PERCIVAL-DISSERTATION-2021.Pdf

Can you hear the connection? A study on musical-social bonding

Hannah Percival, A.A., B.M., M.A.

A Dissertation

Fine Arts: Music Theory

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Approved

Peter Martens, Ph.D. Chair of Committee

David Sears, Ph.D.

David Forrest, Ph.D.

Matthew Santa, Ph.D.

Rachel Hirshorn-Johnston, M.F.A.

Mark Sheridan, Ph.D. Dean of the Graduate School

May 2021

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I want to thank my dissertation committee for your insightful comments and support. I want to especially thank Peter Martens for supporting my unique research vision and David Sears for generously sharing his statistical and methodological expertise. Thank you to all the members, past and present, of the Performing Arts Research Lab (PeARL) for being a wonderful whiteboard for my methodological questions, assisting in pilot studies, and being a remarkable group of inquisitive people. Thank you to the Graduate Writing Center, especially Kristin Messuri and Elizabeth Bowen, for continually modeling a supportive academic environment.

Carol Sharp and Jerry Wallace, I am humbled to continue your legacies of compassionate, passionate music education. I also want to thank Mom and Dad for homeschooling me from kindergarten to 12th grade and nurturing my insatiable curiosity. I treasure the memories with you of Bits, Robinson Crusoe, and Little House on the Prairie. Thank you to all of my friends for supporting me through the long process of earning a PhD. Your conversations and support have kept me sane throughout this journey. I love you, Travis, and I love being a human with you.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... ii

ABSTRACT ...... vi

LIST OF FIGURES ...... vii

1. INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 1

Entrainment ...... 1

General entrainment in physics ...... 2

Pulse entrainment ...... 3

Meter ...... 4

Groove...... 5

Musical-social entrainment ...... 7

Musical-Social Bonding (MSB) ...... 9

Overview of Current Methodologies ...... 9

Ecological validity ...... 10

Strong experimental control ...... 10

Neurological studies...... 11

Embodied perspective ...... 11

Methodology for this dissertation ...... 12

Therapeutic applications ...... 13

2. METHODOLOGY ...... 15

Literature review ...... 15

Drumming ...... 16

Visual stimuli ...... 17

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COVID-19’s Impact on Research Methodology ...... 17

Methodology ...... 18

Research Questions ...... 18

Participants ...... 19

Stimuli ...... 19

Task ...... 21

Post-test Likert Surveys ...... 22

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ...... 24

Results ...... 24

Missing Data Points ...... 24

Grove Ratings ...... 24

Gold-MSI ...... 26

Correlations Between Variables ...... 27

Discussion ...... 33

Groove and Connection with the Environment ...... 33

Environment and Emotional Experiences with Music...... 34

Singing Abilities and Independent Self-Construal ...... 35

Limitations and Future Research ...... 36

4. MSB APPLICATION AS A PANDEMIC INTERVENTION ...... 39

Introduction ...... 39

Trauma research ...... 40

Musical-social bonding ...... 43

Implementing MSB events in the COVID-19 era...... 45

Case Study ...... 49

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Conclusion ...... 50

REFERENCES ...... 51

APPENDIX ...... 59

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ABSTRACT Why do humans use music to socially bond with each other? This dissertation attempts to understand one aspect of this question. Based on existing literature on musical and social entrainment, this dissertation proposes a new construct of Musical-Social Bonding (MSB) that examines how groove perception contributes to feeling connected in a musical environment. While MSB is most salient in group environments, this methodology focuses on individual research participants to increase experimental control over the variables. This dissertation found that groove perception, or the need to move to music, had a weak positive correlation both with emotional engagement with music and feeling included in the musical environment; in addition, self-construal was not significantly correlated with groove perception. These findings suggest that social elements tied to the musical environment may be more of a factor in MSB than self- construal. The final chapter in this dissertation applies the concepts of MSB to a fictional case study during the spatial-distancing of the COVID-19 pandemic. Elements of MSB may be effective at mitigating the mental health crisis caused by increased isolation. This chapter outlines how an MSB-based intervention can use virtual platforms to simulate physical proximity and, perhaps, minimize long-term crisis responses.

Keywords: beat salience, entrainment, groove, musical-social bonding, self-construal.

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LIST OF FIGURES 2.1: Inclusion of Other in Self (IOS) from Aron et al., 1992...... 22 3.1: Means of the groove ratings...... 25 3.2: Groove Ratings Coded by Linguistic Content……………………………...... 26 3.3: Correlation between GP and IOS scores...... 29 3.4: Correlation between Emotional Engagement and IOS scores……………...... ….29 3.5: Correlation between Independent SCS and GP scores...... 30 3.6: Correlation between Interdependent SCS and GP scores...... 30 3.7: Correlation of Independent SCS and Singing Abilities scores...... 31

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW During the Fête de la Musique celebration in Paris, I felt a deep connection with strangers through the musical beat. This festival, celebrating the summer solstice, was full of music of all styles from musicians with a wide background of training. I listened to a professional classical quartet, then an amateur jazz band performance, and even a group of people blasting Britney Spears on a radio, all within a few blocks of each other. Regardless of the genre, I felt a stronger connection with groups of people who were all moving to the musical beat instead of passively listening.

This experience led me to investigate how music facilitates group bonding experiences through movement, which I have coined as musical-social bonding (MSB). This dissertation chapter outlines the theoretical foundation for this concept through an overview of entrainment and methodological approaches. The interdisciplinary nature of the Fine Arts Doctoral Program at Texas Tech University allowed me to integrate a variety of fields. My graduate training in counseling/psychology prompted me to investigate the social variables involved in MSB, while my research expertise in music theory provided insight into the musical elements that may cause MSB. I am fascinated by this intersection of social and musical variables because of their complex interactions. The tension between creating specificity for the variables, empirical control, and maintaining an accurate picture of the phenomenon, ecological validity, is especially pronounced in MSB research. In Chapters 1 and 2, I discuss the challenges of quantifying MSB experiences. Chapter 2 outlines the methodology I created to isolate some of the variables involved in MSB. Chapter 3 shows the correlations between groove elements and social variables that may impact MSB. Finally, chapter 4 provides a potential virtual application of MSB as a mental health intervention during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Entrainment Entrainment is a physics concept that has recently been applied to social phenomena. Musical-social bonding (MSB), the focus of this dissertation, is complex

Texas Tech University, Hannah Percival, May 2021 because it is produced by both music entrainment and by effects of social entrainment. First, I give a brief overview of the physics concept of entrainment. Then, I discuss entrainment’s role in meter and groove perception. Next, I describe how these concepts can be applied to social entrainment. Lastly, I summarize research by Clayton et al. (2005) and Kim et al. (2019) that examines the intersection of music entrainment and social entrainment.

This overview lays the foundation for my construct of MSB, which focuses on the social effect of bonding created through sensorimotor entrainment to a musical pulse.1 This construct is modeled on McNeill’s (1995) muscular bonding theory that identifies the unifying effect of coordinated movement from marching or dancing. There are many variables that likely produce this bonding effect, including emotions and memory. For the purposes of this dissertation, I am limiting my investigation to the intersection of groove perception, a specific type of musical entrainment, and self-reported feelings of bonding with music and social environments. This methodology evaluates the link of musical entrainment and feelings of bonding.

General entrainment in physics Resonance occurs when the natural frequency of an entity interacts with another frequency that amplifies the first frequency. Large’s (Large & Jones, 1999; Large & Synder, 2009; Large et al., 2015) hypothesis of neural resonance proposes that musical pulse is created when auditory beats interact with already present oscillations of “excitatory and inhibitory neural populations”, or brain waves (Large, 2008, p. 198). This hypothesis states that the perceptual ability to hear pulse is related to neural and physical actions of the auditory system. In other words, musical pulse is created as neural activity synchronizes with auditory information that is at a similar frequency, or beats. The concept of resonance can be expanded to include more complex systems that adjust their frequencies in response to each other, which is called entrainment.

1. MSB is a refined version of my theory of Musical Bonding (MB) that I proposed in my M.A. in Counseling thesis. (Percival, 2015).

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A simplified definition of entrainment is a situation in which independent rhythmic oscillators synchronize with each other (Clayton et al., 2005; Kim et al., 2019; Pikovsky et al., 2001). At least two autonomous oscillators are required, which means the entities involved have the capacity to have an independent internal cyclical pattern. As these oscillators interact, their independent energy fluctuations synchronize with each other, distributing energy through the newly created system. This occurrence has been most frequently observed in physics, such as two pendulums, and biological systems, such as fireflies’ signaling patterns or the synchronization of pulmonary and cardiac cycles. While the synchronization does not need to be identical, the periodic phases must be related to each other. If the system returns to this synchronization after a disturbance, the system is said to be exhibiting entrainment (Pikovsky et al 2001). 2

Pulse entrainment Sensorimotor synchronization studies have found that listeners tend to tap the pulse slightly ahead of metronome beats (London, 2012; Repp & Su, 2013). This negative mean asynchrony suggests that entrainment enables listeners to anticipate the pulse, instead of tapping after hearing the metronome beat. This phenomenon is less pronounced at faster tempos (Repp & Su, 2013) and with longer tones rather than a metronome click (London, 2012). Technology latency, physical coordination skills, and musical training also may influence intertap intervals (ITIs), which may explain some of the contradictory results noted in the meta-review by Repp and Su (2013). Large et al. (2015) argue that musical pulse perception is not a passive neural entrainment to external stimuli; rather, it is possible that the auditory and motor neural systems may actively entrain with each other and the external stimuli to create pulse perception.3 Patel and Iverson (2014) highlight the interaction between the auditory and motor neural systems in their action simulation for auditory prediction (ASAP) hypothesis. This hypothesis

2. Kim et al (2019) trace the misunderstandings in this notion of disturbance.

3. This article responds to Patel and Iverson (2014)’s criticisms of neural resonance.

Texas Tech University, Hannah Percival, May 2021 suggests that the motor planning regions of the brain entrain to the musical beat, and this entrainment creates auditory prediction, which causes additional entrainment between the motor and auditory systems, regardless of actual movement.

Human perception tends to encode rhythmic pulses into a relatively small number of stable, learned patterns, rather than encoding Interonset Intervals (Desain & Honing, 2003), which is the precisely-measured time between auditory events. This categorization into patterns is influenced both by schematic expectations (prior experience with broad categories) and dynamic expectations (expectations that arise based on the recently- experienced content) (Huron, 2007). In fact, small ritardandos, slowing of the pulse, help rhythms be more recognizable than precisely accurate renditions (Honing, 2003); in addition, ritardandos are used to indicate large scale structural endings (Large, 2008). For these reasons, while entrainment plays a crucial role in music perception, the measurable outcomes of this entrainment are more complex than simple oscillators.

Meter Meter is a cognitive process that arranges pulses into nested, hierarchal structures; the primary pulse is called the tactus (Honing, 2013; London, 2012). “Meter is a fluid attentional process – a form of behavior rather than a musical or mental object” (London, 2012, p. 96). London (2012) explains that meter is a byproduct of human perception using entrainment, rather than a characteristic of the musical stimuli itself. De Clercq (2016) provides an overview of cognitive research attempting to define a preferred tapping rate. Taking into consideration perceptual limitations and stylistic conventions, De Clercq suggests 120 beats per minute (bpm) as the approximate preferred tapping speed for pop/rock music. In organizing these pulses into a hierarchal structure, one listener might perceive the most important pulse at 120 bpm while another listener might perceive the most important pulse at 60 bpm; if the musical notation indicates that the first grouping is the quarter note value, the second grouping is at the half note value. With either perceived pulse, we might say that the overall tempo is the same, but there is a perceptual difference concerning which pulse layer is the most important.

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It is possible for listeners to switch to different metric levels throughout the listening experience, but Dynamic Attending Theory (DAT) (Drake et al., 2000; Jones, 1976) suggests that listeners tend to focus on a middle layer (e.g., there are notes at the 240 bpm/eighth note layer and at the 30 bpm/whole note layer, but because 120 bpm/quarter note layer is the middle layer, it is most likely to be the tactus). This middle layer is called the “referent level” since it allows the listener to perceive the faster layers while also attending to larger events in the slower layer. According to DAT, endogenous entrainment adjusts to external stimuli by creating expectations based on the musical phase. When the phase changes temporarily, through rubato or other musical expression, attentional focus highlights the cyclical relationship between the phase and pulse until there is a return to the -- or an introduction of a new -- steady tempo. DAT describes this process as primarily subconscious, which frees up cognitive space to notice changes as schematic indications of larger formal boundaries.

Groove Researchers have focused on many different, sometimes contradictory, elements of groove. Similar to Patel and Iverson’s (2014) ASAP hypothesis that linked auditory and motor processes, Senn et al. (2018) define groove as a quality in music that elicits the desire to move or dance. Feld (1988) defines groove as “an unspecifiable but ordered sense of something that is sustained in a distinctive, regular, and attractive way, working to draw the listener in” (p. 76) and as “crystallizations of collaborative expectancies in time” (p. 74). Groove appears to encompass both auditory cues and social relationships among participants, as can be seen in Kim et al.’s (2019) definition of groove as “music- specific social entrainment” (p. 11). Senn et al. (2018) list both rhythmic qualities – microtiming, syncopation, beat salience, event density, rhythmic variety, and tempo – and listener-related elements – expertise, taste, familiarity, and proneness to dancing – as factors of groove. Attas (2015) defines groove as musical accompaniment featuring specific riffs and beat patterns, while also acknowledging that groove encompasses perceptual processes and social elements of collaboration. Keil (1995) includes participatory discrepancies as a defining feature of groove, where participants are

Texas Tech University, Hannah Percival, May 2021 entrained together but have meaningful deviations from exact synchrony, such as syncopations. Zbikowski (2004) describes the perceptual processes that translate syncopations into the desire for movement. Doffman (2013) describes groove as “the bodily experience of shared timing” (p. 62). Doffman also explains that entrainment terminology provides some quantifiable parameters for examining musician’s embodied experiences of groove. 4 All of these descriptions wrestle with the vague but tangible experience that musicians attest to when playing groove, characterized by an unspoken connection with others through musical timing. While acknowledging the inherent complexity of groove, this dissertation methodology focuses on beat salience and social connectedness as indicators of groove perception.

This dissertation isolates beat salience as an indicator of groove. This dissertation uses Weigl’s (2016) dataset of 17-second excerpts from Rock/Pop/Electronic Dance Music (EDM) genres [please see Appendix]. These 24 clips fall equally into three categories of high, medium, and low beat salience. Participants were asked to evaluate how much each clip made them want to dance, which acts as an operational proxy for assessing groove perception.

It is possible that visual indications of movement may aid in communicating intended groove. Martens (2012) coached a quartet to perform classical excerpts with different tacti. Video of the quartet’s performance greatly increased the likelihood that listeners would be able to correctly identify the intended tactus. It seems that this visual information of movement conveyed significant information about how to process the auditory information. Experimental condition 3 was intended to explore the visual mode of communicating groove but was not included in the manuscript because of COVID-19 restrictions on face-to-face data gathering.

4. See Doffman (2013) for insightful testimonies from musicians about their perspective of playing groove.

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Musical-social entrainment Kim et al. (2019) list groove as a specific type of entrainment that only exists during music-specific social events, where each performer knows the collective goal as well as their own unique contribution to the performance. Kim et al. describe the various amounts of “we-intentions” and collective goals in different social musical experiences. Nevertheless, Kim et al.’s definition of musical social entrainment states that human cultural experience means that music activates social elements in listeners, even when listening to music alone. This social element aligns with Small’s (1998) definition of musiking where all participants contribute equally to the creation of musical experience, regardless of training. Dancing or clapping is a common element of musiking. These social elements suggests that an understanding of music entrainment is incomplete without considering social entrainment.

McGrath and Kelly (1986) created the term “social entrainment” to describe the synchronization of human cyclical social behaviors, such as sleep or menstrual cycles. Although he does not use the term, McNeill (1995) appears to be observing entrainment when he discusses the euphoric feeling that occurs when individuals march in unison; he calls this phenomenon muscular bonding.5 The definitions of social entrainment are nebulous in the literature.6 7 Kim et al. (2019) suggest that applying entrainment,

5. McNeill’s term influenced the naming of musical-social bonding introduced in this dissertation.

6. Clayton et al (2005) and Kim et al (2019) trace these discrepancies.

7. It is possible that emotional contagion could play a role in social entrainment. Witek et al. (2014) cite the following papers as evidence that sensorimotor synchronization could produce positive emotions through emotional contagion: McGuiness & Overy (2011), Overy & Molnar-Szakacs (2009) and Trost et al. (2013). This branch of research suggests that the mirror neuron system (MNS) facilitates empathy. More recent research is skeptical that mirror neurons observed in macaque monkeys is the same as those in humans. IN addition, mirror neurons may not be significantly different than typical motor neuron functioning and should not be used to explain emotion processing (Kilner & Lemon, 2013; Lemon, 2015; Taylor, 2016). In particular, Hamilton (2013) provides a meta-review of MNS in participants with Autism

Texas Tech University, Hannah Percival, May 2021 originally a physics or biological construct, to instances of interpersonal psychology is complex because of the number of variables; to accurately assess the variables, they call for investigations into musical-social entrainment that originate from the field of psychology. One reason for the complexity is that social contexts may induce spontaneous entrainment (Kim et al, 2019). Collier and Burch (1998) distinguish between forced and spontaneous entrainment8: forced entrainment transfers pre-existing energy to a new entity, often with destructive results, while spontaneous entrainment is self-sustaining, efficiently directing energy throughout the system. Although spontaneous entrainment is more efficient, it is also less predictable due to the increased complexity of the system. Kim et al. (2019) use this concept of spontaneous entrainment to differentiate social entrainment from physical or biological entrainment. Because the complexity of spontaneous entrainment appears to be intrinsic to social entrainment, research on MSB is necessarily complex.

In this dissertation, I attempt to assess tendency towards social entrainment by focusing on the feeling of being bonded to a situation. The Inclusion of Other in the Self (IOS) scale is a series of increasingly intertwined circles (Aron et al., 1992), as discussed on page 21. This study used the IOS to ask the participant how bonded they felt to the musical environment. Participants also filled out the Self-Construal Survey (SCS) to assess the degree of independence and interdependence they have in social situations (Singelis, 1994), as discussed on pages 21-22. This dissertation then links these aspects of social bonding with groove perception.

Spectrum Disorder (ASD), concluding that there is little evidence that MNS dysfunction is present in ASD. Earlier research had linked emotional empathy with MNS, implying that ASD’s apparent lack of empathy was due to MNS. While I do briefly discuss the link between physical and emotional synchrony in ASD, the literature citing MNS as the cause of this link seems tenuous. Due to this controversy, I have relegated this area of research to a footnote instead of including it in the body of this dissertation.

8. Collier and Burch (1998) apply this concept of forced and spontaneous entrainment to both physical entities and socio-political structures, although the application to the latter is arguably less developed.

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Musical-Social Bonding (MSB) Within the scope of this dissertation, MSB examines the bonding experience, a result of social entrainment, that occurs from groove perception, a type of musical entrainment. Although there are many variables that can create this social bonding experience in musical environments, this dissertation focuses on the effect of sensorimotor musical entrainment. I originally designed MSB as a construct that encapsulates the Altered States of Consciousness (ASC) reported by participants in dance events such as tribal healing ceremonies, Pentecostal worship services, and Electronic Dance Music (EDM) raves (Percival, 2005). The theme of social bonding is a common statement among EDM participants (Rill, 2010). There is some debate about whether the social or musical elements tend to instigate this bonding feeling. In the eighteenth century, Rousseau (2019) described the social conditioning involved in the ASC to local tarantella music: individuals would exhibit elements of ASC, such as rapid dancing, only to the tarantella music from their village, not other versions of tarantellas. Rouget (1985) continued this line of reasoning regarding musically-induced ASC, stating that social conditioning was largely responsible. Advances in neuroscience have led researchers to examine the sensorineural responses to music, specifically entrainment (Becker, 2004). This dissertation takes the view that music stimuli may be an instigating variable. My methodology removes the social environment to investigate the social bonding element elicited by music alone, specifically by groove perception. Limiting the social variable foregrounds the role of groove perception in MSB. Nevertheless, social aspects are undeniably important to the MSB experience. Thus, future iterations of this methodology will investigate how the inclusion of social elements influences the bonding experience.9

Overview of Current Methodologies Current studies investigating musical entrainment tend towards opposite ideological poles of ecological validity or experimental control. This dissertation proposes a methodology that uses elements from both perspectives to better understand

9. The bonding experience is determined by the correlation of the IOS scores and groove perception ratings.

Texas Tech University, Hannah Percival, May 2021 this complex phenomenon. Honing (2013) notes that the recent focus on ecological validity parallels the ideological shift in rhythmic analysis from pure notational analysis to a focus on listener perceptions.

Ecological validity Studies that focus on the ecological validity of the experiment follow anthropological trends of observing the full environment surrounding the phenomenon, often by documenting behavioral observations and testimonies from participants. The most potent MSB experiences documented in this manner include tribal ceremonies, outdoor music festivals, and Electronic Dance Music (EDM) events (Becker, 2004; Hutson, 2000; Niekrenz, 2014; Rouget, 1985). Many participants in these events often cite music as an instigator for their feeling of connectedness with other participants. However, there are many other factors that may be influencing this perception, especially in sensorially overwhelming environments. Because these studies do not control the environment, it is very difficult to validate the claim that music is a facilitator for social connectedness. It is also possible that these events tend to draw people who have a propensity to bond to others, regardless of musical stimuli.

Strong experimental control Studies with strong experimental control excel at limiting the number of confounding variables. This philosophy allows researchers to make clear connections between stimuli and results. Literature from this philosophy affirms that physical synchrony can facilitate social connectedness. In several studies, dyads of participants were asked to coordinate physical movement, such as synchronizing finger or arm movements (Oullier et al., 2008), rocking (Richardson et al., 2007; Valdesolo et al., 2010), or swinging pendulums (Fitzpatrick et al., 2016). Valdesolo et al. (2010) also had participants fill out Likert surveys to indicate how connected they felt to their partner, and this explicit link between physical synchronization and subjective interpersonal connectedness informs the methodological approach of this dissertation.

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Research has shown that music more strongly communicates connectedness than metronome clicks (Stupacher et al., 2017a; Stupacher et al., 2017b). Continuing in this vein, this dissertation uses pre-existing music examples found in Weigl’s (2016) dataset. Kim et al. (2019) argue that musical social entrainment can occur when creating music in a group setting absent from social interaction. In line with their call for more empirical research into this type of entrainment, this dissertation provides the foundation for a series of experiments that will gradually increase the number of the social entrainment components.

Neurological studies Electroencephalogram (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies have measured the neurological aspects of musical entrainment. These findings validate the theoretical ideas that synchronization of sensory and motor neural pathways are involved in the perception of music meter (Nozaradan et al., 2015). Unfortunately, these avenues of investigation do not lend themselves easily to ecologically valid studies of musical entrainment, since EEG and fMRI measurements usually cannot be used in group settings with movement. Motion capture promises to be an intriguing blend of ecological validity and experimental control within a group dynamic, but current motion capture technology struggles to capture multi-participant data. Solberg and Jensenius (2016) have successfully captured this group dynamic but acknowledge that the multi- participant scenario made motion-capture data interpretation more difficult.

Embodied perspective This dissertation investigates entrainment from a musically embodied perspective by asking participants to drum; this activity allows natural engagement with the music that simultaneously produces measurable behaviors that indicate internal perceptions. Scholars propose that groove and music entrainment is best studied from an embodied perspective that integrates the need for movement and affective responses (Leman & Maes, 2014; Martens, 2016; Solber & Jensenius, 2016; Witek et al., 2014). Drumming is very common in many musical social bonding environments. The oscillation motion

Texas Tech University, Hannah Percival, May 2021 involved in drumming is also a facilitator for entrainment (Kim et al., 2019). While maintaining a relatively authentic music listening environment, drumming also provides a real time measurement of participants’ experiences.

Phillips-Silver and Trainor (2005) showed that infants can be trained through bouncing to prefer rhythmic interpretations based either in duple or triple meter. Visual information was not necessary for this preference but physical engagement through bouncing was necessary. A replication study with adults showed the same preferences (Phillips-Silver & Trainor, 2007). Martens (2012) illustrates that gestures communicated as visual stimuli are an important way that musicians communicate intended metric level to the audience. This dissertation methodology uses three experimental conditions, audio only, audio + drumming, and audio + drumming + video, to assess if physical motion and/or visual stimuli increase entrainment as manifested by groove perception.

Methodology for this dissertation Chapter 2 presents a detailed description of the methodology created for this dissertation. This methodology isolates the musical entrainment element of groove from the social entrainment variables. This approach allows more accurate assessments of the musical elements that contribute to MSB without dismissing the impact of social entrainment. In this way, this methodology lies between the two ideological poles of ecological validity and strong experimental control. While the theoretical foundation of neurological studies informs my methodology, I do not utilize neurological data in this dissertation. Rather, I emphasize the embodied experience of MSB that can be quantified through drumming. Due to COVID-19 restrictions on face-to-face data gathering, this dissertation only presents the data for the audio only condition. The results in chapter 3 focus on the correlations between groove perception ratings and social variables. Future iterations of this research will complete the methodology by including the embodied experience of drumming as an experimental condition.

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Therapeutic applications Sensorimotor synchronization with music has been harnessed for therapeutic purposes. Hove et al. (2012) found that interactive rhythmic auditory stimulation helped correct gait issues in patients with Parkinson’s Disease. Thaut and Abiru (2010) traced the role of rhythmic auditory stimulation in physical therapy for movement disorders. These interventions provide a periodic stimulus to which patients entrain their own physical movements. The goal of these interventions is to retrain the patient’s physical movements, especially gait, to a more “natural” flow.

In a similar way, entrainment can be used to reintegrate emotional connections. Participants who synchronize movements with other people, especially with the aid of music, feel a sense of community (Demos et al., 2012; Hove and Risen, 2009; Kokal et al., 2011; Stupacher et al., 2017a; Stupacher et al., 2017b; Tarr et al., 2016; Wiltermuth and Heath, 2009). This synchronization with music also prompts pro-social actions by which individuals are more likely to voluntarily help other people with whom they have experienced synchronized movements (Kokal et al., 2011). Fitzpatrick et al. (2016) state that participants with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) struggled with both physical and emotional synchrony; this dual difficulty suggests that both physical and emotional synchrony are linked. Kock et al. (2015) found that participants with ASD demonstrated improved social skills, among other improvements, after participating in a dance therapy intervention that used principles of sensorimotor entrainment. Peper et al. (2016) and Marsh et al. (2013) discuss how both bodily awareness and social communication are challenging for people with ASD; Koehne et al. (2016) found that increased interpersonal entrainment also increased empathy performance. While many of these interventions focus on movement rather than music, it is likely that music would aid in the motor synchronization. Future research could examine if MSB environments could increase social elements such as Inclusion of Other in Self and empathy.

Chapter 4 applies the principles of MSB as a movement-based intervention that could prevent long-term trauma responses from spatial distancing measures during the COVID-19 pandemic. Trauma research highlights the importance of social connection as

Texas Tech University, Hannah Percival, May 2021 a means of resilience against a crisis. In Chapter 4, I discuss how the social elements of MSB could be used to create community through a virtual platform, even during spatial distancing.

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CHAPTER 2

METHODOLOGY Literature review Musical social entrainment (Kim et al., 2019) is a very complex phenomenon which can manifest behaviorally as groups of individuals synchronizing to music. Following the theoretical foundation in Chapter 1, this phenomenon is referred to as musical-social bonding (MSB) in this dissertation. MSB involves many contributing variables. Because of the tendency to misattribute the causation of emotions to the wrong stimulus (Huron, 2009), it is important to carefully control the variables in this experimental context. In addition, it is possible that this groove perception is strengthened when accompanied with actual movement. MSB, as discussed in chapter 1, links the rhythmic and social aspects of entrainment to explain the interconnected feeling that comes from dancing in a group. While recognizing that music, motor, and social variables all contribute to this experience of MSB, this study isolates the music variable, while slowly introducing other elements in a between-subjects design.

Music’s contribution to MSB is operationalized here as the concept of musical groove. This study looks at the relationship between the desire to move to music and the perception of musical beats. Beat salience, which is an aspect of groove, is the presence of clear musical beats (Weigl, 2016), while groove is a larger construct that describes danceable music, as described in Chapter 1(Butler, 2006; Danielson, 2006; Greenwald, 2002; Janata et al., 2011; Senn et al., 2018; Stupacher et al., 2013). Madison et al. (2011) correlates beat salience with musical characteristics of groove and the desire to move. Because of this, participants in the present study are asked to rate the groove of clips from Weigl’s (2016) dataset, which contain different degrees of beat salience. Rather than invoking the somewhat abstract concept of groove, participants were asked “How much does this music make you want to move?” Participants’ responses were taken as a proxy for groove.

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Senn et al. (2018) define groove perception as perceiving rhythmic qualities through individual musical preferences and experience. Individual preferences may be linked with social identity, which may influence propensity for engaging in MSB (Insel & Ferald, 2004; Ouiller et al., 2008). The present study uses self-reported social surveys to investigate these links. Since some social surveys, such as the Social Connectedness and the Social Assurance Scales (Lee & Robbins, 1995) and General Belongingness Scale (Malone et al., 2012), phrase survey questions in a way that could lead participants towards specific answers, the present study instead uses the Inclusion of Other in Self (Aron et al, 1992) and the Self-Construal Scale (Singelis, 1994) because they provide a more value-neutral assessment of participant’s relationships with their social environments.

Drumming Synchronicity is an important element in music entrainment, which can increase feelings of social bonding (Kim et al., 2019; Hove and Risen, 2009; Phillips-Silver et al., 2010; Stupacher et al., 2017a; Trost et al., 2014; Witek et al., 2014). In behavioral studies, operationalizing this synchronicity involves some measurement of physical motion in response to rhythmic stimuli (Doffman, 2013; Fitzpatrick et al., 2016; Hove and Risen, 2009). This study uses drumming to gather precise timing data in a continuous, musical manner to investigate the links among beat salience, groove, and affiliation. Participants drum on a MIDI drum with a wooden drumstick, as discussed on pages 20-21. The pendulum-like motion of drumming may help convey the participant’s experience with entrainment. Drumming is also a way to behaviorally assess motor engagement in a more convenient, and perhaps more natural, manner than dancing.

It is important to acknowledge that using a drumming task may be distracting enough to decrease enjoyment (Janata et al., 2012). This study does not look at enjoyment as an element of groove perception, but it is important to realize that the difficulty of the drumming task may impede groove perception. In addition, Janata et al. (2012) discovered that free or isochronous drumming did not increase groove ratings, although overall extraneous body movement did increase during high groove clips. In

Texas Tech University, Hannah Percival, May 2021 addition, musical training may impact both motor activation and groove perception (Stupacher et al., 2013). In this study, musical expertise will be evaluated as a factor through the Goldsmith Musical Sophistication Index (Gold-MSI) scores.

Visual stimuli Kokal et al (2011) found that visual synchronicity with a fellow drummer prompted more pro-social neural activity and behavior than asynchronicity. In line with Stupacher et al.’s (2013) findings, participants who found tapping easier in general had more dramatic increases in pro-social experiences. Martens (2012) found that visual information is an important, but frequently overlooked, aspect of tactus perception. A quartet was coached to emphasize different tactus levels for two different audiovisual recordings of the same repertoire. Research participants’ identification of the intended tactus was far more accurate when they were presented with the video of the quartet compared to the audio-only condition. Martens suggests that the visual information involved in tactus perception may be one of the reasons that modern technology continues to include dance videos or live concerts in music videos, rather than moving to an auditory-only experience.

COVID-19’s Impact on Research Methodology Due to coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, data collection for all three conditions was not feasible. This chapter describes the study methodology as it was originally designed. In response to the pandemic, data gathering was halted during data collection for condition 2. The Future Research section in Chapter 3 will outline plans to reconcile data collected before the pandemic with data gathered after the emergence of COVID-19, especially in light of the dramatic social shifts caused by the pandemic.

This study was not redesigned for a virtual application. It is difficult to find a virtual modality capable of tracking real-time tapping/drumming data beyond one data point per stimuli. In addition, the change in environment would significantly mar the environmental variable, making the between-subjects comparison invalid. The sound attenuation booth in the Texas Tech University’s (TTU) Performing Arts Research Lab

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(PeARL) was a neutral and quiet setting that could not be replicated if participants took the study in their own homes.

The methodology discussed in this chapter will be used when safe face-to-face data gathering is reinstated. In addition, this methodology was designed to be replicated with in-person dyads as an additional experimental condition that introduces social dynamics. Future research will include this replication with in-person dyads when COVID-19 concerns have diminished.

Methodology This research study uses a multi-modal between-subjects design. The between- subjects aspect of this design includes the audio only condition, audio + drumming condition, and audio + drumming + visual condition; these factors investigate if the level of engagement with the musical stimuli increases groove perception. The within-subjects aspect of this design examines the link between the participant’s groove perception and social tendencies, as measured by the post-test Likert surveys.

Research Questions 1. Does high beat salience lead to higher ratings of groove, as indicated by responses to a Likert scale of “How much does this music make you want to move?” where 1= “No need to move” and 7= “Dance party!”

2. Is there a correlation between musical sophistication (GMSI) and ratings of groove?

3. Does an increase in participation (audio only, audio + drumming, audio + drumming + video) effect ratings of groove?

4a. Is there a correlation between ratings of musical connectedness (ratings of groove; drumming patterns) and social connectedness (Inclusion of Other in Self; Self- Construal Scale)?

4b. Is there a stronger correlation between these modes of reporting connectedness in conditions with more participation?

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Participants Participants were recruited from the TTU community through postings on TechAnnounce email. The advertisement told participants they would earn $10 for rating different Rock and Electronic Dance Music excerpts and filling out social surveys. There was no recruitment distinction between musicians and non-musicians as the theoretical foundation for this type of MSB does not rely on specific musical training. All participants read an informed consent form (see Appendix). The only personally- identifiable information collected from participants was for the payment forms; this information was kept separately from the data, which was all anonymous.

This study was approved by the TTU Institutional Review Board (IRB2019-691: Can you hear the connection?: A study on music and social entrainment.). In accordance with TTU funding policies, participants were at least 18 years old and were either US citizens or permanent resident aliens. This study was funded by a Graduate Student Research Support Award from TTU.

Participants were randomly assigned to one of the three conditions: audio only (condition 1), audio + drumming (condition 2), audio + drumming + video (condition 3). Each condition was designed to have 20 participants. Participants were screened to exclude those who self-identified has having an ongoing hearing impairment. To streamline the data collection process, all 20 participants for condition 1 were completed prior to beginning data collection for the other conditions. Due to COVID-19 restrictions, data gathering was paused during condition 2 and no data has been collected for condition 3. All components of this experiment were completed in the Performing Arts Research Lab (PeARL) at TTU.

Stimuli This dissertation used Weigl’s (2016) dataset of 17-second excerpts from Rock/Pop/EDM genres [please see Appendix]. Weigl’s choice to use pre-existing musical clips aligns with this dissertation’s goal to maintain ecological validity of musical stimuli. For the purpose of minimizing any familiarity effects for collegiately-trained musicians,

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Weigl’s dataset was chosen because it does not contain classical music. According to Weigl, each excerpt was chosen because it was an uncommon piece that maintained the same degree of beat salience throughout the clip. The clips include a 1-second fade-in and fade-out and have a normalized volume throughout. Using expert judgments and participant ratings, Weigl grouped the final 24 clips into three categories of beat salience: high [musical stimuli 1-8], medium [musical stimuli 9-16], and low [musical stimuli 17- 24]. Weigl showed that high beat salience led to more tapping consistency than low beat salience, measured in intertap intervals (ITI) variability and accuracy. The dataset includes clips with English lyrics (n=17), indecipherable vocalizations (n=2), and some which are purely instrumental (n=5).

Four separate randomized playlists of Weigl’s dataset were created to minimize order effects. Each clip was played three times in succession with a ten-second pause between each repetition. Distractor stimuli of non-periodic nature sounds or a baby playing with toys were played after each music clip. All participants completed this part of the experiment inside a double-walled sound attenuation chamber (Whisper Room Inc., Knoxville, TN). Audio was delivered to Dynaudio LYD5 acoustic monitors (Dynaudio A/S, Skanderborg, Denmark) via a Music Hall Digital-to-Audio Converter (DAC) 25.3 (Music Hall Audio, Great Neck, NY).

For the video condition, participants would watch a video of a professional drummer freestyling on an acoustic compact drum kit [bass, snare, and cymbal]. The drummer was a music major specializing in jazz studies at TTU and was paid $50 for her expertise. The drummer did not hear the music clips before the recording session but was allowed to repeat the clips during recording. The drummer was instructed to freestyle with the clips, rather than imitate the clips. The performance that felt the most confident, as assessed by the researcher and the drummer, became the final version. The final version was then synced with the audio clips in MusicMaker. The audio portion of the video was muted, which ensured that participants across all conditions would hear the same audio stimuli of the Weigl clips. In this way, the video clips add visual stimuli

Texas Tech University, Hannah Percival, May 2021 without changing the auditory context of the study. Because the participants would hear three repetitions of each clip, the same video would also be played three times. The video clips introduce some of the visual elements of MSB in a controlled environment. Because the drummer was using an acoustic drum kit, the visual information will not be sufficiently similar to bias the participants who will be tapping the beat on a single drumpad. In addition, the pre-recorded video provides experimental control over the social elements. The video serves as another baseline of human interaction before introducing real-time dyads, which could greatly increase the number of confounding variables.

Task Participants in all conditions hear the music example three times. When the distractor sound plays, participants rate the groove for the music excerpt they just heard in the following way: “On a scale of 1-7, how much did this music make you want to move? 1= ‘no movement needed’ to 7 = ‘dance party!’” The paper Likert survey also asks if the participant recognized the clip. Aural instructions during the informed consent phase clarify that recognition can be vague recollection, rather than specific identification of the band or song. These ratings were used to calculate each stimulus’s groove rating. All of individual participant’s ratings were also averaged to calculate the participant’s Groove Perception (GP) score.

Participants in experimental condition 1 listened and rated the music clips without any additional tasks. Participants in experimental conditions 2 and 3 would be instructed to drum while listening to the music. Participants would be told to “drum at a steady rate along with the beat you hear in the music.” Participants would have a practice example during which the experimenter would lead them to experience a “steady rate” at two different metric levels. Participants’ drumming patterns would be collected as Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) timing data collected on the KAT Percussion KTMP1 Multipad, activated by a Vic Firth American Classic 5A - Wood Tip drumstick. The digital sound on the KTMP1 Multipad would be muted. All four sections of the

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Multipad would record the same MIDI data. The audio, drum, and video elements of the user interface were delivered via the digital audio interface Magix Music Maker.

Participants in experimental condition 3 would see a video of a drummer. They would be told that the drummer is listening to the same music, but they do not need to copy the drummer. In the same manner as participants in experimental condition 2, they will be instructed to “drum at a steady rate along with the beat you hear in the music.”

Post-test Likert Surveys Next, participants filled out post-test Likert surveys, including a PeARL specific form that collects information about demographics and musical experience. The Inclusion of Other in Self (IOS) (Aron et al., 1992) has seven pairs of increasingly overlapping circles. Participants were told that “other” in this instance refers to the music they just heard in the booth and then were asked to circle the pair of overlapping circles that best reflects their experience. This test is often used in counseling and social studies to evaluate how connected a person feels to another person or social circumstance.

Figure 2.1: Inclusion of Other in Self (IOS) from Aron et al., 1992. The Self-Construal Scale (Singelis, 1994) is a 30 question, seven-point Likert scale (1=strongly disagree, 7=strongly agree) self-assessment that indicates how participants view themselves in social contexts. This scale provides a quantifiable indication of individual participant’s independent and interdependent self-construal. An example of an independent scale item is “I do my own thing, regardless of what others

Texas Tech University, Hannah Percival, May 2021 think” while an interdependent scale item is “Even when I strongly disagree with group members, I avoid an argument.” Because each self-construal score is calculated separately, a participant could potentially have an equal score in both independent and interdependent self-construals.

Participants also filled out the Goldsmiths Musical Sophistication Index (Gold- MSI) (Müllensiefen et al., 2013), which captures a participant’s musical sophistication regardless of their formalized training. This seven-point Likert scale (1=completely disagree, 7=completely agree) self-assessment provides a General Musical Sophistication score. The five subscales of Active Musical Engagement, Self-Reported Perceptual Abilities, Musical Training, Self-Reported Singing Abilities, and Sophisticated Emotional Engagement with Music were also calculated.

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CHAPTER 3

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Results Missing Data Points There were a few missing data points in the groove ratings during data collection. One of the four playlists had a duplicate of stimulus #7 instead of presenting stimulus #18. The groove ratings for the second presentation of stimulus #7 were excluded from analysis. Similarly, the missing stimuli from that playlist created 15 overall observations for stimulus #18 instead of the intended #20. In addition, one participant did not complete all of the clip groove ratings. Therefore, that participant’s groove perception (GP) score was an average across 20 observations, instead of the intended 24.

The mean for each stimulus’s overall groove rating was calculated based on the number of observations. Similarly, each participant’s GP score was calculated as the mean of observations. Because of these missing data points, each individual mean was calculated with a different number of observations. However, the overall N for the statistical tests remains constant (N=20) because the statistical tests use the means of these calculations.

A sample size of 20 is potentially too small to make any generalizable claims. This study would benefit from having more participants. In addition, the participants were all U.S. citizens or permanent resident aliens who were associated with the public college in a west Texas town. As such, these results may be generalizable to a similar audience but may not accurately depict groove perception tendencies in other contexts.

Grove Ratings The high beat salience condition [music stimuli 1-8] had a grand mean of 3.92 (SD = 0.807), the medium beat salience condition [music stimuli 9-16] had a grand mean of 3.08 (SD = 0.681), and the low beat salience condition had a grand of mean of 2.08 (SD = 0.727). This very slight decrease in grand mean as the beat salience decreases

Texas Tech University, Hannah Percival, May 2021 suggests that asking participants to rate the need to move may be an accurate proxy for assessing participant’s perception of beat salience. See Figure 1 for the overall groove rating for each beat salience condition.

Groove Ratings by Beat Salience Category 7

2 3.94 3.06 2.10 1 High Medium Low

Figure 3.1: Means of the groove ratings for each of Weigl’s (2016) beat salience categories. There is a statistically significant difference for the groove ratings in Weigl’s beat salience categories, F(2,21) = 13.7, p = <.001. Whiskers indicate the standard deviation for each category.

Familiarity with the music did not have a significant impact on individuals’ groove ratings. Out of 466 observations, only 8 indicated familiarity with the stimulus. Of those 8 observations, there was no consistency in if recognition increased or decreased groove ratings. Also, each of these 8 observations was within one standard deviation of that stimulus’s overall mean, suggesting that familiarity was not a factor in groove perception.

In addition, vocalizations did not play a significant role in groove ratings. Stimuli were organized into the following vocalization categories: English lyrics (N=17, M=2.93, SD=.997), indecipherable vocalizations (N=2, M=2.48, SD=1.73), and instrumental only

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(N=5, M=3.62, SD=1.03). A one way ANOVA showed no significant differences among the levels of vocalizations, F(2,21) = 1.25, p = .306. See Figure 2.

Groove Ratings Separated by Linguistic Content 7 6 5 4 3

Groove ratings Groove 2 1 2.93 2.48 3.62 0 English lyrics Vocalizations Instrumental

Figure 3.2: Groove Ratings Coded by Linguistic Content. There is not a statistically significant difference among linguistic content categories, F(2,21) = 1.254, p = .306. Whiskers indicate the standard deviation for each category.

Gold-MSI Participant’s musical sophistication was measured with the Goldsmith Musical Sophistication Index (Gold-MSI) (M = 63.4, SD = 15.18) and there were no outliers. Each of the subscales was also measured: Active Engagement (M = 33.0, SD = 9.59), Perceptual Abilities (M = 41.5, SD = 7.04), Musical Training (M = 15.7, SD = 9.15), Singing Abilities (M = 26.0, SD = 5.02), and Sophisticated Emotional Engagement with Music (M = 30.5, SD = 6.22). Due to time constraints and replicated questions between the Gold-MSI, participants for Experiment 1 only answered the agreement scale questions of the Gold-MSI; the other answers were extrapolated from the Performing Arts Research Lab (PeARL) at Texas Tech University (TTU) questionnaire answers.

Unfortunately, no responses were collected for Gold-MSI question 34: “I have attended _ [X number of] live music events as an audience member in the past twelve

Texas Tech University, Hannah Percival, May 2021 months.” For Experiments 2 and 3, participants will answer questions 33-40 on the Gold- MSI rather than the similarly worded questions on the PeARL questionnaire. For experiment 1, the only Gold-MSI score that would have been affected was the Active Engagement subscale, which had no outliers or statistically significant correlations. For calculating the Active Engagement subscale, question 34 was omitted from all calculations for this experiment.

Correlations Between Variables Each participant’s mean groove rating across all 24 stimuli is calculated as their Groove Perception score (GP). If a participant has a high GP score, it means that they feel the need to move to music more strongly than a participant with a low GP score. In this study, GP is not an indication of accuracy of groove perception. Rather, it only indicates how much groove they tend to perceive in general across the musical stimuli.

To examine the relationship between GP and characteristics of the participant pool (e.g., average musical sophistication), correlations were estimated using the Pearson correlation coefficient r for the participant’s groove ratings averaged across the session correlated with the following scores: Gold-MSI (including subscales), the Inclusion of Other in Self (IOS), and both Self-Construal Scale (SCS) subscales.

There was no correlation between GP and the general or subscale scores of the Gold-MSI, see Table 1. GP had a weak positive correlation with IOS ratings, r (18) = .46, p =.039 (See Figure 3a). This result indicates that individuals who tended to rate music high for groove also tended to feel more included in the overall musical experience. IOS scores also had a weak positive correlation with the Emotional Engagement subscale of the Gold-MSI, r (18) = .46, p =.042 (See Figure 3b). This result suggests that individuals who felt most connected with the musical environment in the experiment also recalled feeling emotionally connected to music overall in previous experiences. Despite the transitive property concept, there was not a significant correlation between GP and the Emotional Engagement subscale of the Gold-MSI, r(18) =.33, p =.155 There were no other significant correlations between IOS ratings and Gold-MSI scores, as can be seen in

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Table 1. It is intriguing to note that musical training is not correlated with feeling connected to the musical experience, represented by the IOS rating. This result means that feeling closely connected to the music has no clear correlation with musical training.

There was no correlation between the individual’s mean groove ratings and either of the SCS subscales. For the independent SCS subscale, the correlation with the GP score was r(18) = .28, p = .230 (See Figure 4a). For the interdependent SCS subscale, the correlation with the GP score was r(18) = -29, p =.219 (See Figure 4b). Although an independent self-construal was positively correlated with groove perception and an interdependent self-construal was negatively correlated with groove perception, neither were statistically significant. This distinction is more likely to reach significance when this study is replicated with a larger number of participants.

There was, however, a moderate positive correlation between the independent subscale of the SCS and the Singing Abilities subscale of the Gold-MSI, r(18) = .52, p =.018 (See Figure 5). Since both scales are self-reported, it is possible that self-assured participants tended to rate themselves highly in singing abilities and in independence. There was also strong correlation between the Gold-MSI general score and its subscales, as would be expected. There were no other significant correlations among groove ratings, IOS scores, Self-Construal Scales, or subscales (see Table 1). A chi-squared test showed that gender and age (calculated as a nominal variable of five-year ranges) were not significantly correlated with any of these scores.

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7 7

6 6

5 5

4 IOS IOS score

IOS IOS score 3 3

2 2

1 1 0 10 20 30 40 50 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 GP score Emotional Engagement Gold-MSI

Figure 3.3: Correlation between GP and IOS scores. Figure 3.4: Correlation between Emotional Engagement and IOS There is a weak positive correlation between GP and IOS scores, r(18) scores. There is a weak positive correlation between the Emotional = .46, p =.039. Engagement subscale of the Gold-MSI and IOS scores, r(18) = .46, p =.042

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7 7

6 6

5 5

4 4

GP GP 3 3

2 2

1 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Independent Interdependent

Figure 3.5: Correlation between Independent SCS and GP scores. Figure 3.6: Correlation between Interdependent SCS and GP scores. There is no statistically significant correlation between GP and There is no statistically significant correlation between GP and Independent SCS scores, r(18) = .28, p = .230. Interdependent SCS scores, r(18) = -29, p =.219.

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35 MSI - 30 25 20 15 10

5 Singing Abilities Gold Abilities Singing 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Independent

Figure 3.7: Correlation of Independent SCS and Singing Abilities scores. Scatter plot of the moderate positive correlation between the Independent subscale of the SCS and the Singing Abilities subscale of the Gold-MSI, r(18) = .52, p =.018.

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Correlations Table

GP IOS SCS SCS GMSI GMSI GMSI GMSI GMSI GMSI score Score (1) (2) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) GP score IOS score .464* SCS Independent (1) .281 .136 SCS Interdependent (2) -.287 .105 .103 Gold-MSI Overall (1) .338 .266 .335 -.097 Gold-MSI Active Engagement (2) .220 .371 .208 .068 .656* Gold-MSI Perceptual Abilities (3) .185 .039 .163 -.258 .426 .421 Gold-MSI Musical Training (4) .205 .009 .129 -.037 .714** .152 .071 Gold-MSI Singing Abilities (5) .293 .045 .524* -.171 .703** .330 .114 .368 Gold-MSI Emotional Engagement (6) 0.330 .459* .347 -.130 .498* .710** .502* .067 .265

N=20. * indicates significant correlation at the 0.05 level (2 tailed). ** indicates significant correlation at the 0.01 level (2 tailed).

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Discussion

Groove and Connection with the Environment

These results suggest that individual perception of groove is influenced by feeling included in the musical environment. Individuals who had a higher overall desire to move, based on their GP rating, also tended to feel more enmeshed with the musical experience. This finding corresponds with statements from individuals who have experienced strong musical social bonding experiences. Rill (2010) believes that participants at Electronic Dance Music (EDM) events used the musical beat to entrain with other individuals: “The participants are individuals in their style and flavor, but together they are a liquid sea of bodies, all synchronized to the beats around and within them” (p. 141). In fact, it can be difficult for listeners to separate the various stimuli involved in social musical entrainment, even if they associate the overall experience with feelings of bonding: “[the experience at EDM events] melds into one cosmic soup and everything is one and you can’t separate the music or the moves or which came first”

(Hutson, 2000, p. 42). This study does not presume a causal relationship but does show that people who feel that music induces movement also feel strongly connected to that environment, which suggests that the participant’s perceived relationship to the musical experience is linked with groove perception. Juslin and Sloboda (2013) state that strong beat salience may evoke feelings of “communion,” among other emotions (p. 614). It is likely that, when this musical experience includes other people, groove perception can be

Texas Tech University, Hannah Percival, May 2021 expanded beyond mere rhythmic entrainment to also include social entrainment, perceived as a strong connection to the environment. Sacks (2008) writes,

Rhythm and its entrainment of movement (and often emotion), its power to

“move” people, in both senses of the word, may well have had a crucial cultural

and economic function in human evolution, bringing people together, producing a

sense of collectivity and community (p. 268).

These results suggest that individuals who perceive higher levels of groove overall may also feel more connected to the musical environment, which may be, in part, due to emotional engagement with music.

Environment and Emotional Experiences with Music

This inclusion in the musical environment is also linked with heightened emotional experiences with music overall. Lee and Robbins’ (1995) foundational article on social belonginess explains that perceived inclusion in an environment is a subjective experience that is shaped by emotions. It is likely that individuals who tend to be emotionally engaged with music would also apply that perspective to the music experienced in the experimental environment. This emotional affiliation can be understood as an aspect of belonginess (Lee & Robbins, 1995). This feeling of connectedness is generally a positive experience, whereas isolation or exclusion is viewed as a negative experience. While music frequently depicts a wide range of emotions, music tends to elicit more positive emotions in listeners (Juslin & Västfjäll,

2008; Sloboda et al., 2001). In this way, it is possible that past emotional experiences

Texas Tech University, Hannah Percival, May 2021 with music could predispose participants to feel more positively connected to the music in the experiment. Yet, there is no correlation between emotional experiences with music and musical training. A negative correlation would suggest that increased musical training dulls emotional experiences with music; conversely, a positive correlation would suggest that musical training leads to a higher number of more intense emotional experiences with music. The lack of correlation implies that prior emotional connections with music are a better indication of feeling connected to a current music environment rather than assessing musical expertise or exposure as an indication of feeling connected to the music experience.

Singing Abilities and Independent Self-Construal

The correlation between reported singing abilities and independent self-construal was surprising. One could expect that interdependent self-construal would be correlated with singing, as public singing often happens in group settings, such as karaoke or choir.

If that were the case, it could be proposed that individuals with highly interdependent self-construals would seek out group-singing experiences. As stated above, individuals who want to seem competent might be biased to over-represent their singing abilities and independence, since a musical research study conducted at a US academic institution might appear to value those qualities. Another consideration is that individuals who are more independent may use singing to communicate their individuality. While there was not a statistically significant correlation between the Emotional Engagement Gold-MSI subscale and the independent SCS (r(18)=.35, p = .134) or the interdependent SCS

(r(18)=.-13, p=.586), there is a closer connection between independent personality and

Texas Tech University, Hannah Percival, May 2021 emotional engagement than the interdependent personality. It could be that independent personalities express their emotional experiences through singing, which may feel less vulnerable than explicitly stating their emotions.

Limitations and Future Research

The participants were all recruited through TTU, which means that this sample may not be representative of a more diverse population. All participants were aware that this study was a music listening experiment investigating social bonding; it is likely that many participants had a general appreciation for music since they self-selected to participate in this study.

Due to TTU’s Emergency Remote Work Status in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, this dissertation is presenting research that was collected before March 17,

2020. The original research design could not be administered remotely without compromising the integrity of data already collected at PeARL. The original experimental design included three conditions which will have twenty participants in each condition, for a total of sixty participants. Each of these conditions would be analyzed as a between-subjects factor in the overall ANOVA results. The timing data designed for the MIDI drum interface in Experiments 2 and 3 could not be clearly reconstructed in a remote interface. Likewise, because the data heavily compares participants’ relationships with the environment as assessed in the IOS survey, it would be impossible to replicate the sound attenuation booth experience remotely.

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This methodology was designed to be replicable where each iteration introduced another element of social participation. By keeping the other aspects of the methodology constant, it will allow interpretations of how social participation influences groove perception ratings. Besides the original conditions that were interrupted because of

COVID-19 (audio +drumming and audio + drumming + silent video of a drummer), the following conditions are planned: drumming with the experimenter while separated by a clear sound-attenuating barrier, drumming with another while separated by a clear sound- attenuation barrier, and drumming with many participants. In each of these additional conditions, the participant will have the visual cues of another person drumming., while the sound-attenuation barrier ensures that all participants are entraining to the music, rather than the other person’s drumming pattern. The condition with the experimenter will likely be more uniform than the conditions with participants who are all listening to the music stimuli for the first time. Thus, the experimenter condition will introduce real- time social interaction into the methodology. Nevertheless, dyads and triads of participants are arguably the more ecologically valid experience of MSB. Participants’ unique reactions to music is an important element of MSB but can introduce countless variables. MSB focuses on the habits of general music listeners, rather than professional musicians. To assess this issue, the participant recruitment process does not differentiate between trained and un-trained musicians Because this task will be more difficult for some participants than others, there may be a wider variety of tapping patterns. By gradually increasing the amount of variability in the social interaction (pre-recorded video, live drumming with experimenter, live drumming with other participants), it is

Texas Tech University, Hannah Percival, May 2021 possible to narrowly focus on which elements of social interaction affect groove perception. The ultimate goal of this methodology is to begin to clarify the different roles of groove perception and social interaction on MSB experiences.

Texas Tech University, Hannah Percival, May 2021

CHAPTER 4

MSB APPLICATION AS A PANDEMIC INTERVENTION

Introduction When the pandemic of COVID-19 caused spatial distancing, people created global community through music shared on social media. Quarantined Cabaret, for example, is a Dallas-based Facebook group that acts as a space for performers of all ages and abilities to continue performing from their own homes (Taylor, 2020). Balconies were transformed into performance venues in Italy (Locker & Hoffman, 2020) and neighborhoods became impromptu spatially distanced karaoke venues in Chicago (WGN

News, 2020). These kinds of experiences have not only created community for those participating in the live events, but also created a global community through social media. I believe this practice of using music to connect socially is vital for long-term global psychological health in the aftermath of COVID-19.

Community can produce resilience in times of crisis (Porges, 2011) and shared music can serve as a unifying element (van der Kolk, 2014). Trauma researchers Levine

(2010) and van der Kolk (2014) state that movement during active engagement with music is an effective way to minimize long-term crisis responses. COVID-19’s impact on global mental health has been significant and wide-spread, disrupting daily routines, impacting financial security, and heightening the constant awareness of mortality. Aside from exposure to the actual virus, these social stressors could create a secondary public

Texas Tech University, Hannah Percival, May 2021 health crisis. This chapter proposes that using musical engagement to create community can mitigate this emerging mental health crisis.

Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is threefold: to discuss the psychological processes that occur during musical-social bonding (MSB), to outline the mental health benefits of this phenomenon, and to apply them to the current pandemic constraints where physical proximity is ill-advised. For the purposes of this chapter, MSB events are defined as events where individuals create community by moving to music. MSB is also a theoretical framework that builds from non-Western musical contexts where sensorimotor synchronization, or entrainment, creates a group bonding experience. While

MSB events are already spontaneously occurring, this chapter proposes that MSB events could also be planned and used intentionally as therapeutic interventions during the pandemic. The ideal situation would be a team of trained music therapists who lead these interventions and then provide integrated transfer of care to local mental health professionals. MSB events could provide an early therapeutic intervention while participants are waiting to enter more traditional crisis-recovery therapy.10 Although this version of MSB events does require robust internet capabilities, digital MSB events can be inclusive, global, and cost-effective.

Trauma research Polyvagal Theory (Porges, 2011) discusses the link between physiological crisis responses and psychological perception of safety, which is perceived through community

10. See Uttley et al. (2015) for a similar arrangement through art therapy.

Texas Tech University, Hannah Percival, May 2021 response to an individual’s crisis.11 If individuals in crisis are unable to receive help from other people, the visceral reaction of fight or flight is ignited. If the perceived danger persists, the most extreme state of freeze or collapse may be activated. These survival instincts are lifesaving but can cause difficult trauma responses if they remain active for a long period of time (van der Kolk, 2014). As a way to calm the polyvagal response, social connectedness allows the myelinated vagus nerve pathway to inhibit activation of the sympathetic nervous system, signaling to the body that the environment is safe enough to survive the crisis.

This physiological need for community is complicated by the spatial distancing required to prevent COVID-19 transmission. This sudden social isolation removes the first line of defense for coping with a crisis. It is important to address the mental health impacts of this spatial distancing to prevent long-term crisis responses that may impact society just as profoundly as the physical aspects of the virus. This lack of physical proximity combined with the ongoing, global nature of this crisis requires an innovative approach to mental health resource distribution.

Despite widespread use as a clinical tool, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) lacks strong efficacy for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Bisson et al., 2007;

Bradley et al., 2005; Schnurr et al., 2007). Van der Kolk (2014) states that, in contrast to the efficacy of CBT for phobias, CBT's exposure approach to traumatic events increases

11. There are times when community can become the instigator of trauma, such as in systemic racism, but Porges’ (2011) theory focuses on the prosocial nature of humans in community.

Texas Tech University, Hannah Percival, May 2021 symptoms by reactivating the trauma response. Higher level cognitive and linguistic capabilities are diminished during this trauma reactivation as resources are diverted to the physiological response of fight or flight. This skepticism regarding CBT aligns not only with Porges’s (2011) view that “activation of the somatomotor component would trigger visceral changes that would support social engagement” (2p. 190), but also with Levine’s

(2010) and van der Kolk’s belief that movement is more effective for treating PTSD than are cognitively or linguistically focused modalities.

In a similar way, Levine and van der Kolk believe that movement is a way for participants to reintegrate with the present moment and other people, which is an important step in recovering from the isolating effects of trauma. In contrast to CBT, movement-based interventions focus on an element other than the crisis. This external focus can help calm the sympathetic nervous system, allowing the body to acknowledge the safety of the surrounding community (Porges, 2011). Research has found that participants who synchronize movements with other people, especially with the aid of music, feel a sense of community (Demos et al., 2012; Hove and Risen, 2009; Kokal et al., 2011; Stupacher et al., 2017a; Stupacher et al., 2017b; Tarr et al., 2016; Wiltermuth and Heath, 2009). This synchronization with music also prompts prosocial actions by which individuals are more likely to voluntarily help other people with whom they have experienced synchronized movements (Kokal et al., 2011).

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This synchronization phenomenon falls under the umbrella of entrainment, specifically musical social entrainment.12 Broadly conceived, entrainment is a physics phenomenon that describes two independent rhythmic entities that synchronize to each other. As a practical application of this idea within music therapy, people with

Parkinson’s disorder are often able to synchronize their own movements better when they entrain to rhythmic music (Hove et al., 2012; Sacks, 2007). Kim et al (2019) state that social entrainment has more potentially contributing variables than in the strict physics construct of entrainment. Incorporating these complex behavioral and psychological elements, the theoretical framework of MSB starts from the anthropological observations of musical events and incorporates existing social entrainment literature as a deeper explanation of the process.

Musical-social bonding Diverse events such as non-Western tribal healing ceremonies (Jankowski, 2007) and Electronic Dance Music (EDM) raves (Hutson, 2000; Rill, 2010) have been associated with an increase in group identity. Although the cultural elements of these two events are different, both focus on a strong musical beat that unifies participants.

Participants in both events describe this bonding as a healing experience (Hutson, 2000).

These environments encourage movement and engagement with the music, in stark contrast to Western classical concerts. In these bonding events, there is minimal distinction between performing musicians and listeners. Small’s (1998) “musicking”

12. See Clayton et al. (2005) and Kim et al. (2019) for excellent systematic reviews on music social entrainment.

Texas Tech University, Hannah Percival, May 2021 describes these kinds of active music participation. Musicking eliminates the distinctions of performer, composer, dancer, and listener, leaving equal participants in active musical experience. Musicking is an important element of the most potent MSB experiences.

These descriptions of movement to music are similar to a specific type of music entrainment called groove (Kim et al., 2019). Groove is often operationalized as music that elicits a need to move (Levitin et al., 2018; Madison et al., 2011; Senn et al., 2018;

Stupacher et al., 2013). In more technical terms, groove is a type of music that induces a strong beat percept, which typically includes localized syncopations -- omissions or changes of the emphasized beat. Groove is most easily perceived when the beats per minute (BPM) rate is around 120 (Stupacher et al., 2013). Groove is prevalent in EDM raves (Hutson, 2000) and the spiritual healing music of Tunisia (Jankowsky, 2007).

Relatedly, groove is also a generalized term that musicians use to describe the feeling of individual expression that highlights the overall goals of a unified ensemble performance

(Butterfield, 2006; Zbikowski, 2004). It follows that music with groove leads to more observable manifestations of MSB, seen as musicking, than less rhythmic music does.

MSB can be used to encourage free individuality within a group context. Overy and Molnar-Szakacs’ (2009) Shared Affective Motion Experience (SAME) model describes the unified yet individualized mindset that can occur when people share music and movement, and this counterbalance of diversity within unity has been noted as a crucial element for many ravers (Hutson, 2000). Just as entraining to music tends to elicit more prosocial behavior than entraining to a mechanical metronome (Stupacher et al.,

2017a; Stupacher et al., 2017b), MSB promotes the prosocial mentality of encouraging

Texas Tech University, Hannah Percival, May 2021 diversity rather than conformity. Rather than used as a destructive groupthink that prohibits critical thinking, MSB is likely most effective when creating a safe community that embraces creativity.

Implementing MSB events in the COVID-19 era The safe, diverse community that can emerge from MSB events has therapeutic value during the COVID-19 pandemic. COVID-19 is a global pandemic that affects diverse cultures. The level of impact has ranged from generalized uncertainty to long- term physical illness, or even death. It may seem most practical to create homogeneous groups based on culture and level of impact of COVID-19, as people who had traumatic health issues will likely have a different view of the pandemic than those who primarily experienced economic strain. These distinct challenges may be appropriately addressed in future dialogue-based therapy interventions. Before that, the current priority should be on re-affirming the safety of human community to reduce the current crisis response. Once the deeper levels of stress response have already been activated, linguistic and cognitive approaches will be less effective.

Van der Kolk (2014) argues against homogeneous groups for trauma recovery because the repetition of the trauma becomes the bonding element for the group, which re-activates trauma and re-enforces barriers among people with different experiences.

Rather than fixating on the trauma, he states that trauma recovery involves both validating the trauma and expanding the range of present experiences to include new, safe interactions with diverse people. Because effective trauma treatment broadens individuals’ experiences rather than focusing on the trauma (van der Kolk, 2014), diverse

Texas Tech University, Hannah Percival, May 2021 groups are preferred. Virtual MSB events are uniquely suited for global implementation as any country with Zoom access would be able to join simultaneously. Also, English fluency is not a prerequisite for efficacy since this intervention is movement-based rather than language-based.

Levine (2010) believes that an important part of processing trauma is experiencing strong emotions in the context of safety, producing a different experience with emotion than the intense activation during a crisis moment or the suppression of emotions during long-term trauma. The mechanism by which music evokes music is very complex (Juslin & Sloboda, 2013). Juslin and Västfjäll (2008) describe a type of musical emotion accompanied by movement that they call emotional contagion. Using mirror neurons, among other neural regions, this emotional contagion encourages prosocial behavior, leading to a greater sense of community. As Porges’s (2011) Polyvagal Theory proposes an immediate physiological response to perceived danger, Juslin and Västfjäll’s concept of emotional contagion is also a rapid, subconscious emotional response to musical stimuli; this similarity suggests that actively seeking to evoke emotional contagion will address Levine’s call to re-introduce emotional experiences in a safe environment. Notably, emotional contagion quickly induces basic emotions without relying on cultural context, which means that diverse populations can likely engage in

MSB events with similar outcomes.

While music activates social behaviors regardless of intent (Kim et al., 2019), and the SAME model suggests that listening to music in isolation conjures mental community with the imagined person who created the music (Overy & Molnar-Szakacs, 2009), MSB

Texas Tech University, Hannah Percival, May 2021 can be maximized through virtual group experiences. Group musicking has been shown to provide significant symptom relief for war-induced PTSD (Ophir & Jacoby, 2020). For example, in the “Dancing Well: The Soldier Project” (n.d.) veterans with PTSD and/or brain injuries have opportunities to re-engage with their community through in-person dance parties; during this pandemic, the organizers have continued this mission by creating Facebook live dance parties that are recorded for future viewing. I believe a similar approach can be used to mitigate the mental health crisis caused by isolation during the physical distancing safety measures of the pandemic.

Because physical synchrony leading to prosocial actions has been shown to exist without physical proximity (Kokal et al., 2011), creating virtual MSB experiences may produce therapeutic benefits without the danger of in-person viral transmission. The gallery view in Zoom produces creates visual cues for group synchronization; Stupacher et al (2017a) found that these kinds of visual cues, rather than physical proximity, may be a primary factor in creating a prosocial affiliation. Demos et al (2012) found that music acted as a “social glue” that created perceived affiliations among participants, even as the data suggested that participants were actually synchronizing to each other rather than the music (p. 52). By synchronizing to the video of the other participants on the Zoom call, it is possible for MSB to occur when the participants are listening to the same music in different spaces.

Virtual platforms, like Zoom, can facilitate MSB events while maintaining spatial distancing. With the explosion of remote work and learning, videoconferencing software is becoming a convenient way for global connectivity. Currently, there are limitations

Texas Tech University, Hannah Percival, May 2021 with slow internet connectivity or platform overload that could hamper the delivery of perfectly synchronized MSB events with many participants. However, Zoom- or Skype- based MSB events during a pandemic could produce crisis-recovery benefits without the health dangers of physical proximity. This online modality also increases accessibility for populations who may struggle to attend in-person sessions. In additional, global MSB events are an equitable and cost-effective way to dispense crisis-recovery interventions.

At least one previous study found no significant difference in treatment efficacy between internet and in-person modalities for Social Anxiety Disorder; this implication suggests that the cost-effectiveness of using virtual modalities often does not dilute the strength of the treatment (Hedman et al., 2011). Research on a trauma intervention showed that group sessions were more cost-effective than individual sessions (McCrone et al, 2005).

In a similar way, the group aspect of MSB events means that more people have cost- effective access to the intervention.

Individuals who participate in MSB events in the comfort of their homes may be more inclined to actively participate, than they would if faced with the social pressure of an in-person event. Variable levels of participation is especially important for individuals with long-term COVID-19 physical symptoms or other conditions that limit their ability to engage physically. Because music with groove activates the motor corticospinal excitability (Stupacher et al., 2013), focused engagement with groove music can act as a proxy for full movement. This motor engagement activates the somatic elements of crisis recovery; movement allows the body to act out physical responses to a crisis in a safe

Texas Tech University, Hannah Percival, May 2021 environment by re-directing the fight, flight, and freeze responses (Porges, 2011). This physical response could manifest as musicking, thus enhancing the MSB experience.

Case Study To help illustrate what these virtual MSB events could look like during the pandemic, I present this fictional case study:

Austin pulls up the playlist for today’s session on their computer. Austin has chosen a mix of standard DJ songs - “Livin’ On a Prayer” by Bon Jovi, “I Wanna Dance with Somebody” by Whitney Houston, and “I’m Gonna Be (500 Miles)” by The

Proclaimers - and current top 40 songs - “Blinding Lights” by the Weekend, “Don’t

Start Now” by Dua Lipa or “Dynamite” by BTS. All of the pieces have a beat per minute

(bpm) rate around 120, strong bass, and driving rhythms.

Austin logs into the web-conferencing app Zoom and gives all the participants camera permissions while muting the microphones to prevent echoes. Austin shares their computer audio 13so that all participants are hearing the music from the same source.

They encourage participants to use gallery view to feel the community experience of the group dancing. They also remind the participants that the goal of this experience is to enjoy moving to music with other people, not to perform specific dance movements.

During this introduction, Austin provides several movement adaptations using arm movements or tapping, especially since some of participants are still recovering from the

13. Located in the advanced tab of the Zoom share screen options

Texas Tech University, Hannah Percival, May 2021 cardiovascular impacts of COVID-19. For each song, Austin dances in a simple way that clearly shows the musical beat by stepping side to side.

Each participant has a unique expression of the same beat modeled by Austin.

Many participants sway back and forth, some try fancier movements, and a couple take

Austin’s suggestion to tap or wave their arms to the beat. Despite being from diverse countries across different time-zones, a community is created as everyone moves to the same beat shared through the Zoom application.

Conclusion It is possible that we are even more aware of our interconnectedness during this time of spatial distancing than we were prior to the pandemic. We have never before had the opportunity to share the simultaneous pain of being directly impacted by a global pandemic. Although we are isolated in our homes, we are still able to share somatic healing experiences with others via technology. Just as people innately felt the need to connect through balcony concerts during quarantine, this experience can be consciously expanded to include a diverse, global community. Musical, movement-based community experiences like the MSB events proposed in this chapter may provide a way to calm the polyvagal response during the long-term crisis of the pandemic. Perhaps by sharing the same musical beat, we embody the experience of sharing the same crisis, thus creating a resilient community that transcends the isolation of the pandemic quarantines.

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APPENDIX Weigl’s Beat Salience Dataset (Retrieved from Weigl, David M. (2016). Rhythmic information as a relevance criterion for music information retrieval. [Doctoral Dissertation, McGill University], p. 218) Beat Salience Stimulus Song Title Artist Album Excerpt Time Tempo Level (BPM) High 1 The Maker Omar S Single 4:45 - 5:02 121 High 2 Alpha Male Royksopp The Understanding 2:36 - 2:53 135 High 3 Sparks Royksopp Melody AM 0:32 - 0:49 85 High 4 Up There Centovalley August 0:42 - 0:59 135 High 5 Dirty Dancehall The Zutons Who Killed the Zutons 0:49 - 1:05 88 High 6 Dwrcan Bibio Ambivalance Avenue 1:12 - 1:29 93 High 7 Everybody’s Stalking Badly Drawn Boy The Hour of Bewilderbeast 0:23 - 0:40 83 High 8 Fall Apart Lukid Foma 1:22 - 1:39 99 Medium 9 Contact Note Jon Hopkins Contact Note 3:53 - 4:10 107 Medium 10 The Black Forest Bear Kobaya (Sub-Opt) Ocean of Orbs 1:47 - 2:03 100 Medium 11 Closing In Imogen Heap Speak for Yourself 2:17 - 2:34 112 Medium 12 Children’s Limbo Venetian Snares Find Candace 1:03 - 1:20 170 Medium 13 Ratsback2 (Saitone Remix) Plaid Tekkonkinkreet OST 1:51 - 2:08 141 Medium 14 The Sentinel Horror Inc. Horrorama EP 2:00 - 2:17 125 Medium 15 Matter of Time ASC Nothing is Certain 0:45 - 1:02 85 Medium 16 Myxamatosis Radiohead Hail to the Thief 0:38 - 0:55 99 Low 17 When I look at your face I A Setting Sun & Table for Two 2:32 - 2:48 120 laugh and cry Shigeto Low 18 Omgyjya Switch 7 Aphex Twin Drukqs Disk 1 0:00 - 0:17 95 Low 19 The Black Page #1 Frank Zappa Läther (Disc 2) 0:37 - 0:54 124 Low 20 Indigo Monolake Single 0:29 - 0:46 118 Low 21 Mouse Bums Mu-ziq Bilious Paths 0:20 - 0:37 120 Low 22 Bucephalus Bouncing Ball Aphex Twin Come to Daddy 3:02 - 3:19 83 Low 23 Distant Father Torch Clark Growl’s Garden 0:37 - 0:54 77 Low 24 Pleasure Is All Mine BjÃűrk Medúlla 2:50 - 3:09 95