SACREDTWIGANDTREE: TAMAGUSH ZAND SAKAKI INJAPANESE-ENGLISHDICTIONARIES

MichaelCarr

ThepresentarticleanalyzesJapanese-Englishdictionarytransla- tionsfor tamdguShi 玉串 `aShintooffertory sakaki branch'and sakaki 榊 `anevergreen (Cleye71aOChnacea) regardedassacred.'lThiscasestudyin bilinguallexicographyhasfoursections_Thefirstreviewshow tamagu- shi wastranslatedasEnglish"sacredtwig"inanewspaperstoryabout theconstitutionalseparationofreligionandstate.Thesecondsection introducestheJapanesewords ta magushi and sakaki ,andpresentsout- standingdefinitionsfromamonolingualdictionary(Figures1and2). Thethirdcompares tamLquShi and sakaki translationequivalentsfrom twodozenJapanese-Englishdictionaries(Tables1and2),findingtypo- graphicalerrorslike"offerasprigbranch"insteadof"offerasprig or branch."Theconcludingsectiondiscussesbilingualdictionaryerrors abou ttamqushi asexemplifyingoftenunreliableEnglishequivalentsof Japanesefloraandfaunanames.Forinstance,the hzmLquShi entryin

1.Anumberoffriends,colleagues,editors,andrefereessuggestedimprove一 meれtsuponearlierversionsofthispape r.ThanksgotoYukieAihara,Lew Ballard,CarlBecker,EdandRuthCarr,WilliamChisholm,GeraldCohen , LotharYonFalkenhausen,MatthewHanley,SheilaHanley,RobertIIson , HisanoriKimira,MichaelSherard,IsaoShimomura,OsamuTakai,Steve Toskar,YokoTsuboya,andHisaoYamamoto.Theauthordiscussed tama- gushi and sakak iinapubliclectureentitledHNihongonojishonitsuite 日本 語の辞書についで '[OnJapaneseDictionaries](summarizedinCarr1992). 2 人 文 研 究 第 89 輯 theprestigiousKenkyusha'sNe u) Japanese-EnglikhDictiona7y(4thed.) misspellsCleyeraochnaceaas"CleyeyiaWChnacca."

Whatlsa"SacredTwig"?

Theoriginalideaforstudyingtamagushitranslationequivalents camewhen I saw"sacredtwig"inanewspaperstoryandlookedin Japanese-Englishdictionariestotrytofindoutitsmeaning(unsuccess- fully,asitturnedout).Thisprefacewillintroducethe"EhimeTamqu- shiDonationLawsuit"andelucidatesomelogographicproblemsforusers otJapanesedictionaries.

WhateventuallybecamecalledtheEhimetamagushi 17y O-sosho J愛媛 玉串料訴訟 "Ehime[Prefecture]TamLquShiDonationLawsuit"beganin 1982whenaninterdenominationalgroupofprefecturalresidentssued governmentofficialsforhavingspent¥166,000(about$735)inpublic fundstopurchaseShintoofferings.OnMarch17,1989,theMatsuyama DistrictCourt- Overturningallpreviousprecedents - ruledthese tamagushiexpendituresviOlatedtheJapaneseconstitutional"wallof separation"betweenreligionandstate,andorderedthedefendantsto repaytheprefecture.

Anattention-grabbing"UseofPublicMoneyforSacredTwig RuledIllegal"headlineintheAsahiEveningNews(March17,1989,p.1) introducedanaccountoftheEhimegovernment'sunconstitutionaldona- tionofsomethingcalled"sacredtwigs"toShintoshrines.Notknowing whata"sacredtwig"was ,I comparedaJapanesevernacularnewspaper , theHokkaidoShinbun(March17,p.1),andfoundthestorycenteredupon awordtranscribed 玉 ぐし料 withthreeelements:aChineselogograph 玉 SACREDTⅥGANDTREE: TAMAGUSWAND S朋払灯INJAPANESE･ENGLISHDICTIONARIES 3 meaning`jade ,'gushi written ぐし inhiraganasyllabary,andalogograph 料 `fee'suffix.

AlthoughIknewboththese #S 'Chineselogographs'and couldthinkoftwoJapanese (gushi regularlyvoiced <) kushi words meaning`comb'and`skewer,'Iwasuncertainhowtolookupthekey- wordbecausemostlogographshavealternativeJapanesereadings. Kanji canhave kun'yomi 訓読み `semanticreading(S)'fromnative Japanesepronunciationand/or on'yomi 音読み `phoneticreading(S)'bor rowedfromChinese,WiththelatterSinoJapanesepronunciationsloosely dividedbetween kan'on 漢音 `Hanreading ,' gO-on 呉音 `Wu[Shanghai region]reading ,' toJl0n 唐音 `Tangreading, 'and kan'y0--on 慣用音 `popular reading.'Thecommon';wood'logograph i ,forexample,isread ki or ko inindigenous kun'yomi,boku in kan'on ,or moku in go10n. Forthe "sacredtwig"terminquestion,theinitiallogograph 玉 denoting`jade; preciousstone;exquisite;bead;ball;etc.'Canberead ByOku or gpo in

SinoIJapaneseor h zm ainnativeJapanese,andthesuffixallogograph 料 isaloanword -Yy 6`fee;charge;materials.'IntheEhimelawsuitcontext , governmentalfunds (i.e.,- 叩0-) hadbeendonatedforsomethingpossibly called ,gyokugushi,gyogushi ,mutatismutandis.

Atthisjuncture,nativespeakersoりapanesecouldintuitivelylook up h2maguSh i inamonolingualdictionaryarrangedalphabetically.2But nonnativespeakersarecaughtinaCatch-22peculiartodictionariesof

2."Alphabetical"intheextendedsenseofJapanese あいう `a ,i,u' …ordering followedinpracticallyallmodernmonolingualdictionariesandafewbilin- gualones(e.g. ,NewStandaydJapanese-EnglishDiciiona7y). 4 人 文 研 究 第 89 帝 logographicallywrittenlanguages:theyneedtoknowthepronunciation ofawordbeforelookingitupinanalphabeticaldictionary.Ifyoudo notknowhowtoreadaparticularJapanesewordwrittenin kanji ,the mostefficientapproachistouseaspecializeddictionaryoflogographs.

IlookedinNelson's ModernReader's Japanese-EnglishCharacterDiction- ary(2nded･)S･V ･玉 `jade;etc･'andfoundacompoundwith kushi 串

`skewer;tostring'glossedas Htam 曙 uShi,hzmakushi 〈sic,amisI printofShinto)sacredpaper-decked sakaki-branch offering."Knowing thepronunciationofthiskeyJapanesewordtranslatedas"sacredtwig" unlocked Ken々γus ha' sNew Japanese-EnglishDictiona7 y (4thed.)which translates tamLquShi and sakaki asequivalentsto"asprigof wchnacca (sic〉offeredtoagod"and"a sakakiO)l.IS)."

Stilluninformedabou ttamqushi and sakaki or "Cleyerawchnacca" (amisspellingof C.ochnacea) ,IlookedinsomeJapanesemonolingual dictionariesandlearnedtha ttamagushi means 'a sakaki branchdecorated withcottonorpaper,presentedasanofferinginShintoceremonies'and sakaki meansgeneral ly'evergreensusedforreligiousofferings'Orspecifi- cally'asmallevergreenoftheTheaceaefamily.'Thisserendipitous findingoferrorsintwoofthebestJapanese-Englishdictionariesledto thepresentinvestigationinto tamLquShi and sakaki.

Sincethe"seedidea"forthisstudycamefromaJapanesenews- paper,thefirststepwastocheckotheraccounts.Ⅰnthevernacular press,theEhimelawsuitwasliterallyfront-pagenewsinMarch17,1989 , eveningeditions.Comparingthreemajornationalnewspapers (Asahi Shinbun,YomiuriShinbun ,and MainichiShinbun) andtheregionalone mentionedabove (HokkaidoShinbun) revealedterminologiCalsimilarity. SACREDTWIGANDTREE: TAMAGuS HTAND SAR ARTINJAPANESE-ENGLISHDICTIONARIES 5

Headlinesinal1fourcited tamagushi- 7yO-玉ぐし料 `tamagushiofferings/ donations'withdifferingwaysofsaying"courtrules"and"unconstitu- tional."Thefourstoriesrepeatedthiswordalongwithotherterms quotedfromtheoriginallawsui t:tam喝'uShi1 7y O-nado legalisticallyhedged with nado など `etc. ,'kent0--叩 0-献灯料 `votivelantern/lightofferings,'and kumotsu-1y O-供物料 `oblations;Offerings.'

Incontrastwiththis tamagushi-2y 6uniformityamongvernacular pressaccounts,fourEnglishlanguagenewspapersgavevariouslyless understandabletranslations.The AsahiEveningNews (March 17 ,p. 1) and MainichiDailyNeu Js (March 18 ,p. 12) translatedthefundamental word tamqushi- 7yO-. Theirheadlineswere"UseofPublicMoneyfor SacredTwig〈sic)3Ruledillegal"and"Co ur t:UseofPublicFundsFor ShrineOfferingsIllegal"withstoryreferencesto"sacredtwigs"and Hsprigsofsacredtrees...treesprigs."The JapanTimes (March 18 ,p. 1) and DailyYomiuri (March 18 ,p. 12) bypassed tamqushi ,presumably owingtotheEnglishlexicalgapforsuchspecializedShintovocabulary. Headlinesread…Courtinstructsgovernortorepayshrinedonations"and HCourtDecisionSupportsState-ReligionSeparation"with"donations" andHprefecturalfunds … publicfunds"intheirstories.

Afteraprolongedappeal,theTakamatsuHighCourtoverturned theMatsuyamadecisiononMay 12,1992 ,rulingthattheEhimedonations

3. The Asahi' sstorytranslatingplural"sacredtwigs"madebettersensethan thesingular"SacredTwig"initsheadline.This-swasprobablyomittedin ordertosqueeze"SacredTwigRuledIllegal"intothreecolumns (28 point , 14 cm.). 6 人 文 研 究 第 89 韓

wereconstitutionalandwithintherealmof"socialprotocol"because eachonewastoosma ll( ¥5000-10,000) tobeconsideredasgovernmental supportofShintoism.TheEnglish-languagepresstreatedhzmLquShi aboutthesame;Comparetheseheadlineandstoryreferences:"Offerings toShrine ," "offeringstoashrine ...shrineofferings"(AsahiEvening Neu)sMay 13,p.4),"shrinedonations ," "donationstoShintoshrines ... donationstoshrines"(The JapanTt'mesMay13,p.1),and"shrineoffer- ings...tamLquShi(treeboughOfferings)"(MainichiDailyNewsMay16 , p.2).Thelattertransliteration-explanationiscomparativelythemost informative.

Whethertamagushisshouldbetranslated"twigs ," "sprigs ," "boughs, " or"branches"dependsuponrelativesize;seeTable 1. They aregenerallyavailableinlengthsrangingfromaroundtwentycenti一 metersforuseinminiaturekamidana 神棚 `homealtars'uptoonemeter forpublicshrineofferings;andinsomeprocessionsShintoistscarryentire sakakitrees."Twigs"or"sprigs"isasuitabletranslationforprivately usedtamagushis,but"boughs"or"branches"ismoreaccurateforthe Ehlmelawsuit.JapanesemonolingualdictionariesdefinetamLquShiin termsofeda 枝 `branch;bough;limb'ratherthanoneofitssmaller designations:koeda 小枝 "smallbranch '‥twig;sprig;spray';wakaeda 若枝

"youngbranch"`sprig;Switch;shoo t'; Orhosoeda 細枝 "slenderbranch" `twig;wand.'

UnlikeJapaneseke n to- `votivelight/lamp'Orkumotsu`oblations; Offerings,'neithertamLquShinorsakakihasadirectEnglishcounterpar t. Idealtranslationscouldtransliterateandexplain;forinstance , "hZm曙u- shi,adecoratedShintooffertorysakaki-treebranch"or"sakaki,aflower- SACREDTWIGANDTREE: TAMA G uS HIAND SA RA 7RIINJAPANESE･ENGLISHDICTIONARIES ingevergreen (Cleyeylajaponica) consideredsacredbyShintoists."

UnderstandabilityisthebiggestdifferencebetweenJapaneseand Englishlanguagereportingofthe1989 tamqushi donationlawsuit.All thevernacularnewspapers,aswellasothernewsmedia,mentioned tamL q uShi- り6玉串料 ,whichmostnativespeakersofJapaneseknowto mean`donationsofsakakibranchesusedinShintorituals.'Butonlytwo ofthefourEnglishpapers,practicallythesoleforeigncoverageofthe lawsuit,translated hzm曙拡hi as"sacredtwigs"or"sprigsofsacred , " whichisscarcelymeaningfu l. Considerthepredicamentoffor- eigners(e.g.,religiousscholars,constitutionallawyers)interestedinthe Ehimecase:unlesstheywerereadingaJapanesevernacularaccount,they wouldnotlearnabou ttamagushi ,andthatwasthecrucialpoint_

BeforeanalyzinghowJapanese-Englishdictionariestranslate tamLquShi and sakaki ,thesetwosourcetermswillbeintroduced.

TheJapaneseWordsTamagushl'andSakakI.

Thissectionoutlinesthelinguisticbackgroundof hzmagushi and sakaki ,anddiscussesmonolingualdefinitionsofthem(Figures1and2) fromthehighly-acclaimed1988 Dal'}'irin.

Tamagushi < OldJapanese tamakushi 玉串 isa sakaki branch decoratedwithstripsofpaper,silk,cotton,orlinen,andpresentedtogods duringShintorituals.Thedefinitionof tamqush i inFigure1discrimi- natestwomeanings,andlistsrun-onderivativeswith sasqeru ささげる

`offer;presen t'(c f.Table1)and -りO-料 (mentionedintheEhimelawsuit , p.5).Intranslation,thisdefinitionreads: I.Ill 人 文 研 究 第 89 輯

たまぐLは 式Iリよう叫のはをとりかL桝的サカキの=榊㌔の托｡｢ .は紙をつ 川[ { : 八 JIをささげる｣⑨ 1. L/ 部｡｢ 新山 神凪や-TamLquShi ; 今仲山L[type2accent(on で ' 帥･ ･ Sに ma)] . ① A sakak i branch

けて伸【 巧小 decoratedwithcottonorpaper , YJ andpresentedasanofferingln さける眺物｡., 小判】 神泊の偶,】6木綿" =にささげる､ また Shintoceremonies. Tamqushi

osas曙e n i`tooffera ta m 曙uShi.' @ A nameforthe sakaki tree. (1205 ) Shinkoki n (Wrak ashuわ くRevisedCollectionofOldand NewTankaPoetry )( "Respect fortheGods ") "Holdingtheor-

namente d tamL q uSh i ." Tamqushi- 770-[type4 accent (on shi )] 'donationsof tamagu- Figu｢e 1 The Dal'J'l'rl'n'STamagush l'Definition shi forShintoritualofferingsto thegods.' The Daljirin entryisconcise,notesaccent(regularlypredictableinboth cases),andmakeseffectivevisualuseofanillustration;yetitgives neitheranetymologyforthewordnorausageexamplefortheprimary meaning(seethe Nz'hongi onp.9).

Sincetheetymologyof tamagush iisdubious,the Dalj'in 'n,likemost monolingualdictionaries,avoidsproblemsbynotcitingawordorigin. ThefewJapanesedictionariesthatdogivea tamequshi etymology(e.g. , Kokugodal'j'iten,Zwanamikogojiten) acceptthefamousdialectologist YanagitaKunio'sideaof tama 玉 `jade;ball'meaning tama 霊 `spirit;soul.' Hishypothesisisfeasible(seeShiba1983):aJapanese lam a Espirit'is believedtohavea lama 'round;bal1'shape.However,dictionariesdonot SACREDTWIGANDTREE: TAMAGuS HTAND SAR ARI王NJAPANESE･ENGLISHDICTIONARIES 9 mentionthatYanagita'sorlglnal tamagushi Hspiritstick"etymology (1917: 563-566) speculateduponarareBuddhistfunerarypracticecalled hZkegushi 竹串 `apaper-decorated"bamboostick"usedtosignifymourn- ing.'The N3'honkokugodal'jliten definesthiswordasmeaning`sharpened bamboopole'or`scissors'(inpickpockets'cant),butitisapparentlynot listedinanyJapanesedictionariesorencyclopediasofBuddhism.This otherwiseunrecordedBuddhis ttakegushi "bamboostick"wasmorelikely aderivationfrom,ratherthanthesourcefor,ancientShintois ttamagushi.

The Dazjirin (Figure1)indicatesthatt amLq2iSh i iswritten 玉串 withh Zma 玉 `jade;gem,jewel;precious;ba ll,bead;bul let'and kushi 串 `stringtogether;skewer,spit;stick.'Incontrast,morehistoricallyori- entedJapanesedictionaries(e.g. ,Kokugodazjiten,Ko-j'ien ,even Brinkley'S inTable1)indicatethatthe kush iin tamEquShi wasoriginallytranscribed with kujii Lbambooslip;(divination)lot;writtenoracle;raffle,lottery.'

TamL q uShi 玉栽 occursinthe(ca.720) N2'hongi 日本紀 [Chroniclesof ]cosmologicallegendaboutwhenthesungoddessAmaterasugot angryandhidinacave,thebenightedgodsdecoratedagiantsakakitree withjewels. ThenalltheGodsweregrievedatthis,andforthwithcaused …〈豊 玉)Toyo-tama,theancestoroftheBe(`clan;guild')ofjewe1-

makerstomake 〈玉〉jewels.TheyalsocausedYama -tsuchito procureeighty 〈玉我)preciouscombsofthefive-hundred-branched truesakakitree.(tr.Aston197 2:47)4

4.InAston'stranslationofthis loc us classic us,hetransliterates iam a玉 inthe jeweler'sname``Toyo-Tama"andrendersitas"jewels"and"precious":with "combs"derivingfrom kushi # 'comb,'atextualvariantforthis kujii 10 人 文 研 究 第 89 輯

Japanesedictionariesoriginallydevelopedoutofglossariesto Chinesetexts(Bailey1960:1-4),inparalleltoearlyLatin-Englishlexicog- raphy(Landau1989:37-39).The(ca.934) Wamyo-nLZjish oL倭名類衆抄 [JapaneseNames,ClassifiedandAnnotated]wasthefirstdictionaryto gloss tamqushi and sakaki. Itsays:"The N2'hongi mentions tamakushi 玉 葱,kuji 塞 ぐbambooslip')ispronounced se w(inSin°-Japanese on'yom ii." Anditcitesamisunderstandingaboutthe`longantree ,E up horia lon gan a'

(< Chinese l6ngya yn 龍眼 "dragoneye, " Japanese チッ柳 n ) fromnolonger extantbilingualglossaries:"The (ca .720)Yolsh i ka ng osho-楊氏漢語抄 (Yang'sAnnotatedChineseWordbook〉sayslonganreferstothesakaki tree,butthenameisnowusedforitsfruit,seethe(earlylothcent.) HonzoIWamy oJ本草倭名 (JapaneseNamesforPlants)."

Sakak iisasmallevergreenwithglossy,alternateleaves,yellowish- whiteflowers,purpleberries,andclose-grainedwood.Fromancient times,theJapanesehaveconsidereditsacred,andhaveused sakaki branchesandleavesasofferingstothegods.Thisluxuriantevergreenis traditionallyplantedtodelineateboundariesaroundShintoshrines. Currentbotanicalnomenclaturedesignate ssakaki as Cleyeraochnacea

DC.or C.japonica Ma k. 5 Sakaki belongstothefamilyTheaceae(along withteas,camellias,etc.)andismostcloselyrelatedtotwo Euりa Species: hisakaki (< hilme] 姫 `princess;litt le,'i.e_,smaller) E .)'apo nica Thumb.

'bambooslip'thatoccursina Nihongi (Aston1972:62)goddess'sname TamakushiHime 玉櫛姫 "JewelCombLady." 5.Sakaki waspreviouslyclassified(seeTable2)as Eu7yaOChnacea Szysz. ThesegenericandspecificnamesderivefromGreek eu7y S`wide;broad'and ochn g `peartree' (c f. the Ochnaceae familyoftreesandshrubswithcor- iaceousleaves).The Cleyera genusisaneponymfortheGermannaturalist Dr.AndreasCleyer(1612-1659). SACREDTWIGANDTREE: TAMAGuS TuAND SAR llARIINJAPANESE-ENGLISHDICTIONARIES and hamahisakaki (< hama 浜 `beach,'viz.coastlinehabitat) E.emar- ginata Ma k.

InmodernJapanese ,sakak i iswritten 榊 Withadoublyexceptional logograph.Itisanideograph(inthepropersenseof`logographre- presentinganidea'ratherthanloosely`Chinesecharacter;logograph')and isa kokuji 国字 `Japanese[notChinese]logograph.'Ideogramsand kokuji aretwooftherarestlogographictypes,eachconstitutingasmallpercent- ageofatypicalwrittenJapanesesample.First,theideaof sakaki 榊 is expressedwithameldingof boku or ki 木 `tree'and shin or kam 月中`god; divine,sacred'lof Shinto]; comparabletoagraphicfusionoftheword shinboku 神木 `sacredtree.'6Second,the sakaki 榊 ideographisa kokuji `national[i_e.,Japanese]logograph'ratherthana usual kanji 漢字 'Chineselogograph'borrowing. Kokuji oftendenoteJapaneseplantsand animalsnotnativetoChina,andthusnotnormallywrittenwithChinese logographs. 7 Monolingualdictionariescustomarilynote sakak iiswritten withaJapanese-made kokuji; andseveral kokuji definitions(C.g. ,Ko-jien , DaZjirin,Kokugodazjiten) cite 榊 asanexampleofone.However ,The ModernReader' Sistheonlypresentbilingualdictionarythatmentionsit.

6. Thisideographi c "sacredtree" sakaki hasa"sacredfish"analoguein hatah ata 鮒 (writtenwiththe 魚 "fishradical"and 神 `god, ' or鯨 with 雷 `thunder')`asandfish ,Arctos coPw jaPon icus'thatJapaneselegendsassociate withthethundergod. 7.ManyJapanese-Chinesedictionaries(e.g. ,ShinNichi-Kanjiten ,cf. Brinkley' SinTable2)translate sakaki asequivalentto ya'ngt6ng 楊桐 =poplar paulownia, " butthe Nihonkokugodaljite nnotesthisiswrong.Thismistake apparentlybeganwhenthe 1938 Cihai defined yaJngt6ng 楊桐 as Eu7ya ochnacea (witha sakakii llustration),andaddedthatthe 1671 Zhengzitong jf 字通 erroneouslyidentified ydngt6ng as na'n(t2-)zhu '南(天)燭 "southern (heaven)candle" `Lyoniaoval%fol ia,'anevergreenshrubwithredberries.Ⅰn contrast,the Cih ai correctlydefinesChinese ltng 楕 as Eu叩ajaponica. 12 人 文 研 究 第 89 輯 さかき回【 人｡りのとき､みこしの先畑に立ってIを糾いで少く校のき｡⑧源氏物語の巻名の1.-かきtE 榊持ち｡月'し､ 白色の小花を開ぐ｡緑小高木｡暖地の山中に日生｡= 長和円状倒卵形.常緑樹の総称｡ また' 枝潜を神浪奴色でThe 神呼に用いる水｡⑧ツバキ. 2かき】祭sakaki Sさ的10日definitioninFigure2 = . 感は立生 givesthreemeaningsandincludesentries ' 榊･ 東木】〔準える木の慮〕①神城にfor hiiakaki (seep. 10) and sakaki- ka ki榊 か き "sakaki-carrier"(cross-referenced toitssynonym sakaki-mochi 榊持 ち). Ⅰn translation,thisdefinitionreads: Sakaki ltype0accent(highlevel 符 〃 叫 pitchon kaki)] (meaning sakaeru に川いる.1ひさかく光 `flourishing' ki `tree') ① A general 沢があ nameforevergreensplantedatthe る. 六､ 七 boundaryofshrineprecincts. 料納 の 常える Later,treesusedforreligious offerings . @ A smallevergreen oftheTheaceaefamily,nativeto Figure 2 TheDaJ'jl'rJ'n'sSakakJ'Definition mountainousarea s in warm regions.Heightroughlyten meters.Leavesarealternate,long,elliptical,obovate,dark-green , thick,andglossy.InJuneorJuly,whiteflowersblossom.Its branchesandleavesareofferedtothe(Shinto〉gods.See hisaka- ki . @ Thenameofachapterinthe Geniimonogatari (TheTale

ofGen ii) . Sakaki-kaki ltype3accent(highlevelon kaki )] 'person whocarriesasakakiinfrontofa (portableshrine)during afestiva l .'Sakaki-mochi (`sakakicarrier'). Meaning ① `sacredtrees'ishistoricallyandetymologicallyvalid,but givesamisleadingpictureoftheusualmeaning ② `Cleyeyla' (c f.Malone' s l940 studyof mahogany definitions).Thisdefinitiondoesnotmention thecommonsurname Sakaki (e.g.,psychiatristSakakiHajime 榊倣 1857- 1897) . Unlike hzmagush i inFigure1,the Datjirin givesa sakaki etymoト SACREDTWIGANDTREE :TAMAGuSWAND SA 13 RARIINJAPANESE-ENGLISHDICTIONARIES

0gyfrom sakae-ki ''flourishingtree."

Withconsensusthatthe -ki suffixin sakaki means i 'tree,'thetwo mostprobable saka- etymologiesareeithera sakae 栄 え `flourishing; luxuriant'evergreenoraconsecrative sakai q 'boundary'plantedaround shrines.Whilethe Daljirin (Figure2)citesthefirst`flourishingtree' etymology,Comparabledictionarieslikethe K0-1-ten and KokugodaZjiten preferthesecond`boundarytree'owingtoancientpronunciation: prototonic sakaki < OldJapanese sakak tand sakai 'boundary'versus deuterotoni csakae 'flourishing.'Besideshistoricalphonologyfavoring sakaki < 'divineboundarytree,'thereareShintotraditionsofencircling shrinegroundswith shinboku 神木 `sacredtrees,'especially kansugi 神杉 `sacredcryptomeria.'

The Daijin 'nnote ssakak i iswritten 榊 withtheJapanese"sacred tree"ideographor 賢木 with saka 賢 `sage;wise'and ki 木 `tree'logo- graphs.Theformer 榊 "sacredtree"transcriptionisfirstrecordedinthe (earlyllthcen t.) Konj'akumonogatarishu -今昔物語集 [CollectedStories , NewandOld]"Peoplewhodealwithsakakiareperhapstoomanyto know ."= TheSacredTree"chapterof(ca.1000) TheTaleofGenji 源氏 物語 (viz.meaning ③ inFigure2)write ssakaki asthelatter 賢木 …sage tree."8Thisdigraphi c賢木 "sagetree"wasalsousedinthe(ca.712) 古事記 [RecordsofAncientMatters](tr.Chamberlain1981:64)

8.The Genii chapter(10)titlecomesfromthispassage(tr.Seidensticker1981: 187):"Notwishingtoapologizeforalltheweeksofneglect,he(Genji) pushedabranchofthesacredtreeinundertheblinds.`Withheartunchang- ingasthisevergreen,Thissacredtree,Ienterthesacredgate."' 14 人 文 研 究 第 89 輯

"pullingupbypullingitsrootsatrue cleyeya japonica withfivehundred [branches]fromtheHeavenlyMountKagu";andthe (645-760) ManyolshuJ 万葉集 [MyriadLeaves〈Poetry〉Collection](tr.Pierson1929:199)"Itie purewhitestrandsofmulberrytothebranchesofthesacredtree."The (ca. 720) N2-hongi [ChroniclesofJapan] (c f.p. 9) hasanotherearly sakaki J&# "slopetree"transcription:(tr.Aston 1972:42-3) "TrueSakakitreeof theHeavenlyMt.Kagu."

Tosummarizethe DaZjirin definitionsofJapanese tam曙uShi and sakak i inFigures1and2;bothnotepronunciations,discriminatemultiple meanings('offertory sakaki branch; sakaki' and'religiousevergreens; sakaki;Genii chapter'),citeclassicalexamples,andincludesubentries. Thefirstillustratesa tamagushi andthesecondetymologize ssakaki. Reflectingthefundamentallydifferingneedsofmonolingualandbilingual dictionaryusers,hardlyanyTable1and2Japanese-Englishsourcesinthe nextsectionglVethesefeatures.

Havingintroducedthenewspaper"sacredtwig" tamLquShi transla- tionandthe 榊 "sacredtree" sakaki ,thesetwowordscanbeusedto exemplifyJapanesebilingualmetalexicography.

Japanese-EnglishTreatmentsof Tamagush I'and SakakJ'

Thisprincipalsectionwilluse tamagushi and sakaki toillustrate someaspectsofJapanese-Englishlexicography.9First,howcanyou translatetheseJapanesewordsintoEnglish?Bothareparadigmatically

9. Thefindingscouldbeextendedtootherlanguages.Comparethese DicI cionarioManualJaPones IE Q aか Ientries:"tamagusi 玉 串 S.ramodeまrbol SACREDTWIGANDTREE: TAMAG USHIAND SA RA 15RIINJAPANESE-ENGLISHDICTIONARIES

"culture-bound"tothesourcelanguageandlackdirecttranslationequiva- lentsinthetargetone(seeTomaszczyk 1983 andBugarski 1985). Zgusta (19 71:318-325) distinguishesthreeword-typesinbilingualdictionaries , termswith:translationalorinsertibleequlValents,explanatoryordescrlp- tiveones,and"Onomasiologicalgaps"withnoequivalent.Sakakibridges thefirsttwotypes;eithertranslatablethroughtheEI唱lishborrowing sakakiorthebotanicaldesignations C leye71aOChnacea /)'aponica,orexplic- ablewiththecoinage"sacredtree, " whichisespeciallyadroitbecause sakaki'sideograph 榊 combines 木 `tree'and 神 `god;divine'elements. TamagushiexemplifiesthethirdwithatargetlexicongapthatanEnglish dictionaryneedstofillthroughexplanation.Itcanbeminimallytrans- latedas"abranch/sprigof(asacredtree)saka ki, " optionallyclarified withinformationabout"decoratedwithpaper,etc."and/or"Shinto offeringtothegods.""Sacredbranch"isthusacontextuallypossible renderingofhzmagushi,.e.g.,inTheTaleofGenii"SacredTree"chapter , Seidensticker (1981:190) translates ,"Genjisentoutapoemattachedtoa sacredbranch."

"Sacredtree"isprobablymorefamiliarthan"sacredbranch"to mostAnglophones.TheCobuildDirecton-linecorpusofEnglish,which includesovertwentymillionwords,matchesthreetexts(VanderPost 197 2;GoodNewsBible lO1976; Aiken 1980) using"sacredtree"butnone for"sacredtwig ," "sprig ,"" bough, " or"branch."

sagrad 0.- を捧げる ofreceraunadeidadunaramitadeまrbolsagrado"and "sakaki 榊 S. 〈植)まrbolsagrado:cleyeraochnacea." 10. Besidesthistranslation"Abramtravelledthroughthelanduntilhecameto thesacredtreeofMoreh,theholyplaceatShechem"(GoodNews)other 16 人 文 研 究 第 89 輯

Tables1and2ShowtranslationequivalentstotheseJapanese wordsfromtwenty-sixbilingualEnglishdictionariesthatglossbothor

either tamagushi and sakaki. ll Thiscorpuswaschosenforpurposesof analyzingdictionaryerrorsandisnotacompletelisting.Owingtothe relativelylowfrequencyofwordusageforJapanese tamLquShi and sakaki ,thepresentsampledelimitsitselftolargerJapanese-English dictionaries.Thereisnoneedforeitherastudent'sbilingualdictionary oratraveler'Spocketwor°booktoincludethesespecializedvocabulary items.Toillustratethecreationandcopying ofmistakeswithin Japanesebilingualdictionaries,SomemultipleKenkyushaeditionsare listed.Otherwise,when tamagushi and sakaki translationequivalents havenosignificanterrors,thetablesexcludebothabridgeddictionaries (e.g.,listing Znouye's butnot Znouye'sSmallerJapanese-EnglishDictiona7y) andearliereditions(e.g-,listingthethirdeditionof TheNeu)CylDuJn Japanese-EnglishDictiona 73 ),yetnotthefirstorsecond).Withintypo一 graphicallimitations,tabularentriesreproducethetranslationequiva- lentsastheyappearindictionaries.N.B.abbreviations(e.g.,"JIEDiet.") andtranslations (mei 名 `n.'for meishi 名詞 `noun')arelistedbelow.

Biblical(Gen12:6)renderingsinclude:"theplainofMoreh"(KingJames Version),"theoakofMoreh"(Young'sLiteral,NewAmericanStandard) , "theoak(orterebinth)ofMoreh"(RevisedStandard),"theoakatMoreh" (LivingBible),"theOracularoak"(JamesMoffatt),or"anoakcalledMoreh" (StoryoftheBible). ll.ThemajorityarealphabeticaldictionariesofJapanesewords,butthreeare of kanji logographs: TheModernReader's Japanese-EnglishChwacterDic- tion aYy ,Beginner'sDiciiona73,OfChinese- JapaneseChwacter :S,and Japanese ChwacterDictiona 町 Wz'ihCompoundLookupviaAnyKanji. Thelatter twoareamongthesixdictionariesthatinclude sakaki butno ttamLquShi. TwosmallerdictionariesinTable2lis ttamagushi butnotitstree. SACREDTWIGANDTREE: TAMAG USHIAND SAR 17nKIINJAPANESE･ENGLISHDICTIONARrES

TABLE1.ENGLISH TAMAGUS川 玉串 EQUIVALENTS

1867JandE Di c i.uJilhanE andJIndex 1908Bri nk物,'s JIEDicl. TamagtLShi ,たまぐし,玉串,玉 致 . n . ① Slipsof white ,paperattachedtoabranchof sakaki (cl町era jaPomc a),andplacedbeforethealtarinashinti) templeasanofferingtotheKami @lBoi.] C leyeraJ'opani ca isic ). 7TamL2guSh l'wosasLqu,玉串 ヲ捧グ,tooffera hzm耶 hi (totheKam i). 19187Takenobu'sI-EDicl. 1922Beginner'sDict.ofCIJChwa cl eTS 1924Inouye'sJ ･E DicE_ tamagushi (玉串) ,n. abranchofEuryaochnacea offeredtoago d. 1924ASLandb71dI-E Dicl. tamagushi (玉串) ,n. anofferingofthesacred tree. 1928 5kliEo'sI-EDiet. TamagtIShi (玉串) 【名】 A branchofthesacred tree(offeredtothegods) , ●玉串を捧げる tooffer abranchofthesacredtreetothegods. 1929 Sbnseido'sCollegeJ IEDiet. tamagu8hi 玉串 abranchofEuryaochnacea (offeredtogods) . 1931Kenkyu sha 'sNewJIEDi ct .2 tamaguShi (玉串) n.A branchof Eu TyaOYIChnacca lsic)offeredtoagod . [玉串を捧げる ojfera branchofthesacredtreetoagod . 1933K en勿/usha'sSchoolI-EDicl. tama 玉 ".串(('し)を捧げる offerabranchofthe sacredtree(to ). 1948 C.C. F. 'sNewI-EDicE. 1949Romant'zedI-EDi ct. 1954 Ke n勿･usha'sNewJ IE Dict.3 tamagllShi 玉串 n. asprigof C leyeraorchnac- catsic)offeredtoagod . [玉串を捧げる offera sprigbranch(sic)ofthesacredtreetoagod. 1954LiilleBes由JIE D icL, tamagltShi (玉串) [～をささげる offerasprigof thesacredtre e. 1963Kenkyus ha 'sN ewSchoolI-EDi et. 2 tamagushi 玉串 (offer)asprigofthesacred tree(to). 1963 0hbunsha'sEssenLhllI-EDict. taIサagt･Shi 玉(串)¶玉 ぐLをささげる offera sprig (or branch)ofasacredtreetothegods. 1964K enky usha'sNewPocketJ ･E Di cE .2 tamagusl li 玉串 [玉串を捧げる offerasprigof thesacredtree(toagod ). 1964NeuJSbmda ydJIEDiet. たまぐし 【玉串】 『～をささげる offerasprigof thesacredtre e. 1972TheNewCrownJIEDici.3 tama g ushi 玉串 (offer)asprigofthesacred tree(toGod). 1974ModernReader'sI-EChwacterDt ct,2 玉串 tamagushi,tamaku5hiShin10〈sic〉sacred paper-decked sakaki-branch offerin g. 1974Ken 匂 ,bt Sha 'sN e w JIEDicE.4 tama-gtはhi 玉串 n.asprigof C l町eraOrCh･ nac ca (sic10fferedtoagod . [玉串を捧げる offer asprig[branch]ofthesacredtreetoagod 1975 Sbnseido's N ewConciseJ IEDi ct .8 tamagushi 玉串 a branchofthesacredtree (offeredtogod). 1976TheKodanshaJ IE Dict. たまぐし 【玉串】 asprig (隻 branch)ofasacred treeofferedtoagod. 1979ACulturalDict.ofJapan 一ama-gushi 玉串 sprigofthesacredtreewhic.h lSOfferedtoa god. 【注】sprig 枝 〈note: sPy哲 means edd`branch'). 1989ICharacterDict. 1990Vacca ri'sShZndbyldfEDict. tamagushi 玉串 n asprigof sakaki-tree offer- edto Shin io go d.

J-Japanese 名 -noun E-English ~~-= noentry C = Chinese Dict.-Dictionary たま('し -hZmLquShi

をささげるor を捧げる - asas(qenL 18 人 文 研 究 第 89 輯

Table 1 displaysthreemisspellings. (1) Brinkley'sJapanese-English Dictiona7ySpel ls "C.japonica"correctlyand "C.joPanica"incorrectly.12 (2) Whilethefirstedition ("Takenobu'S")ofKenkyusha'sNewJaPanese- EnglishDictionaりpaSSedovertamqushi,thesecondthroughfourth editionshaveadoublemisspellingof"wchnacca"fortheochnaceaspecies name;13yetthefirstthreespellitproperlyunder(Table 2) sakakientries.

(3) Nelson'sTheModemReader'sJ apanese-EnglishChwacterDictiona73, misprintstheiinShinioresultingin"Shimo."(CompareJapaneseshimo 下 `lower;bottom'andshimo 霜 `fros t'.)

HalfthedictionariesinTablelgivethesametamqushiosasageru 玉串を捧げる `offeratamagushibranch'subentry.Thisphrasewiththe directl0bjectparticleo(orwo)andthecommonverbsasageru'offer; present;Sacrifice'seemsasomewhatsuperfluousinclusionunder ta magu- shi(seeSaito'Streatment),butitillustratesabridgmentproblemswith dictionaries.FivelargerJapanese-Englishdictionaries(beginningwith

Brinkley'sliteraryvariants as昭一u)givebothatamagushiheadwordtrans- lationequivalentandthetamagushiosasdgeruusageexample.Ten dictionariesgiveonlyatamqushiequivalent(e.g.,Kodansha)andseven givetheexamplewithouttranslatingtheheadword(e. i.,NewStandard).

12. NotehowBn'n kley'SentryresemblestheJapanesemonolingualD m )Bin-n (Figu re 1) definitionmorecloselythananysubsequentbilingualdictionary:it hasthemostdetailedtranslationequivalentanditalonegivestheancient N2'hongi' S玉 我 transcriptionandincludesthesecondary`sakakiname'mean- ing.ThetamagushientryinBrinkley'soccupiessevendouble-columnlines , Comparedwithtwoorthreeinotherdictionaries. 13. Inthis"Orchnacca"mistake,theintrusiverin"orch"iscompoundedbythe eforcmisprintin"nacea."Phonologicalcontusionslikeorch > ochare typicalfor"KatakanaEnglish''(Sherard 1986):c f.theJapaneseloanwords o-ku ni< "ocher"ando-kesutora < "Orchestra." SACREDTWIGANDTREE: TAMAGUS WAND SA RA 19KlINJAPANESE-ENGLISHDICTIONARIES

However,twoofthesesevenconcisedictionaries- Kenkyusha'sNeu) SchoolandNeu)Crown- misleadinglycitethehZmLquShiphrasal exampleasthewordtranslation.ThesecondeditionNeuJSchooldeleted "tamagushiosas(哲eru"fromthefirst,translatingtamqushiwiththe phraseH(offer)asprigofthesacredtree(to)."Onecouldjudiciously omittheseparenthetical"(offer)"and"(to)",orcouldclarifywitha"God" objectasintheNeuJCy10uJn.

Editors'religiousprejudicessubtlymanifestinwhethertheytrans- latetamequshiasanofferingto"god ," "gods, " or"God."Eightdiction- ariesinTable 1 saytamagushisareoffered"toagod";two"toGod ," "to

g od s," a nd "t o the g od s"; and on e e ac h sa y s "t o god ," " t o the K am i," an d "toShintogod"(sic).SincetheJapaneselanguagedoesnotnormally grammaticizesingular/pluraldistinctions(Becker 1991:94196) ,Brinkley's usageofJapanese""meaning`G/god;G/gods'takesadvantageof inherent`One/many'ambiguity.14

In 1954 ,lexicographersgrafteda"sprig"ontoa"branch."The thirdeditionKen勿/usha'sNewJapanese-EnglishDictionaryChangedthe second'sheadword"abranchof"translationto"asprigof, " butomitted theparenthesesinthetamagushiosasageruentryresultingln"asprlg branch〈sic〉of."Eventhoughthis"sprigbranch"misprintwascorrected to"sprig[branch]"twentyyearslaterinthefourthedition,effectsofthe pleonasmarestilleviden t. AmongTable 1 dictionariespublishedbefore

14 ,AlinguisticallyrelatedproblemforJapaneselearnersofEnglishisdiffi- cultywithplurals,andthismayaccountforthreedictionariesinTable2 notingtheregularlypredictable-Sinsakakis.Compareaandtheconfusion discussedonp.2 1, 20 人 文 研 究 第 89 輯

Kenkyusha'S3rd ,six tam曙狐hi translationequivalentssay"branch" (whilethe Standayd says"offering"):afterit,twosay"branch, " six "sprig, " andfourboth"sprig"and"branch."Comparetheselatterfour typographicapproaches ･."spriglbranch]" (Kenkyus ha' S4th) ,"asprig (or branch)" (Ohbunsha' S),Hsprig (≒ branch)" (Kodansh a),andanotethat translates "砂痩 means eda `branch ."'( A CulturalDictiona 73]).

TABLE2. ENGuSHSAKAK l ～ EQUJVALENTS

1867 JandEDiet.uJilhanE andJIndex SAKAKI ,サカキ･ 軌 n. Thenameofatr .eel 1908 Brinkley'sI-EDiet. Saka k i,さかき,榊,楊桐 .n. [Bo t.】CleyeraJaponica 1918 TakenoblL'sI -E Dic t sakaki (榊) n･Eu'TGOchnacea; the"sacredtree" 1922 Begl'nn er's Di ct.ofC IJ C h a71aCteYS ～ SakakicleyeraJaponica(usedinreligiouscere- monies) . 1924 Inou ye's JIEDicL sakaki (榊) n 【植】 Euryaochnacea (学名). 1924A Sh2ndayldJ IE Dict. sakaki (榊) n.【植】 Eu7yaOChnacea( 学名); a sacredtree . 1928 Sbit o'sJIEDicf. Saknki (榊)【名】 ThesacredtreeofJap_an･ 1929 Sbn sei do'SCollegeI-EDicE. sakaki 榊 Euryaochnacea;CleyerajaponlCa. 1931 Kenkyuslw'sNewJIEDict.2 sakaki (榊) n.( 植) Eu7yaOChnace a; a "sacred tree. " 1933 勿 ･u sha 'sSchoolJIE Dict. sakaki 榊 (植) a"sacredtree ." 1948 C. C.F. 'sN euJJ･EDict. Sakaki (柄) asacredtree (アセイク リッ ド ヅ リー) faseikuriddo tsu yii L 1949 RomanizedJ ･EDiet. sakaki 榊 [さか さ] a"sacredtree ." 1954 K en kyusha'sNewI-EDz'ci.3 saknki 榊 n,【植】 ClqeTt10Chn ac ea,a"sacred tree"[toShintoists ]. 1954 Ltt ll e Be slafEDicl. sakaki 榊 【櫓】 asacredtree. 1963 Kenkyus ha 'sN e uJSchoolI-EDicL.2 sakaki 榊 [植] a saka ki (p l-S). 1963 0hbu n slu z's EssentkEII-EDict. 1964 Kenkyusha'sNewPocketI-EDict.2 saknki 榊 [植] ClqeylnOChnacea. 1964 NewShzndayldI-EDicl. さかき 【榊】【植〕asacredtre e. 19 72TheNewCrownJIEDiet.3 1974 ModemReader'sI-EChwaclerDiet.2 料(国字 )〈kokujiIsaka ki sacredShintotree. 1974 Kenわ,us ha 'SNewfEDicL.4 sakaki 榊 n. [植] asaka ki (p l.･S ). 1975S ansel do's NeuJConciseJIEDiet.8 sakaki 榊 a`sakaki' Ul l.lS) 1976 TheKodanshaJ IE DicE. さかき 【植】 a sak ak i; asチCredtree･ 1979A Cultuy.tdDi ct.o / Japan sakaki 榊 sakaki,Cl町eTl a Japonica. 1989 IC1uZraClerDicl. a saknki(aspeciesoftree ). 1990 Vaccari'sShmdardJIEDicl. sakaki 榊 n.(bo L) asacredtreeto Shin EoisLs.

J-Japanese E -English C -Chinese

Di c上 -Dictionary さかさor サカキ -sakaki 檀 -botanical 学名 -scientificname 名 -noun ~~~= noentry SACREDTWIGANDTREE: TAMAGUSHI AND SAF 21ARIINJAPANESE･ENGLISHDICTIONARIES

ComparedwiththeseEnglishtranslationequivalentsto hzm q ushi , thosefor sakak i inTable2arelessproblematica l. Notethatabbrevia- tions(C.g.,"J-EDict.")andtranslations (shoku i 'botjfor shokubutsugaku 植物学 `botany')arelistedatthebottom. CleyeylaOChnacea's lexical ghostof =Cleye71aWChnacca ," hauntingthreeeditionsof Ken kyusha 'sNeu) Japanese-EnglishDictiona7 yentriesfor tamagush i,isnotseenfor sa kaki; presumablybecausethefirstedition (Takenobu's withou ttamagushi , Table1)correctlytranslated sakaki _ Thisisaclearcaseofcopying withoutcross-checking.Sinceitisstandardlexicographicalprocedure forspecialiststoverifyscientificandtechnicalterminology(Barnhart 1967:180,Landau1989:17 1),perhapsabotanistproofreadthi ssakaki entrywitha'botjnotationbutnottheunmarked tamagushi. Ghost wordslike "CleyeylaOrChnacca" arewhatMalkiel(1967:9)callspartofthe "excessbaggage"indictionaries.

Onecross-linguisticresultoftheabsenceofgrammaticalarticlesin JapaneseisthatJapaneselearnersofEnglisharepronetoconfuseaand the- even,accordingtoNord(1981:86),totheextentthat"theJapanese literallybecomefunctionallydeaftotheseelementsofspeech."For instance(Table1) ,I(accan''sStandayd saysa tamagush i is"offeredto Shinto god."Sincethenotionofsacredtreesisculturallywidespread,if notuniversa l,15 itismoreaccuratetotranslate sakaki as"a"ratherthan "the sacredtree."Changesthroughfour(1918,1931,1954,1974)editions

15.SomeexamplesareDruidicoak,Athenianolive,Hindu deodar cedar (< Sanskr it deva"god" + da- ni "W OOd"),Buddhi stpi pa lFicus 71 eli gios a(n. b.the aptlynamedgen us) ,andJapaneseBuddhi stshikimi # (writtenwith i 'tree' and 密 `secret')`staranise.'Inaddition ,sakaki meaning ① inFigure1is `evergreensusedreligiously.∫ 22 人 文 研 究 第 89 輯 of Kenkywha'sNe uJ Japanese-EnglishDictiona り inTable2 (c f.1)provide agoodcontrast:"the'sacredtree"(lsted. Takenobu'S) wasgeneralized to "a`sacredtreeH'(2nd),thenspecifiedto "a`sacredtree'[toShintoists]" (3r d,cf. Vaccari'sStandard) ,andultimatelyreducedto"a sakaki" (4th). These"sacredtree"quotationsindirectlymark sakaki's ideography; however,thefourthedition(1974:Ⅹ)usesquotationmarkstodenote JapaneseloanwordsnotstandardizedinEnglish,forinstance,thegeisha `waiting-room'ter m m achiai 待合 "anassignationhouse;a "machiai.""

Thisopaqueyetbrief"a sakaki" EnglishequivalenttoJapanese sakakii llustrateshowbilingualdictionarieshavedifferentusesfornative andforeignspeakersofalanguage.UsingaJapanese-Englishdiction- ary,atypicalJapanese-speakinguserwillwanttoknowhowtotranslate sakak iintoEnglishandthereforeitgivesa"sakaki"translation.Since thevastmajorityofJapanese-Englishdictionarybuyersarenative speakersofJapanese(Nakao1989:296),editorshavemarketingreasons foraccommodatingthemwithtranslationequivalentslike"a sakaki_"16 Usingthesamedictionary,anEnglish-speakinguserwillwanttoknow what sakaki means,butwillprobablybenomorefamiliarwiththe "sakaki"loanwordthanthetechnical "Cleyeyd 'epithet.General- purposeEnglishmonolingualdictionarieslistvariousJapaneseplantand animalloanwordslike"daikon"and"fu gu ," yetnot"sakaki."Except for Webster'sThirdNeu)InternationalDictiona 叩,dictionariesdonot

16.Japanese-Englishdictionariesusing kana syllabaryfulfillthenonalphabetic preferenceofnativespeakers.The1964 NewSianda7 1d and1976 Kodansha listheadwordsin hiragana: たまぐLand さか き inTables1and2. C.C. F.'s NewJapanese-EnglishDictionarygives aseikun'ddotsurii ア セイクリッドヅ リ- kaiakana-English gloss. SACREDTWIGANDTREE: TA此4 G US HTAND S4RA 23K INJAPANESE･ENGLISHDICTIONARIES

definetheEnglishloanword"sakaki. "17

1ftheforeignuseroftheJapanesebilingualdictionaryistrulyto understand sakaki's meaning,theentrymustincludeanexplanationalong witha "sakaki"transliteration.Thislexicographiccircumstanceof equivalent plu sexplanationisawell-known(e.g.,Schnorr 1986:56 , Benson 1990:49-50) exceptiontotheruleofavoidingdefinitionsin bilingualdictionaries. 18 Zgusta (197 1: 324)citesasimilarlyexceptional "sacredtwig"case:Ossetic Clam needstoexplicatedinadictionaryas Hahzm (fruitandcandyboundonatwigandcarriedbymountedpartici- pantsofafuneralfeast)."

ComparisonofthediversetranslationequivalentsinTables1and 2Showsmoreinaccuraciesfor tamagushi than sakaki. Whilethetree namecanbepreciselyidentifiedwith "Cleyey ia japonica" botanicalnomen- clatureortranslatedas "sakaki ,asacredtree ," iamLquShi requiresamore encyclopedicequivalentsuchas"abranchof(asacredtree) sakaki" with optionaldescriptionsof"decorated(withpaper) ," "offer(ing), " and"tothe (Shinto)gods."

17. Searchingthecompact-diskversionofthe OxfordEnglishDictiona 77reveals fourEnglishborrowingsofJapanesetreenames:Haucuba,""gingko ,"" ka ki," and"matsu." Webster'SThird says"aucuba"forJapanese aoki 青木 (lit. "greentree")Comesfrom"Jap aokub aaucuba,f r.aoku green":butaccording to Makino' S,NewLatin"aucuba " derivesfromadialectalname aok iba (suffixedwith 葉 Hle af") . 18.Inmonolingualdictionaries,somedefinitionsfornamesofplantsand animalswaxencyclopedic:Weinreich (1967: 32)criticizesdefining carrot as "abiennialplant (Daucuscwotasaliva) withausuallyorange-colored , spindle-shapededibleroot… " 24 人 文 研 究 第 89 輯

Thecurrent ne p l usulty 7a Japanesebilingualdictionaryinany language ,Kenkyusha'sNeu)Japanese-EnglishDictiona7 y(4thed.),gives inconsistent hzmqushi and sakaki equivalents;translatingtheformeras "asprigof Cleyeraorchnacca (sic〉offeredtoagod"andthelatteras"a sakaki." Onthecontrary,forreasonsofclarityandspace-saving,it seemspreferabletogive"abranchofsakaki…"for tam喝'拡hi andtonote thebotanicaldesignation =Cleyeyaochnacea /j'aponica" underthecross- referenced sakaki headword.Onlythreeofthetwenty-sixdictionaries analyzedmention sakaki under tamagushi.

Fromatheoreticalperspective,theissuesofEnglishtranslations forJapanese tamagushi and sakaki typifybilingualdictionaryproblems withfolk-botanicalclassifications.Conklinexplains: Translationlabels(glosses)arefrequentlynecessary,butthey shouldbeconsideredneitherasdefinitionsnorasexactequivalents .‥Thiswell-establishedandperhapsobvioussemanticprincipleis sometimesforgottenwheretheassumedabsolutenature(ina cross-linguisticsense)of"scientific"namesorofotherlong- establishedtraditionaldistinctionsincertainWesternlanguagesis involved.(1967:124-5) Scientificnamesareonething,"unscientific"misspellingsanothe r.

Tosumup,thisramblethroughJapanesemetalexicographybegan withonenonnativespeaker'sproblemstryingtolearnwhatanewspaper meantby"sacredtwigs."Ithasdiscussedhowmonolingualdictionaries define tamagushi and sakaki ,andanalyzedhowgenerationsofbilingual oneshavetranslatedthem. SACREDTWIGANDTREE: TAMAGUS nIA ND SAR 25nKIINJAPANESE-ENGLISHDICTIONARIES

Conclusion

Analyzing tamLquShi 玉串 and sakaki 榊 translationequivalentsin Japanese-Englishdictionariesrevealserratasuchasthemiscopied"offer asprigbranch"andthemisspelled "CleyeylaWChnacca" for C.ochnacea. Onecouldarguethatthisarticleis"makingmountainsoutofmolehills" or shinsh O- bo-dainiiu 針小棒大に言う "sayingalittleneedleisabig stick,"becauseinmodernJapanese,thereligiousterm tamqushi andthe botanicalappellation sakaki havecomparativelylowfrequenciesofusage. Botharevirtuallyabsentfromtarget-languageEnglishlexicon,andthus morelikelytobeerroneouslytreatedindictionaries.Sinceeveryone errs,perhapsweshouldoverlooksuchminormisprints,particularlysince severalwerecorrected_Laterdictionariesdidnotcopy Brinkley'S =jopanica" misspelling(presumablyowingtothehighsalienceo fJapan) andthethirdedition Ken 勿/usha' S "offerasprigbranch"typowassetright inthefourth.

Nevertheless,therearetwoimperativereasonsfornotoverlooking problemsofdictionaryinaccuracieswithculture-specificwordslike tamagushi: (1)Inexactlexicographycanbeclonedintowhatmightbe called"sacredtwiggy"mistranslations (c f.Tomaszczyk'S1984studyof Polish-Englishdictionaries).(2)Japanese-Englishdictionaryequivalents toplantandanimalnamesaresometimesflawed.

First,"JapanizedEnglish"mistakesarelegendary(Kenrick1988) andnotafewderivefromdictionaryerrors.Examples(A ト(C)below werechosenfromspoken ("cutelittlemo n key"),written("eye wa x"),and printed ("vicioushair")levels. 26 人 文 研 究 第 89 輯

(A)MatthewHanley(personalcommunication)discoveredthat Kenkyusha'sNewJapanese-EnglishDictiona w translationequivalentsof komatta 困った `embarrassing;troubling'misledhisJapanesestudentsinto makingsomeEnglishcommunicationerrors.Forinstance,itgives

"Thingshave.cometoaprettylpeculiar･strange･queer]pass"andthe curioususageexample"You'reacutelittlemonkey,mydear"notedfor amischievouschild.

(B)Idehara(1980:52)recountswriting"Hereyesopenedalittle againststickyeyewax"inagraduateschoolessay,Onlytobecorrected byhisnative-speakerteache r. Ideh ar a'serrorcamefrom Kenkyusha's NewJapanese-EnglishDictiona り (3rded.)me-kuso 目糞 equivalentof "discharge(-mucus)fromtheeyes;eye-wax,"whichheaptlycal ls"being misledbythedictionary."19

(C)Thelexicalghost"vicioushair"(Carr1983)providesafinal illustration.A Tokyoplasticsurgeryclinicranaseriesofadvertise一 mentsinAsianeditionsof Neu)sweek claimingthat:"KinkyorVicious HairMayBeChangedtoA (si c)Lovely,GlossyHai r."" V2-cioushair" hasgrownthroughoutfourKenkyushaeditionsfromthe1918 7Takeno- bu'stranslationequivalentkuSe 癖 "Ahabit;atrick;avice"headword witha Ruse -g e 癖毛 "vicioushair"subentryupintothe1974 Kenkyusha'S

19.Cf. ear-u)ax. Ideharasayshismistakecamefromtheme-yani 目脂 entry , butitwasme-kuso.This"eye-wax"erratumwascorrectedinthe4th edition' S =discharge[mucus]fromtheeyes;eyemucus;gum"equivalent,but itcontinuesin TheModemReader's Japanese-EnglishChwacterDiciiona 7y, JaPaneseCharacterDictiona 7y ,and Vaccari's St andardJapanese-English

Dictiona 7y . SACREDTWIGANDTREE: TAMAGuS HTAND 朗血はrINJAPANESEIENGLISHDICTIONARIES 27

Neu)Japanese-EnglishDictiona 7y'sheadwordkuse-ge 癖毛 translated "vicious(kinky,frizzy)hair."

Second,andmoretothepoint,misspellingsseemtobeespecially commonamongEnglishtranslationequivalentstoJapanesebiological names.Thedegreeof(in)accuracyisdifficulttodeterminebecausemost dictionariesarealphabetized,butone ,ACultuydDictiona73JOfJapan (1979) ,isarrangedbysemanticcategories.However,itsrevisededition , DiciionayyofJapaneseCultuy le (1987) ,lostthissemanticadvantageby reorderingtheentriesalphabetically.

Asanexperiment,Ireadthroughthisethnolinguisticdictionary'S "FloraandFauna"section (1979:345-381) withroughly 1300 headwords andmarkeddozensofunfamiliartermsthatlookedpeculiar(e.g. ,"camts- chtcense"). Checkingtheminbiologicalreferenceworksrevealedmost tobecorrect(e.g.,the Phe llopter usgenusf orb olu-防風 `sandtrefoil'),but atleastfourteenentrieshavetypographicalerrors. 20 Thesemistakes aredivisibleinto(Ⅰ)commonnameor (ⅠⅠ)technicaltermmisspellings,and (ⅠⅠⅠ)cross-referenceirregularities.

(Ⅰ)Sevenmisprintedcommonplacewordsinclude:"linnen"forlinen

(asa 麻 `hemp,･flax,linen '),"searobbin"forsearobin (h olb oJ筋鱗 `gurn-

20.Twolikely,butunverifiable ,ACulturalDiciiona7 yO fJapan errorsare "singlekwa" (tokado-hechima 十角瓜 `aloofah ,L uj fa acutangula') and"nak- ingshallot" (wakegi 分葱 `anonion ,Alliumfl'stulosum' S.Ⅴ. negi `Welsh onion').Hypotheticalexplanationsare"kwa"comingfromChinese gu a-瓜 'gourd'(alsoromanized kua or kwa ,c f.Japanese ka) and"making"perhaps from Nanking. 28 人 文 研 究 第 89 輯 ard '), "Easternrock"forEasternrook (watayi-gwasu 渡 り鳥 `araven') , "Japaneseacucuba"forJapaneseaucuba( aoki f# 'Japaneselaure l'), "Judas'-ear"forJudas-earorJudas'S-ear (kiku71age 木耳), =clemantis"for clematis (lessen-ka 鉄線花 `creamclematis'),and"tsue -tsue[tzetze]fly" fortsetseortzetze (ts uetsue-bae ツェツェ蝿,i.e.,theJapanesesourceof misspelling).

(II) A CultuylalDictiona7y's misprintsofbotanicalterminology involveonespecifi c- "Lysichitoncamtschtcense" for L.camtschatense (mizu-b ash o-水芭蕉 `Sknnkcabbage')- andthreegenerics: "Gj4 )S 砂hila" for Gj4) soPhilaelegans(kasum i-s o-霞草 `baby'sbreath '), "Irish" for Iris tectorum(ichihatsu 鳶尾 `fleur-dellis'),and "Licium" for Lyciumchinese (kuko 杓杷 `matrimonyvine').

(ⅠⅠⅠ)Thisdictionarycross-referencesspecificandvarietalnamesto theirgenericheadwords,e_g. ,"ma-dai 真鯛 redseabream,porgy"to "tat 鯛 seabream,porgy, " andthreefisharecorrectlyspelledinoneentryand misspelledinanother: "Eukianthu s perhztus" for E.peyuh ztu s( do-dan- tsutsuji どうだん脚荷,butcorrectunder tsutsuji `azalea') , "sagittated clamary"forsagittatedcalamary (suyume-ika 錫烏賊,c f. iba `cuttlefish') , and "Collyliavelutli･es" for Collybiavelu砂es(enoki-dake 榎茸,c f."collybia velutipes"(sic)under kinoko i 'mushroom').

Mostoftheabovemisprintsapparentlyoriginatedin A Cultuyial Dictiona 7yOf Japan (1979);andthefirsteditionofanydictionary,says Landau(1989:257),"isboundtohaveanumberoferrors."Thesecond edition(1987),omitsmanyplantandanimalentries,includingallthese misspelledones.Butoneerror ,"Giや S申hila" for Gj少 soPhi hZ,Wasdirectly SACREDTWIGANDTREE: TAMAG uSWAND SA RA 29RIrNJAPANESEIENGLISHDICTIONARIES copiedfrom(4thed.) Kenkyusha' S"ababies'-[baby'S-]breath; Gig)ssPhila (si c)elegans" translationequivalentof kasumi-so -霞草 [li t. "haze/mist "]. Ifsuchacursoryexaminationof ACultuylalDictiona7yOfJaPan suggestsoneerratumeveryfewpages,howmanymorecouldbefound?

DictionariesusingscientificLatinnomenclatureforfloraand faunanamesbenefitfromeconomyandspecificity(ReyandDelesalle 1979:24-5;Nguyen1980:165),buttheseadvantagesarepotentiallylost through"unscientific"misspellings.Notonlybilinguaりapanesediction- arieshavesuchtypographicalerrors.TheyarealsonotoriousinChinese dictionaries.Thewidelyreprinted1938 Cih ai,forinstance,definedthe Chineseminnow tia'o 鱗 `palechub , 2bccoPla妙u s' as "Zucco p lat ypus." ManyofthebestChinesedictionaries(e.g. ,Zhongu)endacidian) copied this "u" for a"Zucco" misspelling,andonlyrecentoneshavecorrectedit (seeCarr1993).Non-specialists,fromdictionaryproofreaderstousers , canbedeceivedbyseemingly"scientific"terminologylike "Zuccoplaty- pus," =Gj 4 )S 申hilaelegans ," or "Cleyeylawchnacca."21 UsingNewLatin terminologyinbilingualdictionariesconstituteswhatlannucci(1967:214) calls"athirdlanguage"beyondbothsourceandtargetlanguages;how- ever,itisonewithno"nativespeakers."

ThefinalimportanceofconsideringhowJapanese-Englishdiction- ariestrea ttam曙uShi and sakaki liesintheexemplarynatureoftheir

21.Thisapparentlyhighfrequencyofmisspelledscientificterminologyin bilingualOrientallanguagedictionariesmightbeowingtoitsabsencein monolingualones.UnliketheWesternlexicographicaltraditionofdefining plantandanimalnameswithNewLatintechnicalterms,general-purpose JapaneseandChinesedictionariesrarelyusethem. 30 人 文 研 究 第 89 輯

lexicographicalproblems.Mostareuniversalinbilingualdictionariesof alllanguages,butafewarepeculiartoJapanese.Occidentallexicogra- phersunderstandboththeoreticalproblemslikedifficultiesoftranslating culture-boundwordsandpracticaloneslikedangersofcopyingmisspell- ings,butsomemaynotbefamiliarwithcertainaspectsofJapanese languageandlexicography.

Oneremarkableaspectishowtotreatetymologicalmeaningatthe leveloflogographictranscription:anonexistentproblemforalphabeti- callywrittenlanguages.Underconventionaltheoryofbilinguallexicog- raphy,Zgusta(1971:343)claimsetymologicalinformationis"usefulonly indictionarieswithconsiderablescholarlyinterest."However,this presumptionoverlookslogographicallywrittenlanguages,astypifiedby theJapanese sakaki 榊 "sacredtree"ideographcombining 神 `god'and 木 `tree'elements.FornativespeakersofJapanese,suchideographyisso obviousthatadictionaryhardlyneedstomentionit;butforlearnersof Japanese,itisbeneficialforadictionarytonotethe"god-tree"signifi- canceofhow sakak i iswritten.Admittedly,thisdesideratumisexcesI sivelyoptimistic.Inthepresentsampleoftwenty-sixbilingualdiction- ariespublishedfrom1867to1990,notoneovertlyidentifies 榊 asan ideograph.ThefewJapanese-Englishdictionariesquoting"sacredtree" comeclosesttonotingitslogographicsignification.

Last ly,itshouldbereiteratedthatthisarticledoesnotintendto quibbleaboutdictionarymisprintslike "wchnacca" thatrevisededitions willpresumablysetrigh t. TheintentistoillustratehowJapanese dictionariescanexpandthetheoreticalandinternationalperspectivesof metalexicography,asseenfromasacredtwigandtree. SACREDTWIGANDTREE: TnMAGUS HTAND 朗彪L灯INJAPANESE･ENGLISHDICTIONAR正S 31

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