An Environmental History of the Middle Rio Grande Basin

CHAPTER 7

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND CONSIDERATIONS

SUMMARY Environmental History This study of the environmental history of the Middle For more than 450 years the ecosystems of the Middle Rio Grande Basin, which began in June 1994, is part of a Rio Grande Basin have evolved dynamically with the in- 5-year, multidisciplinary study under the auspices of the terrelated vagaries of climate, land forms, soils, fauna, USFS Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Sta- flora, and most importantly, human activities. Various tion, Albuquerque. The goal of the parent study is land use practices have caused an array of environmental problems. Activities such as grazing, irrigation farming, [t]o develop, synthesize, and apply new knowl- logging, and constructing flood control features, combined edge to aid in understanding processes, interac- with climatic fluctuations, have produced changes in tions, and sociocultural uses of upland and ri- stream flow-morphology, groundwater levels, topsoils, parian ecological systems for sustaining diverse, biotic communities, and individual species. Indigenous productive, and healthy plant, animal, and hu- human populations have, in turn, been impacted by modi- man populations and associated natural re- fications in these resources. These processes, impacts, and sources in the Rio Grande Basin (Finch and changes were discussed in Chapters 3–5. A summary of Tainter 1995: 1). this eco-cultural history is presented here. Droughts, floods, severe cold, and deep snow influ- This larger, ongoing study is based on the primary the- enced or directly impacted many activities, notably travel, sis that all ecosystems are anthropogenic to some extent agriculture, livestock raising, warfare, hunting, and gath- and cannot be understood without examining the role of ering during the historic period (A.D. 1540-present). human groups as components of and agents of impact on Occurring locally or regionally, droughts damaged or de- the environment. Environmental history not only em- stroyed crops and rangeland grasses, decimated wildlife braces this view but also the belief that interrelated “natu- populations, contributed to soil erosion, reduced stream ral” and human-induced impacts and changes in ecosys- flows, depleted water supplies, and contributed to the tem components can result in modified or abandoned occurrence of infectious diseases such as smallpox. These strategies of resource exploitation and even a shift in impacts sometimes resulted in widespread suffering, and “world view.” even loss of human life and the shifting of human popu- Within the parent study, four research areas or prob- lations. Historical documentation from the mid 17th cen- lems were defined, one being the need for an in-depth tury to the late 19th century substantiates more recent study of the environmental history of the Middle Rio detailed weather records, which indicate the occurrence Grande Basin, so as to better understand the interrelation- of a moderate to major drought in the region every 20 to ships of human populations and their environment. The 22 years. These periodic droughts, increasing use of sur- following spatial and temporal interrelationships were face and ground waters, and intensive grazing have gen- emphasized: (1) the role of various eco-cultures in adapt- erally resulted in dramatic changes in the flora. ing to and exploiting Basin ecosystems and associated The various effects of extended cold winters, or shorter resources, (2) the kind and extent of anthropogenic dis- periods of below-normal temperatures associated with turbances, (3) human responses to environmental changes, high winds and snow (blizzards) and above-normal snow- and (4) the sustainability of traditional activities of vari- falls, were also significant. Events such as these commonly ous groups in the Middle Basin. occurred during the “Little Ice Age,” which gripped New Based on extant knowledge and preliminary research, Mexico from about the mid 16th to mid 19th centuries. four spatial and temporal models of environmental change Adverse effects of this cold period included human fa- in the Middle Valley ecosystems were developed for test- talities, crop and livestock losses, and general unrest and ing (Scurlock 1995a: 20). In general, these models were suffering. The warming period and relatively frequent relatively accurate; however, a few modifications and re- droughts that followed, especially from the 1860s to the visions were made and are presented in the Conclusions 1950s, adversely impacted ranching and farming econom- section (pp. 389–390). ics as well, and human population shifts and trends.

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS–GTR–5. 1998 385 Wildfires caused by lightning were a common phenom- Early Spanish contact with the Navajo and Apache in enon during the period of greatest lightning-strike fre- the study region soon erupted into a pattern of alternat- quency, July to September. The highest occurrence of these ing periods of peace and warfare. Their acquisition of the natural fires appears to be correlated with La Nina, or dry, horse from the Spanish made these two groups, as well as years. Native Americans used fire as one method of clear- the Southern Ute and the later-arriving Comanche, more ing the bosque for cultivation. Only in this century have mobile raiders and more successful hunters. Hides from naturally caused woodland or range fires on the adjacent bison, mule deer, pronghorn, and elk were obtained from grasslands been suppressed in the Middle Rio Grande these Indians by Spaniards through trade, including the Basin. In the late prehistoric and historic periods Native trade fairs held at Taos, Picuris, Pecos, and Abiquiu dur- Americans burned grasslands and woodlands to drive ing the colonial period. Captive Indians, usually boys or game animals to a location where they might be more eas- girls, were obtained in trade to work for governors in their ily killed, as well as to stimulate new plant growth. His- workshops weaving woolen goods or tanning hides. Girls panics used fire to create meadowlike conditions in were also used for various work in Spanish homes, where upland forests and to generate healthy grass growth on they were adopted. rangeland. In the late 16th century to early 17th centuries, the Range fires usually killed small woody species, whereas Spanish brought with them new technologies and a num- grass regeneration was stimulated. Removal of dense ber of new domesticated plants and animals, which had a stands of dry grasses by overgrazing also reduced avail- decisive impact on Pueblo, Navajo, and Apache diets and able fuel for range fires and decreased competition from the landscape. Introduced livestock included sheep, goats, grasses, allowing propagation and growth of woody horses, mules, burros, oxen, cattle, hogs, and chickens. plants. Woody shrubs and small tree species such as Introduction of metal tools such as the axe, which made fourwing saltbush, juniper, and pinyon have encroached cutting green wood easier and faster, as well as iron-tipped on semi-desert grasslands adjacent to the valley as a re- plows and various metal weapons, had a significant ad- sult of fire suppression. verse impact on surface water, fauna, flora, and soils. New Human-generated impacts have generally and ever- cultigens included wheat, barley, cabbage, onion, lettuce, increasingly altered the structure, function, and dynam- radish, cantaloupe, watermelon, and several species of ics of Basin ecosystems during the historic period. Some fruit trees, as well as native Mexican Indian crops such as activities, such as grazing and logging, have reduced veg- chile, cultivated tobacco, tomato, and new varieties of corn etative cover, and combined with periodic droughts and and beans. Some introduced non-cultigens, such as fires, have resulted in high rates of surface run-off due to alferillo and horehound, became established in fields and precipitation and associated erosion. Sediments from these other disturbed areas. events have, generally, increased through time, and the Hispano settlement patterns and land-water use, espe- resulting impacts on riparian plant and animal com- cially irrigation, generally were successful adaptations to munities have been, in cases such as the Middle Rio local ecosystems. Similar to Pueblo view and usage, Grande Valley and major tributaries such as the Rio Spanish colonial water law evolved to protect the com- Puerco, severe. Other human impacts, such as the in- munal interest rather than that of the individual. troduction of exotic species of plants and animals, use The relatively sharp increase in livestock numbers, es- of various toxins, diversion of water for irrigation, and pecially sheep, during this period was due to the growth construction of water control dams, have also brought in mining markets to the south in Mexico (and later Cali- dramatic changes to riparian ecosystems. Additional im- fornia). This intensive and widespread grazing resulted pacts on riparian communities, as well as on upland eco- in loss of vegetative cover and subsequent erosion in vari- systems—grasslands, pinyon-juniper and ponderosa ous locales. Grass shortages on Spanish land grants led, woodlands and montane mixed-conifer forests—are noted in part, to encroachment of Mexican flocks and herds on in the following overview. Pueblo crop and range lands, additional erosion of hill- Adverse impacts on all of the Middle Rio Grande Basin sides, and the siltation of river and stream beds and irri- Pueblos began with arrival of the first Spanish explorers gation facilities. in 1540. Hostilities against the Pueblos by these Europe- Limited mining in the colonial period by Spaniards and ans included war, rape, seizure of goods, burning of vil- Pueblos impacted local ecosystems. Perhaps the best lages, and sometimes involuntary use of individuals as known of these locales are the turquoise and lead mines guides or servants. Spanish colonization, which began in in the Cerrillos area, Tonque drainage, and the north end 1598, centered on the main pueblos along the Rio Grande of the Sandia Mountains. Pinyon, juniper, and oak were from Taos to Isleta, as well as the village of Acoma. Mis- cut for “smelting” fuelwood, mining timbers, and struc- sions were established, farmland appropriated, and many tures. Some local water pollution was generated by these Pueblo Indians were pressed into service for Spanish gov- mining activities as well. Around gold, silver, and copper ernment officials, encomenderos, and missionaries. mines in the Ortiz, Sandia, and Jemez mountains, the

386 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS–GTR–5. 1998 land was denuded of trees by wood cutters, who used above. Overgrazing occurred along streams, at wetland them to make support timbers and charcoal for the mines. sites, and at windmill tanks. Anglo ranchers, unlike Na- The impact of introduced European diseases such as tive and Hispano Americans, also suppressed range fires, smallpox on Native Americans has been relatively well which combined with overgrazing, caused native plant documented in New Mexico; more Indians died of epi- species such as broomweed, cholla, prickly pear cactus, demics in the colonial period than of any other single sagebrush, and less desirable grasses to spread and in- cause. These serious maladies contributed significantly crease on pristine grasslands. The exotic Russian thistle to unrest in the province, some of which resulted in sev- and several introduced grasses also proliferated. Conse- eral 1600s Pueblo revolts and increased raiding by no- quently, the carrying capacity of New Mexico’s rangelands madic Indian groups. These raids were interrelated with was reduced significantly during this period. severe, extended drought conditions in the 1640s, 1660s, Military forts, mining camps, and railroad construction and 1770s to early 1780s and produced the most cata- crews made heavy use of natural resources such as trees strophic periods of conflict and war in the colonial period. for building and fuel supplies, native grasses for hay, and During the Mexican period (1821–46), some of the ef- local game for food and sport. Major stream pollution oc- fects of settlement and land use on the natural environ- curred at many mining sites, killing associated fauna and ment were recorded by government and ecclesiastical of- flora and poisoning water supplies. Many of these min- ficials. Overgrazing around old settlements and nearby ing sites were abandoned, leaving open pits and shafts valley and upland rangelands, begun in the colonial pe- and toxic spoil deposits. Air quality was also negatively riod, intensified as flocks of sheep and other livestock in- impacted by the railroad and mine smelters, and these creased. Some of the choice grazing areas in the region technologies were the first serious sources of noise pollu- were cienegas and other wetlands, which were heavily tion in the territorial period. impacted by livestock during this period. Livestock trails Early sawmills in or near such settlements as Santa Fe, turned into linear arroyos, and silt-laden runoff increased. Taos, and Albuquerque resulted in the first extensive clear- The arrival of relatively large numbers of Anglo- cutting of forests. As a result, soil erosion was accelerated American military personnel, ranchers, and settlers, be- at these locales, and habitat loss contributed to the reduc- ginning in 1846, had the most significant impact on New tion of game populations. The severity of floods increased, Mexico’s environment. Although these groups did not with associated impacts on settlements, agriculture, and introduce a large number of new domesticated plants and ranching. animals, their view of resources as commodities and Railroads were influenced by and in turn affected implementation of more intensive land use patterns, environmental components in several adverse ways. Topog- coupled with new tools and weapons, increasingly con- raphy, in particular the requirement for low grades, and the tributed to the ongoing erosion of hillsides and siltation need for water for steam engines every 10 miles played a of river beds, the extermination or reduction of several significant role in the choice of route. Rail routes gener- animal species, and the decimation and fragmentation of ally followed stream valleys, causing damage to riparian plant communities. communities and polluting streams. Train engines were of- Intensified irrigation farming—Anglo, Hispano, and ten the cause of range or forest fires (ignited by ashes and Pueblo—impacted stream hydrology and increased salin- sparks) and other environmental change. Railroad construc- ization and water-logging of soils in the Middle Rio tion also impacted forests (mainly for ties and locomotive Grande Basin in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. fuel) and streams (siltation from exposed soils). Increased sediment loads in the river and its tributaries Loss of Spanish grant land in the Upper and Middle caused the streambed of the Rio Grande to aggrade, en- basins in the late 19th and early 20th centuries occurred hancing the effects of overbank flooding and bringing the due to imposition of a legal system based on precise mea- water table near or to the surface of the floodplain. This surement of boundaries, and due to language differences, resulted in the loss of thousands of acres of agricultural unscrupulous lawyers, coercion, and fraud. Some portions land by the early statehood period and was a factor lead- of grants were included in creation of the forest reserves ing to the creation of the Middle Rio Grande Conservancy beginning in the late 1800s. There were protests by His- District in 1926. The drainage systems, dams and reser- panics against “land grabs,” as well as loss of water rights. voirs that followed produced a new set of environmental The Gorras Blancas were formed in the late 19th century problems, such as a rapid drop in shallow ground wa- in San Miguel County to protest and take action against ters, desertification of portions of floodplains, irregular rico Hispanos and Anglos who were fencing large sec- stream flows, and diminution of native bosques, all of tions of the traditional common lands. Members of the which have only recently begun to be addressed. “white caps” cut fences and telegraph wires and burned The rapid growth of the range cattle industry in New houses, barns, railroad bridges, and sawmills. These ac- Mexico after the Civil War led to increased grazing of tions temporarily brought a halt to development on these grasslands and contributed to the flooding specified contested lands.

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS–GTR–5. 1998 387 Nonviolent and armed protests were made by Hispano Responding to the virtually unregulated, widespread, farmers and ranchers against projects undertaken by the and careless resource exploitation of the late 19th and early Middle Rio Grande Conservancy District in the late 1920s 20th centuries, private citizens and government officials and 1930s. They were afraid that district programs would began to speak out, address, and plan for conservation irreparably damage or destroy their traditional irrigation policy and legislation at the national and local levels. Their systems and associated ditch organizations. In the late concern was partly based on the scientific work of soldier 1930s some 8,000 Hispanics lost title to their farm and collectors, naturalists, geologists, paleontologists, bota- ranch lands because they could not pay taxes and assess- nists, and zoologists. These activists were also influenced ments imposed by the district. In all, 2 million acres of by early map makers and photographers, whose work re- private land and 1.7 million acres of communal land were flected the rich variety of the New Mexico landscape, as- lost. sociated resources, and indigenous peoples. Wage labor for Hispanics virtually disappeared during The earliest conservation agencies and programs were the depression years of the 1930s. Owing to degraded en- created in Washington, D.C., for example, the Department vironmental conditions, which had declined over the pre- of the Interior in 1849 and the Bureau of Forestry within vious 100 years, the land could no longer support most the Department of Agriculture in 1862. Laws to protect residents in rural areas. traditional use of water for irrigation and reserve springs Animal populations were subjected to additional pres- and salt lakes were passed by the New Mexico Territorial sures as commercial hunters harvested meat animals to Assembly in 1851. Laws to protect wildlife followed later feed railroad and road construction crews, miners, and at in the century. times, military personnel. During the late 19th and early From 1878 through 1885 federal laws were passed cre- 20th centuries, commercial hunters, along with subsistence ating the Public Lands Commission, U.S. Geological and “sport” hunters, sharply reduced or exterminated Survey, and Bureau of Biological Survey in the Agricul- populations of native game animals such as pronghorn, ture Department. The USGS began gathering data on sur- elk, bighorn sheep, and Rio Grande turkey. This overhar- face flow of springs and potential dam sites. vesting was due to the lack of regulatory game laws, more In 1891 Congress empowered the President to create efficient firearms and ammunition, an increasing number forest reserves on public lands of the states and territo- of hunters, and a philosophy that there would always be ries. Within a month some 15 reserves totalling 13 million wild animals to hunt. In response, the New Mexico Game acres were set aside under the administration of the and Fish Department was created by the Territorial As- Department of the Interior. The first national forest in New sembly in 1904; State and federal regulatory laws were Mexico, the Pecos Reserve, was established the following passed subsequently. From this time through the 1930s year. Later, these forests were transferred to the adminis- this agency, the U.S. Forest Service, the U.S. Biological Sur- tration of the Department of Agriculture. vey (later the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service), farmers, Management of water, grazing on public lands, and log- ranchers, and the general hunter population also killed ging were major conservation issues in the early 20th cen- large numbers of predators, notably the grizzly bear, gray tury. Federal legislation, policy, and programs were wolf, Mexican wolf, coyote, and mountain lion. By the shaped in part by President Theodore Roosevelt. He cre- 1930s the grizzly bear and the gray wolf were eradicated ated three national forests in the study region from 1906 in the region; a few Mexican wolves survived in extreme to 1908. Also in 1906 the Antiquities Act was passed by southwestern New Mexico until the 1960s. Mountain lion Congress, which in part gave presidents the power to es- populations were decimated. tablish significant historic landmarks. Gran Quivira Na- At least 50% of the fish species were exterminated in tional Monument was the first such area designated in the Middle Rio Grande drainage between the 1870s and the Middle Basin. recent years. Competition with introduced exotic species, An Office of Grazing Studies was formed within the loss of habitat, and water pollution were the primary U.S. Forest Service in 1910. Grazing fees, livestock reduc- causes of this eradication. tion, and fire suppression, along with ongoing predatory A number of exotic plant and animal species were in- control, were important strategies. Over the next 2 decades, troduced and naturalized during the historic period, and programs to protect streams and wildlife were initiated some became ecological-economical problems by the early by this agency. Aldo Leopold was a major contributor to 1900s. These species were either inadvertently or pur- these new efforts. His later writings shaped wildlife man- posely introduced. Some of the introduced animals in- agement policy and helped inspire the environmental cluded the Norway rat, house mouse, burros, horses, and movement of the 1960s–70s. several species of amphibians and fish. The most aggres- Construction of the first major impoundment on the Rio sive introduced plants that have caused severe ecological Grande in the study region, Elephant Butte Reservoir, was and economic impacts are tamarisk, Russian olive, Russian completed in 1916. Planning for new irrigation facilities, thistle (tumbleweed), and Siberian elm. water control, and water reclamation was led by the newly

388 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS–GTR–5. 1998 formed U.S. Corps of Engineers, Bureau of Reclamation, tion such as the Wilderness Act (1964), the Land Classifica- and Middle Rio Grande Conservancy District. Subsequently, tion and Multiple Use Act (1964), the National Historic Pres- more major flood control and irrigation dams, drainage ca- ervation Act (1966), and the Endangered Species Act (1973). nals, flood control levees, and other structures were con- Other significant laws, such as the National Environmental structed in the Middle Valley and major tributaries. Policy Act and the National Wild and Scenic River Act, were The dry and economically depressed years of the 1930s passed also. In late 1970, after decades of discussions, pro- resulted in the creation of several federal agencies to man- testing, and lobbying, Taos Pueblo finally got their sacred age and conserve resources, such as the Soil Conservation Blue Lake in the Taos Mountains of the Carson National Service, the Grazing Service, and the National Resources Forest returned. More federal and state laws for better man- Board. Programs such as the New Deal land program and agement of wildlife and timber and for controlling water the CCC were implemented to carry out conservation pollution, flooding, and grazing were enacted in the 1970s. work such as revegetating areas, building check-dams, Public concern for the Middle Rio Grande and its bosque and constructing outdoor recreational facilities. grew from the 1970s to the present. Establishment of the Management and restoration of some game animal Rio Grande Nature Center in Albuquerque, the Corrales populations by the New Mexico Department of Game and Bosque Preserve, the Rio Grande Valley State Park, and Fish were carried out in the 1930s and 40s. Some of this the Sevilleta National Wildlife Refuge in the 1970s–80s work was federally funded through the U.S. Fish and reflected public and governmental concern for the biota Wildlife Service, which also managed several new national of the valley. These and other public conservation areas wildlife refuges, such as the Bosque del Apache estab- along the valley also were instrumental in raising public lished in 1939. awareness in support of saving portions of the bosque and During the 1940s–50s the new Bureau of Land Man- associated biota and maintaining somewhat “healthy,” agement and the Forest Service focused on managing live- diverse ecosystems. stock grazing, fencing public lands, and removing wild horses and burros from rangelands. The Forest Service CONCLUSIONS also carried out grass reseeding and reforestation on the national forests, as well as projects to control insects and Research Methodology fungal diseases. Spraying was widely used to accomplish this task, which led to protests by environmentalists, es- The bioregional or biotic strategy, including humans, is pecially after publication of biologist Rachel Carson’s book the best methodology for determining past landscape con- Silent Spring in 1962. Also controversial was the use of Com- ditions and the events and processes that evolved to bring pound 1080 to control rodents and predators on public and us to the present. Bioregionalism reduces the significance private lands. This poison, as well as DDT, was later banned. of political boundaries in studying the environmental his- Water management in the Middle Basin continued to tory of a region or smaller definable unit. Establishment be a major focus in the 1950s with construction of levees, of state and county boundaries, and those of national and jetties, and other water control works, including Jemez state public land units, did of course affect the eco-cultural Dam. Channelization of the Rio Grande was also carried components in the study region. out. Ironically, the period 1951–56 was the severest The term eco-culture has been used in this report to re- drought of the century in the state. With completion of flect the biological-cultural behavior and activities of all Abiquiu Dam on the Rio Chama in 1963, Galisteo Dam human groups. This term clearly suggests that humans, on Galisteo Creek, and Heron Dam on Willow Creek near as part of the environment, play a major role in environ- the Chama River in 1971, flooding of the Middle Valley mental change. In turn, these changes have sometimes was virtually an event of the past. resulted in modification of human attitudes and strate- The environmental movement of the 1960s, spurred by gies for environmental exploitation, or even abandonment Carson’s and Leopold’s books, The Quiet Crisis by Secretary of such views and strategies. For example, the slaughter of the Interior Stuart Udall, and the leadership of President of elk, bighorn sheep, and wild turkey in the Middle Basin Kennedy, was a strong influence on Congress and federal and of bison along the region’s eastern margins adversely and state resource management agencies. Memberships impacted Native Americans, as these species were major of environmental organizations such as the the Sierra sources of food and hides. These animals also were im- Club, the National Audubon Society, the Wilderness So- portant to these groups as deities and religious symbols, ciety, and the National Wildlife Federation increased dra- part of their world view and integral parts of some cer- matically during the 1960s and 1970s. Also, sharply in- emonies. Pueblo, Hispano, and Anglo commercial and creased visitation to parks, monuments, and national for- subsistence hunters had to hunt other species such as deer ests brought a higher level of awareness about environ- and pronghorn, decimating populations of these species mental issues. The work of these and other organizations, as well. Many professional hunters eventually had to find as well as support from the general public, led to legisla- another means of making a living.

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS–GTR–5. 1998 389 In the early stages of this investigation, four temporal • Flow widening and becoming more shallow. models reflecting impact and change for the Middle Rio • Braided, sinuous, increasing aggradation. Grande Valley were developed (Scurlock 1995: 20–21). • Overbank flooding and avulsion more frequent and These were subsequently “tested” as more data were col- severe. lected and analyzed. Model 1 (16th century) presented • Increased frequency of channel shifting resulting the river as a dynamic, slightly aggrading stream with from intense floods. considerably greater volume of water, normally perennial, • River banks and islands less stable. than that of the last 150 years. Various types of wetlands • Increasing sediment load due to various land-use existed on the floodplain. Wildlife was more diverse and practices. abundant during this time than at any other time in the River-floodplain biological and eco-cultural components: historic period. This model, with some revision, follows. •More fragmented and reduced stands of cottonwood- willow communities due to intense floods. Model I: Middle Rio Grande Valley in the 16th Century • Increased alkalinity and waterlogging of soils. Historic river hydrology-morphology: • Increased numbers of grass meadows, cienegas, and • Perennial flows; relatively deeper, larger volume of charcos. water. • Less stable and decreasing populations of faunal •Transport of relatively low sediment load. communities. • Braided, slightly sinuous, aggrading, shifting sand • Increase to about 100,000 acres under cultivation by substrate. Pueblos and Hispanos. • Overbank flooding with two peaks—April to early June (snowpack melt, highest water flow); August With the arrival of relatively large numbers of Anglo to September (intense precipitation on watershed). Americans and their technology beginning in 1846, and a • Movement across floodplain (avulsion) and shifting continued growth of the Hispanic population, new im- river channel. pacts-processes began in addition to those of the preced- • Island and sand bar formation-destruction. ing 150 years. Rangelands long grazed by goats and sheep River-floodplain biological and eco-cultural components: were subjected to intensive grazing by cattle herds, espe- • Grass meadows, cienegas, charcos (ponds or small cially from Texas. Local second-growth or extensive vir- lakes). gin forests were intensively logged. Droughts followed •Varied, changing age structures of cottonwood- by above-normal precipitation years further reduced veg- willow stands. etative cover and resulted in rapid runoff and erosion. •Wildlife diverse and relatively abundant. The Rio Grande and tributaries received ever-increasing • Some life forms present—wolf, river otter, mink, amounts of sediment. Stream banks eroded, and the river whooping crane, Rio Grande turkey, shovelnose aggraded even more rapidly, creating more waterlogged sturgeon, and 11 other fish species (now extinct). soils and wetlands. Floods were more intense and • Limited Pueblo diversion of river for irrigation. destructive. Riparian vegetation and wildlife and fish were • About 25,000 acres of floodplain under Pueblo severely impacted by these processes, as well as unregu- cultivation. lated hunting and fishing. Several animal species were extirpated, and some exotic plants became naturalized and Model II, A.D. 1700 to 1850, manifests the increased im- spread. This latter phenomenon was not included in the pacts on the Middle Valley from a growing population, proposed Model III (see below). District projects drained which surpassed the highest numbers of the previous cen- wetlands, built levees, and renovated irrigation systems, tury. Acreage in cultivation increased about three times all resulting in changes in Rio Grande ecosystems. that of 1600. Aggradation, flooding, and related processes increased markedly. Riparian vegetation and associated Model III: Middle Rio Grande Valley in the Late 19th to Early wildlife were impacted by increased farming, grazing, and 20th Century hunting. Some soils were becoming waterlogged and more Historic river hydrology-morphology: alkaline, and new wetlands were created. This latter pro- • Continued decrease in flows, increase in sediment cess probably caused populations of aquatic nongame spe- load, and aggradation of river. cies to increase. Again, research data generally supported • Flood frequency and intensity increased. Model II, which, with minor revisions, follows. • Some scouring and incising of river channel due to floods. Model II: Middle Rio Grande Valley in the 18th to Mid 19th • Increased soil alkalinity and waterlogging. Century • Rising water table, then lowering water table. Historic river hydrology-morphology: River-floodplain biological and eco-cultural components: • Somewhat decreased stream flows. •Most extensive and widespread number of wetlands

390 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS–GTR–5. 1998 and associated plant communities, then severe re- documents, oral history, and living history (centuries-old duction to lowest in historic period. extant traditional eco-cultures and associated views and • Cultivated acreage increased to 100,000 to 125,000 activities) provide an eco-cultural “data base” found no- acres by Euro Americans and Pueblos, then de- where else in the country. Only some of these diverse and creased to 35,000 acres due to environmental extensive bodies of information have been utilized in this changes. limited study. • Increased alkalinity and waterlogging of valley soils. I have presented research data from these various • Less stability and severe decrease in wildlife popu- sources on the interrelationships of various human groups lations. with other components of the Middle Rio Grande Basin • Several wildlife species extirpated. environment over the last 450 or so years. Climatic vari- ability, diverse land forms, water availability, soil fertil- For the fourth model, about 1930 to the present, some ity, and floral and faunal diversity have been the major of these adverse processes and impacts were reversed. elements of regional ecosystems that have delineated the Revegetation, reduction of numbers of livestock grazing, range of possible strategies used by various eco-cultures construction of terraces and other erosion control features, in adapting to, exploiting, and shaping the regional macro and reduced soil erosion and stream sedimentary loads and micro environments. at some locations took place. Almost all wetlands were Climate was the one environmental element that most drained throughout the entire valley. Some decimated or impacted eco-cultures, plants, and animals. Recently, or extirpated game species were reintroduced. Most game since the late 1800s, a warming trend has been occurring species increased, but with the possible exception of mule and appears to be continuing. The decade of the 1980s in deer, these mammals and birds did not reach mid 19th New Mexico was the warmest decade ever scientifically century population levels. A few wildlife species, includ- recorded. Mild winters have prevailed over the past few ing fish, were extirpated locally. Construction of dams years, with a relatively large number of record high tem- brought reduction of floods. Agricultural lands were re- peratures for the maximum and minimum highs. Whether claimed. Model IV, with revisions based on new research this warming is part of a “natural” cycle or is due to hu- data, is presented below. man activities, or perhaps to both, is not known. Although pre-Spanish plant communities were dynami- Model IV: Middle Rio Grande Valley in the Mid to Late 20th cally shaped and maintained by these periodic climatic Century changes, as well as other environmental forces, the intro- Historic river hydrology-morphology: duction of livestock and exotic plants added another factor • Decrease in sediment load and aggradation of river. that brought severe changes, not only to the vegetative • Flood frequency and intensity decreased dramati- composition and density but also to soils and surface water cally due to construction of major dams. quality and quantity. In some situations the composition • Continuing lowering of water table in some areas. of vegetation in riparian zones may be irreparably • Channel straightened and bermed, channel shifts vir- changed. No one knows what the impacts of the above tually halted, and banks stabilized. factors will be on vegetation and associated fauna, includ- River-floodplain biological and eco-cultural components: ing humans. • Cultivated acreage increased to 58,000 acres. Each of the three major identifiable eco-cultures in the • Floodways cleared and channel modified. region—Native American, Hispano, and Anglo Ameri- • Construction of several ponds for wetland habitat. can—has employed a basically different set of adaptations • Some wildlife populations increased. resulting from its different view of the land and water. •A few exotic plant and fish species introduced. The view of Native Americans was generally shaped by •A few wildlife species, including fish, extirpated. intimate relationships with the land over thousands of •Rare, endangered, threatened species determined years and was (and is) to some extent manifested in their and managed accordingly. religion, economy, and social organization. The later-arriving Spaniards brought a European belief The Upper and Middle basins of central and northern that they were not only separate from the physical- New Mexico compose a region unique to the United States biological environment but also superior to the indigenous in terms of diverse ecosystems and long-time, indigenous Indians of New Mexico. Some assimilation took place, human populations. Records of these peoples and their primarily as a result of intermarriage between the two interactions with each other, as well as with physical and groups. Hispanics did adopt some Native American tech- biological components of the ecosystems, are equally as niques of resource use such as floodwater farming and diverse. Tree-ring chronologies provide data on climate, fall buffalo hunting. Establishment of commons was simi- fire history, and human activity. Other archeological evi- lar to Pueblo land use. The introduction of livestock, new dence from the late prehistoric-historic periods, archival cultigens, metal tools, and infectious diseases initiated

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS–GTR–5. 1998 391 major changes in indigenous populations, water, soils, ers. Several western states practiced extirpation of preda- fauna, and flora. tors, which prey on game species. Ongoing federal and Some plants important to Native Americans for food, state animal control programs for predators and “pest” medicinal, or religious use were decimated or eradicated animals have, of course, been financed with public mon- locally due to various non-Indian land and water use ac- ies, which has become a public issue. Conflicts have also tivities. Traditional collecting areas where these species arisen as proposals have been made for reintroducing were found have at times been lost to usurpation of that wolves or managing certain grazing lands to ensure sur- land by another group or transfer of that land to the pub- vival of rare or endangered species. lic domain. The effects of dams, floodways, bridges, channelization, With establishment of national forests, some traditional bank stabilization, and other management activities will areas used for religious ceremonies, plant gathering, and continue to have adverse impacts on the Middle Rio hunting (of some species) were no longer available to prac- Grande. These are not well understood, but some nega- tice these activities, or they were subject to visitation, and in tive effects are known. For example, the Rio Grande has some cases vandalism, of religious shrines and objects. been changed through these activities from a dynamic Some traditional uses in these forests by Hispanos were also natural-flowing river to a greatly modified water storage modified or, as with Native Americans, even precluded and conveyance system. The periodic spring and sum- by Forest Service policy and regulation in the early 1900s. mer flooding no longer occurs because of the construc- These same problems also appeared with establishment of tion of dams and levees, adversely affecting faunal and national monuments and state parks in the Middle Basin. floral communities that have evolved to depend on ad- In recent years federal and state agencies have worked equate floodplain moisture and nutrients at critical times. with traditional groups to allow access to historic use ar- Dams have also altered the dynamic flow of the river and, eas, while excluding some non-native use of these locales. with diversions for irrigation, have caused flow to cease The American Indian Religious Freedom Act, passed in in summer from Bernalillo south. Extensive areas of the 1978, recognizes the rights of Indians to practice their re- floodplain outside the levees have been converted to ag- ligion at traditional-use sites. ricultural lands or to urban development. Many of these Conflicts have arisen recently between environmental- areas have begun the process of desertification, with in- ists and Hispanos over wood cutting on areas of national vasion of drought resistant plants, both native and exotic forests that are known or potential habitat for rare or en- (Bullard and Wells 1992: 35–36). dangered animal species, such as the Mexican spotted owl. Continued fragmentation of the riparian zone by the Another example of reduction or loss of a resource, above development would produce more degradation which impacted New Mexicans and their environment, is among plant and animal communities (Crawford et al. surface and ground water. Upstream diversions have 1993: xiii). Lack of flooding, drainage canals, and wells resulted in inadequate or no irrigation water for down- have lowered the ground water, impacting native tree stream users, and too many or too deep wells in a locale species and contributing to desertification of the historic have drawn groundwater levels below more shallow, floodplain outside the levees. Inside and outside the flood- older, traditional wells. This latter situation is a con- way, aggressive, deep-rooted, and alkaline-tolerant exotic tinuing process today in many areas. In some cases, the trees continue to spread, replacing native cottonwood and relationship between recharge and use or draw down willow species. and use of ground water is not understood. Continu- Agriculture uses about 90 percent of all available river ing to develop new wells given these unknowns in the water in the Middle Rio Grande Valley (Crawford et al. water-short Middle Rio Grande Basin is obviously risky. 1993: ix). Per capita use by Albuquerque residents is con- During the dry and economically depressed years of siderably higher than that of Phoenix and Tucson resi- 1930–40, many traditional and rural residents depended dents. in part on game animals and fish for sustenance. This Runoff from rain storms, discharges from municipal and placed even more pressure on already low populations of resort waste water, mine tailings, septic tanks, leaks from deer, bighorn sheep, and native trout. Fur-bearing animals fuel storage tanks, seepage from landfills, and agricultural were widely trapped or shot for their skins, which could pesticides and herbicides are obviously producing adverse be sold or traded for needed commodities. impacts on surface and shallow ground water in the Basin. Throughout this century some Anglo livestock raisers, Fauna and flora have been, and will continue to be, im- and a smaller number of Hispanos, have believed that they pacted negatively (Crawford et al. 1993: 150). have traditional rights to public grazing lands, and many The Biological Interagency Team described future con- of these individuals lobby for transferring these public ditions in Middle Rio Grande ecosystems if there is no lands to the private sector. At the same time ranchers have change in current land-water use given ongoing contin- demanded that agencies managing public lands protect ued population growth (Crawford et al. 1993: 145): (1) con- their stock from predators and competing wild grass eat- tinued conversion of agricultural and grazing lands in

392 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS–GTR–5. 1998 valleys and adjacent uplands to residential sites, (2) con- used to determine sustainability of traditional land- tinued grazing pressures except on lands converting to water activities today and, more importantly, in the residential use, (3) increased recreational use of all eco- future. systems, (4) possible decrease in unregulated firewood 4. Need a better understanding of the evolution of cutting and collecting of green or dead wood in the bosque Basin ecosystems in terms of human interactions and on private woodlands and forests, (5) continued de- related to cultural elements—world view, use of re- cline in shallow and deep groundwater quantity, sources, and economics—and how these land-water (6) decrease in surface and groundwater quality, use histories relate to conflicts between specific (7) increase in urban runoff adversely affecting water qual- groups. Data collected for use in planning for sus- ity and sediment loads in streams, (8) continued degra- tainability of resources, as related to differing group dation of the Middle Rio Grande as far south as the mouth views, will afford a more sound basis for such deci- of the Rio Puerco or even to San Marcial, (9) continued sion making. fragmentation of the Rio Grande bosque, (10) continued decrease in aquatic faunal populations due to abuse, Similarly, the goals or research needs (Scurlock 1995a: (11) increase in non-native fish populations, and (12) con- 20) of this investigation have only been partially resolved tinued spread of exotic plant species, some of which may due to time limitations. These goals are listed below hier- perhaps attain dominance. archically, from the one that needs the most work to the Human populations, the major underlying cause of one that needs the least work. these environmental problems, will continue to grow in the foreseeable future. Current adverse impacts will con- 1. Reconstruction of historic climatic regimes for spe- tinue, some will increase in their effects, and new ones cific locales in the Middle Rio Grande Basin. will undoubtedly appear. Suffice it to say, as population 2. Reconstruction of water flow data and interrelation- and associated technology grow, the expertise, resources, ship with climatic fluctuations and human use. and time necessary to deal with environmental problems 3. Reconstruction of morphological dynamics of the will probably diminish Rio Grande and major tributaries related to floods and human use and management. CONSIDERATIONS 4. Reconstruction of historic fire occurrence, spatially and temporally. Much more work on the environmental history of the 5. Reconstruction of grazing history and impacts at Middle Rio Grande Basin is needed. This report is only a specific locales. general data base to aid research and investigation of a 6. Reconstruction of farming history and impacts at wide number of topics in this and related fields, such as specific locales. climatology, landscape ecology, geomorphology, hydrol- 7. Reconstruction of human responses to environmen- ogy, range management, zoology, botany, archeology, and tal changes, especially in plant and animal commu- history. The four major research questions posed previ- nities and particular species populations important ously (Scurlock 1995a: 19–20) have only been partially “an- to a given group. swered” here: 8. Construction of spatial-temporal models of ecosys- tems, including humans as a major factor in the dy- 1. Need a better understanding of the long-term re- namics and change of ecosystems, that is, the Rio sponses of ecosystem components—soils, nutrients, Grande and major tributary watersheds. water, flora, and mycorrhizae—to past and present 9. Delineation of eco-cultural areas based on spatial- perturbations caused by climate change, fire, herbi- temporal distributions of specific groups related to vore grazing, irrigation and dry farming, logging, identifiable ecosystems. fuelwood harvesting, and other human activities. 10. Reconstruction of adaptations of various groups to Secondarily, these historical data will shed light on the same subregional or area environments. how such responses influence ecosystem dynamics, 11. Reconstruction of human-induced changes in eco- stability, and productivity of upland communities. system components, especially plants and animals. 2. Need a better understanding of upland biotic com- 12. Comparisons between the exploitation strategies of munities, including the historic, spatial, and tempo- different eco-cultures, for example, Hispano and ral interrelationships with fluvial ecosystems. Anglo livestock raisers utilizing the same resource 3. Need a better understanding of how humans area, as well as the impacts of utilization. adapted to changing environmental conditions, both 13. Examination of the similarities and differences in “natural” and human induced, and used to deter- Pueblo agricultural techniques and production mine when and how these perturbations occurred along the Rio Grande compared with production and what the consequences were. These data will be on major tributaries.

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS–GTR–5. 1998 393 Introduction rent ownership, use, existing restrictions, feasibility of re- storing specific components, and political will. Further, Historical use and management of land and water by restoration must be based on comprehensive, historical regional eco-cultures has varied, and each eco-culture reconstruction of a particular ecosystem, and for some eco- probably considers its way of life as “wise use” of re- systems such information is not available. sources. Individual leaders, residents, and governmental Who decides what is to be restored also deserves con- bodies from each group, and resource management agen- tinued discussions among political, management, land cies representing all citizens in New Mexico, must work and water user, and urban and residential entities. Tradi- together to determine what traditional land-use practices tional users of the land should be given full consideration are ecologically and culturally sustainable, either intact in a decision to restore a given area, as well as what will be or modified. There is commonality for some practices, restored and what impacts that restoration might have on such as irrigation agriculture, while differing views of the the human and non-human components of the ecosystem. role of fire, for example, have existed until recently. Land- One restorative activity that began in the 1980s and con- use practices must be factored into ecosystem plans for tinues today is pole-planting native trees and shrubs in the Middle and Upper Rio Grande basins to determine if degraded riparian areas. But this is more than just bio- they are sustainable and contribute to the health and in- logical restoration, as Russell (1993: 29) has written; it is tegrity of ecosystems. Covington (1994: 95) defined health not a simple one-dimensional act. In her words, as the “inherent ability for self-renewal” and integrity as “coevolved biological diversity.” These reintroduced trees represent the particu- As deBuys (1993) has written, federal agencies, as a re- lar. As they leaf and root, they are meant to shade sult of the environmental legislation of the late 1960s and one particular river, to withstand the force of a 1970s, are now required to solicit greater participation of particular flood, to fall prey, perhaps, to a par- the general public in making resource management deci- ticular beaver. Pole-planting means community sions. New Mexicans now have an unprecedented oppor- as the willows encourage and are enhanced by a tunity to contribute to the process, which will ensure a complex of grasses, insects, birds, and small healthier and more productive (in the broadest sense of mammals. Pole-planting is a gesture of healing. the word) environment. As was so often said in the 1960s, It is a laying on of human hands in an effort to it is time to be part of the solution, not just part of the restore what humanity has diminished. problem. Defining these problems, to some degree, and providing data to help in finding solutions have been the The present floral composition of the Middle Rio Grande primary focus of this report. As a result of this investiga- Valley is different from the composition of vegetative com- tion, some personal ideas for management of Basin eco- munities and distribution of individual plant species dur- systems, including traditional eco-cultures, have emerged. ing any period preceding 1930. This condition is the result of discontinuance of local uses of plants (fuelwood, Ecosystem Management: construction, etc.) control of floods, fire suppression, pro- Restoration and Sustainability tection of the cottonwoods on public lands, and the intro- duction of aggressive exotic plants. Restoration of the Rio Bonnicksen (1994: 108) explored four major questions Grande bosque to some historical condition is virtually related to environmental restoration that he believes must impossible and highly improbable given the numerous be considered if this management tool is to be tried and resource agencies responsible for its management, other effective: (1) Should restoration of ecosystems even be at- land owners such as the six Middle Rio Grande Pueblos, tempted? (2) What do we want to restore? (3) What can we and a multitude of private owners. Also, removal of the restore? and (4) Who decides finally what we do restore? tamarisk and Russian olive would be too expensive and Although the first question is still being debated, some perhaps unsuccessful given their widespread occurrence people support at least partial restoration, in contrast to and regenerative powers. Controlled overbank flooding none at all based on the philosophy that we should not to maintain native riparian flora in most of the river’s intervene in the evolution of these separate ecosystems. reach is also highly unlikely because of development and Furthermore, for restoration, certain natural areas would conflicting uses. The only probable restoration would be have to be off limits to those wanting to use them for rec- attainable at dispersed, smaller, and low-lying areas of reation or other passive activities. The second question is the ecosystem where mechanical removal of exotics, much more complicated and deserves more investigation spring flooding, and pole-planting of native species could and discussion, which is the goal of the ongoing 5-year be carried out. study of the Middle Rio Grande. Beaver populations, whose numbers have to be regu- Whether ecosystems or components thereof can be re- lated, can be allowed to cut and girdle young, established stored involves a complex set of criteria, including cur- cottonwoods and willows as part of restoration. Exotic

394 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS–GTR–5. 1998 species of fish might be removed cautiously through chemi- of a sufficiently diverse and healthy environment in the cal application. Some historic species, such as shovelnose study region, until the recent past. Although many of the sturgeon, could not be successfully reintroduced due to specific details of Pueblo world view and related ritual changes in the volume of river flow, temperature, and clar- activity have, for justifiable reasons, been kept from Euro ity. Other native species can be restocked, provided that ag- Americans, some information about traditional-use areas gressive exotics can be removed effectively from particular or sites has become public. One example is the thousands reaches of the river where the reintroduction is planned. of petroglyphs and associated features such as shrines, Other management considerations for the biological located on Albuquerque’s west side, which remain im- resources of the Middle Rio Grande appear in the report portant to some area Pueblos. These archeological mani- of Crawford et al. (1993: 159–222), which has been widely festations are now included in a national monument circulated and is available in governmental resource man- established a few years ago to preserve and manage the agement offices and public libraries. Included as an eco-cultural resources for the general public, as well as appendix in the Crawford report are the 1993 recom- for private use by Pueblos for traditional activities. mendations of the Rio Grande Bosque Conservation Recently, various native groups worldwide have been Committee, formed in September 1991. This committee held drawing attention to the ongoing environmental degra- public hearings at key locations in the Basin, and inquiries, dation of their lands caused by industrialized societies. concerns, and other data collected and synthesized provided Some natives in very remote areas, such as the Kogi of the the basis for their recommendations, one of which was for northern Andes, have been able to detect changes in air, the interagency study cited above (deBuys 1993). water, fauna, and flora. Elders from this group have The continuing crisis management of individual rare, warned of the consequences of continuing some old re- endangered, or threatened species or fragments of eco- source-using activities and initiating new ones that se- systems has not, according to some, brought the desired verely impact the environment (Ereira 1992). Thomas results. Clearly, the most effective approach for manag- Banyacya, interpreter of the Hopi prophecies, expressed ing a stand of ponderosa pine or population of a single his concerns about the “destructive ways” of non-indig- species, as Covington (1994: 95), Rinne (1994: 261), and enous peoples (Wall and Arden 1990: 92–97). Dialogues others have pointed out, is that of viewing and investi- from other natives from around the world have been pub- gating the interrelationships of all components in a given lished recently (Piacentini 1993). Most of their statements ecosystem. Nevertheless, conservation management of summarize their eco-culture’s view as “the points of view some species in critical situations must continue concur- of traditional societies are absent from the international rently with studies to produce effective management plans debate on the environment” (Piacentini 1993). Some have for ecosystems in which the plants or animals occur. termed this exclusion of native peoples as environmental racism. The traditional authors also described the impact Role of Traditional Eco-cultures of western civilization on their peoples. As deBuys (1985: 308) pointed out, the problem of pre- There is no other state or region in the United States serving traditional eco-cultures in the study region is di- where so many different indigenous populations (includ- rectly linked to maintaining diverse and healthy land and ing Hispanos) have survived with traditional world views water resources in their communities and associated com- relatively intact than New Mexico. Therefore, traditional mon land. Furthermore, some authors believe that by eco-cultures in the study region should be included in involvement of these groups and evaluation of their tra- planning and decision making, as they have been a sig- ditional views and uses of ecosystems, we can perhaps nificant part of the Middle Rio Grande environment for find some answers to the complex question of sustain- many centuries. Over this time they have lived or used ability of these resources. Native American Donald A. resources in every part of the basin. The intimate, detailed Grinde and Bruce E. Johansen (1995: 19–20) state this view: environmental knowledge that they have acquired and passed along over generations provides a perspective with By learning from Native American societies, we insights into the sustainable maintenance of ecosystems. are gaining a measure of perspective on how to From this long experience of directly interrelating with change consumption patterns and cultural val- the complete spectrum of environmental components and ues in order to live in reciprocity and harmony viewing themselves as part of ecosystems, Native Ameri- on a sustaining earth. This recognition of the cans have maintained an “environmental ‘memory’ of need for changes in our environmental percep- times past” based on a philosophy and spirituality that tions must also encompass the realization that reflects “the centrality of nature in its orientation” (Grinde native peoples need once again to enforce their and Johansen 1995: 263–264). own environmental values, unfettered by regu- Historically, this traditional lifeway of the Pueblo has lations and environmental management prac- generally resulted in their conservation and maintenance tices of the industrial state. Regaining a more

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS–GTR–5. 1998 395 harmonious environmental state means that Mexicans provides common ground for discussion and known harmonious environmental ethics must development of possible solutions, not just among man- be allowed to reemerge and become prominent agers but among all interested individuals. These pro- as quickly as possible to facilitate the flow of cesses can only be realized and made effective by careful ideas that will lead to a more natural relation- review, study, and analysis of the historical data. ship in all of creation. Some commonly used terms in current discussions and debates, besides “wise use,” mean different things to dif- Specific Resource Management ferent groups of people (Box 1994: 4–5). Examples are con- Considerations servation of resources, stewards of the land, standard of living, quality of life, and improvement of the land. These Environmental history not only provides data for de- words should be reexamined, reevaluated, and redefined termining sustainability of an area or region but also of- in the context of land health and integrity for the immedi- fers a spatial-temporal baseline for use in planning and ate and distant future. The challenge to reaching a con- implementing bioremediation projects. Species diversity sensus of what these and other “value” words mean for and general population numbers in the historic period sustainability of our total environment is only part of the relative to recent numbers can also be determined to some ongoing, complex dialogue of today. degree. Based on historic climate records for the study region, The historical record shows that there is lag time in rec- the 1995-96 dry period was predicted. More work is ognizing the cause, growth, or impact of a particular en- needed for the historical data to determine if there is a vironmental problem. Nor do we generally understand cyclic pattern of occurrence that could be used in predict- all of the ramifications of managing certain resources in ing droughts. attempting to improve environmental conditions. Control Ownership of land within the Basin by government re- of predators on deer, which led to rapid increase of popu- source agencies and private groups such as the Nature lations, the introduction of exotic plant or animal species, Conservancy or the Archaeological Conservancy provides and climatic changes caused by human activities are clas- at least relatively dense “islands” of “natural” habitat. sic examples of these phenomena. To assert that we can Especially critical are riparian reaches of the Rio Grande quickly recognize or understand all of the interrelation- and its tributaries. Zoning or leasing of important tracts ships and processes in ecosystems is an erroneous belief of land could be pursued as well. Potentially, acquiring that can result in serious environmental consequences. In tracts will help ameliorate fragmentation of bosques, con- the study region we need to examine closely our environ- tribute to preservation of rare species, or protect archeo- mental history to better understand our attitudes, moti- logical remains. Some of these lands are severely degraded vational values, and consequences of organizational and and lend themselves to biological restoration. individual roles and related impacts on the complete en- William deBuys (1996) wrote that northern New Mexico vironment—water, flora, fauna (including ourselves), fuelwood cutters and small-scale loggers could be used soils, and air. effectively by the U.S. Forest Service to better manage the There are a number of highly visible environmental is- forests and woodlands found there. By thinning dog-hair sues in the study region that environmental history data timber stands, utilizing controlled burns, and protecting could be used in resolving. The major issues are water old-growth trees, the loggers could return regional for- rights, quality, and quantity; grazing on public lands; log- ests to historical conditions (i.e., open stands with scat- ging, firewood cutting, and old-growth forests; and en- tered mountain meadows), which would foster more dangered species, including reintroduction of the Mexican biodiversity and maintenance of populations of the en- wolf and restoration of spotted owl, willow flycatcher, and dangered spotted owl. In the midst of a vigorous debate silvery minnow populations. Less significant, but none- regarding “salvage” logging of burned stands of trees theless important, environmental problems need further (March 1996), a recommendation for leaving this dead tim- resolution: high per capita consumption of water, frag- ber might be made to further emulate historical condi- mentation or destruction of the Rio Grande bosque, con- tions. tinued spread of exotic plants, urban sprawl, loss of There is now consensus that human-caused fire, used traditional communities, repatriation of Native American prehistorically and historically to modify plant commu- items, loss of traditional Pueblo lands, and some resource nities, and lightning-caused fire are necessary in main- management policies. taining productive, healthy grasslands, woodlands, and The ongoing degradation of some ecosystems, and the forests. The role of wolves as predators is now consid- associated diminishment or extirpation of individual spe- ered by many to be desirable in maintaining viable eco- cies, is a widespread concern and one shared by Basin systems. And, like Native Americans, more and more residents. Concern for this human-generated process and non-Indians are viewing wolves and other large preda- its possible consequences for future generations of New tors as evokers of spiritual feelings. Finally, there is a

396 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS–GTR–5. 1998 segment of New Mexicans and other Americans who be- Finally, I hope that the data in this report, in addition to lieve that animal and plant species have a right to exist being used by resource management personnel and aca- and flourish. Management of resources is in large part an demic researchers, will be useful for agencies or groups educational process, a phenomenon that obviously must that prepare and provide interpretive services for school continue if we are to arrive at a consensus of what is in- teachers, students, and the public in general. Environmen- deed “wise use” from an ecological viewpoint. tal history provides a different view of our past and can Repeat photography from identified historic stations provide a foundation for future programs aimed at un- was used only minimally in this investigation. This tech- derstanding eco-cultures and their environment, restor- nique of documenting environmental change over a rela- ing ecosystems, setting aside critical areas, and making tively long period at a particular location generally necessary lifestyle changes as ecosystems and associated provides more accurate data, primarily plant change and resources become more scarce and threatened. I further soil erosion, than anecdotal descriptions. Unfortunately, hope that curriculum developers and teachers can adapt changes due to long-term human activities were already this information for use in biology, geography, science, in progress in the Middle Basin when the first photographs and other courses in the classroom and on field trips in were taken in the 1860s. Relatively good photo coverage the study region. The necessity for this educational pro- of the study region dates from the 1880s. Nevertheless, cess was succinctly stated by environmental historian comparing older photographs made in the Basin to con- Donald Worster (1994: 30): temporary images is worthwhile, and repeat photogra- phy from the same station will prove more important over Learn where you are. Learn about this place and time. As techniques for detecting environmental change its history. Learn not only the history of its people improve, even more data will be retrieved from compar- but the history of the land itself, its deep history. ing new with old images. The earliest aerial photographic Learn to adapt your ideas and institutions to that coverage was initiated in the mid 1930s. Changes in the land. Learn to work together if you mean to Middle Rio Grande’s hydrology, riparian vegetation, and endure. upland land use can also be detected when comparing with more recent, same area, aerial images.

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS–GTR–5. 1998 397 Bibliography

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404 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS–GTR–5. 1998 in the history of the territory. New Mexico Histori- 1957a A brief history of Bernalillo. In Hundredth anniver- cal Review 44(1): 25–49. sary of the dedication of Our Lady of Sorrows Church, 1975 Long-lots in the Rio Arriba. Annals of the Asso- Bernalillo, Bernalillo. ciation of American Geographers 65: 48–57. 1957b Archives of the Archdiocese of Santa Fe. Academy 1990 The Spanish-American homeland: Four centuries of American Franciscan History, Washington, in New Mexico’s Rio Arriba. Johns Hopkins Uni- D.C. versity Press, Baltimore. 1972 From the beginning: A survey commemorating the Carrillo, Charles M. solemn rededication of San Felipe de Neri Church, 1992 Where were the sheep: The Piedra Lumbre Phase 1706–1792, Old Town Plaza, n.p. revisited. In Current research on the late prehistory and 1975 Origins of New Mexico families. William Gannon, early history of New Mexico, ed. by Bradley J. Vierra Santa Fe. and Clara Gualtieri, pp. 323–326, New Mexico Ar- Chavez, Thomas E. chaeological Council, Albuquerque. 1992 An illustrated history of New Mexico. University Carroll, H. Bailey, and J. Villasana Haggard Press of Colorado, Niwot. (translators and editors) Chilton, Lance, Katherine Chilton, Polly E. Arango, James 1942 Three New Mexico chronicles: The exposicion of Dudley, Nancy Neary, and Patricia Stelzner Don Pedro Bautista Pino, 1812: The ojeada of Lic. 1984 New Mexico: A new guide to the colorful state. Uni- Antonio Barreiro, 1832; and the additions by Don versity of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque. Agustin de Escudero, 1849. Quivira Society Publi- Christiansen, Paige W. cations, Albuquerque. 1974 The story of mining in New Mexico. Scenic Trips Carroll, Tom to the Geologic Past No. 12, New Mexico Bureau 1991 Gran Quivira: Salinas Pueblo Missions National of Mines and Mineral Resources, Socorro. Monument. Southwest Parks and Monument Christman, Gene M. Association, Globe, Arizona. 1971 The mountain bison. The American West 8(3): 44–47. Carter, Rufus H., Jr. Church, Fermor, and Peggy Pond Church 1953 A historical study of floods prior to 1892 in the 1974 When Los Alamos was a ranch school. Los Alamos Rio Grande watershed, New Mexico. M.A. the- Historical Society, Los Alamos, New Mexico. sis, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque. Church, Peggy Pond Castetter, Edward F. 1960 The house at Otowi bridge: The story of Edith 1935 Ethnobiological studies of the Southwest. Un- Warner and Los Alamos. University of New cultivated native plants used as sources of food. Mexico Press, Albuquerque. University of New Mexico Biological Series, Bul- Clark, Ira G. letin No. 4(1), Albuquerque. 1987 Water in New Mexico: A history of its manage- Catron, Thomas Benton ment and use. University of New Mexico Press, 1897–1901 Thomas Benton Catron papers. Box 43, Albuquerque. No. 269; box 18, no. 90. On file at Special Col- Clark, J. W. lections, Zimmerman Library, University of 1978 The Upper Rio Grande. Natural Resources Jour- New Mexico, Albuquerque. nal 18(1): 69–76. Center for Environmental Research and Development Clarke, Dwight L. (editor) 1974 Citizen perception study, or, river of the mind: An 1966 The original journals of Henry Smith Turner: With exotic river, the Rio Grande, as perceived in its pas- Stephen Watts Kearny to New Mexico and Cali- sage through Albuquerque, a desert metropolis: A fornia. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman. report. Planning Department, City of Albuquerque. Clary, David A. Chapman, Richard C., and Jan Biella (editors) 1986 Timber and the Forest Service. University Press 1977 Archaeological investigations in Cochiti Reservoir, of Kansas, Lawrence. New Mexico, Vol. 1: Excavation and analysis, 1975 Clawson, Marion season. Office of Contract Archaeology, Univer- 1971 The Bureau of Land Management. Praeger Pub- sity of New Mexico, Albuquerque. lishers, New York. Chappell, Gordon Cleaveland, Agnes Morley 1969 To Santa Fe by narrow gauge: The D&RG’s “Chili 1941 No life for a lady. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. Line.” Colorado Rail Annual 7, Colorado Railroad Cleland, Robert Glass Museum, Golden. 1963 This reckless breed of men: The trappers and fur Chavez, Fray Angelico traders of the Southwest. Alfred A. Knopf, New York. 1954 Origins of New Mexico families in the Spanish colonial Clevenger, Thomas S., and David G. Kraenzel period. Historical Society of New Mexico, Santa Fe. 1974 A history of vegetable crops in New Mexico. New

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS–GTR–5. 1998 405 Mexico Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 624, Cooper, Robert W. New Mexico State University, Las Cruces. 1988 Notes from talk, August 14, recorded by Dan Clothier, Ronald R. Scurlock, Albuquerque. 1957 Distribution of the mammals of the Sandia and 1989 Interview by Dan Scurlock, notes and tape on Manzano mountains. Ph.D. dissertation, Uni- file, Albuquerque. versity of New Mexico, Albuquerque. Cooperrider, C. K., and B. A. Hendricks Cockerill, P. W. 1937 Soil erosion and stream flow on range and for- 1959 A statistical history of crop and livestock pro- est lands of the Upper Rio Grande watershed duction in New Mexico. New Mexico State Uni- in relation to land resources and human wel- versity Agricultural Station Bulletin No. 438, Las fare. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Technical Bulletin Cruces. No. 567, Washington, D.C. Cockerill, P. W., Byron Hunter, and H. B. Pingrey Cope, E. D., and H. C. Yarrow 1939 Type of farming and ranching areas in New 1875 Report upon the collection of fishes made in Mexico: Part II. New Mexico College of Agricul- portions of Nevada, Utah, California, Colorado, ture and Mechanical Arts Agricultural Experiment New Mexico, and Arizona during 1871, 1872, Station Bulletin No. 267, Las Cruces. 1873, and 1874. In Report of the Geographical and Coke, Van Deren Geological, west of the 100th meridian, by Capt. 1979 Photography in New Mexico: From the daguerreotype George M. Wheeler, 5: 637–700, Washington, D.C. to the present. University of New Mexico, Albuquerque. Cordell, Linda S. (editor) Cole, D. C. 1979 A cultural resources overview of the Middle Rio 1988 The Chiricahua Apache, 1846–1876. University Grande Valley, New Mexico. USDA Forest Ser- of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque. vice, Albuquerque and Bureau of Land Man- Complete Archeological Services Associates agement, Santa Fe. 1981 Cultural resource inventory Shell CO2 mainline. 1980 Tijeras Canyon: Analyses of the past. University Woodward-Clyde Consultants, San Francisco. of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque. Connelley, William Elsey 1984 Prehistory of the Southwest. Academic Press, 1907 Doniphan’s expedition and the conquest of New New York. Mexico and California. Bryant and Douglas Book Cordova, Gustavo et al. and Stationary Co., Kansas City. 1985 The course of Upper Rio Grande waters: A decla- Connor, Seymour V., and Jimmy M. Skaggs ration of concerns: Report of the Upper Rio Grande 1977 Broadcloth and britches: The Santa Fe trade. Texas Working Group. Southwest Hispanic Resarch In- A and M University, College Station. stitute. University of New Mexico, Albuquerque. Conron, John P. Cornelius, J.M. 1980 Socorro: A historic survey. University of New 1988 Fire effects on vegetation of a northern Mexico Press, Albuquerque. Chihuahuan desert grassland. Ph.d. disserta- Cook, Mary Jean (editor) tion, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces. 1993 Reminiscences of Andrew Bowdry Baird. Correll, J. Lee Compadres 2(4): 3–8. 1976 Through white men’s eyes: A contribution to Cook, R. Elton Navajo history: A chronological record of the 1954 Operation crossties. New Mexico Magazine 32(5): Navajo people from earliest times to the treaty 25, 36. of June 1, 1868, Vol. 1. Navajo Heritage Center, Cooke, P. St. George Publication No. 1, Window Rock, Arizona. 1878 The conquest of New Mexico and California: An Couchman, Donald Howard historical and personal narrative. G. P. Putnam’s 1990 Cooke’s Peak - Pasaron por aqui: A focus on Sons, New York. United States history in southwestern New 1952 The conquest of New Mexico and California: An Mexico. Cultural Resources Report No. 7, Bureau historical and personal narrative. Biobooks, Oak- of Land Management, Las Cruces District. land, California. Coues, Elliott (editor) 1964 The conquest of New Mexico and California: An 1987 The expeditions of Zebulon Montgomery Pike, 2 historical and personal narrative. Horn and vols. (Reprint of 1895 edition in 3 vols.), Dover Wallace, Albuquerque. Publications, New York. Cooper, Charles F. Covey, Cyclone (translator and editor) 1960 Changes in vegetation structure and growth of 1983 Cabeza de Vaca’s adventures in the Unknown In- Southwestern pine forests since white settle- terior of America. University of New Mexico ment. Ecological Monographs 30(2): 129–164. Press, Albuquerque.

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USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS–GTR–5. 1998 439 Wooton, E. O. Wyman, Walker D. 1895 The Russian thistle. Agricultural Experiment Sta- 1945 The wild horse of the West. University of Nebraska tion Bulletin 16: 1–20. Press, Lincoln. 1908 The range problem in New Mexico. Agricultural Yang, T. W. Experiment Station Bulletin No.66, Albuquerque. 1961 The recent expansion of creosotebush (Larrea 1915 Factors affecting range management in New divaricata) in the North American desert. West- Mexico. U.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin ern Reserve Academy Natural History Museum 1: No. 211, Bureau of Plant Industry, Washington, 1–11. D.C. Yeo, Herbert C. Wooton, E. O., and Paul Standley 1943 Data on Rio Grande floods prior to 1943. Albu- 1894 New Mexico weeds no. 1. New Mexico College of querque District, Army Corps of Engineers, Agriculture and the Mechanical Arts, Agricultural Albuquerque. Experiment Station Bulletin No. 13, Las Cruces. York, John C., and William A. Dick-Peddie Worcester, Donald E. 1969 Vegetation changes in southern New Mexico dur- 1951 The Navajo during the Spanish regime in New ing the past hundred years. In Arid lands in per- Mexico. New Mexico Historical Review 26(2): 101– spective, ed. by W. G. McGinnies and B. J. 118. Goldman, pp. 155–165. University of Arizona 1979 The Apaches: Eagles of the Southwest. University of Press, Tucson. Oklahoma Press, Norman. Young, Gwen Workers of the Writers’ Program 1980 Analysis of fauna remains. In Tijeras Canyon: 1940 New Mexico: A guide to the colorful state. Hasting Analyses of the past, ed. by Linda S. Cordell, pp. House Publishers, New York. 88–120, University of New Mexico Press, Albu- Worley, E. Dale querque. 1965 Iron horses of the Santa Fe Trail. Southwest Rail- Young, J. A. and J. D. Burdy road Historical Society, Dallas. 1979 Historical use of Nevada’s pinyon-juniper wood- Worster, Donald lands. Journal of Forest History 23(3): 121. 1979 Dust bowl: The Southern Plains in the 1930’s. Ox- Young, J. A., R. F. Eckert, and R. A. Evans ford University Press, New York. 1979 Historical perspective regarding the sagebrush 1984 History as natural history: An essay on theory ecosystem. In The sagebrush ecosystem: A sympo- and method. Pacific Historical Review 53(1): 1–19. sium, pp. 1–13. Utah State University, Logan. 1985 Rivers of empire: Water, aridity, and the growth of the Young, J. A., and R. A. Evans American West. Oxford University Press, New 1980 Demographic and fire history of western juniper York. stands. Journal of Range Management 34(6): 501– 1993a The wealth of nature: Environmental history and the 506. ecological imagination. Oxford University Press, Young, James A. New York. 1994 History and use of semi-arid plant communities— 1993b Ecological history. In Major problems in American changes in vegetation. In Proceedings—Ecology environmental history: Documents and essays, ed. by and management of annual rangelands, ed. by Carolyn Merchant, pp. 2–9. D. C. Heath and Com- Stephen B. Monsen and Stanley G. Kitchen, pp. pany, Lexington, Massachusetts. 5–8. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report 1994 An unsettled country: Changing landscapes of the INT-GTR–313, Intermountain Research Station, American West. University of New Mexico Press, Ogden, Utah. Albuquerque. Young, John V. Wozniak, Frank E. 1984 The state parks of New Mexico. University of New 1987 Irrigation in the Rio Grande Valley, New Mexico: A Mexico Press, Albuquerque. study of the development of irrigation systems before Young, Stella 1945. Southwest Regional Office, Bureau of Rec- 1938 Native plants used by the Navajo. Office of Indian lamation, Amarillo, Texas. Affairs, Washington, D.C. Wright, H. A. 1940 Navajo native dyes. Office of Indian Affairs Native 1980 The role and use of fire in the semidesert grass- Handicrafts No. 2, Washington, D.C. shrub type. USDA Forest Service General Technical Zubrow, Ezra B. W. Report INT–85, Intermountain Forest and Range 1974 Population, contact, and climate in the New Mexi- Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah. can Pueblos. Anthropological Papers of the Univer- Wright, W. A., and A. W. Bailey sity of Arizona No. 24, University of Arizona Press, 1982 Fire ecology. John Wiley Sons, New York. Tucson.

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