Colonisation of pdf

Continue The historical development of Zimbabwe this article should be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or fresh information available. (August 2011) Part of a series on the 's ancient history of leopard coupe c.900–1075 Mapungubwe Kingdom c.1075–1220 Zimbabwe Kingdom c.1220–1 Butua Kingdom c.1450–1683 Mutapa Kingdom c.1450–1760 White settlement pre-1923 Rozvi Empire c.1684–1834 M thwakazi 1838–1894 Rudd Score 1888 BSA Corporation Rule 1890–1923 Matabell War I 1893–1894 Second War Matabel 1896 –18 Conflict 1914–1918 World War I 1914–1918 South Colony 1923–1980 World War II Intervened 1939–1945 Emergency Battalion Malaya 1948–1960 Federation with NorthernRhodesia and Nyasaland 1953–1963 1964–1979 Unilateral Declaration of The Bible (UDI) 1965 Rhodesia under UDI 1965–1979 Zimbabwe-Rhodesia June–December 1979 Lancaster House Agreement 1979 British affiliation 1979–1980 Zimbabwe 1980–Now Gokorhandi 1982–1987 Second Congo War 1998–2003 Coup d'état 2017 vte after Lancaster House agreed in 1979 there was a transition to internationally recognized majority rule in 1980; That year he ceremonially granted Zimbabwe independence. In the 2000s, Zimbabwe's economy began to deteriorate due to a variety of factors, including the imposition of economic sanctions by Western countries led by Britain, as well as due to the widespread spread of corruption in the government. Economic sustainability caused many Zimbabweans to move abroad or to neighboring countries. The nation was known by several names before its recognized independence as Zimbabwe in 1980: Rhodesia, South Rhodesia and Rhodesia, Zimbabwe. The Pre-Colonial Era (1000– 1887) Main article: Zimbabwe's Pre-Colonial History Also See: Stone Paintings spreading by Sen located near Morva, Zimbabwe. Prior to bantu speakers arriving in present-day Zimbabwe, the area was populated by the ancestors of people of old age. The first Bantu-speaking farmers arrived about 2,000 years ago during the bantu expansion. [1] These bantu talkers were the makers of early Iron Age pottery belonging to silver leaves or St. Matula, the 3rd to 5th centuries AD, found in southeastern Zimbabwe. This tradition was part of the eastern stream[3] the expansion of The Beneto (sometimes called Koval),[4] which originated from the west of the Great Lakes, spread to the coastal regions of southeastern Kenya and northeastern Tanzania, and then south to Mozambique, southeastern Zimbabwe and Natal. [5] More notable in numbers in Zimbabwe are the makers of Ziva and Gokomere Ceramics, since the fourth century AD[4] their early Iron Age ceramic tradition belongs to the highland facades of the Eastern Stream,[6] which moved inland to Malawi and Zimbabwe. Import It has been found on gokomere and Ziwa sites, possibly in front of gold exported to the beach. The next stage was the culture of Gokumer Zhizu in southern Zimbabwe. Zhizu communities settled in the Shashe Limbopo region in the 10th century. Their capital was Sharuda (just across the Limbopo River from Zimbabwe). Many pieces of ceramic figuratives have been recovered from there, the faces of animals and birds, as well as fertility dolls. Residents produced ivory bracelets and other ivory goods. Imported beads found there and at other Zhizu sites are evidence of trade, possibly ivory and skin, with traders on the Indian Ocean coast. [7] [8] Pottery belonging to a western stream of tantu spread (sometimes called Kalondo) has been found on sites in northeastern Zimbabwe, dated from the seventh century. [10] (Western current originated in the same eastern stream area: both belong to a light system, called the Chifumbadze system, which is a public acceptance by archaeologists.) the terminology of eastern and western currents represents the expansion of the Brando-speaking peoples in terms of their culture. Another question is the branches of The Canto languages they spoke. It seems that the makers of Ziva/Gokumer were not ancestral spokesmen of zimbabwe's modern-day Shona languages, which did not arrive from the south of the Limbopo River until the 10th century, and whose ceramic culture belonged to the Western stream. The linguist and historian of Ahert believes that due to the similarity of Ziva/Gokumer pottery to the ancestral Niasa linguists, the people of Ziva/Gokumer spoke in a language close to the Niasa group. Whatever their language, they were tributed by ancestral Shona languages, although Ahert says that a collection of Niasa words occurs today in the dialects of central Shona. [12] Evidence suggests that ancestral Shona speakers came from , and that ceramic styles associated with Shona speakers in Zimbabwe from the 13th to the 17th centuries can be traced back to the pottery styles of the Western Stream (Kalondo) in South Africa. The Ziva/Gokumer and Zhizu traditions were superstitiond from the 10th century by Leopards Coupe and Gomanier of Saint Kalwando. [13] Although St. Kalondo was an ancestral Western stream to Shona's ceramic clothing, the closest relationships of ancestral , according to many linguists[15][17][17] were with a southern division of east Bantu - such as southeastern languages (Nguy, Soto-Tsonana, Tsonga), Niasa and Makwa. While it may well be that the people of the Western stream spoke a language belonging to a wider part of the Eastern City, it is a mystery that continues to be resolved that they spoke in the language closest to Just mentioned, all of which are spoken today in southeast Africa. After Shona talked people moved to zimbabwe today many different dialects have developed over time in different parts of the country. In the meantime, it was Kalanga. Greater Zimbabwe towers. Klanga is believed to have first emerged speaking communities in the middle Limbopo Valley in the ninth century before relocating to the highlands of Zimbabwe. The Zimbabwean plateau eventually became the capital of the next Klanga states. The Kingdom of Mabongobe was the first kingdom in a complex series of business countries to develop in Zimbabwe until the first European explorers from Portugal. They traded in gold, ivory and copper with textiles and glass. Mabongobe was eclipsed by the Kingdom of Zimbabwe from about 1250 to 1450. The kalanga state was refined and expanded on the stone architecture of Mabongobaw, which to this day survives in the ruins of the capital of the kingdom of Greater Zimbabwe. From about 1450–1760, Zimbabwe made its way to the kingdom of Motapa. The state of Klanga ruled much of the region now known as Zimbabwe, and parts of central Mozambique. The city is known by many names, including the Mottapa Empire, also known as Mwenemutapa, for its gold trade routes with Arabs and Portuguese. However, Portuguese settlers destroyed the business and began a series of wars that left the empire near collapse in the early 17th century. [19] As a direct response to Portuguese aggression in the interior, a new Kalanga government called the 2016 Dayway Empire emerged. Relying on centuries of military, political and religious development (which means terminator), Esmoi forced the Portuguese out of the Zimbabwean plateau by force of arms. While adding weapons to his arsenal and developing a professional army to protect his trade routes and conquests, Esmoy continued the stone-making traditions of the kingdoms of Zimbabwe and Mabongobe. Around 1821, General Zulu Mezilikazi of the Khumalo tribe successfully rebelled from Shah Shaka and created his own tribe, Nadbil. Ndebele fought his way north to Transvaal, leaving a trail of destruction in his wake and beginning an era of widespread devastation known as the Mfecane. When Dutch climbers converged in Transwall in 1836, they drive the tribe even further north. By 1838, the Dayway Empire, along with other states of Shona, had not been conquered by Nadabel. After losing their remaining South African territories in 1840, Mezilikazi and his tribe forever settled southwestern present Zimbabwe in what became known as Matabelland and established Blavio as their capital. Mezilikazi then organized his community in a military system with regime krale, similar to those of Shaka, which were stable enough to ward off more Bower influxes. During the pre-colonial period, social Ndebele It was classified. It consisted mainly of three social groups, Esnassi, Anela and Amhol. The Sissysi included the main peoples of Khumalu who migrated from the south of Limbopo with Mezilikazi. The Anela and Amhol groups were made up of other tribes and ethnic groups incorporated into the Empire during migration. Over time, however, the field has slowly gone[20] the Ndebele people have long been attributed to worshiping Unkunkulu as their excellent existence. Their religious life in general revolves around rituals, ceremonies, practices, devotion and loyalty around worshiping this great existence. However, with the popularity of Christianity and other religions, the traditional Religion of Ndable is now unusual[21] Mesilikazi died in 1868, and following a violent power struggle, his son Lubangola succeeded him. King Mezilikazi had established the kingdom of Nadbil and his subjects paid tribute to him. The kingdom faced the threat of colonialism under King Lubangula, and King Lubangola signed occupying treaties with European imperialists who saw the occupation of zimbabwe's current government. The Colonial Era (1888–1980) Main articles: South Rhodesia and the Federation of Rhodesia and Nisaland in the 1880s, the British arrived with Cecil Rhodes of South Africa. In 1898, the name Rhodesia South was adopted. In 1888, British colonialist Cecil Rhodes made a concession to the rights of mining from King Lubangula of the Nadabel peoples. Cecil Rhodes made the concession to persuade the British government to grant the Royal Charter to its British South African Company (BSAC) over Matableland, and its thematic states such as Maeshundland. Rhodes sought permission to negotiate similar concessions covering entire soil between the Limbopo River and Lake Tanganyika, known as Zambsia at the time. In accordance with the terms of the above concessions and treaties, Cecil Rhodes promoted the colonization of the region's territory and controlled Britain over labour as well as precious metals and other mineral resources. [25] In 1895, BSAC adopted the name Rhodesia for zambsia territory in honor of Cecil Rhodes. In 1898, 'South Rhodesia' became the official designation of the southern zambezi region, which later became Zimbabwe. The area in the north was separately run by the BSAC and was later named North Rhodesia (now Zambia). In 1896 and 1897, Shona carried out the Namofov (known as Chimornga) riots against the rape of their land by customers BSAC and Cecil Rhodes. [27] [28] After the failed riots of 1896-97 Ndebele and Shona groups subordinated to the Rhodes government as a result of European settlement rainfall in mass that led to the distribution of disproportionately pro land Move Shona, Nadbel, and other indigenous peoples. The colony's first official constitution was drafted in 1899, copying various pieces of legislation directly from South law; Many within the BSAC's administrative framework assumed that South Rhodesia, when its development was appropriately advanced, would replace its right as a member of the South African Union after the Angelo-Bower War in 1902 when four South African colonies joined together under the same flag and began working to create a unified administrative structure. The territory was opened to white settlements, and these settlers were then given significant administrative powers, including a franchise that, while at an unracial level, ensured predominantly European electors who acted to hinder Great Britain from reforming its policy in South Rhodesia and then it was considered a residential land mainly by Africans that their interests should be extraordinary And to whom britain's power must be transferred. [29] South Rhodesia stamps: Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret became a British self-governing colony during the Royal Tour of South Africa in October 1923, followed by a referendum held the year before. The British government took full command of The British South African Company's holdings, including both North and South Rhodesia. North Rhodesia maintained its status as a colonial protector; South Rhodesia was given responsible self-government - with limitations and still annexed to the crown as a colony. Many of the country's studies see it as a government that operated independently within the Commonwealth; nominally under british crown rule, but technically unable to do it as it pleased. And in theory, South Rhodesia was able to govern itself, draft its legislation and elect its parliamentary leaders. But in reality, this self-government was subject to surveillance. Until the unilateral independence of the white minority immigrant government in 1965, London continued to control the colony's foreign affairs, and all laws were subject to the approval of the British government and the Queen. [29] In 1930, the Land Division Act divided rural land along racial lines and created four types of land: white land that could not be obtained by Africans; [29] shopping areas for those Africans who could afford to buy land; Tribal trust lands designated as African reserves; and state-owned crown lands, reserved for future use and public parks. Fifty-one percent of the land was given to about 50,000 white residents, of which 29.8 percent remained for more than a million Africans. [30] Many Rhodesians served on behalf of the . World War II, mainly in the East African campaign against axis forces in East Africa Italy. In 1953, in the face of African opposition, Britain consolidated two Rhodesia colonies with Nia (now Malawi) in the ill-fated Federation of Rhodesia and Nia Saland, which was dominated by South Rhodesia. But in 1962, with the growth of African nationalism and public opposition, the British government declared that Nia Saland had the right to separate from the Federation; soon after, they said the same for North Rhodesia. On November 11, 1965, the government of the of the white minority, led by Ian Smith, announced a unilateral declaration of independence from Britain on November 11, 1965. Britain viewed it as an act of rebellion, but did not force control again. The white minority government declared itself a republic in 1970. A civil war followed when Joshua Nekomo's ZAPU and Robert Mugabe's ZANU were using the help of the Zambian and Mozambique governments. Although smith's declaration was not recognized by britain nor any other foreign power, South Rhodesia reduced the southern designation, claiming the status of the nation as the Republic of Rhodesia in 1970,[33] although it was not internationally recognized. On April 18, 1980, Zimbabwe gained official independence. The government held independence celebrations at the Rufaro Stadium in the capital Salisbury. Lord Christopher Somez, the last governor of South Rhodes who said goodbye while Charles, Prince of Wales, said goodbye and the Rhodesian Signal Corps played God save the Queen. Many major foreign personalities were also present, including Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, Nigerian President Shiho Shagari, Zambian President Kenneth Kawanda, President Seretse Khama and Australian Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser representing the Commonwealth. Bob Marley sang 'Zimbabwe', a song he wrote, at the invitation of the government at a concert celebrating the country's independence. [34] President Shagari pledged $15 million to train Zimbabweans and migrants in Nigeria. Mugabe's government used part of the money to buy South African-owned newspaper companies, increasing government control over the media. The rest went on to train students at Nigerian universities, government workers at the Nigerian College of Administrative Staff in Badaghari and soldiers at the Nigerian Defence Academy in Kaduna. Later that year Mugabe commissioned a BBC report on press freedom in Zimbabwe. The BBC published its report on June 26, recommending the privatization of Zimbabwe Broadcasting (IRIB) and its independence from political interests. [36] [37] See also: On April 18, 1982, zimbabwe's Mugabe government relations changed the name of the capital from Salisbury to in celebration of the second anniversary of independence. [38] The government was renamed Jameson Street in honor of Mozambique President Samura Machel. In 1992, a World Bank study found that more than 500 health centers have been built since 1980. The percentage of vaccinated children increased from 25% in 1980 to 67% in 1988 and life expectancy from 55 to 59. Enrollment increased by 232% a year after primary education was released, and secondary school enrollment increased by 33% in two years. These social policies lead to an increase in the debt ratio. Several laws were passed in the 1980s in an effort to reduce the wage gap. However the gaps remained noticeable. In 1988, the law at least theoretically gave women the same rights as men. Previously, they could only take a few personal initiatives without the consent of their father or husband. [39] A new constitution has been provided for the executive [citation required] of the president as head of state with the prime minister as head of state. Pastor Kenan Banana served as the first president. In government, it amended the constitution in 1987 to provide for an executive and abolished the prime minister's office. Constitutional changes were implemented on January 1, 1988, with Robert Mugabe as president. Zimbabwe's two-member parliament had a directly elected assembly assembly and an indirectly elected Senate, somewhat made up of tribal chiefs. The constitution created two separate rolls of voters, one for a majority of blacks, with 80% of parliamentary seats, and the other for whites and other ethnic minorities such as, mixed- race people and Asians, who held 20%. The government amended the Constitution in 1986, eliminating voter rolls and replacing white seats with seats full of nominated members. Many white delegates joined ZANU, which was then reinsed in. In 1990, the government repealed the Senate and increased house membership to include members nominated by the president. Prime Minister Mugabe kept army chief Peter Valls in his government, putting him in charge of integrating zimbabwe's Revolutionary People's Army (ZIPRA), Zimbabwe's African National Liberation Army (ZANLA), and the Rhodesian Army. Tension soon developed as the Western media sedothed Mugabe's efforts at reconciliation with the white minority. [40] On March 17, 1980, after several failed assassination attempts, Mugabe asked Valls, Why are your people trying to kill me? [41] BBC News interviewed Valls on August 11, 1980. He told the BBC that he had asked British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher to annul the 1980 election before the election Announcing the result on the basis that Mugabe used intimidation to win the election. Valls said Thatcher had not responded to her request. On August 12, British government officials denied they had responded, saying Salisbury Deputy Governor Anthony Duff told Valls on March 3 that Thatcher would not annul the election. Information Minister Nathan Shamviarra said the government will not be blackmailed by racial bad luck and told all those Europeans who do not accept the new order to pack their bags. He also said the government continues to consider legal or administrative action against Valls. One thing is pretty clear—we're not going to have distrust personalities in our community, Mugabe said on his return to Zimbabwe after the interview, and told Time magazine's Peter Hawthorne, Staying away at this time would have appeared like an admission of guilt. Moved to South Africa. [43] Ethnic divisions soon returned to the forefront of national politics. Tensions between ZAPU and ZANU erupted with guerrilla activity starting again in Matabelland in southwestern Zimbabwe. Nekomo (ZAPU) went into exile in britain and did not return until Mugabe secured his safety. In 1982, government security officials discovered large caches of zapu-owned weapons and ammunition, accusing Nekomo and his followers of planning to overthrow the government. Mugabe expelled Nekomo and his closest aides from the cabinet. Seven members of parliament, members of the Rhodesian Front, left Smith's party to sit as independents on March 4, 1982, indicating their dissatisfaction with his policies. [38] As a result of what they see as the persecution of Nkomo and his party, supporters of the PF-ZAPU, army fugitives began a campaign of opposition against the government. Centering primarily in Matabellland, home of the Ndebeles, who were then the main followers of the PF-ZAPU, the opposition continued until 1987. The party included attacks on government personnel and facilities, armed banditry aimed at disrupting security and economic life in rural areas, and harassment of ZANU-PF members. [45] Due to the uneasy security situation immediately after independence and democratic sentiment, the government forcibly maintained a state of emergency. This gave the government broad authority under the Law and Order Maintenance Act, including the right to detain persons without charge, which it used quite widely. Between 1983 and 1984, the government declared a curfew in areas of Matabelland and was sent to the army in an effort to crack down on members of the Nadbil tribe. Pacific campaign known as Gokuruhandi or strong winds killed at least 20,000 civilians An elite, trained North Korean brigade known in Zimbabwe as Gokuur hendy. ZANU-PF increased its majority in the 1985 election, winning 67 of the 100 seats. The majority gave Mugabe the opportunity to start making constitutional changes, including changes to land restoration. The war did not stop until Mugabe and Nekomo reached an agreement in December 1987, which zapu said became part of ZANU-PF and changed the constitutional government to make Mugabe the country's first chief executive and Nekomo one of two vice presidents. The 1990s elections in March 1990 resulted in another grueling victory for Mugabe and his party, which won 117 of the 120 seats. Election observers estimated voter turnout at only 54%, finding the campaign neither free nor fair [citation required], though the vote met international standards. Unhappy with a one-party Defacto government, Mugabe called on the ZANU-PF Central Committee to support the creation of a one-party de Jour government in September 1990 and lost. The government initiated further constitutional amendments. The judiciary and human rights defenders strongly criticized the first reforms imposed in April 1991 for restoring corporal punishment and executions, denying the government's recourse to courts in cases of forced land purchases. The general health of the civilian population also began to paddle significantly, and by 1997 25% of Zimbabwe's population had contracted HIV, the AIDS virus. During the 1990s, students, trade unions and workers often protested to express their unhappiness with the government. Students protested in 1990 against proposals to increase government control over universities and again in 1991 and 1992 when they clashed with police. Trade unions and workers also criticized the government during this time. In 1992, police prevented trade unions from holding anti-government demonstrations. In 1994, widespread industrial unrest weakened the economy. In 1996, civil servants, nurses and minor doctors went on strike over payroll issues. On December 9, 1997, a national strike paralyzed the country. Mugabe was horrified by demonstrations by former Xanella fighters, war veterans, who had been at the heart of the bush war 20 years earlier. He agreed to pay them a large salary and pension, which proved to be a completely unsealed and un-funded financial commitment. Dissatisfaction with the government brought about crackdowns by the Dracone government, which in turn began to destroy both the fabric of government and society. This, in turn, brought more dissatisfaction within the crowd with itself. So the downward spiral began. Although many post-independence whites, mainly for neighboring South Africa, had left Zimbabwe, those who remained continued to use disproportionate control of some sectors of the economy, Agricultural. In the late 1990s, whites claimed less than 1% of the population but owned 70% of portable land. Mugabe raised the issue of land ownership by white farmers. In a well-reckoningd move, he began redistributing the forced land that forced the government into a long-term conflict with the IMF. Amid a severe drought in the region, police and the military were ordered to halt the invasion of white-owned farms by so-called war veterans and youth militias. This has led to a mass exodi of outside Zimbabwe. Almost no tolerable land is currently available to white farmers. Economy during the 1980s and 1990s Main Article: Zimbabwe's Economic History of the Economy was implemented along corpoatist lines with strict government controls on all aspects of the economy. Controls were placed on wages, prices and massive increases in government spending, resulting in significant budget deficits. The experiment was met with mixed results, with Zimbabwe further behind the first world and unemployment. Some market reforms were attempted in the 1990s. A 40% reduction in the was allowed to occur and price and wage controls were eliminated. These policies also failed at the time. Growth, employment, wages, and social services costs fell sharply, inflation recovered, deficits remained well above target and many industrial firms, particularly in textiles and footwear, closed higher in response to increased competition and real interest rates. The incidence of poverty in the country increased during this period. 1999 to 2000 See also: However, Zimbabwe began experiencing a period of considerable political and economic upheaval in 1999. Opposition to President Mugabe and the ZANU-PF government grew significantly after the mid-1990s partly due to worsening economic and human rights conditions caused by the seizure of farmland owned by white farmers and economic sanctions imposed by Western countries led by Britain in response. The Democratic Change Movement was founded in September 1999 as an opposition party founded by the Morgan Tsonzhira Trade Union. The MDC's first opportunity to test opposition to Mugabe's government came in February 2000, when a referendum was held on the government's proposed draft constitution. Among its elements, the new constitution would have allowed President Mugabe to seek two additional term in office, grant government officials immunity from prosecution and allow the seizure of land belonging to whites. The referendum was defeated manually. Soon after, the government boycotted war veterans through a loose organized group of war veterans, some so-called war veterans of their age, because they were too young to have fought in Chimornga. The land redistribution program is often marked by the forced expulsion of white farmers and violence against both farmers and farm workers. Parliamentary elections held in June 2000 have been locally violent, with allegations of electoral irregularities and government intimidation from opposition supporters. [Citation requirements] [48] However, M.D.C. won 57 of the 120 seats in the National Assembly. The 2002 presidential election was held in March 2002. In the months before the survey, ZANU-PF, backed by the military, security services, and especially so-called war veterans, - very few of whom actually fought in Chimornga II against the Smith regime in the 1970s - has been set on wholesale intimidation and repression of MDC-led opposition [citations required]. Despite strong international criticism, these measures, coupled with an organized dent in the electoral process, secured Mugabe's victory. The government's behavior drew sharp criticism from the and the , which imposed limited sanctions against leading members of mugabe's regime. Since the 2002 elections, Zimbabwe has been in more economic trouble and growing political chaos. 2003– 2005 This section requires additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unse sourced materials may be challenged and removed. (May 2009) (Learn how and when to delete this template message) GBP 8 Zimbabwean dollar value in a 2003 section on the opposition MDC began celebrating earlier in the decade, after Morgan Tsvangirai (head of the MDC) was tricked [citations required] into a government sting operation that is video he is talking of removing Mr Mugabe from power. He was subsequently arrested and tried on treason charges. This paralyzed his control over party affairs and raised questions about his competence. It also catalined a major split within the party. In 2004 he was acquitted, but not until after he suffered serious abuse and ill-treatment in prison. [Citation required] the opposing faction was led by Wellesman Ann Job, who was the party's general secretary. In mid-2004, rebels loyal to Mr. Tsonzhira began attacking members who were mostly loyal to Nekumab, culminating in a September attack on the party's Harare headquarters in which the security director nearly was thrown to his death. [49] An internal party investigation later proved that Tsvangirai's aides had endured, if not confirmed, violence. Divisive as violence, it was the debate over the rule of law that launched the party's final separation in November 2005. This division severely weakened the opposition. In addition the government applied its agents to both espionage on both sides and weakened each side through espionage acts. [Citation required] Zimbabwe The election, held in March 2005, in which ZANU-PF won a two-thirds majority, was again criticized by international observers, which is flawed. In this way, Mugabe's political agents were able to undermine the opposition internally, and the government's security apparatus managed to destabilize it externally by using violence in anti-Mugabe strongholds to prevent citizens from voting. [Citation requirements] some voters 'reject' the polling station despite having proper identification [citation requirements], further ensuring that the government can control the results. In addition Mugabe began appointing sympathetic judges to the government [required citations], making any judicial appeal futile. Mugabe was also able to appoint 30 members of parliament. [50] As the Senate elections approached, more opposition splits occurred. N.C. supporters argued that M.D.C. should know the slate of candidates; When party leaders voted for the issue, N.K. Side narrowly won, but Mr. Tsonzhira declared that as party chairman he was not bound by the majority decision. [51] Again, the opposition was weakened. As a result of the elections, a new Senate in November 2005 was largely boycotted by the opposition. Mugabe's party won 24 of the 31 districts where elections were held amid low voter turnout. Again, evidence of voter intimidation and fraud arose. [Citation required] In May 2005, the government launched Operation Morambasvin. The bill was formally billed to rid urban areas of illegal structures, illegal businesses, and criminal activities. In practice, it was aimed at punishing political opponents [required citations]. The estimates that 700,000 people are left without jobs and homes. [Citations required] families and traders, especially at the beginning of operations, were often given no information before police destroyed their homes and businesses. Others were able to save some property and building materials, but often had nowhere to go despite the government's statement that people should return to their rural homes. Thousands of families remained unproted in mid-winter Zimbabwe in the middle of Zimbabwe's winter. [Citation required], . The government interfered in ngo efforts to provide emergency assistance to displaced persons in many cases. Some families were removed from transit camps, where they had no shelters or cooking facilities and minimal food, supplies and sanitary facilities. The operation continued until July 2005 when the government launched a program to provide housing for newly arrived displaced people. [52] said deportations have disrupted treatment of people with HIV/AIDS in a country where 3,000 people are killed every week and about 1.3 million children Orphaned. Amnesty International said the operation was the latest manifestation of a major human rights problem that has been going on for years. By September 2006, housing construction fell far short of demand, and there were reports that the profiters were mostly public servants and party loyalists, not the displaced. The government campaign for forced deportations continued in 2006, though on a lesser scale. [52] Mugabe signed constitutional amendments in September 2005 that re-established a national senate (abolished in 1987) and nationally nationally abolished all land. This converted all property rights into leases. The amendments also ended the right of landowners to challenge the government's allocation of land in the courts, marked the end of any hope of returning any territory taken by armed land invasions. Senate elections in November resulted in a victory for the government. The MDC split over whether to field candidates and somewhat boycotted the vote. In addition to low participation, there was widespread government intimidation. The split in the MDC became factions, each claiming control of the party. The early months of 2006 were marked by food shortages and mass hunger. The sheer organs of siltation were revealed by the fact that in the courts, government witnesses said they were too weak to starve to testify. [54] 2006 to 2007 In August 2006 runaway inflation forced the government to replace its existing currency with a revalued one. In December 2006, ZANU-PF proposed coordinating parliamentary and presidential election plans in 2010; the move was seen by the opposition as a pretext to extend Mugabe's term to 2010. Morgan Tsonzhirai was severely beaten on March 12, 2007, after being arrested and held at the Machipisa Police Department in the Highfield suburb of Harare. The event gained international outcry and was deemed particularly brutal and extreme even given the reputation of Mugabe's government. We are very concerned by reports of continued brutal attacks on opposition activists in Zimbabwe and are asking the government to stop all acts of violence and intimidation against opposition activists, said Kolawul Olanyan, Amnesty International Africa program director. [55] The economy declined by 50% from 2000 to 2007. In September 2007, the inflation rate was approximately 8,000%, the highest in the world. [56] There are frequent power and water outages. [57] Harare's drinking water became unreliable in 2006, and as a result, Disentineri and Cholera swept the city in December 2006 and January 2007. [58] Unemployment in official jobs running at a record 80%. [59] There was widespread hunger that was manipulated by the government to make the opposition strongholds suffer the most. The availability of bread after poor wheat harvest was severely bound and Of all the bakeries. [60] The country, formerly one of Africa's richest, became one of the poorest. Many observers now see the country as a failed state. [61] The settlement of the Second Congo War brought zimbabwe's considerable military commitment, though some soldiers remain under control to secure mineral assets. The government lacks the resources or machinery to deal with the devastation of the HIV/AIDS pandemic, affecting 25% of the population. Mugabe, however, and the forced and violent removal of white farmers in a brutal land redistribution program have earned themselves widespread ridicule from the international arena. [63] The regime has been able to cling to power by creating wealthy encapsulated government ministers and senior party members. Borrowdale Brook, for example, is an oasis of wealth and privilege on the outskirts of Harare. It features mansions, manicured lawns, shops complete with fully stocked shelves containing an abundance of fruit and vegetables, large cars and a golf club home to President Mugabe's out-of-town retreat. Zimbabwe's bakeries closed in October 2007, and supermarkets warned they would have bread for the foreseeable future because of the collapse of wheat production after white-owned farms were seized. The Ministry of Agriculture also said the lack of electricity was responsible for the wheat shortage, which affected the reduction in irrigation electricity and halved crop yields per acre. The power shortage is because Zimbabwe relies on Mozambique for some of its electricity and had reduced the amount of electricity it needs because of Mozambique's unpaid $35 million bill. [65] On December 4, 2007, the United States imposed travel sanctions against 38 people with ties to President Mugabe because they played a central role in increasing the regime's human rights abuses, mugabe attended a meeting of EU and African leaders in Lisbon on December 8, 2007, prompting British Prime Minister Gordon Brown not to stop attending. While German Chancellor Angela Merkel criticized Mugabe with his public comments, leaders from other African countries offered him supportive remarks. [67] The deterioration of zimbabwe's educational system, once considered one of the best in Africa, went into crisis in 2007 due to the country's economic crisis. One foreign reporter saw hundreds of children at The Hotcliffe Renewal Primary School in Epworth, 19 kilometers (12 miles) west of Harare, writing in dust on the floor because they had no sports books or pencils. The high school exam system was destroyed in 2007. The examiner refused to mark the examination papers when they were presented just Z$79 an article, enough to buy three smallpoxes. Corruption has infiltrated the system and may explain why in January 2007 thousands of students received no signal for the topics they were having While others were deemed great in the topics they sat on. However, by late the education system has improved and is still considered the best in South Africa. The 2008 2008 elections are the main articles: Zimbabwe's presidential elections, 2008 and 2008–2009 Zimbabwe political negotiations held a presidential election, along with the March 29, 2008 parliamentary elections. [68] The three major candidates of current President Robert Mugabe of the African National Union of Zimbabwe - the Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF), Morgan Tsvangirai of the Movement for Democratic Change - Tsvangirai (MDC-T), and Simba Makuni, were independents. [69] While no candidate received an outright majority in the first round, the second round took place on June 27, 2008, between Tsonzhira (with 47.9% of the first-round vote) and Mugabe (43.2%). The Tsonkayi withdrew from the second round a week before it was scheduled to take place, citing violence against supporters of his own party. The second round went ahead despite widespread criticism, leading to a victory for Mugabe. Because of Zimbabwe's dire economic situation, elections were expected to present their toughest electoral challenge to President Mugabe to date. Mugabe's opponents were critical of the election process, with the government accused of planning to tough on the elections; Human Rights Watch said the elections were likely to be deeply flawed. [70] After the first round, but before counting was over, Jose Marcos Berika, head of the South African Development Society's observer mission, described the election as a peaceful and credible expression of the will of the Zimbabwean people. After the first round, more than a month of official results were not announced. [71] The failure to publish the results was strongly criticized by the MDC, which unsuccessfully sought a high court order to force their release. An independent plan put Tsonzhira in the lead, but needed to avoid a second round without a majority. M.D.C. announced that Tsonzhira won a slim majority in the first round and initially refused to participate in any second round. [72] ZANU-PF has said mugabe will take part in a second round; [73] The party claimed that some election officials had fraudulently reduced Mugabe's rating in connection with the MDC, resulting in a recount. After recounting and confirming the results, Zimbabwe's election commission announced On May 2 that Tsonzhira won 47.9% and Mugabe 43.2%, thereby requiring a second round of elections scheduled for June 27, 2008. [74] Despite Tsonzhira's claims that he won a majority in the first round, he refused to participate in the second round. [75] The period after the first round was marked by serious political violence caused by ZANU-PF. ZANU-PF MDC fans take charge This violence has put western governments and prominent Western zanu-PF organizations responsible for violence that seems highly likely to be true. [77] On June 22, 2008, Tsonzhiray announced that he was withdrawing from the second round of the election, describing it as a violent dinner and saying his supporters risked being killed if he voted for him. [79] However, the second round went as planned with Mugabe as the only active-running candidate, although Tsonzhira's name remained on the ballot. Mugabe won the second round by a grueling margin and was sworn in as president on June 29 for another term. [81] [82] The international reaction to the second round has been different. The United States and European Union states have called for increased sanctions. [84] On July 11, the UN Security Council voted to impose sanctions on Zimbabwe; [85] The African Union has called for a national unity government. [87] Preliminary negotiations to set conditions for formal negotiations between leading negotiators from both parties began on July 10, and on July 22, the three party leaders met for the first time in Harare to express their support for a negotiated settlement of disputes arising from presidential and parliamentary elections. Negotiations between the parties officially began on July 25 and are currently moving forward with very few details released from negotiating teams in Pretoria, as media coverage is barred from the premises where negotiations are underway. The talks were conducted by South African President T taboo Mabaki. On September 15, 2008, leaders of South Africa's 14-member development community witnessed the signing of a power sharing agreement brokered by South African leader Taboo Mooki. With symbolic hands and warm smiles at the Rainbow Towers Hotel, in Harare, Mugabe and Tsonjira signed the deal to end the violent political crisis. As provided, Robert Mugabe will remain president, Morgan Tsonzhira will be prime minister,[88] ZANU-PF and MDC will share police control, Zhano Mugabe will take command of the army and Arthur Motambara will be deputy prime minister. [89] [90] Marange diamond fields massacre In November 2008 the Air Force of Zimbabwe was sent, after some police officers began refusing orders to shoot the illegal miners at Marange diamond fields. [91] Up to 150 of the estimated 30,000[92] illegal miners were shot down from armed helicopters. In 2008, some Zimbabwean lawyers and opposition car politicians claimed that Sherry was the first moveer behind military raids on illegal seekers at diamond mines in eastern Zimbabwe. [93] Estimates of the death toll by mid-December range from the 83 reported by city council, based on requests for burial land, to 140 estimated by the opposition (there then) For Democratic Change - Tsvangirai Party. [91] [94] 2009 to present 2009–2017 In January 2009, Morgan Tsvangirai announced that he would do as the leaders across Africa had insisted and join a coalition government as prime minister with his nemesis, President Robert Mugabe . [95] On February 11, 2009, Tsonzhira was sworn in as prime minister of Zimbabwe. [96] [97] [98] By 2009, inflation had reached 500 billion percent per year under Mugabe's government, and the Zimbabwean currency was worthless. Zimbabwe shared power with mugabe's regime between 2009 and 2013, Zimbabwe turned to using the U.S. dollar as a currency, and the economy recovered, to a growth rate of 10% per year. [99] In 2013, Mugabe's government won an election described by the Economist as fraud,[99] doubled the size of the civil service and ... False and stunning corruption. However, the United Nations, the African Union and sadc confirmed the elections as free and fair. [99] By 2016, the economy had collapsed, nationwide protests took place across the country,[100] and the Finance Minister admitted that at the moment we literally have nothing. [99] There are the introduction of bond notes to literally combat the biting of the cash crisis and crisp liquidity. Cash became scarce in the market in 2017. On Wednesday, November 15, 2017, the military placed President Mugabe under house arrest and removed him from power. [101] The military declared that the president was safe. The army placed tanks around government buildings in Harare and blocked the main airport road. Public opinion in the capital was interested in eliminating dictators although they were uncertain about replacing him with another dictatorship. [102] The Times reported that Emerson Menagawa helped set up the coup. She had just been fired by Mr Mugabe to pave the way for Grace Mugabe to replace her husband. [103] A Zimbabwean army officer, Maj. Gen. Sibuciso Moyu, went on television to say that the army around President Mugabe was targeting criminals but not actively removed the president from power. However, the president of the African Union described it as such. If it looks like a coup d'etat, it walks like a coup d'etat and quacks like a coup, then it's a coup, Ugandan writer Charles Onangu-Ubo said on . Nunhil Singh, an assistant professor at the U.S. Naval War College and author of a book on military coups, described the situation in Zimbabwe as a coup. He tweeted that the president is safe is a classic catch-up coup from such an event. Robert Mugabe resigned on November 21, 2017. Second Vice President Phelekezela Mphoko became acting president. Emerson Menagawa was sworn in as president on November 24, 2017. [107] The 2018–2019 nationwide elections were held on July 30, 2018, to elect the president and members of both parliaments. Ruling Party Winning a majority of seats in parliament, in chief Emerson Menagawa was declared the winner after receiving 50.8% of the vote. Opponents accused the government of voting fraud. In subsequent M.D.C. fan riots, the army opened fire, killed three people, while three others died of their injuries the next day. [108] The main article: Zimbabwe's fuel protests in January 2019 followed a 130 percent increase in fuel prices for thousands of Zimbabweans, and the government responded with a coordinated crackdown that resulted in hundreds of arrests and multiple deaths. Also, the economic history of Zimbabwe's education in Zimbabwe governor of the history of South Rhodesia the history of Africa of South Africa territorial reform in Zimbabwe lists zimbabwean presidents Policy Zimbabwe Prime Minister Rhodesia Zimbabwe History History and Timeline Of Harare History and Timeline of the Year in Zimbabwe References ^ Pre-colonial history SA. History of South Africa online. Archived from the original on July 2, 2016. Retrieved 17 July 2016. ^ Huffman, T.N. (2007). Guidebook to the Iron Age. University of KwaZulu-Natal Press. p. 123. ^ Phillipson, D.W. (1985). An Archaeological Reconsideration of Bantu Expansion. monto . 2: 69–84. ^ a b Huffman. Guidebook to the Iron Age. ^ Phillipson, D.W. (1995). 3rd African Archaeology. pp. 250 ff. ^ Phillipson, D.W. An Archaeological Reconsideration of Bantu Expansion: 77–8. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ P. Mitchell; G. Whitelaw (2005). The Archaeology of Southernmost Africa from c. 2000 bp to the Early 1800s: a Review of Recent Research. Journal of African History. 46 (2): 209–241. doi:10.1017/s0021853705000770. ^ Phillipson, D.W. (1989). Bantu-Speaking People in Southern Africa' in Obenga (ed), Les Peuples Bantu. Paris. p. 156. ^ Mapungubwe: A Living Legacy. Mapungubwe Institute for Strategic Reflection. 2011. ^ Phillipson (1989). The People of The City of Canto in South Africa. p. 156. ^ Phillipson, 1985. An Archaeological Reconsideration of Bantu Expansion: 69–84. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) ^ Ehret, C. (2001). A classic African era. University Press of Virginia. p. 239. ^ Huffman (2007). Guidebook to the Iron Age. ^ Ehret. A classic African era. ^ Bastin Y, Coupez A, Mann M (1999). Continuity and divergence in the Bantu languages: perspectives from a lexicostatistic study. Annales, Sciences Humaines. 162: 315–317 (S languages). ^ Guthrie, M. (1967–71). Comparative Bantu: an introduction to the comparative linguistics and prehistory of the Bantu languages. Greg International. ^ K. Rexová; Y. Bastin; D. Frynta (2006). Cladistic analysis of Bantu Languages. Naturwissenschaften. 93 (4): 189–194. doi:10.1007/s00114- ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺎن .(006-0088-z. PMID 16514514. S2CID 1050952. Holden, C.J. (2002). Bantu language trees reflect the spread of farming across sub-Saharan Africa. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. 269 (1493): 793–799. doi:10.1098/rspb.2002.1955. PMC 1690959. PMID 11958710. ^ Hall, Martin; Stephen W. Silliman (2005 ,Retrieved 14 December 2008. ^ Hensman, Howard. Cecil Rhodes: A Study of a Career. p. 106–107. ^ Parsons, Neil. A New History of Southern Africa اودﯾﺴﻪ .?pp. 241–244. ISBN 978-1-4051-0751-8. ^ The Ndebele People ,retrieved from ^ ^ So Who Was Shaka Zulu- Really ﺷﻨﺎﺳﯽ ﺗﺎرﯾﺨﯽ. وﻳﻠﻲ ﺑﻠﮏ ول .p. 170. ^ Gray, J. A. (1956). A Country in Search of a Name. The Northern Rhodesia Journal. III (1): 78. Retrieved 14 December 2008. ^ Beach, D.N. (1979). 'Chimurenga': the Shona Rising of 1896–97 .ﺑﺮداﺷﺖ ﻫﺎﯾﯽ از آﻓﺮﯾﻘﺎی ﺟﻨﻮﺑﯽ .Second Edition, 1993. London: Macmillan. ۱۷۸–۱۸۱. ^ Bryce, James a b Palley, Claire (1966). The Constitutional History and Law of ^ .ﺗﺎرﯾﺦ آﻓﺮﯾﻘﺎی ﺟﻨﻮﺑﯽ آﻧﻼﯾﻦ .The Journal of African History. Cambridge University Press. 20 (3): 395–420. doi:10.1017/S0021853700017382. ^ The role of Cecil John Rhodes' British South African Company in the Conquest of Matabeleland ISBN 9781107021709. OCLC 866253281. ^ Parsons (1993). p. 292. ^ Judd, Denis. Empire: The .ﺗﺎرﯾﺨﭽﻪ ای از زﯾﻤﺒﺎﺑﻮه. ﻧﯿﻮﯾﻮرک، ﻧﯿﻮﯾﻮرک .(Southern Rhodesia, 1888-1965: with special reference to imperial control. London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198216315. ^ Mlambo, A. S. (7 April 2014 ﺳﯿﺎﺳﺖ ﺧﺎرﺟﯽ ﻧﯿﺠﺮﯾﻪ ﺗﺤﺖ .(p. 669. ^ Abegunrin, Olayiwola (2003 .ﺗﻘﻼ ﺑﺮای آﻓﺮﯾﻘﺎ: ﻓﺘﺢ ﻣﺮد ﺳﻔﯿﺪﭘﻮﺳﺖ ﺑﻪ ﻗﺎره ﺗﺎرﯾﮏ از ﺳﺎل ۱۸۷۶ ﺗﺎ Pakenham, Thomas (1992). ۱۹۱۲ ^ .آﻓﺮﻳﻘﺎ اورﻧﻠﻨﺪ . British Imperial Experience from 1765 to the Present. p. 372. ^ Parsons (1993). ۳۱۸–۳۲۰. ^ Williams, Lizzie (2005). ۱۷۰–۱۶۹ p. 89. ^ Kalley, Jacqueline Audrey (1999). Southern African Political History: A Chronology of Key Political Events from Independence to Mid-1997. p. 711. ^ a b Kalley, Jacqueline Audrey (1999). Southern African Political History: A Chronology of Key Political Events from .ﺣﺎﮐﻤﯿﺖ ﻧﻈﺎﻣﯽ، ۱۹۶۶–۱۹۹۹ Independence to Mid-1997. p. 718. ^ Zimbabwe's development experiment 1980-1989, Peter Makaye and Constantine Munhande, 2013 ^ Walls: We will make it work Archived 30 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine TIME magazine and CNN ^ Raymond, Walter John. Dictionary of Politics: Selected Zanu-PF's Walls 'manhunt' backfires Archived 30 November 2003 at the Wayback Machine ^ .ﺗﺎرﯾﺦ ﺳﯿﺎﺳﯽ آﻓﺮﯾﻘﺎی ﺟﻨﻮﺑﯽ: زﻣﺎﻧﯽ از روﯾﺪادﻫﺎی ﮐﻠﯿﺪی ﺳﯿﺎﺳﯽ از اﺳﺘﻘﻼل ﺗﺎ اواﺳﻂ ﺳﺎل ۱۹۹۷، ۱۹۹۹. ﺻﻔﺤﻪ Kalley, Jacqueline Audrey. 712-711 ^ .ﺻﻔﺤﻪ American and Foreign Political and Legal Terms, 1992. 557 .(May 2007. ^ From Corporatism to Liberalization in Zimbabwe: Economic Policy Regimes and Political Crisis, 1980–97. International Political Science Review. 26 (1 دﻧﻴﺎي ﺗﺎرﻳﺦ . Dispatch ^ A soldier faces his critics Archived 4 February 2013 at Archive.today TIME magazine and CNN ^ HISTORY OF 4 ﺗﻮﺳﻌﻪ .Archived from the original on 28 September 2007. ^ Makumbe, John (2006). Electoral Politics in Zimbabwe: Authoritarianism Versus the People .دﺳﺎﻣﺒﺮ REPORT: Policing the State – an evaluation of 1,981 political arrests in Zimbabwe: 2000–2005. zimonline.co.za 15 2006 ^ .ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ۹۱–۱۰۶ ۲۰۰۵- Retrieved 4 May 2010. ^ Wines, Michael (9 .ﺣﺰب ﻣﻮﮔﺎﺑﻪ در اﻧﺘﺨﺎﺑﺎت زﻳﻤﺒﺎﺑﻮه ﺑﺮﻧﺪه ﺷﺪ. ﻧﮕﻬﺒﺎن. ﻟﻨﺪن .(Retrieved 4 May 2010. ^ Sturcke, James (1 April 2005 . اﭘﻮزﯾﺴﯿﻮن در ﺣﺎﻟﯽ ﮐﻪ زﯾﻤﺒﺎﺑﻮه ﻟﻐﺰش ﻣﯽ ﮐﻨﺪ ﻣﻨﺸﻌﺐ ﻣﯽ ﺷﻮد. ﻧﻴﻮﻳﻮرک ﺗﺎﻳﻤﺰ .(JSTOR 24483863. ^ Wines, Michael (9 May 2007 .آﻓﺮﻳﻘﺎ . 31 (3): 45–61 Retrieved 4 .ﻧﮕﻬﺒﺎن. ﻟﻨﺪن .Tisdall, Simon (8 November 2005). Zimbabwe surrounded by sound and fury, but little action ^ .وزارت اﻣﻮر ﺧﺎرﺟﻪ اﯾﺎﻻت ﻣﺘﺤﺪه آﻣﺮﯾﮑﺎ .Retrieved 4 May 2010. ^ a b Background Note: Zimbabwe . اﭘﻮزﯾﺴﯿﻮن در ﺣﺎﻟﯽ ﮐﻪ زﯾﻤﺒﺎﺑﻮه ﻟﻐﺰش ﻣﯽ ﮐﻨﺪ ﻣﻨﺸﻌﺐ ﻣﯽ ﺷﻮد. ﻧﻴﻮﻳﻮرک ﺗﺎﻳﻤﺰ .(May 2007 March 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 ﻋﻔﻮ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﻤﻠﻞ. Retrieved 4 May 2010. ^ Zimbabwe: End harassment, torture and intimidation of opposition activists (PDF). 28 .ﺑﺤﺮان اﻗﺘﺼﺎدی زﯾﻤﺒﺎﺑﻮه آن را دوﺑﺎره ﺑﻪ ﻋﺼﺮ ﺑﺨﺎر ﻣﯽ راﻧﺪ. ﻧﮕﻬﺒﺎن. ﻟﻨﺪن .(May 2010. ^ Meldrum, Andrew (29 September 2005 ﺗﻮرم در زﯾﻤﺒﺎﺑﻮه ﭼﻘﺪر .(Retrieved 4 May 2010. ^ Wines, Michael (2 May 2007 .زﯾﻤﺒﺎﺑﻮه ای ﻫﺎ ﺗﺎ ۲۰ ﺳﺎﻋﺖ در روز ﺑﺎ ﻗﻄﻊ ﺑﺮق ﻣﻮاﺟﻪ ﻫﺴﺘﻨﺪ. ﻧﮕﻬﺒﺎن. ﻟﻨﺪن .(November 2007. Retrieved 5 January 2010. ^ Meldrum, Andrew (10 May 2007 ﺑﯽ ﺑﯽ ﺳﯽ ﻧﯿﻮز. ﻟﻨﺪن. November 2007. ^ Zimbabwe inflation 'incalculable'. 27 – Retrieved 4 May 2010. ^ Zimbabwe: Column .زﯾﻤﺒﺎﺑﻮه از ﻧﺎن ﺗﻤﺎم ﻣﯽ ﺷﻮد. ﻧﮕﻬﺒﺎن. ﻟﻨﺪن .(Retrieved 4 May 2010. ^ Corn Up Nearly 700 Percent in Zimbabwe. The Washington Post. 1 May 2007. Archived from the original on 4 November 2012. ^ McGreal, Chris (1 October 2007 . ﺑﺪ اﺳﺖ؟ ﻧﻴﻮﻳﻮرک ﺗﺎﻳﻤﺰ رﺋﯿﺲ ﺟﻤﻬﻮر ﻣﺮدﻣﯽ را ﭘﺸﺖ ﺳﺮ ﻣﯽ ﮔﺬارد» .(Retrieved 4 May 2010. ^ Evans, Ian (7 December 2007 .ﺣﺎﻻ زﻳﻤﺒﺎﺑﻮه ﻣﻴﺘﻮﻧﻪ ﭘﺎﻳﺎن ﺟﺎده رو ﺑﺮاي ﭘﻴﺮﻣﺮد وﺣﺸﻴﺎﻧﻪ اش ﺑﺒﻴﻨﻪ. ﻧﮕﻬﺒﺎن. ﻟﻨﺪن .(April 2007. ^ McVeigh, Tracy (22 April 2007 ﮐﻨﺘﺮا ﮐﻮﺳﺘﺎ ﺗﺎﻳﻤﺰ May 2007. ^ Trip to Africa enlightens. 16 ﻫﻤﻪ آﻓﺮﻳﻘﺎ . Mary Revesai. 7 Retrieved 4 May 2010. ^ US Imposes Sanctions on 39 .ﻧﺎﻧﻮاﯾﯽ ﻫﺎ درﻫﺎی ﺧﻮد را ﻣﯽ ﺑﻨﺪﻧﺪ ﭼﺮا ﮐﻪ ﺳﻘﻮط در ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ ﮔﻨﺪم ﺑﺮ ﺑﺤﺮان ﻣﯽ اﻓﺰاﯾﺪ. ﻧﮕﻬﺒﺎن. ﻟﻨﺪن .(Archived from the original on 9 January 2008. Retrieved 4 May 2010. ^ McGreal, Chris (2 October 2007 .ﻟﻨﺪن .The Independent .«ﮐﻪ از ﻓﻘﺮ ﺷﺎن ﻓﻠﺞ ﺷﺪه اﻧﺪ Retrieved 4 May 2010. ^ Zimbabwe's party claims early election lead, Associated Press . ﻧﻴﻮﻳﻮرک ﺗﺎﻳﻤﺰ .Zimbabweans. The Washington Post. 4 December 2007. Archived from the original on 4 November 2012. ^ Castle, Stephen (9 December 2007). Mugabe's Presence Hijacks European-African Meeting (International Herald Tribune), 30 March 2008. ^ Zimbabwe presidential candidates confirmed Archived 26 March 2008 at the Wayback Machine, AFP, 15 February 2008. ^ Mugabe accused of election-rigging plan, CNN, 23 March 2008. ^ a b MacDonald Dzirutwe, Zim heads for run-off, Reuters (IOL), 2 May 2008. ^ Zimbabwe opposition rejects run-off Archived 13 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine, Al Jazeera, 10 April 2008. ^ Runoff OK, says Zimbabwe ruling party. Cnn. 4 April 2008. Archived from the original on 5 April 2008. Retrieved 4 April 2008. ^ Zim run-off set for June 27, Sapa-Associated Press (IOL), 16 May 2008. ^ Zimbabwe MDC never accepted run-off vote Archived 10 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine, Al Jazeera, 10 May 2008. ^ Tsvangirai to run in second round, BBC News, 10 May 2008. ^ 12 'violent' MDC supporters held: Africa: Zimbabwe: News24. Archived from the original on 27 May 2008. Retrieved 23 June 2008. ^ Tendai Maphosa. VOA News – Zimbabwe Sets Date for Runoff Amid Increasing Violence. Archived from the original on 19 May 2008. Retrieved 23 June 2008. ^ Angus Shaw, Zimbabwe opposition leader pulling out of election, Associated Press, 22 June 2008. ^ UN impasse irks Zimbabwe opposition, Al Jazeera, 28 June 2008. ^ Mugabe begins new term as criticism of one-man election mounts Archived 3 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine, AFP, 29 June 2008. ^ Zimbabwe: President Mugabe Wins Run-Off, Sworn in, The Zimbabwe Guardian (allAfrica.com), 29 Retrieved 12 July 2008. ^ United . ﻧﻴﻮﻳﻮرک ﺗﺎﻳﻤﺰ .June 2008. ^ President Sworn in, Appeals for Unity, The Herald (allAfrica.com), 30 June 2008. ^ UN move against Zimbabwe blocked, Al Jazeera, 28 June 2008. ^ MACFARQUHAR, NEIL (14 May 1999). 2 Vetoes Quash U.N. Sanctions on Zimbabwe ^ .Retrieved 3 February 2011 .ﺳﭙﺘﺎﻣﺒﺮ July 2008. Retrieved 1 July 2008. ^ Rivals sign Zimbabwe power-share deal. Edition.cnn.com 16 2008 ﺑﯽ ﺑﯽ ﺳﯽ ﻧﯿﻮز. ﻟﻨﺪن. Nations Security Council Verbotim Report 5933. S/PV/5933 page 7. 11 July 2008. Retrieved 14 July 2008. ^ African call for Zimbabwe unity. 1 September 2008. Retrieved 3 February 2015. ^ a b Government looking for land for mass burial, after killing 78 miners. SW Radio Africa ان ﺑﯽ ﺳﯽ ﻧﯿﻮز. timesonline.co.uk, Power-sharing deal signed in Zimbabwe Archived 18 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine ^ Zimbabwe power-sharing deal signed. 15 guardian.co.uk. Retrieved .اﺟﺴﺎد اﻧﺒﺎﺷﺘﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻋﻨﻮان ﻣﻮﮔﺎﺑﻪ راه اﻧﺪازی ﺟﻨﮓ در ﻣﻌﺪﻧﭽﯿﺎن اﻟﻤﺎس .(via ZWnews. 11 December 2008. Archived from the original on 21 July 2010. Retrieved 12 December 2008. ^ Zimbabwe meets diamond trade standards, IRIN, 30 June 2010. ^ McGreal, Chris (11 December 2008 ﺑﯽ ﺑﯽ ﺳﯽ .Retrieved 4 May 2010. ^ Tsvangirai sworn in Zimbabwe PM . ﻧﻴﻮﻳﻮرک ﺗﺎﻳﻤﺰ .NYTimes.com - ﺣﺰب ﻣﺨﺎﻟﻒ ﺑﺮای ﭘﯿﻮﺳﺘﻦ ﺑﻪ دوﻟﺖ .(Retrieved 12 December 2008. ^ Dugger, Celia W. (31 January 2009 . ﺗﺐ اﻟﻤﺎس ﻣﺮﮔﺒﺎر زﻳﻤﺒﺎﺑﻮه. ﻟﺲ آﻧﺠﻠﺲ ﺗﺎﻳﻤﺰ .(January 2009. ^ Dixon, Robyn (4 December 2008 10 March 2009. Archived from the original on 14 May 2009. Retrieved 6 March 2009. ^ a b اﺧﺒﺎر ﻣﺘﺮوی زﯾﻤﺒﺎﺑﻮه. March 2009. Retrieved 6 March 2009. ^ Zimbabwe PM wife dies. 6 ﺑﯽ ﺑﯽ ﺳﯽ ﻧﯿﻮز. ﻟﻨﺪن. London: BBC. 11 February 2009. Retrieved 11 February 2009. ^ Zimbabwe PM and wife 'in crash' . 6 .ﻧﯿﻮز ISSN . ﮐﻮدﺗﺎی آﺷﮑﺎر زﯾﻤﺒﺎﺑﻮه: آﻧﭽﻪ ﻣﺎ ﻣﯽ داﻧﯿﻢ. ﻧﻴﻮﻳﻮرک ﺗﺎﻳﻤﺰ .(Retrieved 7 July 2016. ^ Ramzy, Austin (15 November 2017 .ﺑﯽ ﺑﯽ ﺳﯽ ﻧﯿﻮز .ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 8 July 2016. ^ Zimbabwe 'shut down' over economic collapse .اﮐﻮﻧﻮﻣﯿﺴﺖ. 420 (8997). ۹ ژوﺋﯿﻪ ۲۰۱۶. ﺻﻔﺤﻪ c d e Bailing out bandits. ۴۴–۴۳ ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 16 November 2017. ^ Johannesburg, Jan Raath and Harry Davies, Harare | Aislinn Laing . ﻧﻴﻮﻳﻮرک ﺗﺎﻳﻤﺰ .Retrieved 16 November 2017. ^ Moyo, Jeffrey; Onishi, Norimitsu (15 November 2017). Robert Mugabe Under House Arrest as Rule Over Zimbabwe Teeters .0362-4331 .«ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ | زﯾﻤﺒﺎﺑﻮه: وﻗﺘﯽ ﮐﻮدﺗﺎ ﮐﻮدﺗﺎ ﻧﯿﺴﺖ .(Retrieved 16 November 2017. ^ Taylor, Adam (15 November 2017 .ﺑﯽ ﺑﯽ ﺳﯽ ﻧﯿﻮز. 15 ﻧﻮاﻣﺒﺮ ISSN 0140-0460. Retrieved 16 November 2017. ^ Zimbabwe takeover 'seems like a coup'. 2017 .ﺗﺎﻳﻤﺰ .November 2017). Mugabe crushed by his own strongman 16) اﻣﺮﺳﻮن ﻣﻨﺎﮔﺎوا زﻳﻤﺒﺎﺑﻮه ﺑﻪ ﻋﻨﻮان رﺋﻴﺲ ﺟﻤﻬﻮری اﻳﻦ ﮐﺸﻮر ﺳﻮﮔﻨﺪ ﻳﺎد ﮐﺮده اﺳﺖ و ﭘﺮده ﻧﻬﺎﺋﯽ را در ﻣﻮرد .Retrieved 24 November 2017 .ﻧﻮاﻣﺒﺮ Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 16 November 2017. ^ Experts clear the air on succession ^ Zimbabwe's Mnangagwa sworn in as president. RTÉ. 24 2017 Schoresch & Sow, Adama: Democracy and Peace ،داودی Zed Books 2011). ISBN 978-1848135215) ﺑﯿﺸﺘﺮ ﺧﻮاﻧﺪن ﺑﻮرن، رﯾﭽﺎرد. ﻓﺎﺟﻌﻪ: در زﯾﻤﺒﺎﺑﻮه ﭼﻪ اﺗﻔﺎﻗﯽ اﻓﺘﺎده اﺳﺖ؟ .Retrieved 1 August 2018 .ﺑﯽ ﺑﯽ ﺳﯽ ﻧﯿﻮز. ۱ اوت Violence flares over Zimbabwe poll. ۲۰۱۸ ^ .ﺣﮑﻮﻣﺖ ۳۷ ﺳﺎﻟﻪ راﺑﺮت ﻣﻮﮔﺎﺑﻪ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ آورد in Zimbabwe in: EPU Research Papers: Issue 12/08, Stadtschlaining 2008 Maguwu, Farai: Land Reform, Famine and Environmental Degradation in Zimbabwe in: EPU Research Papers: Issue 06/07, Stadtschlaining 2007 Michel, Eddie. The White House and White Africa: Presidential Policy Toward Rhodesia During the UDI Era, 1965-1979 (New York: Routledge, 2019). ISBN 9781138319998 online review Mlambo, Alois. History of Zimbabwe (Oxford University Press, 2014) Raftopoulos, Brian & Alois Mlambo, Eds. Becoming Zimbabwe. A History from the Pre-colonial Period to 2008 (Weaver Press, 2009). ISBN 978-1779220837 Scarnecchia, Timothy. The Urban Roots of Democracy and Political Violence in Zimbabwe: Harare and Highfield, 1940-1964 (Rochester University Press, 2008). Sibanda, Eliakim M. The Zimbabwe African People's Union, 1961-87: A Political History of Insurgency in The following template (Africa theme) is intended for integration. Look at templates for discussion to help reach a consensus. › Retrieved from › ﭘﯿﻮﻧﺪﻫﺎی ﺧﺎرﺟﯽ وﯾﮑﯽ ﻣﺪﯾﺎ ﮐﺎﻣﻨﺰ رﺳﺎﻧﻪ ﻫﺎی ﻣﺮﺑﻮط ﺑﻪ ﺗﺎرﯾﺦ زﯾﻤﺒﺎﺑﻮه را دارد. ﺳﺎﺑﻘﻪ و ﻫﺪف: زﻳﻤﺒﺎﺑﻮه .(Southern Rhodesia (2004

spanish_keyboard_layout.pdf 52597383834.pdf atrial_fibrillation_diagnosis_and_treatment.pdf jolofurajutumemaxajisinin.pdf salamat full song wapking movies on the rocks remington 870 ghost ring sights install counter terrorist grand shooter fps mod apk describe a person esl worksheet carbohydrate metabolism questions pdf stickman basketball free download apk gangstar rio city of saints cheats apk fishing hook mod apk new version beden dili eğitimi pdf can' t help falling in love easy piano sheet music pdf sedentarismo pdf 2017 encyclopédie catholique pdf cerita cinderella dalam bahasa inggris pdf art yasmina reza telecharger armitron wr330 allsport manual vumob.pdf 47223333218.pdf lewivalawegakavale.pdf