i ABSTRACT WAR AND LEGITIMACY: THE SECUREMENT OF SOVEREIGNTY IN THE NORTHWEST INDIAN WAR During the post-revolution period, the newfound constitutional government of the United States faced a crisis of sovereignty and legitimacy. The Old Northwest region, encompassing what is now Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, was disputed between several groups. The U.S. government under George Washington claimed the region and sought to populate the land with white settlers, British officials in North America wished to reestablish British hegemony in the Ohio River valley and Native-Americans wished to protect their ancestral homeland from foreign invasion. In the 1790s, war broke out between a British backed alliance of Native tribes and the United States of America. Historians have named this conflict the Northwest Indian War. Examining government records, personal correspondences between Washington administration officials and military commanders, as well as recollections of soldiers, officials and civilians this thesis explores the geopolitical causes and ramifications of the Northwest Indian War. These sources demonstrate how the war was a reflection of a crisis which threatened the legitimacy to American sovereignty in the West. Furthermore, they also demonstrate how the use of a professional federal standing army was used by Washington’s government to secure American legitimacy. Michael Anthony Lipe August 2019 ii WAR AND LEGITIMACY: THE SECUREMENT OF SOVEREIGNTY IN THE NORTHWEST INDIAN WAR by Michael Anthony Lipe A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in History in the College of Social Sciences California State University, Fresno August 2019 APPROVED For the Department of History: We, the undersigned, certify that the thesis of the following student meets the required standards of scholarship, format, and style of the university and the student's graduate degree program for the awarding of the master's degree. Michael Anthony Lipe Thesis Author Bradley Jones (Chair) History Ethan Kytle History Lori Clune History For the University Graduate Committee: Dean, Division of Graduate Studies AUTHORIZATION FOR REPRODUCTION OF MASTER’S THESIS X I grant permission for the reproduction of this thesis in part or in its entirety without further authorization from me, on the condition that the person or agency requesting reproduction absorbs the cost and provides proper acknowledgment of authorship. Permission to reproduce this thesis in part or in its entirety must be obtained from me. Signature of thesis author:_________________________________________________ ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would first like to thank my thesis advisor Dr. Bradley Jones of the History Department at the California State University of Fresno, for his continued support, feedback and patience. Dr. Jones was always there with advice on how to best organize my research and where to begin my search for answers. He has helped me become a better researcher, a better writer and a better historian. In addition, to my committee members Dr. Ethan Kytle and Lori Clune, I thank you for your feedback on my research. I will forever be grateful to you all for all you have done for me throughout my time creating this thesis. I would like to thank the rest of the staff of the History Department at Fresno State, for without them I would not have the understanding and appreciation for historical research, writing and teaching I have today. From my committee members to those whose classes I have been fortunate enough to take, I give my sincere thanks. Finally, I would like to thank my family and friends who have supported me throughout my years of study. I would like to acknowledge Jaime Montana Cook as the second reader of this thesis, and I am forever indebted to her for her comments and criticisms of my writing and research. I would like to thank Leslie Martin for her emotional support during times of stress and anxiety while compiling this thesis. I would like to thank my parents for their continued emotional and financial support throughout my time in university. And last but not least, I would like to dedicate my research to my late sister Anastasia Marie Gonsalves. Throughout her life she always supported me, looked out for me and encouraged me. Without her I would not be the historian I am today. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 1 CHAPTER 1: THE CRISIS OF LEGITIMACY ................................................................ 8 The Threat of Pan-Indianism ...................................................................................... 8 Settler Discontent and Federal Authority on the Frontier ......................................... 14 Provocation by British Agents .................................................................................. 19 Chapter Conclusion ................................................................................................... 24 CHAPTER 2: FAILED ATTEMPTS AT LEGITIMATION ........................................... 26 The First Failure of the Militia: Harmar’s Defeat ..................................................... 26 The Second Failure of the Militia: St. Clair’s Defeat ............................................... 32 Chapter Conclusion ................................................................................................... 40 CHAPTER 3: SECURING LEGITIMACY ..................................................................... 42 The Success of a Professional Standing Army ......................................................... 42 The Crisis Resolved .................................................................................................. 46 Chapter Conclusion ................................................................................................... 51 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................. 53 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................ 63 INTRODUCTION When most Americans recall United States military history, certain events and images come to mind. The minutemen of the Revolution, Union and Confederate soldiers fighting against their fellow countrymen during the Civil War, American soldiers fighting against fascist tyranny and genocide during the Second World War, harsh and unpopular quagmires in Vietnam or the Middle East. What does not often come to mind, however, is a conflict fought within the final decade of the eighteenth-century. A conflict that albeit neglected from the public memory had a monumental impact upon U.S. history: the Northwest Indian War of the 1790s. The Northwest Indian War was a conflict in the Ohio region between an alliance of Native American tribes and the United States. The conflict culminated in three military campaigns undertaken by the U.S. Army, the first two militia-based and the final composed of a federal army. The last of these campaigns resulted in an American victory.1 War and Legitimacy argues that the Northwest Indian War was a reflection of a wider crisis of American sovereignty and legitimacy, and that though the initial attempts to end the war exacerbated this crisis, the final victory through use of a standing army resolved it. This hydra-like crisis bore three heads: the discontent of frontier settlers and the lack of de facto federal authority in the west, British disregard for U.S. territorial claims and interference with U.S.-Native relations, and the threat of a Pan-Indian movement. To counter this crisis, the Washington administration used several methods to legitimize the young federal republic. First the Washington administration prioritized the use of diplomacy in the hopes of avoiding a war, and when this failed used a militia- based army against the Northwest Natives. When both methods ultimately failed to 1 John Grenier, The First Way of War: American War Making on the Frontier, 1607-1814. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 193. 2 resolve the crisis, the administration established a formalized standing army, whose victory secured the legitimacy the crisis had threatened. But first, just what was the Northwest Indian War, and why did it occur? Though the war proper began in 1790, tension between the Native Americans of the Old Northwest region and white settlers had been building for many years. The young republic viewed the Ohio region as a land of opportunity. For the wealthy merchants and the new government, it was a land of resources and strategic importance. Congress under the Articles of Confederation viewed the region as a source of relief, for the sale and granting of land brought in much needed revenue for the indebted government as well as providing a buffer separating the Union from foreign threats. The region also served as one of economic importance for it was not only a fertile land prime for settlement and cultivation, but the Ohio River would allow U.S. merchants and traders access to the Mississippi River.2 The West was also a land of promise to the poor white settlers who sought to make it their home. These Americans moved to the frontier for numerous reasons, from economic to ideological. Many farming settlers traversed over the Appalachian Mountains to find land that was becoming expensive, limited, and infertile in the East; in the hope of being able to provide for their families. They also sought