexual marking Aboriginal bodies as devi- them to much more than keep men—do the research. Indians and ant and the source of the problem. alive” (Mosby, 2013: 146). Aborigi- other people of colour, women, nal people were already victims of the disabled, and the “perverse” However, material deprivation a colonial state that had disrupted get gazed upon, poked, prodded, originating from the state’s colonial traditional lifeways and were then measured, bled, and written about. extraction of land and resources subsequently deprived of adequate Technoscientific knowledge and is not addressed by well-funded government support. Support indeed the knowledge production researchers. Instead, through a would be necessary when the very of the social sciences and humani- narrative of genetic difference and basis of one’s material life—one’s ties has clearly been shaped by the deficiency they produce knowl- ability to live off of the land—is cut eclipsed intellectual priorities of a edge and direct funding priori- out from beneath one’s feet. Western mind that has for so long ties in certain directions and not “othered” Indigenous peoples. others. Such research, Mosby On top of the considerable hard- notes, does more to bolster the ships already suffered by Indige- Mosby also points out that colonial career ambitions of researchers nous peoples, they were then used research—in addition to some- than it does for those who have as a living human laboratory for times committing egregious ethi- been identified as malnourished. nutrition scientists to pursue lines cal violations by post-World War II A chief concern that I have is how of inquiry about which they were bioethical standards, such as not biomedical research priorities tend curious. Scientists’ research ques- intervening in a subject’s near-star- to build the capacity of non-Indig- tions included: 1) was the shiftless, vation condition—also does little enous thinkers and institutions on indolent, and inert Indian really to alter structural conditions. For the backs of Indigenous peoples

39 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings without building our own capac- It’s difficult to prove cultural affilia- times exploitative. It can clash with ity. This, I would say, is the central tion with a 8,500 year-old skeleton. Indigenous understandings of kin- condition of ongoing colonialism Some might think that proving a ship and identity, and it echoes sci- in 21st-century research. genetic link, if technical conditions ence’s long history of using human are right, is a more straightfor- remains—not only of Indigenous In 1996, two Washington State col- ward and less political approach. people, but also other people of lege students tried to sneak into a But proving genetic affiliation is colour—to prop up the notion that hydroplane race on the Columbia both technically and politically race is biological in ways that can River and stumbled upon one of complicated. While new research reinforce society’s racist notions the most complete ancient skel- methods may promise to validate and practices. The long-standing etons ever discovered in North Native American’s ancestry by us- tension between scientists and America. In June 2015, it was an- ing science to legitimize our claims, Indigenous peoples came to a new nounced that the 8,500-year-old we also risk ceding tribal identity and subtle head in the fight for so-called “Kennewick Man” is most to institutions and their research Kennewick Man. There are two po- closely related to today’s Native interests. tential outcomes of the Kennewick Americans. To the tribes in case: 1) that the Colville Tribe’s Washington, the announce- jurisdiction will be challenged ment of their kinship to “the by scientists; or 2) that NAGPRA Ancient One,” as they call regulators will rule in the tribe’s him, came as no surprise. favour. Both of these outcomes require that white people and Since the remains were white- controlled institutions discovered in 1996, the and entities have the power Confederated Tribes of the to delineate and police Native Colville, Umatilla, and others American identity. have claimed the Ancient One as their ancestor. They I’ve also seen this fight play have argued that he should out from a more personal be should be returned to vantage point. In 1863, a set- them in accordance with tler in Hutchinson, Minnesota, the Native American Graves murdered Chief Little Crow, my Protection and Repatriation great-great-great-great grand- Act (NAPGRA). However, father (Figure 1). His remains, vocal scientists protested or what was left of them after against the tribe’s claims. he was scalped and dragged They argued that there through the streets before being wasn’t sufficient evidence decapitated, were put on display to link the Ancient One to in the Minnesota state capital living tribes. In 2004, a judge and later stored in a state ar- ruled that the Ancient One Figure 1. An image of Kim TallBear’s ancestor, chive. My great-grandfather and failed NAGPRA’s cultural affiliation Chief Little Crow of the Mdewakanton Dakota. his uncle petitioned the archive for Photo Credit: John H. Gravenslund, 1862. requirement that a shared group a decade (this took place long be- identity must be traced from the fore NAGPRA) before his remains skeleton to present-day members As a result, Indigenous peoples were released to my family for of the tribe through geography, have good reason to be wary of reburial in 1971. We buried Chief kinship, folklore, and more. researchers’ agendas. Scientific Little Crow in Flandreau, South Da- treatment of Native Americans’ kota, where I grew up and where DNA has been troubling and some- many of his descendants live today.

40 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings As an academic, I work with scien- Willerslev’s lab got favourable In another famous case, the tists who take a variety of positions press for approaching Native Havasupai tribe who live in the on the rights of Indigenous peoples American tribes and asking for Grand Canyon allowed Therese to ancestral remains, including their participation in the study. Markow and other Arizona State some who would have kept my an- This included asking them to pro- University (ASU) scientists to col- cestors’ bones stored in an archive vide biological samples for compar- lect blood samples in the hopes controlled by the colonial state. ison, although only Colville agreed of finding medical insights into to that part. For some Indigenous diabetes. The disease had reached Scientists were not quick to identi- peoples these requests present a epidemic proportions within the fy the Ancient One’s Native Ameri- conundrum: if more tribes agree Havasupai’s tribal population. can roots. The forensic scientists to participate and give biological University scientists also tried to who first examined the skeleton samples then more local DNA will do schizophrenia research, or at assumed they belonged to a Euro- be available for comparison and least apply for funding, which the American settler but radiocarbon Kennewick’s relationship to specific tribe says they expressly for- dating soon showed them to be North American tribes might be bade. Researchers also later used much older. The scientists who clarified. But some Indigenous peo- samples for studies on human protested his repatriation believed ples are still hesitant to participate migration, and genetic isolation or that the skull was different from given centuries of mistreatment. “inbreeding.” Instead of improving contemporary Native Americans, Thus, my question again is whose the health of tribal members and perhaps more closely resembling interests are served by research on descendants, these later stud- Polynesians or the Ainu, the In- Native American bodies? European ies contradicted the tribe’s origin digenous peoples in what is today and American scientists have been narratives and stood to damage its Japan. violating Native American graves reputation. ASU eventually paid for hundreds of years. In centuries the tribe a $700,000 settlement.2 The Ancient One’s DNA was finally past, scientists paid grave robbers sequenced in the lab of ancient to boil down stolen bones and to Why should Native Americans help DNA expert, Eske Willerslev. Last send them to American universi- prove linear and no doubt overly year his team also published the ties for examination and some- simplistic theories of human migra- first full sequence of an ancient times for public display. Indigenous tion that may also be used to cast Native American genome based peoples continue to battle globally suspicion on our claims to our an- on the 12,000 year-old remains with museums and universities to cestral lands? We have our own ac- of a small child unearthed of the return their remains. counts of our histories and people- property of Montana’s Anzick fam- hood. We emerged as peoples in ily. By comparing the genomes of Other more subtle forms of exploi- intimate relation with these home- the Anzick child and Kennewick tation continue to persist. Since lands and our non-human relations Man, the team showed that both the mid-1990’s organizations such in those places. Some people read persons were descended from the as the Indigenous Peoples Coun- these as creation stories but I read same ancestral population. When cil on Biocolonialism 1(IPCB) have them as complex representations they compared the ancient ge- deemed genomic research a form of human and non-human related- nomes of those with contemporary of colonization. Some scientists ness in place. This isn’t only about Native Americans, Willerslev’s lab exploit Indigenous DNA for the in- human bodies; it is also about non- found that Kennewick Man is more tellectual and economic benefit of humans. Indigenous peoples have closely affiliated with contempo- research institutions, and in some not forgotten our relationship and rary tribes in the Pacific Northwest, cases for pharmaceutical compa- the dues that we owe to our non- including Colville, while Anzick nies, but generally not for the ben- child is more closely related with efit of the people being studied. 2. For a review of the case, see: present-day Indigenous groups in http://genetics.ncai.org/case-study/havasupai- Central and South America. 1. www.ipcb.org Tribe.cfm

41 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings human relatives. That’s another particular geographies and popu- slavery, anti-miscegenation, seg- problem I have with all this genetic lations, which are then grouped regation, and land tenure rights, research: its too human-centric. into racial categories (e.g., “Native and they defined the white-black American” or “African” DNA). Ge- race line, which mandates that “a Some of us are also interested—es- nomics does not—and may not be person is classified as black if they pecially if the research is done in able to—address more expansive have one black grandparent or a mutually respectful manner—in Indigenous definitions of belong- great-grandparent.” Barack Obama the roles of anthropological and ing. For Native Americans, culture has a white mother but cannot be genetic data in those histories. But and biology are often entangled. seen as white in a land with the scientific knowledge often portrays However, we also emphasize “one-drop rule.” The shifting goal Indigenous peoples as just an- political status as a tribal citizen, post for whiteness ensured that other group of immigrants. There political belonging, non-human the maximum number of black is ongoing ontological bullying by relatives, and land as key to our people could be enslaved for the Therese Markow, and other scien- identity. We also have controversial economic benefit of white people. tists who say, “knowledge is pow- tribal blood rules that tribes have Slavery excluded black people er.” Whose knowledge is power? wrestled with throughout the 20th from full citizenship, humanity, and She didn’t mean our knowledge. century, and still do. I have spoken social contact (real or imagined). That is something clearly gener- elsewhere on the historical and in Any attempts to pass as white have ated by a science conditioned by part colonial imposed race-based historically come at great personal centuries of white privilege. politics of blood3, but I won’t go risk to blacks subject to both state into detail here. and rogue white enforcement of The biological sciences have been the race hierarchy. wary of the term “race” ever since There are also ways of belonging the horrors committed in Nazi that are not captured by tribal citi- Former Spokane NAACP official Germany under the pretense of zenship. We may have kin who do Rachel Dolezal’s prerogative to racial science. Today, scientists in- not meet our membership require- self-identify as black despite having stead talk about “populations” and ments but who live as family within two white parents might be the “ancestry.” Genomics in particular our communities. Tribal belonging apotheosis of the white privilege often reveals how similar people is a political category. It is also a to define and change the catego- of different races actually are. But simultaneous and extended set of ries we live by. Native Americans science shares with the law—and biological and cultural relations. have also had our tribal identities with white institutions in general— Each tribe works out its own rules enforced by white people. In the the power to define and police according to its own evolving laws late 19th and early 20th centu- race. Genomics shapes popular and cultural norms. In this case, ries, federal lawmakers decided thought and will inform United Willerslev’s lab produced results which Indians had become “white States policy that confers legiti- that are consistent with tribal enough” and “assimilated enough” macy on Native American claims viewpoints but what happens to become private landowners. Un- to remains, cultural property, land, when those accounts don’t line surprisingly, these categories were and tribal status. up? Why should scientists, mostly then used to shrink the number of white folks in lab coats, get the Indians and collectively held tribal Genomics reinforces the West’s final word on who is our kin and land bases. That freed up a lot of emphasis on lineal biological de- how our histories are told? excess land for white settlers to scent when it comes to questions claim. At the same time, white gov- of family, heritage, and identity. Inherent to whiteness is the power ernmental agents had strong ideas Mitochondrial DNA inherited from to define race categories and to about who was sufficiently Indian biological mothers, Y-chromo- regulate racial practices. White to constitute a tribal member. The somes inherited from biological United States lawmakers codified first tribal registers delineating fathers, and autosomal DNA inher- who was and who was not Indian ited from both parents are tied to were developed for the sake of 3. See TallBear 2003.

42 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings white people’s land management. the United States, white has been white coat. Despite anti-racist Today the United States Govern- defined as capable of absorbing aspirations, genomics potentially ment and their legal, anthropo- red. This is an inheritance from compounds the power of white logical, and historical advisors 19th-century anthropological un- controlled institutions to police ultimately decide the standards of derstandings of cultural evolution. non-white identity. It’s part of an ethnic and historical authenticity Dolezal’s wild Indian childhood enduring Eurocentric monopoly of tribes before federally recogniz- claims were much less problem- on what constitutes knowledge ing them. atic apparently in the court of and history. The tendency for sci- public opinion than her claims to ence and its sustaining ideology, Anthropologist Circe Sturm has be black. Many in academia have western civilization, and truth to documented be viewed in hundreds of cas- opposition to es of “playing non-western Indian” in her backwardness book Becoming and supersti- Indian (2011). tion is another Like the Dolezal manifestation of case, we’re white privilege. plagued with Again, people of whites that play colour are per- Indian in order fectly capable of to speak with taking that up. moral authority, I’ve seen it at to sometimes national meet- participate in ings on health ceremonies, disparities for and to take example. advantage of scholarship and Reports about job opportuni- Eske Willerslev’s ties they might lab can sound to otherwise not have access to. Figure 2. Potential ways in which scientists can the public like science has begun Andrea Smith is another example contribute to the Idle No More movement. to make benevolent and politically Photo Credit: Kimberly TallBear. of someone falsely claiming Indig- correct concessions on behalf of enous identity. She was publically superstitious Indigenous people. outed in Indian Country Today and asked me why these cases are im- But I see it as science finally being The Daily Beast and other publica- portant and why I talk about them. held accountable to the humans— tions this past summer for falsely Don’t we have more important both living and dead—that it uses. claiming Cherokee identity. things to worry about? But I see It’s becoming more ethical and them as produced from the same more democratic in some corners Rachel Dolezal also claimed to be histories of white privilege to name thanks to the ongoing efforts of In- part Native American in that she and define. digenous peoples who are pushing was raised for part of her child- the envelope and others who have hood in a tipi and hunted with How can science become less worked in alliance with us, many of bows and arrows. That claim was “white privileged?” Not all scien- whom are in this room. hardly noticed outside of Indian tists are white but they potentially Twitter. While black and white are access that privilege of white- I just want to say that I’ve learned defined as mutually exclusive in ness when they don the symbolic that there are two ways to elevate

43 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings the rights and perspectives of In- Rasmussen, Morten, Martin Sikora, Anders Albrechtsen, Thorfinn Sand Korneliussen, J. digenous people in global scientific Victor Moreno-Mayar, G. David Poznik, … and conversations. The first is to train Eske Willerslev scientists to do ethical, democratic, 2015 The Ancestry and Affiliations of and collaborative research with Kennewick Man. Nature 523(7561): 455–458. Native peoples. The second is to Raghavan, Maanasa, Steinrücken, Matthais, train scientists who are themselves Harris, Kelley, Schiffels, Stephan, Rasmussen, Indigenous. Figure 2 is an excerpt Simon, DeGiorgio, Michael, … and Eske Willerslev from the Idle No More strategy 2015 Genomic Evidence for the Pleistocene and I’ve highlighted in yellow and Recent Population History of Native where I think scientists need to get Americans. Science, 349(6250): aab3884. involved.

In this world, you cannot labour under the idea that you can be distant or not invested in politics. I’ve actually had scientists come up to me and ask what they can do to help. Read the Idle No More strat- egy and you will find that there’s a lot of room to get involved in advising environmental move- ments, specifically as Indigenous peoples are linking the violation of Indigenous treaties to the violation of the earth. There’s a lot of room for science in there too and we need scientific advising and literacy in order to effect change in this world.

References Cited

Mosby, Ian 2013 Administering Colonial Science: Nutrition Research and Human Biomedical Experimentation in Aboriginal Communities and Residential Schools, 1942-1952. Histoire Social/Social History 46(91): 145-172.

Sturm, Circe 2011 Becoming Indian: The Struggle over Cherokee Identity in the Twenty-First Century. SAR Press, Santa Fe.

TallBear, Kimberly 2003 DNA, Blood, and Racializing the Tribe. Wicazo Sa Review 18(1): 81-107.

44 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings Exploring Indigenous Identity at the Intersection of Medical Genetics Discourses ROSALINA JAMES

Video available online: explanations. They tend to de- is forgetting things,” but now we’re www.sfu.ca/ipinch/resources/vid- scribe things in compartmentalized starting to learn a lot about amy- eos/dna-james ways and do not take into account loid plaques in the brain and how Indigenous knowledge. However, it we start to lose our memory, as Hello and thank you for having me is essential that we start listening well as the other conditions that here. I first want to give respects to to and incorporating Indigenous constitute dementia. We’re start- the First Peoples of this land and knowledge into our interpretations ing to define these conditions thank you so much for your prayers of health. through science. and your song. Before I get started, I want to consider a comment Recently, my husband went to see What we’re seeing in the context made earlier by Armand Minthorn. our family physician. When the of defining these conditions is He said, “Science moves fast, we doctor asked my husband if there that it often leads to a new treat- should be careful,” a comment that was anything that he wanted to ment of some sort. One example is very relevant to our conversation talk about, he replied that he’d like is attention deficit/hyperactivity today. to lose some weight. The doctor disorder (ADHD). One study by the responded by saying, “we have Center for Disease Control (CDC) In this presentation I will not be this new medication that just came showed that 2 million more kids discussing ancient human remains out. It’s FDA approved and doesn’t were diagnosed with ADHD over as I don’t work with archaeologists. have many side-effects that we an 8-year period. In the United I do work with geneticists, social know of. It seems to be a really States, from 2011- 2012, 11% of scientists, community-based orga- promising way of losing weight.” children aged 4-17 years were nizations, and others who partici- My husband answered that he was diagnosed with ADHD. Of the kids pate in genetic research. My work just thinking of eating better and diagnosed with ADHD, almost 70% is situated at the crossroads and exercising. take medication and will continue I try to bring people together to to do so for the rest of their lives. learn from each other. My research We’re living in a world where involves looking at what we’ve genetics seem to hold the answers Sociologists have been aware of done—and what are we going to to all of our problems. “Medical- this phenomenon for a long time. do—with DNA samples from living ization” is the term that’s been It has been described as “an exten- individuals and from those who are coined for this phenomenon. It re- sion of medical authority in differ- recently deceased, but also engag- fers to the process by which com- ent areas of everyday life, [which] ing with those from whom we have mon problems, emotions, or traits is thus understood from the per- not collected samples yet. How come to be described and treated spective of the social control it will they know that we’ve collected as medical problems. For example, implies when behavior deemed their DNA? How will they know a lot of children are “picky eat- to be deviant is transferred from what we’re doing with it? ers,” but we now diagnose it as the social to the medical arena” “selective eating disorder.” For (Fainzang 2013). As medical knowl- Scientific narratives tend to privi- depression, there’s now a whole edge bases have grown, discover- lege race-based biological explana- spectrum of ways to describe it, ies have revolutionized biotechnol- tions for things that happen in the including bipolar disorder. For ogy and pharmaceutical industries. world over emotional and spiritual senility, we used to say, “Grandma What we’ve seen over the years

45 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings and decades is an interweaving key point: we’re no longer talk- already being linked to potential between industry and our medical ing about groups or communities. downstream products. But why enterprise. The promotion of prod- Instead, we’re talking about our not use the decades of behavioral ucts to providers and the public own personal genetic profiles and science research we’ve done or the has evolved into new markets for genomic profiles for populations. decades of Indigenous knowledge social anxiety and other common- It also constitutes a shift in the on how to empower young people, place experiences that are subse- language that we see in public dis- particularly young men. We know quently being targeted for medical courses. These technologies have there’s higher risk for young men, intervention. had a very complex relationship so how do we empower them to with identity politics. be part of a community, to have Medicalization is also tied into our an important role, to learn reef media workforce and, thus far, Catherine Bliss (2013) has writ- netting and to reincorporate that the focus has been on identify- ten quite a lot about this and she knowledge into how we’re creating ing risk factors to be treated by states that the “marketization of communities and supporting our personalized precision medicine. race through genetic testing, drugs, people. Why are we going towards In this new era of precision medi- etc. thus redirects identity from an the shiny things rather than putting cine, $200 million will be spent on inclusive political group empower- our resources into the not so sexy sequencing the full genomes of a ment to a personal negotiation things? We are fascinated with million Americans. This marks a base for social status.” It’s also a genomics and our genetic profiles. shift in academic interests from “reductionist understanding of Indigenous global migration to inferences between genetics (our It’s important to realize that genes include more medically driven biological selves) and identity.” It’s are not static. The field of epi- population genetic research. The a lot bigger than genetics, and “the genetics looks at how DNA evolves promise of novel drugs, genomics, dominant voices behind consumer and how it expresses itself at dif- neuroscience, and genetic diagnos- genetics ignore this complexity and ferent times. Your genes express tic tools—many of which are inter- stick to a simple narrative in which themselves differently depending twined with the market place—has our genes have the power to tell us on what you eat, if it’s cold out, if introduced and sustained medical- who we are.” you get enough sleep or not, and ization in a new era. we need to take these complexi- The move from medicalization to ties into account. We’re starting A lot of people refer to this process geneticization refers to “a pill for to do that with epigenetics but as “geneticization.” In the United every ill,” and that there’s a genetic it’s still a new science and it’s very States, the dominant biomedical solution to every problem. But the complex. It’s important to consider model has permeated modern so- big question is: does our genome how stress and trauma, such as ciety and culture whereby common really tell us that much about that experienced by residential problems, emotions, or behaviours ourselves? And how many voices school survivors, manifests itself in are described as medical issues are questioning the geneticization the epigenome. People here know that can be treated. Again, they’re of our lives? I don’t see enough the story of Indian residential and framed as “problems” instead of voices pushing back on that in the boarding schools. This is some- normal experiences that we should dialogue that’s going on in the thing that affects all of us, not just be dealing with without medica- United States. Here’s an example: generations ago, but continues to tion. Moreover, the frameworks for could a genetic test predict the affect my family today. In fact this individual and group identity are risk for suicide? There’s actually quote is from my great aunt, who increasingly described through a a team at Mount Sinai Medical remembers that she used to “stand lens of genetic-derived logic over Center who are working on a in the window and cry.” the cultural, political, historical, genetic test to predict suicide risk. and societal conditions that shape Given how many people already Moving forward we’re also look- social beings. I think that’s a really take antidepressants, the test is ing at how other environmental

46 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings factors interact with our genomic But we really need to be thinking makeup. It keeps getting more We’re giving science a misplaced about why we’re asking a certain complex. However, what I want to sense of concreteness and we question and how is it going to get at is whether we’re answer- need to think outside of that box. benefit not just our community, or ing the question in a way that We need to accept other knowl- our relatives, or even our children, we’re going to make a difference. edges as part of the solution that but maybe many generations from Other factors such as our diet we’re seeking. Propelled by the now. There are a lot of Indigenous and environmental contaminants promise of using genetic varia- groups that are interested in part- may interact with our genome tion information to address health nering with researchers—or even and cause health conditions or disparities, Indigenous peoples are leading research—and scientists vulnerabilities. But we can’t just once again faced with weighing can play an important role by sup- ask these questions. We also need the benefits and potential risks of porting these efforts. to learn what we can do about it being exploited by science. As In- in the end, including cleaning up digenous people, we need to make However, educating and support- our water systems, our earth, and these decisions in a way that’s very ing more Indigenous scientists, our relatives that are non-human. thoughtful and not just shut the politicians, and health adminis- We need to recognize that we’re doors to it; science has a lot to of- trators right across the board is urban, we’re reservation, we’re fer. However, in order to make this essential. Supporting Indigenous everywhere, and so we’re not one decision, we need to be educated scientists will change the research kind of people. and actively engaged in the conver- process. For example, following the sation. misuse of their samples, in 2008 What does this have to do with the Nuu-Chah-Nulth developed an identity? Everything! I’m an en- In the United States, the National ethics code1 that states, “Research- rolled Lummi Tribal member and Institute of Health is going in a dif- ers are collectors of information when I think about my great- ferent direction than what I think and producers of meaning, which grandfather who was Duwamish, communities are really interested can be used for or against Indig- they didn’t allow Native people to in. It’s focusing on broad consent enous interests.” We need to be be in Seattle after a certain time. so that DNA samples can be used thinking about data because it is a He got in a canoe, moved up to for other studies without the re- resource. The data we produce will Lummi, and that’s how we became searchers needing to go back and be around forever and lots of new enrolled Lummi. How can that be obtain permission. The samples questions will come up. How do teased apart through my biology? could be used for a different study we protect the data and ourselves? I don’t really know. Identity is who on something like schizophrenia, or How do we put the right restric- you are. We can’t take the human for any other research questions. tions and controls on it so that it’s piece out of this. Identity is com- We’re moving towards big reposi- used appropriately? prised of your cultural identity, tories, big data, and big samples your multicultural identity, how for many populations. Generally, Again, it’s very important to con- you self-identify, your social expe- tribes have ownership and control sider tribal sovereignty. Not many riences, whether you’re enrolled, over the data. However, many scientists understand sovereignty. whether you’re a descendant, or if people are not part of federally In fact much of the general public you’re part of multiple Indigenous recognized tribes and we need to doesn’t understand sovereignty or communities, as many people are. consider how to protect them if even know it still exists. For that Indigenous people have forever they choose to participate in bio- matter, many people don’t know understood that you need to be medical or other research. that Native Americans still exist. sure that you don’t marry your They think we’re all in museums. cousin, so you need to ask ques- I think Dr. TallBear has done a fan- So we always have to be educators, tions. We’ve always been geneti- tastic job of discussing some of the cists and scientists. historical missteps that we’ve had. 1. www.cahr.uvic.ca/nearbc/documents/2009/ NTC-Protocols-and-Principles.pdf

47 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings wherever we’re going. We always have to wear that hat. It should be that scientists have to go through an educational curriculum before they consider doing genetic re- search and other work with tribes.

We have a lot of models for re- search but I think the First Nations Principles of Ownership, Control, Access, and Possession2 (OCAP) in Canada from the Canadian Insti- tute of Health Research is further ahead than what we have in the United States. We look to you for the ways that we can implement this kind of ethics code in our country. Thank you for your time.

References Cited

Bliss, Catherine 2013 The Marketization of Identity Politics. Sociology 47(5) 1011–1025.

Fainzang, S 2013 The Other Side of Medicalization: Self- Medicalization and Self-Medication. Cult Med Psychiatry 37(3):488-504.

2. http://fnigc.ca/ocap.html

48 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings Partnerships with First Nations of British Columbia on Studies that include DNA Analysis RIPAN MALHI

Video available online: Our partnership with the Canoe tion and, upon completion, addi- www.sfu.ca/ipinch/resources/vid- Creek Band and nearby commu- tional ceremonies were performed, eos/dna-malhi nities began when Dr. Cybulski including a burnt food offering. The visited the community in 2002. First Nations community agreed to Good afternoon everybody. First, He was there to seek authoriza- allow limited destructive analysis I’d like to thank the First Peoples tion for and cooperation with to obtain information such as ra- of this land. I’d also like to thank the analysis of burials that were diocarbon dates, isotopic analysis the organizers of this symposium. recovered nearly 20 years earlier to understand diet, and DNA analy- Today I want to talk about partner- at nearby China Lake (see Figure sis to learn from their ancestors. ships with First Nations people of 1). Dr. Cybulski gave a talk to com- British Columbia that include DNA munity members, which was well analysis that I’ve worked on with received. Following his presenta- BELMONT REPORT Dr. Jerome Cybulski. Dr. Cybulski tion, he was taken to other sus- couldn’t be here today but he pected burial sites in their territory Published in 1979, the Belmont sends his regards. where remains were eroding out of Report: Ethical Principles and the ground. At the request of com- Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research rec- I want to start by talking about our munity members, Dr. Cybulski was ognizes three fundamental ethical partnership principles. These are able to confirm that some of these principles that must be followed respect, mutual benefit, and com- remains were human, specifically in research involving humans: 1) munication. These three principles at the Big Bar burial site. Over Respect for Persons; 2) Benefi- should look familiar as they are the the next few months, community cence; and 3) Justice. foundation of any healthy relation- members pondered how to best ship. They also overlap with the protect the remains from further ethical principles of the Belmont erosion and vandalism, as there It was at this point in time that Dr. Report.1 As I proceed through this was a high traffic road nearby that Cybulski contacted me to work talk, I will give examples of how we led to a provincial park. with him on the DNA studies. With operationalize these principles, as Dr. Cybulski and Dr. McMillan, I well as mention other safeguards Eventually, community members visited the First Nations commu- put into place to protect com- expressed an interest in work- nities in 2005 and gave a public munity members and communi- ing with Dr. Cybulski and another presentation on the uses and limi- ties beyond the usual expectation archaeologist, Dr. Alan McMillan, tations of DNA analysis on ancient of obtaining Institutional Review to excavate the human remains skeletal remains. During this visit, I Board (IRB) approval. Many of near Big Bar Lake. In the follow- also collected saliva samples from these partnerships in British Co- ing year the excavation began community members. Through the lumbia are based on relationships with a smudging ceremony. research partnership we estab- that Dr. Cybulski had built prior Over the course of the excava- lished, we were able to use DNA to us beginning DNA studies with tion many community members as a tool to learn about the popu- these communities. camped overnight to ensure that lation history of the community. the remains were not stolen or This was done in combination vandalized. Community members with other forms of information, 1 https://videocast.nih.gov/pdf/ohrp_appen- dix_belmont_report_vol_2.pdf observed and assisted with excava- including oral histories, traditional

49 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings knowledge, and archaeology. Pro- to possess a mitochondrial genome Figure 1. Ancestral human remains were found at the China Lake site in British Columbia. In tocols were established to ano- not currently found in sampled partnership with the Canoe Creek Band, Ripan nymize samples taken from com- Indigenous individuals from the Malhi, Jerome Cybulski, and his team suc- munity members and to restrict Americas. This lineage may either cessfully extracted and analyzed ancient DNA from the skeletal remains. Photo Credit: J. S. data access to research only on be in very low frequency or it may Cybulski. demographic history. Policies were not exist anymore, possibly as a also established to work closely result of European contact and red circles). It doesn’t give you together before publishing any colonization. any information about all of these results of the study. This was done other ancestors that you have to safeguard against any potential I’d like to spend some time discuss- (represented by black circles). If harm to the community. ing the characteristics of mito- you go back three generations, it’s chondrial DNA (mtDNA) and some tracing one individual out of eight. The China Lake and Big Bar an- of the limitations of the mito- If you go back five generations, it’s cestral remains were reburied in chondrial genome. Mitochondrial tracing one individual out of thirty- 2006 and 2008, respectively. All DNA is small, circular in structure, two, and so on. Thus, mitochon- of these remains dated to the and is found in multiple copies in drial DNA analysis is limited in the mid-Holocene, around 5,000 years nearly every cell in the body. We information that it can provide. before present. At the time when inherit our mitochondrial DNA this study was conducted, we were from our mother and so it traces Over the past decade, there have able to analyze mitochondrial DNA. your maternal line. In Figure 2, you been rapid advances in genomic The Big Bar remains exhibited a can see that squares are males and technologies and analyses. Where- mitochondrial lineage, haplogroup circles are females, horizontal lines as we used to analyze a small por- A2. Haplogroup A2 is found in are marriage and vertical lines are tion of the mitochondrial genome, Indigenous individuals living along offspring. If this red circle in the between 300-600 base pairs, we the coast as well as in the interior middle is you, then your mitochon- can now analyze the complete of British Columbia. However, the drial DNA traces all the way back mitochondrial genome, all 16,500 China Lake individuals were found maternally (demonstrated by the base pairs. Before these advances,

50 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings it was very difficult to get any surviving nuclear genetic material from ancient skeletal remains. We can now gain information from all 24 pairs of chromosomes from ancient individuals, as well as from saliva samples given from living individuals. This type of analysis gives us information about all of an individual’s ancestors, not just their maternal lineage.

We were able to use these ge- nomic technologies in another partnership on the Northwest Coast. In 2009, Dr. Cybulski and the partnership; and 2) to better Figure 2. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is I began a partnership with Tsim- safeguard First Nations partners passed down through the maternal line. The shian- speaking First Nations in the red circles show how mtDNA is passed down from potentially harmful results, from generation to generation through the Prince Rupert Harbour region. The we signed a contract with the female line. Reprinted with permission from study involved genomic analyses of communities. At the request of the Ripan Malhi. living community members and of communities, we also expanded The other new development was ancestral ancient skeletal remains our communications to include recovered from this area. Skeletal that we invited community mem- their legal representatives. I can’t bers to participate in the Summer remains of over 250 individuals tell you how many hours I’ve spent dating to between 500 and 600 Internship for Native Americans on the phone talking to lawyers 2 at years before present are currently in Genomics (SING) workshop and discussing possible scenarios the University of Illinois, where housed at the Canadian Museum of what could happen in the future I am based. This is a weeklong of History in Gatineau, Quebec. with regards to the DNA study. workshop in which we discuss the When we partnered with these uses and limitations of genomic communities, it was clear that We continued to visit the com- research for Indigenous peoples. genomic analyses would be con- munities in person annually, but in Before I discuss this in detail, I’ll sidered alongside other forms of 2012 I had a major life-changing first summarize some of the results information, including their rich event, so extreme that I can barely from our partnership with First Na- traditional knowledge base, oral remember the first year after this tions communities on the coast. histories, and archaeology in this event: I had twins. As a result, region. I wasn’t able to travel up here By looking at mitogenomes of as much as I would have liked. I mid-Holocene individuals and com- Our First Nations partners allowed started relying on such communi- munity members, we were able to the taking of samples for limited cation technologies as Skype and find a DNA link between an indi- destructive analysis. other video conferencing tools to vidual from the Lucy Islands (An- We employed the same partner- talk with the First Nations commu- cient 938) who radiocarbon dated ship principles as we did with the nities. Surprisingly, I ended up talk- to about 5,000 years ago, and an communities in the interior of the ing with our partners much more individual from Dodge Island with province. We also made several than I did when I had relied on my additions to these protocols: 1) annual in-person trips. to clarify the roles and expecta- 2. http://conferences.igb.illinois.edu/sing/ tions of the parties involved in home

51 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings a very similar mitogenome (An- cient 152) who radiocarbon dated to 2,500 years ago. This individual had the same exact mitogenome as a living Tsimshian-speaking indi- vidual (T018).

We found another connection but this was with multiple individuals from multiple communities in the geographic region. The final—and unexpected—connection that I want to talk about relates to Ancient 939 from the Lucy Island site who was radiocarbon dated to around 6,000 years ago. We didn’t find any connections with living community members in this region. However, we did find a close connection to a mitochon- geographic location. The further to Figure 3. Genomic analyses demonstrate that drial genome from another ancient the right a community is, the more Ancient 939 shares close genetic connections individual from Prince of Wales to First Nations communities living along the closely they’re related to Ancient Northwest Coast of British Columbia. Reprint- Island who dates to about 10,000 939. The closest genetic affinities ed with permission from Ripan Malhi; images years ago. We were able to find are with Coastal Tsimshian, Haida, from Raghavan et al. 2015. a mitogenomic connection from and Nisga’a. er the final number is to zero, the 10,000 years to 6,000 years but not closer the genetic affinity to Ken- to communities today. It’s critical However, there are other com- newick Man. You can see that the to remember that in these analy- munities that also show a close genomes from the Colville individ- ses we’re focusing solely on the affinity to Ancient 939 and they uals are much closer to zero than mitochondrial genome and thus are in Central and South America, other individuals from different are limited to information from the which is unexpected. Overall, communities around the world. maternal lineage. there seems to be a trend showing However, as many people have genetic affinities to communities in pointed out, genomic research is Last year we published a study the same geographic location but rapidly advancing so I wouldn’t be et al. (Raghavan 2015 ) where we then you also have other unex- surprised if this test is eventually were able to look at a low cover- pected affinities, such as that with replaced because it is based on a age genome from Ancient 939. Ancient 939. We’ve already talked very simple model. This slide ended up being rather about The Ancient One (Kennewick complicated so I’ll break it down Man) and showing genetic affini- Now I want to come back and talk for you (Figure 3). Looking at this ties to communities in the same about the Summer Internship for map, which is called a Heat Map, geographic location. Another f3 Native Americans in Genomics the more red a circle is (represent- heat map with the Colville tribe (SING). SING’s goal is to increase ing present-day communities) the indicates an affinity with other interest and participation by First greater affinity to the Ancient 939 groups located in Central and Nations peoples in scientific re- individual. As you can see, in the South America. search, to use genomic tools in an Americas it’s mostly red. This other Indigenous framework, and to train figure (right side) shows genetic For this study we developed a di- community members in genomic affinity to communities in a similar rect ancestry test in which the clos- science. We began the SING work-

52 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings shop in 2011. SING is a one-week workshop where students and tribal commu- nity members learn about genomics through hands-on training in molecular biol- ogy and bioinformatics. This is accompanied by discus- sions on the social, ethical, and political implications of ancient DNA research.

A central goal of the SING workshop is to increase the number of Indigenous researchers in genomic science but there are many other functions that I think this workshop serves, in- cluding as a support net- work for current Indigenous scientists. What do we do in this one-week workshop? We have participants in the Figure 4. Participants in the SING workshop learn about the potential for genomics to empower molecular biology teaching lab Indigenous communities. Photo credit: Kathryn Coulter and reprinted with permission from Ripan (Figure 4) and, if they want to, par- Malhi. Photo retrieved from SING website: http://conferences.igb.illinois.edu/sing/home ticipants can extract and analyze their own DNA. As genomic tech- nologies have advanced, we’re no References and Further Reading Rasmussen, Morten, Martin Sikora, Anders longer analyzing small bits of DNA. Albrechtsen, Thorfinn Sand Korneliussen, J. Vic- tor Moreno-Mayar, G. David Poznik, … and Eske Cui, Yinqui, John Lindo, Cris E. Hughes, Jesse W. Willerslev We also have extended discus- Johnson, Alvaro G. Hernandez, Alvaro, Brian M. 2015 The Ancestry and Affiliations of Kennewick Kemp, … and Ripan S. Malhi Man. Nature 523(7561): 455–458. sions on the ethical, legal, and 2013 Ancient DNA Analysis of Mid-Holocene social implications of genomics for Individuals from the Northwest Coast of North Raghavan, Maanasa, Steinrücken, Matthais, Indigenous communities. We have America Reveals Different Evolutionary Paths Harris, Kelley, Schiffels, Stephan, Rasmussen, Si- had engaging lectures from many for Mitogenomes. PLoS ONE 8(7): e66948. mon, DeGiorgio, Michael, … and Eske Willerslev Cybulski, Jerome S., Alan D. McMillan, Ripan S. 2015 Genomic Evidence for the Pleistocene and of the people who are here in Malhi, Brian M. Kemp, Harold Harry, and Scott Recent Population History of Native Americans. this room, as well as others. Since Cousins Science, 349(6250): aab3884. 2011, we have had four workshops 2007 The Big Bar Lake Burial: Middle Period Human Remains from the Canadian Plateau. resulting in 50 SING alumni form Canadian Journal of Archaeology 31(1): 55–78. 44 different Indigenous communi- ties. We just submitted our NHGRI Malhi, Ripan S., Brian M. Kemp, Jason A. Eshle- man, Jerome S. Cybulski, David G. Smith, Scott renewal to continue this workshop. Cousins, and Harry Harold 2007 Mitochondrial Haplogroup M Discovered Thank you. in Prehistoric North Americans. Journal of Archaeological Science 34: 642–648.

53 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings PART THREE CONCLUSION

54 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings Towards a Better Understanding of Indigeneity and DNA GEORGE NICHOLAS & ALEXA WALKER

Much as the advent of radiocarbon Native Americans and First Nations an urgently needed task as the dating in the late 1940s revolution- peoples. A “science first” attitude answers may have direct and tan- ized archaeology, advances in DNA has long dominated research on gible effects on the well-being of research and technology are doing and preservation of that heritage, Indigenous peoples. Thus, as much the same for our understanding with very limited accommodation as DNA research is revolutioniz- of who we are, both as a species of Indigenous concerns and values. ing what we know, DNA research and in the most personal sense. On Ironically, Indigenous DNA has be- methods themselves need to be the one hand, DNA technology has come such a valuable commodity transformed in order to acknowl- shed astounding light on popula- in the sciences, representing what edge and respect Indigenous tion movements thousands and some consider to be “original” or peoples. tens of thousands of years ago, as biologically isolated populations well as confirmed or contradicted that provide an important point of This is a challenge not just for what we know—or thought we reference for a variety of scientific researchers but also for Indigenous knew—about ancient lineages studies. communities. Indeed, as workshop and the identity of individuals of participant Armand Minthorn not- historic importance. On the other The result is that while DNA re- ed, “There is a balance that needs hand, it has allowed individuals to search is providing previously to be considered very carefully know in the most intimate detail unimagined insights into ancient between genetics and Indian ways their parentage and genetic lin- and modern populations, these of life. What authority does genet- eages. The end result is that while technological advances present ics and science have over Indian DNA testing may analyze very small significant ethical challenges, rang- ways of life? I do not want genet- pieces of human tissue, the find- ing from debates over histories ics or DNA or science to affect our ings may have a very large impact of indigenous group movement, ways of life that have been here for on our understanding of humanity. land tenure, continuity, and intan- thousands of years.” gible heritage issues; to concerns But with new technologies come over the ethics and practicality How can we balance the tension new responsibilities, as well as new of obtaining both individual and that all too often exists between and often unanticipated ethical, group informed consent; to how traditional values and DNA tech- religious, and legal quandaries. For DNA studies may require rethink- nology? How do we move past an Indigenous peoples, whose lives ing long-held understandings of unsavoury history that saw fre- have been transformed by loss of identity and ancestry. A variety of quent exploitation of Indigenous land, of language, and heritage, concerns have thus emerged that peoples by researchers, and start the implications of new DNA require serious consideration, in- building trusting and respectful technologies are of great concern, cluding who controls, who benefits relationships? especially in the field of archaeol- from, and who has access to the ogy where the study of Indigenous information derived? And what are The “DNA and Indigeneity: The heritage has long been at the core the consequences of inappropriate Changing Roles of Genetics in In- the discipline. In North America, use of DNA-derived information? digenous Rights, Tribal Belonging, for example, 99.9% of the archaeo- and Repatriation” public sympo- logical record is associated with Addressing these questions is not sium and the two-day workshop the ancestors of contemporary simply an academic exercise but that followed provided a unique

55 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings opportunity to explored these Starting with the premise that under the law. Yet repatriation has other questions relating to indi- “identity” is as much a product of operated largely within a Western geneity and DNA, such as: What cultural factors and affinity as it is legal regime, with only limited are the potential implications of of biological ones: accommodation or understand- modern and ancient DNA analysis ing of Indigenous worldviews. when used to redefine identities • Sociopolitical organizations such Researchers need to acknowledge and cultural relationships across as communities, bands, tribes do that customary laws and religious time? How do we best deal with not always map neatly onto DNA beliefs are central to the wellbeing the notion that ancestries are mul- population profiles. Populations— of many Indigenous peoples. Local tiple and fluid? What are the ethics past and present—are not static, values and scientific goals must be and practicality of obtaining both but always changing. The history of both carefully considered. individual and group informed colonization, coupled with ongoing consent for DNA research? And human interaction and movement, • Free, prior, and informed consent what happens when DNA research has shaped the genetic profiles is already a de facto part of the results and indigenous histories of present-day populations. Thus, research process. However, too and beliefs don’t agree? ancestries must thus be viewed as little attention has been devoted multiple and fluid. to the risk that Indigenous peoples Rather than reiterate points al- incur when participating in DNA- ready provided on these topics or • Limited samples from ancient re- oriented research. These range offer a high-level analysis of work- mains restricts the degree to which from concerns about genetic dis- shop discussions, we conclude this genetic relatedness can be inferred continuity between an ancient and volume by sharing ten important between ancient and contempo- modern group that may jeopardize insights gleaned from the sympo- rary peoples. The result may be an land claims, to loss of tribal enrol- sium presentations and workshop actual or potential lack of cor- ment status, to questions about discussions on indigenous identity respondence between historical, paternity. at the interface of culture and biol- cultural, and genetic indicators of ogy. identity—as one participant stated, • DNA “hype” is problematic. The “Culture is complex and messy; sci- popular perception that ancient Working at the Crossroads of ence likes certainty and precision” DNA analysis is a highly specific Genetics, Biology, and Identity and precise venture is largely the • DNA analysis can have far- result of an oversimplification of Issues of identity are of particular reaching, long-term, and com- the results, with less attention paid importance for Indigenous peo- plex implications for Indigenous to the nuances inherent within the ples, for whom scientific pro- peoples. Genetic bioarchaeological data. That it can provide absolute nouncements about identity claims data co-exist with other forms of answers is often a fallacy. What is may have profound social, cultural, understanding identity and cultural often ignored in media stories is political, and economic conse- relationships, Therefore, genetic that factors such as sample size quences. There is thus a pressing analysis for any purpose should and type of DNA (mtDNA vs. whole need to investigate how genetic therefore be viewed as a final step genome) can affect interpretation research is today being used to once all other potential sources of of research results and the ensu- reconstruct understandings of information have been considered, ing conclusions that are shared identity, and the pertinent implica- including archaeology, physical an- with the public. Mis-information tions biological information and thropology, traditional knowledge, and misinterpretation of genetic genetics in particular may have for and other sources. data by scientists, the public, or by Indigenous peoples’ land claims, specific interest groups, can detri- the repatriation of ancestral hu- • Human remains and biologi- mentally affect Indigenous groups man remains, band enrollment, cal samples, regardless of origin, whether by omission, oversimplifi- and attaining federal recognition. should receive equal treatment cation, or downright error.

56 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings • There is an urgent need for researchers, communities, policy makers and others to develop legal and ethical means to protect genetic samples originating from ancestral human remains or con- temporary Indigenous populations that sensitive to cultural values and legally robust. These include consider new approaches to ge- nomics, including non-destructive sampling, community-controlled biobanks, and tribal repatriation consortia that situate genetic infor- mation alongside—not competing against—Indigenous oral histories and traditional knowledge.

• Collaborative projects work when the communities are fully informed, and are full and equal partners in the decision-making process from the start. Developing such projects requires developing trust and mutual respect, which may take considerable time and ef- fort to achieve, but can yield posi- tive and mutually satisfying results. The aim needs to be consent, not just consultation.

• Finally, and perhaps most impor- tantly, DNA analysis is not the end point. It should instead be seen as the beginning of an important opportunity for learning, collabora- tion, and critical discussions about genetic research and what consti- tutes “identity.”

57 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings Appendix A

Workshop Participants * Indicates symposium speaker

Dr. Jessica Bardill is Assistant Professor, Department ‘race’ paradigm in the 19th century and campaigns to of English, East Carolina University. Her work engages secure their return. the role of narrative medicine in wellness, ethical is- sues between communities and researchers, as well * Dr. Alan Goodman, Professor of Biological Anthro- as the power of literature to resist and change nation- pology, teaches and writes on the health and nutri- al narrations of being and belonging. tional consequences of political-economic processes such as poverty, inequality, and racism. His current * Dr. Deborah Bolnick is an Associate Professor of research includes projects on malnutrition in Mexico Anthropology and affiliated with the Population and Egypt, and the stresses of slavery in New York. He Research Center at the University of Texas at Austin. is co-chair of IPinCH’s Bioarchaeology and Genetics Her research examines genetic variation in Native Working Group. American populations and how it has been shaped by culture, history, and geography. Dr. Sara Juengst is an anthropological bioarchaeolo- gist in the Department of Anthropology Appalachian Dr. Brian Egan served as IPinCH Project Manager from State University, and analyzes skeletons from archaeo- 2012 to 2016. Trained in both the natural and social logical contexts in Peru and Bolivia in order to docu- sciences, his career has spanned a broad range of po- ment and understand their lived experiences. Her sitions, including field ecologist, environmental con- research interests include paleopathology, violence- sultant, research associate, policy analyst, and field related trauma, diet and the body, and the embodied operations supervisor. For much of the past decade, aspects of social and genetic communities. Brian’s work has focused on Aboriginal and resource rights in Canada, with a particular focus on land and * Dr. Dorothy Lippert is Choctaw and works in the Re- treaty issues in British Columbia. patriation Office of the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. Dorothy has written extensively on * Victor Guerin is a member of the Musqueam First the subject of repatriating human remains and ar- Nation and speaker of hən̓q̓əmin̓əm̓ , the Musqueam chaeological ethics. She is co-chair of IPinCH’s Bioar- dialect of the Central Coast Salish language. He is past chaeology and Genetics Working Group. coordinator of the Musqueam Language and Culture Program and has worked as a cultural researcher and * Dr. Rosalina James is an Assistant Professor in the tour guide at the UBC Museum of Anthropology. He Department of Bioethics and Humanities at University works with elders from his own and sister communi- of Washington. Her interests include developing strat- ties learning about the cultural beliefs and traditions egies responsive to community interests in research, of his people including oral history, traditional narra- assessment of community-based participatory re- tives, songs and dances. search partnerships, and translational research ethics.

* Dr. Cressida Fforde joined the National Centre for * Dr. Ripan Malhi is an Associate Professor in the De- Indigenous Studies (based at Australian National partment of Anthropology at the University of Illinois University) as its Deputy Director in November 2011. at Urbana-Champaign. Based at the university, the Her primary research focus has been the history of Malhi Molecular Anthropology Laboratory generates the removal and subsequent study of Indigenous DNA variation data from different genetic systems to human remains by European institutions within the infer evolutionary history of populations and species.

58 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings * Armand Minthorn is a Religious Leader and mem- cal research, and education and outreach. He has over ber on the Board of Trustees for the Confederated 25 years of experience in community collaborations, Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation. Armand is cultural heritage research, and resource management. a vocal advocate for the repatriation of The Ancient One (also known as Kennewick Man). Dr. Ernesto Schwartz-Marin is a Research Fellow in the Department of Anthropology at Durham Univer- * Dr. George Nicholas is Professor of Archaeology, Si- sity. His research is on the relations and dynamics mon Fraser University, and Director, Intellectual Prop- between truth making, genetic science and notions of erty Issues in Cultural Heritage (IPinCH) Project. His nation, and ethnicity and race. His project “Forensic research focuses on Indigenous peoples and archaeol- Science and Nation Building in Latin America” exam- ogy, intangible heritage, and archaeological theory. ines the field of forensic science (specifically genetics He directed SFU’s Indigenous Archaeology program in and physical anthropology) relative to ethnicity and Kamloops, BC from 1991-2005. race in Mexico and Colombia.

Dr. Teresa Nichols, a postdoctoral fellow and project * Dr. Kimberly TallBear is an Associate Professor of manager for Indiana University’s “Learning NAGPRA” Native Studies at the University of Alberta. She is an project, is conducting research on how students learn enrolled member of the Sisseton-Wahpeton Oyate and educators teach about NAGPRA and professional in South Dakota, descended from the Cheyenne & ethics. This project aims to develop resources on Arapaho Tribes of Oklahoma, and raised on the Flan- issues relating to professional ethics, working with dreau Santee Sioux reservation in South Dakota and human subjects, building cultural competency and in St. Paul. Her research focuses on the historical and relationships with Native American communities, and ongoing roles of science and technology in the coloni- NAGPRA consultation and compliance. zation of Indigenous peoples and others.

* Dr. Daryl Pullman is a Professor of Medical Ethics in Alexa Walker completed her MA in the Department the Faculty of Medicine at the Memorial University of of Archaeology at Simon Fraser University in 2015. Newfoundland. He has published widely on a variety Her thesis, “Ancient DNA Research in North America of issues in research and clinical ethics, and has a and Abroad: Challenges and Opportunities,” explored particular interest in issues related to genetic research the potential social, ethical, and political implications and therapy. He is co-chair of IPinCH’s Bioarchaeology of ancient DNA research for Indigenous communities and Genetics Working Group. and researchers working around the world. She was a Research Assistant for the IPinCH Project from 2012- Dr. Susan Rowley is Curator of Public Archaeology, 2016. Museum of Anthropology , Associate Professor of An- thropology, and Director, Laboratory of Archaeology, UBC. Her research focuses on repatriation, represen- tation, and the shifting balances of power in collab- orative projects. She is the Museum of Anthropology’s representative for the Reciprocal Research Network (RRN), a co-development project of the Musqueam Indian Band, Sto:lo nation/Tribal Council, the U’mista Cultural Society and the Museum of Anthropology.

Dr. David Schaepe is the Director & Senior Archaeolo- gist of the Stó:lō Research and Resource Management Centre at Stó:lō Nation, addressing issues of aborigi- nal rights and title, heritage management policy and practice, repatriation, land use planning, archaeologi-

59 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings Appendix B

DNA & Indigeneity Workshop Program

This volume centers on the presentations given in the shop participants described “genetic autonomy” as public symposium, but no less important was the two- the ability of individuals or groups to control when, day workshop that followed on the same theme— where, how and by whom their genetic information is “DNA and Indigeneity: The Changing Roles of Genetics used. To this end, it is critical that additional resources in Indigenous Rights, Tribal Belonging, and Repatria- and support are provided for Indigenous peoples tion.” The workshop organizers (Goodman, Lippert, seeking training in genomic sciences. Nicholas, Pullman, and Walker) intentionally devel- oped an invitation list of individuals with broad out- Workshop discussions also highlighted some of the look and experience in this realm. The result was an complexities of identity (or identities), as well as the opportunity for rich and focused discussion on many meaning and importance of “indigenous identity” in different dimensions of the workshop theme—ethical, different geographic and sociopolitical contexts, in- historical, scientific—from both indigenous and non- cluding the United States, Canada, Mexico, Brazil and indigenous perspectives. This, in turn, facilitated an Australia. For example, Jessica Bardill and Edwardo open and honest engagement with some very difficult Swartz-Marin led a discussion that highlighted how challenges and opportunity to look for ways to engage countries vary widely in how genetic information is with the communities, researchers, and policy makes gathered, interpreted, controlled and disseminated, who are involved with DNA research. as well as the use and stakes of genetic information.

The workshop was organized into four session, each Another key point of discussion at the workshop focusing on a different theme but clearly with consid- focused on clarifying misconceptions about DNA and erable overlap: 1) DNA and the Repatriation of Human genetic testing. A growing number of Native American Remains; 2) Land and Identity Based Rights; 3) Bioge- tribes, especially in the United States, are turning to netic Identities and Tribal Belongings; and 4) Working genetic parentage tests to inform tribal enrollment at the Crossroads of Genetics, Biology, and Identity: decisions, but there is much uncertainty among many Developing Tools for Researchers, Communities, and tribal members about the exact purpose of these Other Stakeholders. tests and how they differ from genetic ancestry tests. Participants probed the contrast between the lived Each of the sessions was facilitated by one or more experience of being a tribal member and genetic gate- workshop participants, who also assigned readings in keeping to tribal membership. advance of the workshop. These are listed at the end of each session description below. A broader bibliog- Finally, there was a strong consensus among work- raphy of recommended readings and resources was shop participants of the need to contextualize the also made available to participants and the public, results of genetic research, particularly when working which is included here as Appendix C. with Indigenous communities. By presenting genetic information alongside other ways of interpreting the A more comprehensive reporting on the workshop is past, such as oral histories and archaeology, a more forthcoming, along with a number of other products. holistic, complete and dynamic interpretation of iden- tities—past and present—may be realized. Contextu- One key takeaway message from the workshop is the alization was a key takeaway from the workshop and need to support Indigenous peoples around the world symposium. in their efforts to secure genetic autonomy. Work-

60 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings Ultimately, genetics and ancient DNA analysis should be considered alongside other ways of understand- ing the identities of ancient and modern-day peoples. “Genetic identity,” it was agreed, should be consid- ered as a supplementary source or a last resort when all other information has been considered. For ex- ample, if there is no information on the geographic provenance or cultural affiliation of human remains, then DNA analysis may provide insight into genetic relatedness at a general level. Even then, results need to be considered cautiously as genetic similarities do not necessarily equate with cultural relatedness, and vice versa.

Proposed workshop outputs include this symposium proceedings volume and other publications, a travel- ling exhibit on “DNA and Indigeneity,” appropriate in size for tribal colleges, and a website housing a diverse assortment of resources. Videos of the sym- posium presentations are already available on the IPinCH website.

Financial support for the event was provided by IPinCH, the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) and by Simon Fraser University.

61 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings DNA AND INDIGENIETY WORKSHOP PROGRAM • Kent, Michael Session 1: DNA and the Repatriation of Human Remains 2013 The Importance of Being Uros: Indigenous Identity (Discussion Leaders: Susan Rowley and Dorothy Lippert) Politics in the Genomic Age. Social Studies of Science 43(4): 534-556. Assigned Readings • Smith, Silvia E., M. Geoffrey Hayes, Graciela S. Cabana, • Kakaliouras, Ann M. Chad Huff, Joan Brenner Coltrain, and Dennis H. O’Rourke 2012 An Anthropology of Repatriation: Contemporary 2009 Inferring Population Continuity Versus Replacement Physical Anthropological and Native American Ontologies with aDNA: A Cautionary Tale from the Aleutian Islands. of Practice. Current Anthropology 53:S210. Human Biology 81(4): 407-426. • Mulligan, Connie J. 2006 Anthropological Applications of Ancient DNA: Session Three – Biogenetic Identities and Tribal Belong- Problems and Prospects. American Antiquity 71(2): ings (Jessica Bardill and Ernesto Schwartz-Marin) 365-380. • TallBear, Kimberly Assigned Readings 2003 Blood and Racializing the Tribe. Wicazo Sa Review Bardill, Jessica 18(1): 81-107. 2014 Native American DNA: Ethical, Legal, and Social Implications of an Evolving Concept. Annual Review of Session 2 – Land and Identity-Based Rights (Discussion Anthropology 43:155-166. Leaders: David Schaepe and Sara Juengst) • Schwartz-Marin, Ernesto, and Eduardo Restrepo 2013 Biocoloniality, Governance, and the Protection of Assigned Readings ‘Genetic Identities’ in Mexico and Colombia. Sociology • Cui, Yinqui, John Lindo, Cris E. Hughes, Jesse W. Johnson, 47(5): 993-1010. Alvaro G. Hernandez, Brian M. Kemp, Jian Ma, Ryan Cun- • TallBear, Kimberly ningham, Barbara Petzelt, Joycellyn Mitchell, David Archer, 2003 DNA, Blood, and Racializing the Tribe. Wicazo Sa Jerome S. Cybulski, Ripan S. Malhi Review 18(1): 81-107. 2013 Ancient DNA Analysis of Mid-Holocene Individuals from the Northwest Coast of North America Reveals Session Four – Working at the Crossroads of Genetics, Different Evolutionary Paths for Mitogenomes. PLOS One Biology, and Identity: Developing Tools for Researchers, 8(7): e66948. Communities, and Other Stakeholders (Discussion Leader: George Nicholas)

62 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings Appendix C

Workshop Bibliography

(Workshop participants’ names in bold) Bucklet, Richard, Mathew Morris, Jo Appleby, Turi King, Deidre O’Sullivan, and Lin Foxhall Arbour, Laura, and Doris Cook 2006 DNA on Loan: Issues to Consider when Carrying 2013 “The King in the Car Park”: New Light on the Out Genetic Research with Aboriginal Families and Death and Burial of Richard III in the Grey Friars Communities. Community Genetics 9(3): 153–160. Church, Leicester, in 1485. Antiquity 87(336): 519– 538. Bardill, Jessica 2014 Native American DNA: Ethical, Legal, and Social Callaway, Ewen Implications of an Evolving Concept. Annual Review of 2015 Ancient American Genome Rekindles Legal Row. Anthropology 43(1): 155–166. Nature 522(7557): 404–405

— n.d. DNA and Tribal Citizenship. Council for Respon- —2014 Ancient Genome Stirs Ethics Debate. Nature sible Genetics. http://bit.ly/1tlcMMY 506(7487): 142–143.

— n.d. b. Tribal Enrollment and Genetic Testing. Callaway, Ewen American Indian and Alaska Native Genetics Resource 2011 Aboriginal Genome Analysis Comes to Grips Center. http://bit.ly/1ZC5GNP with Ethics. Nature News 477(7366): 522–523.

Bardill, Jessica, and Nanibaa’ A. Garrison CBC News 2015 Genetic Ancestry Testing. In International Ency- 2013 “Qalipu Mi’kmaq membership process being clopedia of Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2nd edi- questioned” (Nov. 14). http://bit.ly/1WH1deN tion, pp. 898-904. Chatters, James C., Douglas J. Kennett, Yemane As- Bertheir-Foglar, Susanne, Sheila Collingwood-Whittick merom, Brian M. Kemp, Victor Polyak, Alberto Nava and Sandrine Tolazzi Blank, Patricia A. Beddows, Eduard Reinhardt, Joaquin 2012 Biomapping Indigenous Peoples: Towards an Arroyo-Cabrales, Deborah A. Bolnick, Ripan S. Malhi, Understanding of the Issues. Editions Rodopi. Brendan J. Culleton, Pilar Luna Erreguerena, Domi- nique Rissolo, Shanti Morell-Hart, and Thomas W. Bolnick, Deborah A., Duana Fullwiley, Troy Duster, Stafford Richard S. Cooper, Joan H. Fujimura, Jonathan Kahn, 2014 Late Pleistocene Human Skeleton and mtDNA Jay S. Kaufman, Jonathan Marks, Ann Morning, Alon- Link Paleoamericans and Modern Native Americans. dra Nelson, Pilar Ossorio, Jenny Reardon, Susan M. Science 344(6185): 750–754. Reverby, and Kimberly TallBear 2007 The Science and Business of Genetic Ancestry Chennells, Roger Testing. Science 318(5849): 399–400. 2014 Equitable Access to Human Biological Resources in Developing Countries: Benefit Sharing Without Boswell, Randy Undue Inducement. Ph.D. Dissertation, School of 2013 Groundbreaking Genetic Study Links Living First Health, University of Central Lancashire, Lancashire, Nation Woman to 5,500-year-old Ancestor. National UK. http://bit.ly/1rfkYMC Post 8 July. http://bit.ly/1TKhv0B

63 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings — 2009 Vulnerability and Indigenous Communities: Are Human Genome Diversity Project. Journal of Medical the San of South Africa a Vulnerable People? Cam- Ethics 25(2): 204–208. bridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 18(02): 147–154. Doyle, Shane M. Cunningham, Hillary 2014 From Landlords to Tenants: Montana Plains 1998 Colonial Encounters in Postcolonial Contexts Pat- Indians and Genetic Research. Presented at “A Spec- enting Indigenous DNA and the Human Genome Diver- trum of Perspectives: Native Peoples and Genetic sity Project. Critique of Anthropology 18(2): 205–233. Research,” National Museum of the American Indian, Washington, D.C. http://bit.ly/1RYDSgz Cui, Yinqui, John Lindo, Cris Hughes, Jesse W. Johnson, Alvaro G. Hernandez, Brian M. Kemp, Jian Ma, Ryan Dutfield, Graham Cunningham, Barbara Petzalt, Joycellyn Mitchell, Da- 2012 The Genetic Code is 3.6 Billion Years Old: It’s vid Archer, Jerome S. Cybulski, and Ripan S. Malhi Time for a Rewrite. In New Frontiers in the Philosophy 2013 Ancient DNA Analysis of Mid-Holocene Individu- of Intellectual Property, edited by Annabelle Lever, pp. als from the Northwest Coast of North America Re- 172-202. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. veals Different Evolutionary Paths for Mitogenomes. PLoS ONE 8(7): e66948. http://bit.ly/1U47Qrl Edgar, Heather J. H., Edward A. Jolie, Joseph F. Powell, and Joe E. Watkins Cybulski, Jerome S., and M. Anne Katzenberg 2007 Contextual Issues in Paleoindian Repatriation 2014 Bioarchaeology in Canada: Origins and Con- Spirit Cave Man as a Case Study. Journal of Social temporary Issues. In Archaeological Human Remains: Archaeology 7(1): 101–122. Global Perspectives, edited by B. O’Donnabhain and M.C. Lozada, pp. 85–103. Springer, New York. Elliott, Lisa M. 2009 Property Rights of Ancient DNA: The Impact of Cybulski, Jerome S., Alan D. McMillan, Ripan S. Malhi, Cultural Importance on the Ownership of Genetic Brian M. Kemp, Harold Harry, and Scott Cousins Information. International Journal of Cultural Property 2007 The Big Bar Lake Burial: Middle Period Human 16(2): 103–129. Remains from the Canadian Plateau. Canadian Journal of Archaeology 31(1): 55–78. Ellison, George T.H., and Alan Goodman 2006 The Nature of Difference: Science, Society, and Cybulski, Jerome S., Harold Harry, Alan D. McMillan, Human Biology. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. and Scott Cousins 2004 The China Lake and Big Bar Projects: Community Gaieski, J., A. Owings, M. Vilar, M. Dulik, D. Gaieski, R. Based Research in Physical Anthropology and Mortu- Gittelman, J. Lindo, L. Gau, T. Schurr, and the Geno- ary Archaeology. Canadian Association of Physical graphic Consortium Anthropology Newsletter 1:19. 2011 Genetic Ancestry and Indigenous Heritage in a Native American Descendant Community in Bermuda. Dickenson, Donna American Journal of Physical Anthropology 146(3): 2004. Consent, Commodification and Benefit-Sharing 392–405. in Genetic Research. Developing World Bioethics 4(2): 109–124. Garrison, Nanibaa’ A. 2012 Genomic Justice for Native Americans: Impact Dodson, Michael of the Havasupai Case on Genetic Research. Science, 2000 Human Genetics: Control of Research and Sharing Technology, & Human Values 38(2): 201-223. of Benefits. Australian Aboriginal Studies (1/2): 56–64. Gillett, Grant, and Felicity McKergow Dodson, Michael, and Robert Williamson 2007 Genes, Ownership, and Indigenous Reality. So- 1999 Indigenous Peoples and the Morality of the cial Science & Medicine 65(10): 2093–2104.

64 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings Goodman, Alan and Science in Latin America, edited by Peter Wade, 2007 Toward Genetics in an Era of Anthropology. Carlos López Beltrán, Eduardo Restrepo, and Ricardo American Ethnologist 34(2): 227–229. Ventura Santos, pp. 109–134. Duke University Press, Durham. Harmon, A. 2010 Indian Tribe Wins Fight to Limit Research of Its King, Turi E., Gloria Gonzalez Fortes, Patricia Bala- DNA. The New York Times. http://nyti.ms/1sxIN3A resque, Mark G. Thomas, David Balding, Pierpaolo Maisano Delser, Rita Newmann, WaltherParson, Harry, Debra, and Frank C. Dukepoo Michael Knapp, Susan Walsh, Laura Tonasso, John 1998 Indians, Genes and Genetics: What Indians Holt, ManfredKayser, Jo Appleby, Peter Forster, David Should Know About the New Biotechnology, 1st ed. Ekserdjian, Michael Hofreiter, and Kevin Schurer Indigenous Peoples Council on Biotechnology, Nixon. 2014 Identification of the Remains of King Richard III. http://www.ipcb.org/pdf_files/primer.pdf Nature Communications 5(5631): 1-8.

Hebda, Richard J., Sheila Greer, and Alexander Mackie Koenig, Barbara A., Sandra Soo-Jin Lee, and Sarah S. 2012 Teachings From Long Ago Person Found: High- Richardson (editors) lights from the Kwäday Dän Ts’ìnchi Project. Royal BC 2008 Revisiting Race in a Genomic Age. Rutgers Uni- Museum, Victoria. http://bit.ly/1UjhIvw versity Press, New Brunswick, N.J.

Hollowell, Julie, and George P. Nicholas Lippert, Dorothy 2009 Decoding Implications of the Genographic Proj- 2005 Remembering Humanity: How to Include Human ect for Archaeology and Cultural Heritage. Interna- Values in a Scientific Endeavour. International Journal tional Journal of Cultural Property 16(02): 131–132. of Cultural Property 12:275-280.

Holm, Søren MacKeracher, Kate, and Michael Livingston 2001 The Privacy of Tutankhamen–Utilising The Ge- 2013 Vampire Projects or Long Ago Person Found? A netic Information In Stored Tissue Samples. Theoreti- History of Genetic Research in First Nations Communi- cal Medicine and Bioethics 22(5): 437–44. ties. History of Medicine 78(3): 27-32.

Kakaliouras, Ann M. Malhi, Ripan S. 2012 An Anthropology of Repatriation: Contemporary 2009 Implications of the Genographic Project for Physical Anthropological and Native American Ontolo- Molecular Anthropologists. International Journal of gies of Practice. Current Anthropology 53(5):S210-S221. Cultural Property 16(02): 193–194.

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65 DNA & Indigeneity Proceedings Muinzer, Thomas L. Pullman, Daryl, and Laura Arbour 2013 A Grave Situation: An Examination of the Legal 2009 Genetic Research and Culture: Where Does the Issues Raised by the Life and Death of Charles Byrne, Offense Lie? In The Ethics of Cultural Appropriation, the “Irish Giant.” International Journal of Cultural edited by James Young and Conrad Brunk, pp. 115- Property 20:23-48. 139. John Wiley, UK.

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