I NTROD UCTIO N

In publishing this little booklet , the author is very well aware that he is placing himself in the most unfavorable light and courting the most ad verse and abj ect criticism of so - called scientific schol arship of the Bible . But he freely acknowledges and proudly confesses his absolute rej ection of all scientific criticism of the B ible outside o f textual re search and stands squarely f or the infallibility o f

Holy Scriptures . The Christ Whose words even the most rabid critics admit to be historically true : " ” The scripture cannot be broken , John Till

o n e on heaven and earth pass , j ot or e tittle shall in ” no wise pass from the law , till all be fulfilled , M h a t t . was either what H e claimed to be ,

on o f the eternal S God , Who gladly permitted the attribute of Omniscience to be ascribed to Him , and Who in these words is a frank exponent of the i n

of or fallibility Holy Scriptures , He was the most despicable hypocrite and cheat the world has ever known . And I confess that I believe it far better to stand W ith H im foursquare against all criticism o f H is eternal word , which is the revelation of H is

divine Essence , than to stand on the uncertain ground o f modern Biblical criticism and degenerate

into a vapid spouter of moral platitudes . Much bet ter by far to accept the inspired Scriptural account of the creation of the world and of the history of the Jewish people word for word wh ich has stood the test of the ages and endured the vain mutterings of foo lish criticism both here and abroad than to ac cept the inane theory of a so - called cosmic evolu

con tion . Which is the more reasonable and more

: formable with common sense the plain , unadorned Scriptural account that bears on its face the stamp of

o r - u veracity , the bolstered p bombast of the forfend ers of evolutionistic doctrines ? The author ’ s stand will not be misconstrued by people that have made a study o f both sides of the question . In any ques ’ tion pertaining t o this world s wisdom I believe in

- research and criticis m to the full extent , but far be it from me to profane the Holy Book of God with sacrilegious hands . So much for the spirit in which the author has used the B ible as source material .

b e c a tte r So far as the s u j t m is concerned , the

i n word education is here used in its widest sense ,

- cluding the entire bringing up of the children , at home as well as in the school . Only in this way may j ustice be done to the people whose educational history is here briefly outlined .

The f or m may seem clumsy to the casual reader , but i t will certainly aid in reference work , since the ’ periods treated are those o f Hasting s Bible Dic

n t io ary . The author freely acknowledges his indebtedness

f . . P . . o to the Rev . rof . W H . T Dau , St Louis , Mo , for looking over the manuscript .

P . 1 1 . S t . aul , M inn , June , 9 5 CONTENTS

C H APTER P AG E

TH E NATIV E PERIOD 9 From the Earliest Times to the Division

m . o f . the Kingdo , 9 5 3 , B C

a . B ef or e the Flood .

b Th P a tr a r c a P er i od . . e i h l

o h ud es . c . Th e Ti m e f t e J g

h m o av i a n d o o m on . d . T e Ti e f D d S l

E d u ca ti on D ur i n g t he N a ti v e P er i od .

H P TH E PROP ETI C ERIOD , 9 5 3

- 5 86 B. C

o v H is t r i ca l S ur ey .

t o t e r o E d uca i on D ur i n g th e P r ph e i c P i d .

" L P — - B C 6 6 . . 2 TH E E I I ERIOD , 5 8 5 3 C 4 From the Taking of the Last Band of Jews into Babylonia to the Return

o f the First Exiles .

H t or ca r is i l Su v ey .

E c t on d u a i d ur i n g t he E xili c P er i od .

S A - TH E PER I N PERIOD , 5 3 8 3 3 2 B . C

B r i e H is t or i ca Sur v e f l y .

E d uca ti on D ur n t e P ers a n P r i g h i e i od . CONTENTS

C HAPTER PAG E

- 1 6 V TH E H ELLEN IC PERIOD , 3 3 2 5 5 3 From the Conquest of Judea by Alexander the Great to the Defeat of the Syrians

by Judas Maccabeus .

or H i st i ca l Sur v ey .

1 6 VI TH E MACCAB EAN PERIOD , 5

- 1 6 3 B . C 6 From the Defeat of the Syrians by Judas Maccabeus to the Conquest of Jeru

salem by Pompey . m m H ist or i ca l Su ary .

E d u ca ti on d ur i n g the M a cca be a n P er i od .

- - I I TH B . . o V E ROMAN PERIOD , 6 3 c 7 A D .

H ist or i ca l Su m m a ry .

Th e Ta lm ud i c P er i od .

BI BL IOG RAPH" Ed u cati o n Am o n g the Je ws

TH E NATIVE PERIOD

a w eep s, 3?q r . l t t q A I f FROM THE EARL I EST TIM ES TO TH E DI VI SI ON OF

KI N DOM . THE G , 9 5 3 B . C

( a ) Bef or e the Flood

of H E history the Jewish people , if we may speak of them as such at this time

o f o the world , is t ld briefly in the first

o f of six chapters Genesis . In this age

o f the infancy of the world , there is no record any

f o f of special transmittance o knowledge , any system

of i education . That the history the f rst people was

son handed down , by tradition , from father to , is , o f course , very evident from the preserved narra he tive . And that t moral precepts and the Gospel news of salvation were transmitted in much the " same manner , appears from Gen . Men began ” a of to proclaim the n me the Lord . That the tradi tions were discussed quite freely an d were made a

o f s of basis fervent hope , is shown in the ca e Eve , 9 I o ED UCATI ON AMON G TH E JEWS

Gen . I have gained ( by creative bearing ) a ” — a man the Lord , and that of L mech , who said , " after the birth of Noah : This same shall comfort

be us concerning our work and toil of our hands , ” o f cause the ground which the Lord hath cursed ,

of Gen . 5 , 2 9 . Both these expressions have the same motive , the hope in the coming Messiah , the seed of the woman . Whether the various kinds of handicraft and arts , which had their inception in these early days , such as the music of Jubal and the

- brass and ironwork of Tubalcain , were transmitted by any method but that of teaching the craft to the sons , is not apparent , although Jubal is called the father of all such as handle the harp and organ , Gen .

n f 1 . o o 4 , 2 Whether Lamech , account his poetical couplets , Gen . 4 , 2 3 , 2 4 , is to be regarded as the father of poetry , is a question which has often been discussed . Owing to the meagre source material , i def nite conclusions can hardly be drawn .

( b ) The Pa tr i ar chal P er i od

After the flood and the subsequent confusion of tongues , the real history of the Jewish people opens with the j ourney of Abram , afterwards Abraham , from Mesopotamia to the Land of Promise . His

soj ourn there was marked by various incidents , chief of which was the birth of Isaac . The blessing TH E NATIVE PERIOD

' o o f Abraham was transmitted by Isaac t Jacob , the

of w ho to second son Rebecca , thereupon had flee to

Mesopotamia . The sons of Jacob became the fore f fathers o f the twelve tribes o Israel . Joseph , one

s of of the e sons , became the savior his brothers dur ing the great famine and obtained for them and their children a place o f refuge in the land of Gosh m e . For several centuries the children of Israel lived in Egypt , until , with a change in the reigning

f of dynasty , there came a crisis in the a fairs the peo ple . Moses became the leader of his brethren , led them out o f the house o f bondage and to the ve ry borders of Palestine .

( c ) The Ti m e of the J udges

Joshua took the place of Moses at the boundary o f the new country . Under his leadership the tribes which inhabited the land were subj ugated and the country divided among the twelve tribes of Israel ,

Judah and Benj amin occupying the southern part ,

Reuben , Gad , and Manasseh principally the land

s s ea t of the Jordan , and A her , Dan , Ephraim , Is l sachar , Naphta i , Simeon , and Zebulun , the north ern and eastern part . The form of government at this time was theocratic , the people being guided entirely by the laws and ordinances which Moses had delivered to them . Although the tribes had received 1 2 EDUCATION AMONG TH E JEWS

the command to annihilate the heathen nations , some of these had been spared . And these were the very ones that made constant inroads upon the country , harassing the inhabitants and plundering and rob bing their p roperty . At such times Judges ( Saviors ) were called to lead the people against the enemy . t This entire period was a time of unrest , of an a temp t to accommodate themselves to new conditions The unfortunate ones that had been held in the serf

o f dom Egypt , had all died in the wilderness ; their P children occupied the Land of romise , they were obliged to become accustomed both to liberty and to

- - self government , or rather self restraint . Under such conditions a well - ordered community can hardly be conceived of .

( d ) The Ti m e of D av id a n d S olom on

With the growing prosperity o f the people and the feeling o f national power there came the demand for a king , as all the heath en about them had . Sam uel , who at that time was the spiritual leader o f the people , was very angry with them for the request they voiced . But h is objections were overruled and Saul was chosen by lot as the fi rst king of the Jewish nation . The beginning of his re ign was very success he ful , but after a few years turned aside from the

divine ways . This apostasy , together with the wars TH E NATIVE PERI OD against the heathen nations and the persecutions o f

of of David , made the last years his reign more a curse than a blessing for Israel and hindered the de

m e v elop n t Of the nation perceptibly . The reign of

un fav David , second king of Israel , Opened rather orably with a revolt o f a faction o f Saul and wars

, against the Jebusites and other heathen nations . The successful termination of all these diffi culties gave David a position of power and gained for his people an era of prosperity and peace . Moreover , since David himself was a poet and writer o f the foremost rank , he very greatly favored the arts and sciences . This happy state of affairs continued and became even more pronounced during the reign of Solomon , " ” the wise king . H is accession marked the begin ” ning of the first golden era of the Jewish people . This happy state was not to endure for a long time b though . Rehoboam , the son of Solomon , egan his

w as reign with a foolish decision . The result that ten o f the tribes seceded and formed a kingdom o f

re their own , while only two , Judah and Benj amin , mained with Rehoboam .

E d uca ti on D ur i n g the N a ti v e P er i od

o As stated ab ve , the history of the Jewish people really begins with the coming of Abraham to the P romised Land . Abraham was therefore at all I 4 EDUCATION AMONG TH E JEWS

e times looked upon as the father of the Jews , or H

i n al brews , as they were called very early , perhaps lusion to their coming across the river Jordan . And the very history of Abraham furnishes evidence for

of the early germs education in the Jewish people . If Abraham had n ot been a prince of royal blood or a member of the nobility in his native country , Chal

s dea , he at lea t had been a member of a prominent and wealthy family . He also associated on terms

of el hize of equality with the king Egypt , with M c dek , the king of Salem , and with Abimelech , the

o f king Gerar. H e was therefore at different times of his life in close contact with the Chaldean , with the Egyptian , and wi th the H ittite learning . N ow the civilization of Babylonia ( Mesopotamia and

w as Chaldea) at that time very far advanced . Read ing and writing were general attainments throughout P the country . According to rof . Sayce , schools and libraries were flourishing in Babylonia long before

Abraham was born , and the arts and sciences were fostered . The Babylonia of the age of Abraham was a more highly educated country than the En g

o f o f land George I I I . The same was true Egypt .

The country was full of schools and libraries , o f

o f an teachers and pupils , poets d prose writers , and of literary works which they had composed . The

of man business , the wealthier fellaheen , even to overseers of the workmen , were acquainted with TH E NATIVE PERIOD the hieroglyphic system o f writing and the hieratic o r cursive hand which had developed out of it . No one could live in Egypt without coming under th e spell i of its literary culture . As to the Hittites f nally ,

re whose very existence was denied a few years ago , cent explorations and excavations have proved defi n itely that this people also possessed a high degree of learn ing and exerted a more or less pronounced influence on some o f the nations with whom they

’ came in contact . The possibility o f Abraham s hav ing remained u n in fl ue n ce d by the culture with which he was in almost continual contact , can hardly be

as conceived o f . Josephus even goes so far to say " He (Abraham ) communicated to them ( the Egyp tians ) arithmetic and delivered to them the science o f astronomy ; for , before Abram came into Egypt , they were unacquainted with those parts of learning” f . o V (Antiq the Jews , Book I , Ch . I I I , The Jewish people then present the somewhat unique ex

o f i n fl u ample having as their progenitor a wealthy , e n ti al , and highly cultured man , whose influence along educational lines was bound to be most marked .

occu The following patriarchs , Isaac and Jacob , pied a position which was hardly less prominent . Neither were their relations with the heathen na tions less significant or without permanent influence . And while it may readily be admitted that the no madic life of the sons of Jacob as well as the soj ourn 1 6 EDUCATION AMONG TH E JEWS in Egypt were n ot conducive to literary and artis i tic advancement , t must be remembered , on the oth

o er hand , that b th Joseph and Moses received , the

o f former a part , the latter all his training , at Helio polis , the college city of Egypt . Of Moses espec i ally it was said that he was learned in all the wis

r dom of the Egyptians , and was mighty in wo ds and

2 2 . in deeds , Acts 7 , It is also hardly conceivable that a contact with the learning of Egyp t , which

i n lasted for several centur es , should ot have left its impression on the young nation in its own country . During the centuries when the Jews were without a f t stable government , the e forts o establish and main tain an educational system may indeed have been

or o f more less desultory , but the strength the hier archical system as well as the principle of the theo

cracy , at least ou twardly upheld , may be cited as an argument in favor of at least a partial educational system as well as on e against general education . Jewish tradition has it that there were regular es tablishe f d schools as early as the time o Isaac , and that Jacob and Esau both attended the primary

o r school . We have no way of either substantiating disproving tradition on this score . Skeptics may dis claim the very possibility o-f so great an achieve men t at so early a date . But it will always be well " ” to remember that an argumen t e silentio h as very little in its favor , while the fact that the patriarchs TH E NATIVE PERIOD I 7 had a household embracing several hundred souls

o f and could very well enj oy the services stewards , would surely not preclude the possibility of their em ploying a teacher for their clan . And if so much may be said in favor of a well - developed educational

o f system at so early a date , the assumption at least a rudimentary stage in education at the time of the

Judges can hardly be said to be too daring . The factors favoring a more thorough establishment of an educational system with the beginning of the

Monarchial Period have been outlined above . Every thing that is related o f David and Solomon makes the probability o f their having been the patrons of " ” the arts and sciences more certain . The golden era

f n o ot . was one peace , war After this preliminary general survey we are n ow prepared t o understand th e specifi c instances of cd u cation al references in the historical books of the

Jews pertaining to th is time . The very high r ega rd in which the Jews held child r e n as gifts of G od and their earnest and pray e rful ' lon gi n g for offspring colored and influenced ’ o f their whole life . Eve s joyous cry at the birth " ”

: o . Cain I have gotten a man from the L rd , Gen

4 , I , is usually cited as an instance o f the longing of the people of the old covenant for the promised

Messiah . B ut aside from this evident interpretation there is an underlying though t which voices the sen I 8 EDUCATION AMONG TH E JEWS

tim en o f Of Ol t the mothers the d covenant . The verb ha n a h o f is used principally supernatural , creative ’ : begetting , so that Eve s thought also included The

Lord has graciously granted to me , through special creative power , a son . I t is said of Jacob Gen . 3 7 , 3 " Now Israel loved Joseph more than all his children , ” On o f because he was the s his old age . The fervent longing and earnest supplication of Hannah , the wife of Elkanah , is voiced in the prayer I Sam . I , " ” 1 1 : Give unto thine handmaid a manchild . So highly did Hannah , together with the other women

o f of Israel , value the gift children , that her barren ness rested upon her as a curse of God . SO sincere was her longing for a son that she promised in a V OW tha t she would give back her son to the Lord , i . e . that she would have him trained for divine service from his infancy . . And she fully redeemed her vow when she brought the young Samuel to the priest Eli

a at the tabernacle , when the boy was but th ree ye rs old . Other instances illustrating the same love and longing for children are the examples of Sarah , Gen .

be h 1 . 0 1 6 2 Re cca . 2 2 , I , , , Gen 5 , , Rachel , Gen 3 ,

1 1 2 . 6 2 . , Ruth , Ruth 4 , 3 , and Michal , Sam , 3 But n ot only in these specific instances is the high regard and the tender love of parents toward their children set forth , but also in passages of a general

con clusi l nature , thus proving v e v that the Jews made

n this a basic principle i their national life . A poem

2 0 ED UCATION AMONG TH E JEWS

of o fort Jacob , there w as as much recognition his p

r sirion as remorse fo their evil deed in their action ,

Gen . 3 7 , 3 0. When the Jews received the Law by

o f n o the h ands Moses , they were t left in doubt as to the authority which God had given the parents . The commandment of the Decalogue reads : Honor thy father and thy mother , th at thy days may be long upon the land which the Lord thy G od giveth ”

1 2 . . 1 : thee , Ex . 2 0, This is emphasized Lev 9 , 3 " ” Ye shall fear every man his mother and his father , " and repeated Deut . 5 , I 6 : Honor thy father and thy mother , as the Lord thy God hath commanded ” thee . In conformity with these commandments " ’ : we read My son , keep thy father s commandments , and forsake not the law o f thy mother : Bind them h continually pon thy heart , and tie them about thy i neck . When thou goest t shall lead thee ; when thou sleepest , it shall keep thee , and when thou awakest , ” - h P 2 2 2 . it shall talk wit thee , rov . 6 , 0 In the same way : Hearken unto thy father that begat d ” thee , an despise not thy mother when she is old ,

P 2 . f rov . 2 3 , 2 That the authority o the parents " 1 : was sovereign , is evident from Prov . 9 , 2 6 He that wasteth ( shows lack o f respect toward , is con t emptuous toward ) his father and chas eth away his mother , is a son that causeth shame , and bringeth " An P 2 : rob reproach d again rov . 2 8 , 4 Whoso beth his fa ther an d his mother an d saith : I t is n o TH E NATIVE PERIOD

transgression , the same is the companion of a de ” troyer . These principles necessitated the maintenance o f

e the strictest and most uncompromising d iscipli n .

i a r n es t a on i t on The f rst step in discipline was e d m i , "

i m n d r e r oo . P r e r a . I : p , and p f rov , 8 My son ,

m usar hear the instruction ( Hebr . , admonition ) of ” thy father , and forsake not the law of thy mother .

" " ’

P . 1 1 i n t ru rov 3 , A wise son heareth his father s s c tion ; but a scorner heareth n ot rebuke ( German

r h e P Der Spoe tte o rt nich t auf Verweise ) . rov . " ’ ° 1 5 , 5 A fool despiseth his father s instruction ; ”

P . but he that regardeth reproof is prudent . rov 3 , " 1 2 : Wh a ha h om the Lord loveth He correcteth (j , " a id e u o P 6 f i n Greek p ) . rov . , 2 3 b : Reproofs o struction are the way of life ( rebuking reprimands , Greek : ha i elegch os ha i paid ei a ; French : les r e m on s tra n ces de la d is cipli n e )

If reprimands and remonstrances proved futile ,

c or ora l un s h e n t the next step in discipline was p p i m ,

o h n . P usually in the f rm of w ippi g rov . 1 3 , 2 4 " is son He that spareth his rod hateth h , but he that ” loveth him chasteneth him betimes . Such pun ishi n n g should , however , be done without carnal a " P 1 ger and in moderation . rov . 9 , 1 8 : Chasten thy

hO e son why there is p , and let not thy soul spare for ” : his crying ( Hebr . but to kill him let not thy soul P . 2 1 : o be driven ) rov . 2 , 5 Foolishness is b und in 2 2 EDUCATION AMONG TH E JEWS

o f o f the heart a child , but the rod correction shall ” P " . . 2 1 1 : drive it far from him rov 3 , 3 , 4 With hold not correction from the child : for if thou beat est him with a rod , he shall not die . Thou shalt beat him with a rod and shalt deliver his soul from " P 2 1 1 : hell . rov . 9 , 5 , 7 The rod and reproof give wisdom , but a ch ild left to himself bringeth his mother to shame . Correct ( punish ) thy son , and t h e shall give hee rest , yea , he shall give delight unto thy soul . I t was an exceedingly wise provision that punishment o f this kind was to be tempered with wisdom and moderation , having in mind always the end to be gained , the welfare of the child and of

the whole community , rather than a base desire for

r vengeance o the venting of a spite .

When even the harsher methods failed , then the

ex ulsi on exile d ea th . final step was p and , and even

The latter punishment , how ever , w as in the hands of

the community or government , the parents them

selves having no j urisdiction over life and death . In the case of the unruly Ishmael in the house o f m ’ Abraha , Sarah s request was brief and to the point " son Cast ou t this bondwoman and her son , for the ” so n of th is bondwoman shall not be heir with my ,

2 1 1 . . 2 1 6 : Gen . , 0 Deut 7, Cursed be he that set

or P . 2 0 2 0 teth light by his father mother , rov , " Whoso curseth his father or his mother , his lamp ” n ot shall be put out in obscure darkness . I t is evi TH E NATIVE PERIOD dent from the text whether a general curse is ' here i pronounced , or whether the specif c punishment is i exile or death . That the f nal , most severe punish men t was by no means beyond the pale of possibility ,

for n o o f appears from several pas sages , which claim " P 1 : ambiguity may be advanced . rov . 30, 7 The eye that mocketh at his father , an d despiseth to obey his m other , the ravens of the valley shall put it out , and the young eagles shall eat it . The instances , in which capital punishment was p rescribed by God , " 2 1 1 1 : are carefully enumerated . Ex . , 5 , 7 He that smiteth his father or h is mother , shall be surely put

or to death . H e that curseth his father his mother , " 0 : For shall surely be put to death . Lev . 2 , 9 every on e that curseth his father or his mother , shall be surely put to death ; he hath cursed his father or his

: . . mother h is blood shall be upon him In Deut 2 1 ,

1 8 - 2 1 d , the entire mo e of procedure in a case of this kind is outlined . A stubborn and rebellious son was

to f to be brought the elders o the city in the gate , where th e formal accusation and condemnation " should be made , and all the men o f his city shall

: stone him with stones , th at he die so shalt thou put evil away from among you , and all Israel shall ” hear , and fear . With such strict discipline it w as inevitable that good results were Obtained , at least in outward drill ,

tr t in training by rote . I n s uc i on i n t he f un d a m en ta ls 2 4 EDUCATION AMONG TH E JEWS of th e L aw or moral training was the basis of edu

1 1 - 6 i n struc cation . Prov . , speaks in general of tion in wisdom , j ustice , j udgment , and equity . So far as moral efficiency an d breadth of view is con

a ~ cerned , this would make an excellent b sis for Mil

’ P 2 1 0 1 1 : ton s requirement . rov . , , When wisdom entereth into thine heart , and knowledge is pleasan t unto thy soul ; discretion shall preserve thee , under ” " P : standing shall keep thee . rov . 4 , 5 Get wisdom ,

P 1 6 1 6 get understanding , forget it not . rov . , H ow much better it is to get wisdom than gold " and to get understanding rather to be chosen than ” silver . These texts are so general that it hardly seems possible to limit them to a knowledge of the " Ps 1 1 1 0 : Law alone , although indeed . I , , says The b fear of the Lord is the eginning of wisdom , a good understanding have all they that do his com ” m n m n o : a e ts . b 2 d And J 2 8 , 8 Unto man he

: said Behold the fear of the Lord , th at is wisdom , ” and to depart from evil is understanding . Religious

o teaching and m ral training were the basis , the very foundation of education among the Jews in this

of period . The precepts the books of this period have set the standard o f morali ty for the whole world . The virtues that were emphasized and lauded in

s o f the e books have received the approval the ages , and the vices there condemned are considered so uni

r ve sally to this day . The praise o f an ideal house THE NATIVE PERI OD 2 5

P 1 1 - wife rov . 3 , 0 3 1 is called the golden ABC of the wedded woman and regarded as the bes t presen ration of so comprehe nsive a subj ect that has ever appeared . But while the ancient Jews thus made religious

of training the basic principle their education , they did n ot neglect secular t ea chi n g. The art of w r i t i n g and therefore also of readi n g w as un doubtedly known to Abraham , as shown above , an d there are evidences throughout this period that it w as a very general accomplishmen t . Joseph in Egypt ( Gen . 1 4 , 4 9 ) surely made use of it . Moses wrote the w of an of 1 ords the Law at the comm d G od , Ex . 7 ,

1 . . 0 4 Ex 2 4 , 4 . De n t . 3 1 , 9 , 2 2 . 8 general was this attainment that the command w as given to all " Israelites ' Thou shalt write them ( the words of

- the Law ) upon the door posts of thy house , and ” om upon thy gates , Deut . 1 1 , 2 0. Moses also c m an de o d the people t set up great stones , when they " o had come int the Promised Land , and thou shalt write upon them all the words of this law , when thou art passed over , Deut . 2 7 , 2 , 3 . The passage Joshua 4 does n ot in any way confli ct with this state ment , because the stones sp oken of there were merely monuments . The men whom Joshua se nt out de

n os scribed the land i a book , Josh . 1 8 , 9 . J hua him

lf a 1 Sam . 1 0 ed wrote , Josh . 2 4 , 2 6 . S muel wrote , ,

2 . of Sam . 1 1 8 . 5 The Book Jasher w as written , 2 , 2 6 ED UCATION AMONG TH E JEWS

- 2 . 1 1 1 1 David wrote a letter , Sam , 4 6 . That there were special scribes or secretaries at that time ( 2 m Sa . 1 8 , 7 ) does not signify any more than it does at

s . o 1 . the pre en t time See als Judges 8 , 4 Where writing and reading were such general ac complishm en ts it is hardly conceivable that other bran ches of learning should have been neglected en

ti rel y . From the exactness of descriptions in Exodus ,

Deuteronomy , and Joshua , there must have been

e o r a some knowledge o f g g phy during this period . There w as also at least som e knowledge o f a r ithm e t i c if n o e om etr as tr on o , t of g y , most likely also of my b m o 1 6 . 1 . (J ) , and of usi c ( 1 Chron . , 4 2 Chron

The training in this period , at least in the earlier part , so far as is apparent from Biblical sources , was

ar e n ts in the hands of the p , although it is by no means improbable that there were special teachers or tutors at a very early time . Perhaps it was held merely that the parents had to as sume all responsi

bili of . . 1 8 1 ty for the training their children Gen , 9 , " it is said o f Abraham : I know he will command his children and h is household after h im , and they

to shall keep the way of the Lord , do j ustice and " 6 6 : j udgment . Deut . , , 7 And these words which

: I command thee this day , shall be in thine heart and thou shalt teach them diligently unto thy ch il ”

i n . . 1 1 1 dren ( drill thy children them ) Deut , 8

2 8 EDUCATION AMONG TH E JEWS

’ j eune en fan t a l en trée de sa voie ; are truer to the o riginal .

o f Outside the home , educa ti on was to some ex

r t tent in the hands o f the p i es s . Samuel was edu

cate 1 . 1 1 1 . d by Eli , the priest at Shiloh , Sam 2 , , 2 The Jewish tradition that Samuel established pr o

he t ch ools a t o p s at R mah and elsewhere , seems be

b 1 Sam . 1 0 1 0 1 . 1 1 o orne ou t by , , and Sam 9 , 9 . S

r va t a ch er or t ut ors far as p i e te s are concerned , Nath an seems to have occupied that position in the h ouse

of . 1 2 . David , 2 Sam 2 , 5

r o ess on a t ea ch er But there were also p f i l s , whether apart from the hierarchy or not , cannot be determ ‘ ’ i n i ed def nitely . They were known as teachers or ‘ ’ P " o s . : men f wisdom . 84 , 7 The teachers are

Ps . 1 1 1 0 : blessed abundantly . 9 , 9 9 , 0 I have more ” P 1 6 understanding than all my teachers . s . 1 4 , "When their j udges (wise men ) are overthrown in ” " P n o stony places . rov 5 1 3 : Have t obeyed the

o f . P . 1 0 : voice my teachers rov 3 , 2 He th at walketh with wise men shall be wise . There is no evidence pointing to the existence of

o l al special rooms or buildings for sch o purposes ,

i n though this idea would not be excluded . The struction that was not given at home or in the dwel ling of the teacher , may well have been imparted in

of the conversational form , as indicated in some the

of a passages above , which we have a striking ex mple TH E NATIVE PERI OD

o-f in th e methods Jesus at a later peri od . The school for musicians mentioned above was in Jeru m salem , since its purpose was to train singers and u s ician s for chorus and orchestra work in connection with the liturgical part of the temple services . - P 86 . . TH E PROPH ETIC ERIOD , 9 5 3 5 B C

H i st or i ca l Sur v ey

ITH the division o f the kingdom un der Rehoboam there began a gradual f disintegration o the nation . The

o f northern kingdom Israel , owing

to perhaps a lack of vitality and stamina , was the i f f rst to su fer . Its rulers were , for the most part , conscienceless , immoral , selfish creatures , overbear

own ing , cruel , and rapacious , so far as their sub

ects o j were concerned , and fawning and hyp critical toward the mightier rulers o f the surrounding coun

o f tries . Jeroboam , the leader the secessionist forces ,

o was the first king of Israel . He was foll wed , in

U n turn , by Nadab , Baesa , Ela , Simri , and Amri . der Ahab the country suffered from a severe and

o P prol nged drough t . His introduction of hoenician worship was a prime factor in overthrowing tradi

o f tion and ancient usages . Even the schools the

i n ~ prophets , which were by this time an established

s ti tut ion 1 , did not escape his tyrannical policy , Kings

1 2 2 . 8 , The country , torn by internal dissensions . 30 TH E PRO PH ETIC PERIOD

had no strength to combat an aggressive adversary . I t was only by marshalling all his forces that Ahab

- succeeded in defeating the Syrian king , Ben Hadad .

There followed several weak rulers , Ahaziah and

n o t Jehoram . Jehu had a long , but exceptionally f successful reign . I t is signi icant that the final ruin of the nation began at this tim e : In those days the

1 0 2 . Lord began to cut Israel short , 2 Kings , 3

Jehoahaz and Jehoash had a rather colorless reign .

e f Under Jeroboam I I Israel once more , by a last

a of . fort , regained position respect and power He extended the boundaries of his kingdom to the Eu

h rates p in the East , to Damascus in the North , to

the Dead Sea in the South . H is son , Zachariah ,

however , ruled only six months . H is assassin Shal

lum was in turn slain by M enahem . It was only by the paymen t of h igh tribute that this ruler was able to maintain a semblance of a kingdom over

against the Assyrians . H is son , Pekahiah was mur

dered after a short reign by Pekah . After this ruler

s had , in turn , been removed by as assination , Hoshea ,

of . the murderer , became guilty a last foolish move H e refused to pay tribute to the Assyrian king Shal

m an eser to , trying , at the same time , win So , the

king of Egypt , with presents . So the end came rath

er abruptly . Hoshea , together with the people of

Israel , was led away into Assyrian captivity . And " the resul t is stated thus : Therefore the Lord re 3 2 ED UCATION AMONG TH E JEWS

moved them ou t o f his sight : there was none left ” o f 1 1 but the tribe Judah only , 2 Kings 7 , 8 . The history of th e kingdom of Judah is not quite

so re dark and cheerless , but is also nothing but a

cital of gradual disintegration and final ruin . Even

under Rehoboam , the kingdom became so weak that , i for the f rst time , an enemy succeeded in taking the

o f . . city Jerusalem That was Shishak , king of Egypt He even dared to plunder the temple and the palace

which Solomon had built . Under the reign of Abi

j ah and Asa things began to look better . Some of the strongest enemies were co nquered o r gained for

the Judah , and when reformation of the Church and

the j udiciary was completed under Jehoshaphat , an era o f renewed prosperity began for the southe r n kingdom . This did not last very long , however ,

o -ram With Jeh , a gradual decline set in , which was

w : intensified under the follo ing rulers Ahaziah , the

- queen regent Athaliah , Joash , and Amaziah . The accession of Uzziah ushered in a century o f greater prosperity . He was very fortunate in war and took a great deal of interest in the welfare of h is people .

These favorable conditions continued under Jotham , were reversed very markedly under Ahaz , but were im emphasized under Hezekiah , the last king of portance . He made every effort to restore Judah to " ” the glory Of its golden era . But it was the last

of flickering before the final extinction . The fate TH E PRO PH ETI C PERIOD

the northern kingdom , which was settled duri ng his reign , presaged the fate of Judah . The remaining

n o kings Manasseh , Amo , Josiah , Jehoahaz , Jeh iakim ,

to Jehoiachin , Zedekiah , were , almost a man , either violently deposed or assassinated . In the year 6 05

to B . C . Nebuchadnezzar took the first captives

Babylon , and twenty years later the remaining Jews with the exception o f a little band which fled to

Egypt , taking the unwilling Jeremiah with them ,

i were led away into the Babylon an captivity .

Ed uca ti on d ur i n g th e P r ophe ti c P er i od

I t is eviden t from this brief historical survey that the conditions in both kingdo ms were decidedly unfavorable to education and the fostering of the

For arts and sciences in general . under such condi

o f f tions uncertainty and internal strife , o turmoil , disruption , and disintegration , the highest develop ment of a people in sciences and arts cannot be

o r reached , if i t has been attained to before , it can

or s not be maintained , , at lea t , its existence is an extremely precarious one . Th e country was torn

s by civil war , overrun by ho tile forces , the very ex isten ce of th e nation was often threatened , and its final ruin but a question of time . But while there are evidences of retrogression in certain respects , while there were times when syste 34 EDUCATION AMONG TH E JEWS matic education fo r the masses was out of the ques

i d uca ti on d e tion , it is signif can t that the e a l i a ls of t h e o er t r e p ple w e n ot a l e ed . We have essentially

a the same precepts , the same me ns , and the same aims as in the previous period . And whenever there

of w as an interval peace , the recovery o f lost ground f was little short o marvellous . So far as the a tti t ud e of par e n ts to ward their chil ff dren is concerned , there is the same longing for o spring , the same love of children , the same authority over the young , as in the early days Of Jewish his tory . The Shunammite at the time o f Elisha had one supreme wish , that of becoming a mother to a

2 1 6 . son , Kings 4 , And when her desire had been

i r fulf lled and her boy afte ward died , her great love for the child is shown in her every word and action ,

f o f 2 2 8 . o Kings 4 , As one the greatest curses

God pronounced upon a disobedient people , is men " ” tion ed d r the miscarrying womb , and y breasts ,

1 . Hosea 9 , 4 That the authority of parents over their children w as in no wise curtailed , is evident " : from the passage Jer . 2 9 , 6 Take wives for your ” sons , and give your daughters to husbands . The example o f T'ob ith is su fli cien t to show that this authority was unqu esti oned . That there were times , however , when the respect of the children toward their parents was forgotten , and the honor due to

their station was not accorded them , appears from

3 6 EDUCATION AMONG TH E JEWS specifi c Jewish religion was often virtually aband on e o f f d , as in the days Elij ah , but oc casional e forts

o at ref rmation , as those of Jehoshaphat , Uzziah , and

z H e ekiah , served to keep interest in the Jewish reli gion awake . Whenever such eras were ushered in ,

- i there was a revival of old time relig ous instruction .

To this , no doubt , Joel had reference, when he " : re writes Be glad then , ye ch ildren of Zion , and

o ou j oice in the Lord your G d , who giveth y teachers ” he t o 2 2 . r o unto righteousness , J el , 3 That the p p s ch ool s were continued , at leas t in the early part of " this period , is evident from several passages . The

2 . 2 sons of the prophets came forth to Elisha , Kgs , " o f 3 , 5 . Fifty men of the sons the prophets went ” "

. o ff and stood to view afar , vs . 7 , 1 5 . And Elisha came again to Gilgal : and there was a dearth in the land : and the sons o f the prophets were sitting ” 2 ff before him , Kings 4 , 3 8 . There were , accord ing to the text , one hundred men at this school . " o f Be And the sons the prophets said unto Elisha ,

n is hold ow , the place where we dwell with thee

t oo . o strait for us Let us go , we p ray thee , unt

Jordan , and take thence every man a beam , and let ” us make a place there , where we may dwell , 2 Kings

6 , 1 ff . I t appears from these passages that the pro phet schools at this time were boarding schools , the buildings of which were erected by the pupils them s e o a lves, an d wh were supported , to a gre t extent , TH E PROPH ETIC PERIOD

m . ca e a by voluntary contributions and loans There .

o f man from Baalshalisha , and brought the man

o o f i G d bread the f rst fruits , twenty loaves of barley , and full ears o f corn in the husk thereof . And he said , Give unto the people that they may eat . And ? his servitor said , What should I set this before an ” ? 2 n ot hundred men Kings 4 , It is express ly stated whether there was any instruction outside o f the teaching of the Law , but from the entire history o f the time it would surely not be too hold to con

" e lude that reading and writing were also taught . In

ou t o f fact , in carrying the commands the Torah , it devolved upon the leaders o f the prophet schools to teach their pupils to read and to write . In many o f the royal houses of this p eriod we

i t ut ors t f nd private , o whom the education of the ’ of h children was entrusted . In the case A ab s chil ‘ dren these m en are called bringers - up of the chil ’

2 1 0 1 . dren , Kings , , 5 Jehoiada , the priest , was

of . z tutor and guardian king Joash , 2 Chron . 2 4 U 2 ziah had Zechariah for a teacher at his court ,

2 . Chron . 6 , 5 It is very probable that the training which the royal children of the Jewish nation re cei ved w as quite as far advanced as ihat o f the princes in the surrounding countries .

However , there w as also instruction for the people

ho in general , with specially trained teachers . J e s " haphat in the third year of his reign sent to his 3 8 ED UCATION AMONG TH E JEWS

princess to teach in the cities o f Judah . and with them he sent Levites and priests . And they taught in Judah , and had the book of the law of the Lord with them , b and went a out throughout all the cities of Judah , ” - a n 2 . 1 d taught the people , Chron 7 , 7 9 . The

s o er scribe ( f ) , the learned man , seems to have been " the professional teacher from this time on . Where ?” " I . is the scribe Is . 3 3 , 8 Thy teachers ( in ter ” reters . 2 . p ) have transgressed against me , Is 4 3 , 7 The Lord God hath given me the tongue o f the ” "

o . . learned ( pr fessional teacher ) , Is 50 , 4 The priests said not , Where is the Lord and they that handle the law knew me n o t : the pastors also trans

resse - g d against me , and the prophets prOphecie d by ”

2 . o f Baal , Jer . , 8 Although the argument varia tion might be advanced here , the fact that the words were in use seems to point to the existence of sepa fli " rate o ces . From the prophet even unto the priest ”

on e . . every dealeth falsely , Jer 6 , 1 3 The law shall perish from the priest , and counsel from the ” k H ese . 2 6 . ancients , 7 , This is commonly regarded to mean that there were teachers outside of the

of priests , who were interpreters the Law , expound ing i t in the schools and applying it to every circum stance and condition of everyday life . Whether there were specially equipped general s chools with buildings or rooms set apart for th a t pur TH E PRO PH ETI C PERIOD

pose at this time , cannot be determined from the ma

r ea d i n w r i t n terial available . But that g and i g were

general , common accomplishments , is evident from

several passages . That Shaphan the scribe was also the reader in public cannot be advanced as a valid

- 2 2 2 ff . 2 2 . 2 counter argument , Kings , 8 2 Kings 3 , , f 1 . o Chron . 3 4 , 8 Th e writing letters by Jehu and the reading o f them by the elders Of Jezreel is n o t

1 1 . recorded as anything extraordinary , 2 Kings 0, " : Read this ( book ) I pray thee and he saith , I can not for it is sealed : And the book is delivered to

n o him that is t learned , saying , Read this , I pray

1 1 thee : and he saith , I am not learned , Is . 2 9 , ,

1 2 . This same example could be used in our days

or without reproach . It argues f a general knowl " of edge reading, not against it . Write the vision and make i t plain upon tables , that he may run that ” "

2 . readeth it , Hab . 2 , Take thee a roll and write ” therein , Baruch wrote . Jer . 36 , 2 . Upon the occa

o o f o si n a transfer of pr perty , Jeremiah subscribed the evidence , but the witnesses also subscribed the

of . 1 1 . book the purchase , Jer 3 2 , 0 , 2 Both forms o f writing were apparently in use , according to these passages : the writing on (clay ) tablets and also in rolls . From all the available material we may conclude

ro he that the teaching of the Law , including the p p

N eb um w as cies ( Torah , , Ketubim ) general during 4 0 ED UCATION AMONG TH E JEWS

the period , that reading an d writing w as a common accomplishmen t, and that a great m aj ori ty of the people , who enj oyed the services o f interpreters ,

o of scribes , or teachers , als had some knowledge

o arithmetic , geography , music , astr nomy , arts and

1 . 6 crafts . Is . 4 4 , 2 , I 3 Is . 4 , 6 . Before continuing in the discussi on of the next

of period Jewish history , it must be noted that with

o f o the leading away the Jews int exile, there begins that period o f their history which produced the

Talmud ( in the general , more comprehensive mean ing) . As soon as N eb uchadn ezzer had taken down large numbers of the population of Judea into Baby

so lonia , tradition has it , king Jehoiachin founded

o f N eh r ea an academy Jewish learning at a d , erec

a for ting special building that purpose . This school

f or apparently existed several centuries . The acad

H z l emy of Ezra was near u a . While the Great

et Synagogue cannot be established as historical , y there are suffi cient evidences of oral tradition lead

b e ing back to some such body , and making the ginnings o f Talmudic interpretation very probable

for the period of the exile . I t is quite true that i there are no authentic wr tten documents , and yet

the tradition cannot be ignored . In order to avoid c onfus ion and to retain the di

o f r vision historical periods in ou discussion , we shall continue to give a short historical survey of the TH E PROPH ETIC PERIOD

i remain ng periods of the Jewish history : the Exilic , P b the ersian , the Hellenic, the Macca ean , and the

Rom an periods , together with a brief presentation of the status of education fro-m Biblical and Apocry phal sources , and then finally embrace the ti me from the beginning of the exile to the decline o f the acad P emies in alestine and Babylon ia , and discuss the education of this entire period as shown in passages of the Talmud . — P 86 6 . . TH E EXILIC ERIOD , 5 5 3 B C

FROM TH E TA K IN G OF TH E LAST BAND OF JEWS INTO BA BY L ONIA TO TH E RETURN OF TH E FIRST E"I L ES

H is t ori ca l Sur v ey

ERU SAL EM and the temple had been de

o bl i str yed by the Ba yon an invaders . This fact also had a very definite influence on the hopes

) f the Jews as to their speedy return . Most

f - of them followed the advice o Jeremiah ( 2 9 , 5 7 ) and Ezechiel ( 3 9 ) and prepared for a stay of sev eral generations . They built themselves houses and dwelt in them , they planted gardens and ate of their i fruit . They were in general , several disagreeable n

i e c d n ts excepted , permitted the free exercise of their

h o religion . T ey gave up n ne of their established customs . And since they looked upon the exile as a punishment o f God for their laxity and denial , they were more than ever anxio us to return to the wor ship of the true God and the keeping of all the com m an dm en ts and statutes delivered to Moses . Every

o f thing was auspicious , not only for a revival the 4 2

4 4 ED UCATION AMONG THE JEWS children prevailed at this time as in the previous periods . Children were esteemed very highly as special blessings of God . One of the most terrible curses pronounced upon the idolatrous Jews w as " ”

s . Famine and evil bea ts shall bereave thee, Ezek

1 . be 5 , 7 According to this passage , th e relation tween parents and children was that of kindness and tender solicitude , and to be deprived of children was l considered a most terrib e visitation of G od . The power o f parents over their children w as practically

o f unlimited , with the obj ect , however , serving their " interests , Jer . 2 9 , 6 . On the other hand , a criminal l ” son shall surely die , his blood sha l be upon him ,

Ezek . 1 8 , 1 3 .

s s t em a ti c n str ucti on That y i was given , at least in certain circles , seems to be evident from the story of

Daniel and his friends . Ashpenaz was told to se lect from among the captive young men children in whom was no blemish , but well favored , and skillful

un in all wisdom , and cunning in knowledge , and d erstan i n d g science , and such as had ability in them ’ to stand in the king s palace , and whom they migh t ” o f teach the learning the Chaldeans, " f 1 . o Dan . I , 4 , 7 Now although these four were ’ the king s seed , and of the princes , yet the text does not in any way limit the accomplishments men

ion t ed to these young men . I t seems more in con formity with the words to believe that a fair degree TH E EXI LI C PERIOD of knowledge was general among the Jewish young men , and that these four , in a competitive examina

a f ar as tion , r nked highest . So Daniel is concerned , " Josephus even states that he w as already suffi ciently ” skilled in wisdom to meet all th e requirements of

o the king . Outside f this one passage , special sub jects of instruction or study are n ot mentioned in the books pertaining to this period . We have no reason

to to assume, however , that the ability read and write was not a fairly general accomplishment , as well as the other branches necessary for commercial pur

o f suits and professional life . Even the art map drawing with the incidental knowledge of geography m r and arith etic , is int oduced in a rath er casual

1 manner , Ezek . 4 , . There were specially appointed tea chers during

for but this period , not primarily , indeed , secular ,

for religious instruction . Since , however , the inter p re tative method o f teaching made necess ary at least an elementary kn owledge of the common school

o f branches , we may well speak regular and general

n ot instruction and training , very elaborate under

f con sid the circumstances , to be sure , but still o " on crable importance . They that understand am g ” " 1 the people shall instruct many , Dan . 1 , 3 3 . And they that be wise shall shine as the brightness of the fi rm am en t ; and they that turn man y to righteous

for D an . 1 2 . n ess as the stars ever and ever , , 3 ED UCATION AMONG TH E JEWS

i n These passages refer to teachers , to them that struct , to the wise men , and that there were quite a

of number them , even during the exile , appears from this very general remark . - P P 2 . . TH E ERS IAN ERIOD , 5 3 8 3 3 B C

B r i ef H is t or i ca l Surv ey

ITH the overth row o f the Babylon

ian empire , the Jews did not , indeed ,

o regain their liberty , neither in a p

litical n or a commercial respect , but

s to their condition was , neverthele s , ameliorated a t great extent . Cyrus proved rather friendly o them , es pecially so far as their religion was concerned .

Immediately upon his accession to the throne , he issued the proclamation permitting the Jews to re

- o . turn t their country At the same time , he brought

s o f of forth the ve sels the house the Lord , which Nebuchadnezzar had taken as trophies of war from

of Jerusalem . Under the leadership prince Zer ubb ab el and the high priest Jeshua some peo

’ ple made the j ourney back to the d esola te city Jeru salem . The first attempts at restoration , especially

e f the rebuilding o f the temple , were such pitiful forts i n comparison with the fo rmer glory that the ’ older members of the people that had seen Solomon s temple , burst into tears . In addition to that , the Samaritans did everything in their power to hinder 4 7 4 8 EDUCATION AMONG TH E J EWS

the progress of the work . I t was not until 5 1 6 B . C . that the Jews were able to dedicate their new tem

H s is . ple . This was during the reign of Darius y tas p

r During the next sixty years , the Jew s that e mained in Babylonia suff ered somewhat from op pression , but were finally liberated in a most glorious

s manner . Xerxe is very probably the king of whom f the Book o Esther speaks . In 4 5 8 B . C . the priest

i n flu and scribe Ezra , w ho seems to have had some ence at the Persian court , went back to his native

r count y . He had been in charge of an academy in Babylonia and his purpose was to eff ect a thorough

of going reform religion in Judea . A great number o f exiles accompanied him and aided very greatly in the work that he had set himself to do . While he had some success , the material prosperity of the Jews

n ot a at Jerusalem was enhanced . When Nehemi h , the cupbearer of the Persian king Artaxerxes ( Long im an us o f ) , heard this , he was moved to give up his important position and hasten to the aid o f his brethren . I t was fortunate that the king gave him S full commission and power to act , because the tate of things at Jerusalem was approaching chaos when

Nehemiah appeared . He had the walls repaired and the gates restored . He also , together with Ezra , again established religious services and bro ught or

der into the civic body . And when , after his return to his pos ition in the Eas t, the succeeding governors TH E PERS IAN PERIOD

to to were n ot equal the situation , he. returned the

an d San eb allat city , eventually drove the Moabite ,

- a . the chief mischief maker , into S maria The next century under Persian sovereignty was comparative

o ly uneventful . During this time of peace, h wever , the Jews had the best opportunity for readj ustment and thorough organization of their educational meth b ods . The influence of the Ba ylonian academies and the Great Synagogue was being felt with increasing

o f strength . While the extent this influence can n o t o f be measured exactly , in the absence authentic

n o information , there can be doubt that it was very great and lasting .

Ed uca ti on d ur i n g the P ersia n P er i od

All the factors enumerated above : the influence

o f of a strong , but wise government , the reformation the church and the restoration of the religion o f C Moses , the ontact with people of great enlighten

- ment , they all had a very definite influence on the

Jewish people , especially in education . While sec ular subj ects had n eve r been entirely neglected

n o among them , a new impetus was w given to their study , and the imperative need of a thorough and comprehensive system in education and of a proper equipment for such a system was coming to be fel t

n re more a d mo . 5 0 EDUCATION AMONG TH E JEWS

The order regarding the relation betwee n parents and children was obviously insisted upon with great

ow e r o a r e t er vigor . The p f p n s over their chil

dren was practically unlimited . The giving and taking in marriage was a right which the parents " dared not to abrogate . Give not your daughters

unto their sons , neither take their daughters unto your sons : that ye may be strong and eat the good of

for i the land , and leave i t an nheritance to your chil " 1 dren forever , Ezra 9 , 2 . Ye shall not give your

n o r daughters unto their sons , take their daughters ” N m for ehe . 1 2 . unto your sons , nor yourselves , 3 , 5

o f ob e In accordance with this provision the law , the d i e n ce of child re n and of those under authority was " almost absolute . Esther ( as queen ) did the com mandment of Mordecai , like as when she was ”

2 2 0 . brough t up with him , Esther , Esther had ’ been Mordecai s ward and he had , according to Jew

‘ ’ com letel o a ish law , been p v in loc p rentis toward her , " o f and she obeyed him as a matter course . A son ” h r on o eth . 6 . his father , Mal I , That was the self evident status , the father occupying , by virtue of his

son parenthood , a position of honor , and the , by vir

s tue of h is sonship , giving his father the re pect and obedience due his pos ition .

ch ool P That s s were established in alestine , at least

Of im during the early part this period , seems very _ r t n w probable from the material at hand . W i i g as

5 2 EDUCATION AMONG TH E JEWS

e to caused the peopl understand the reading ,

N he e m . 8 , 8 . According to Jewish custom , that can

on e mean but thing, that they took up all the ques

o tions touched upon in the holy b oks , and heard dis cuss ion s of the elements of all branches of knowledge . - C . PE 1 6 B . TH E H ELLENIC RIOD , 3 3 2 5

FROM TH E CON"UEST OF JU D EA B" AL E"AND ER TH E GREAT TO TH E DE FEAT OF TH E SYRIANS B" JUDAS MACCABE US

H ist or i ca l Surv ey

H E transition from Persian to Hellenic sovereignty in Judea was attended with

s but little disturbance , as Josephus relate

the story . After the Samaritan leader had renounced allegiance to Darius , and Alexander ,

of n after taking the city Tyre , was marchi g down

on - through Judea his way to Egyp t , the high priest

Jaddua conceived of a i d ari n g plan to gain the good

o f o fli e will the conqueror . Clad in all his robes of c , attended by the priests , and followed by the imbabi

o f o . tants Jerusalem , he went ut to meet Alexander

H is plan succeeded splendidly . Alexander bowed down before Jaddua and explained to his Ofli ce rs that

e he had once in a dream seen a man in such v stments , who had promised him the conquest of Asia . He then inspected the city and the temple , made a sac rifice on the main altar , excused the Jews from the 53 5 4 EDUCATION AMONG TH E JEWS

x payment of ta es for one year , and grant ed them

of free exercise their religion . With the death o f

Alexander , however , only ten years later , the Jew ish hopes received a temporary setback . Ptolemaeus

L a us g , after a long struggle , gained the mastery

. w s over Egypt and Judea He , as ell as his succes or , P P tolemaeus hiladelphus , took an active interest in the arts and sciences , and many Jews were induced to move to Egyp t with the prospect of great mater ial advantages . Most of these settled at Alexan dria , where they became acquainted with Greek learning . The immense library o f Alexandria was begun by Ptolemaeus Philadelphus and the tra n sla

o f a so - tion the Old Test ment into Greek , the called

Septuagin t , was probably made at his instigation .

2 . . ol be About the year 4 7 B C , the d struggle tween the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucidae of Syria was renewed and continued for almost fifty

- years . Judea was often the battle ground , and Jeru salem very often had to bear the brunt of the con fli ct . Antiochus I I I finally vanquished the Ptolemies and Judea apparently was to have an era o f peace and prosperity . Antiochus proved a friend of the

Jews , he permitted them to repair the temple , granted full religious liberty , and persuaded many of the Jews to form colonies in various parts of

o Asia Minor , as well as in Mesop tamia . This happy condition was radically changed under Antiochus TH E H ELLEN IC PERIOD

on e o f the Noble . When his favorites , Jason , who m had usurped the position of high priest in Jerusale , and introduced pagan ceremonies , was driven from

o f the city , he began a series atrocious assaults . Jeru

o salem was taken , thousands were killed , other th u

o f sands sold as slaves , the walls the city were razed and the Jewish religion was declared obsolete . The

as final result w that a staunch Jewish patriarch ,

M h hias n at at , gathered the faithful about him , e trenched himself in the mountains , made sudden attacks upon the enemy , and gradually recovered a

i his u considerable port on of the country . And son , J

re das Maccabeus , took up the work where he had li n i h qu s ed it . He routed the Syrians in several

r e great battles , took the city of Jerusalem , and stored the Jewish religion .

Ed uca ti on d ur i n g th e H elle n i c P e r i od

It appears from the history of this period that

o f there were two eras quiet , one of rather short f o C . duration , at the end the fourth century B . , and the other during the time o f the first Ptolemies .

These periods , especially the latter , were very favor f able to the development o the arts and sciences .

o With Greek learning , especially t the extent in m which it was introduced , ca e , in some measure at least , the Greek system of education . I f there was " 5 6 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS

e or no definite ducational school system established , by which the results of Greek learning were com m un icate d to the young , there must , at least , have been sufli cien t intercourse to permit o f an absorption of Greek learning by the leaders of the Jewish peo ple . More definite conclusions can be drawn only

the for the succeeding historical periods , and in final summary of the entire Talmudic period the addi t ion al information will enable us to reach more d efi nite conclusions . The only book from whi ch we may obtain relia ble information , though rather meagre , as to the

o f o status education during this period , is the B ok " m n s o f Ecclesiasticus , com o ly known a the Wisdom

o n o f o f Jesus , the S S irach . The date th is book is given as pertaining to the next period , but its con tents belong to this period , since the proverbs were gathered by the men Of one family during the course of three generations . We h ave , therefore , a fair picture o f the conditi ons and o f the ideals o f the

o f time , about the end the third and the beginning o f the second century before Christ . It appears from this book that the educational ideals o f earlier ti mes were insisted upon with even

greater emph asis at this time . The new feeling of nationalism and the tho rough reformation of the church insisted upon a slavish return to ancient laws

and customs , and the movement was aided by the TH E H ELLEN IC PERIOD academies an d synagogues in the various larger cit

a ies and influential centres to such a degree , that lit eral interpreta tions of the law an d slavish adherence to its very letter was practiced among the conserva tive Jews , who were the leaders of the people . The p osi ti on of the pa re n ts is defined with unequivocal " efi n i ten ess d . If thou hast children , bring them up

om t well , and bend their neck fr their you h up . If thou have daughters , preserve their body and do n ot pamper them . Counsel thy daughter , then hast thou ” done a great deed , and give her to a sensible man , " 4 n Sir . 7 , 2 5 2 7 . Rejoice ot , because thou hast many

h o evil children , neit er b ast , because thou hast many children , if they fear not God . I t is better to have on e pious child than a thousand impious . And it is better to die witho ut children th an to have godless ” 6 e ones , Sir . , Children wer most desirable

s o treasure then , and considered great gifts f G od ,

n and their bringing up , their moral training was e trusted to the parents , upon whom the full responsi

il of b i ty rested . The power the parents was j ust as

o f unlimited as in any the previous periods .

t o h n o ar On the other hand , the r ela i n of c ildr e t p " en ts as o was defined j ust exactly . The L rd will

o f n have the father h nored o th e children , a d what soever a mother commands the children , H e wan ts ” "

ff . o the same kept , Sir . 3 , 3 , 7 , Wh soever hon ors his father , will live all the longer , and Whosoever 5 8 EDUCATION AMONG TH E JEWS

’ is obedien t for the Lord s sake , is a consolation to ” " : his mother ; vs . 9 Honor thy father and thy moth er with deeds , words , and patience , that their bless F ings may come upon thee . or the blessing of the

for o f father builds houses children , but the curse ” " the mother destroys them . Honor thy father with

n o all thy heart , and forget t what a care thou hast ” " been to thy mother , Sir . 7 , 2 9 . An impertinen t son is a dishonor to his father . A s ensible d augh ter will very likely get a husband , but a spoiled

s - h daughter is un oug t and brings care to her father ,

n ot o f Sir . 2 2 , 3 , 4 . Forget the teaching thy father and thy mother , so shalt thou sit among the ”

2 1 . lords , Sir . 3 , 8 Respect , honor , obedience , a careful regard for the teaching of the parents were

of n required absolutely ch ildre , while impertinence ,

e lack of r spect , want of shame , and vileness were condemned .

e n These demands , moreover , were required to be o f rced with the utmost strictness . As the home was considered the foundation of the nation and the chil ’ dren the future representatives of God s chosen peo

a dis ci li n e ple before the world , l xi ty in p was con

i n s ere ot . d d merely foolish , but almost criminal S ev eral chapters are devoted almost exclusively to this

0. of topic , notably chapters 2 6 and 3 Some the sig " n ifican t verses are the following . If thy daughter

n be ot ch aste , keep her very strictly , lest she perform

6 0 ED UCATION AMONG TH E JEWS written for the use of the general public and that everybodv was expected to be able to read i ts ' p recept s readily . If there is at all such a thing as advance men t and building up on an excellent foundation , it would be far more in keeping with the circumstances

o f to infer the existence religious schools , where ele mentary training was given , at least in the principal cities . For that these schools did not confine them selves to the teach ing of religious and moral pre ce ts p , has been emphasized above , and shall be dis cussed in a more extended manner from the Tal mud . - P 1 6 . . TH E MACCAB EAN ERIOD , 6 5 3 B C

FROM TH E DE FEAT OF TH E SYRI ANS B" JUDAS MACCA B EUS TO TH E CON"UEST OF J ERU SA L EM B" POM P EY

H ist or i cal Su m mary

FTER the defea t o f the Syrians an d the conquest o f Jerusalem by Judas Macca l beus , the power of the Syrians was a

m ost broken . The first concession the victorious Jews insisted upon was full religious lib r er y with all attendant privileges . Jonath an Mac b ca eus , by a fine stroke of diplomacy, succeeded in

fi of f r obtaining the of ce high priest o himself . The

s third brother , Simon Maccabeus , went a tep far ther and gained for his family the hereditary eth

h r n arc . n H y His grandson , Aristobulus , the so of y can us , changed the government to a kingdom , as s um i n for g the title of king himself . And his

n e s brother , Alexander J an u practically restored the

for independence of the kingdom , regaining it also the exten t an d virtually the power o f the time of

fi e . to David Owing the fact , however , that the of c

6 1 6 2 ED UCATION AMONG TH E JEWS o f king and that of high priest were vested in on e person , the more zealous among the Jews incited the people and precipitated a civil war which , a few P years later , gave the Roman general ompey a wel come excuse for intervention . The inevitable result was the conquest o f Judea and the seizure of Jeru

6 . . salem by the Romans , 3 B C Aristobulus the king and h is children were taken to Rome to be exhibited in the triumphal pageant , and the independence of

Judea was a thing of the past .

E d uca ti on d ur i n g the M a cca b ea n P e r i od

At this time there were three sects among the " P Jews , relates Josephus , the harisees , the Sad

d uce es . , and the Essenes , Antiq . , Book XI I I , Ch

V . This remark is significant , because it shows a high development o f learning am ong the Jews at

on e that time . The era was certainly an auspicious

a l for dvance along all lines , including educationa f matters . There was , especially at the time o the great festivals , intercourse with the Jews who had founded colonies in B abylonia , in Egypt , through

re out Asia Minor , and elsewhere , but retained the li ion com g and all their customs . Ever ready to ac m odate to o n themselves their w advantage , the Jews absorbed the learning o f the most civilized nations of the time by contact , if n ot by actual study in the TH E MACCABEAN PERIOD

foremost schools and universities of the world . In on e respect alone they remained perfectly isolated ,

in their religion and , to some extent , in their lan

- w as guage , the Hebrew Aramaic , which their home

tongue . Just how much the Jews advanced along

all lines at this time , will be shown in the discussion

o f . the Talmudic period In the apocryphal books ,

the o we have , for this period , account f the Mac

cabees an , their wars d the political activity , with no

special reference to educational matters . There can

2 . be no doubt , however , from passages like Macc

2 o f 7 , 8 , that the love parents toward their chil dren and their authority w as j ust as great as in form i . t er periods Incidentally , is told that the Hebrew

mother nursed her child about three years , this , then .

being considered the time of infancy . 0 . TH E ROMAN PERIOD , 6 3 B . C . 7 A . D

H is t or i ca l Sum mary

re H EN the Romans , as Josephus

lates , had made Jerusalem tributary to

H rcan us their empire , y I I remained

at first both high priest and ethnarch , with the full power of both ofli ces . I t was not long

o th ugh before Antipater , upon whom Caesar had already bestowed the privilege o f the Roman citizen

i n of . ship , succeeded becoming the procurator Judea By this decree of Cae sar the Jews lost the last vestige o f political independence and became a dependen t

h el principality . Antipater made his son P asa us gov

e rn or o f l . of Jerusalem , and Herod , Ga ilee The Roman Anthony later elevated bo th of them to the

as rank of tetrarch . Herod the Great sumed the ti

o w as tle of king . After his death , the Jewish c untry

a divided mong his three sons , Archelaus having the provinces Of Idumea , Judea , and Samaria , with the titl e of ethnarch Philip the country east o f Jordan , with the title tetrarch ; and Herod Antipas , Gali 6 4 TH E ROMAN PERIOD

lee and Peraea , with the title tetrarch . Archelaus b Matth . 2 2 2 ( , ) egan his reign with such acts of cruel ty and revenge that he w as soon banished to

Gaul . After that , these provinces were under the

o f P P es j urisdiction governors ( ontius ilate , Felix , F

ho o tus , w , in turn , were responsible t the pro

o prae tor or proconsul o f Syria . Her d Antipas tried

of for as to gain the title King himse lf , but w cir

m n e cu ve t d by his nephew , Herod Agrippa I , through whose machinations he found himself exiled to Gaul . Herod Agrippa I succeeded gradually in having Palestine made a province separate from that o f

Syria . H e was followed by his son , Agrippa I I , who held the title of king . I t was under h is reign that the party o f Zealots in Jerusalem became so strong that they stirred up a rebellion against the

- Romans . The result is well known . The Roman general Vespasian began the conques t o f the prov ince and made the plans for the siege o f the city , and

son his Titus took Jerusalem . The conquerors knew no mercy . The ci ty was sacked and plundered , razed and burned . The number of captives remain ing is given by Josephus as amounting to Seventeen thousand young men were sent to Alex

e andria as slav s , other thousands were kept for the

to plays in the arena . The Jewish nation ceased exist . The Jews were dispersed among all nations .

0 . That was in the year 7 A . D 6 6 EDUCATION AMONG TH E J EWS

E d u ca ti on D uri n g the R om a n P er i od

There is a great deal more to be said for this period than that which is contained in Biblical pas

. o n sages Nevertheless , the material from which c e lusions may be drawn is comprehensive and satis factory to a greater extent than in the preceding periods . Whether Roman learning ever exerted a great influence on the Jewish people or their educa t ion al n o t system , is evident and is highly improba ble . The superscription on the cross was indeed in the Hebrew , the Greek , and the Latin tongue , but it is probable that the Latin was merely for the sake o f the soldiers and to emphasize the fact that j udgment had been passed under Roman j urisdiction .

In the Roman decrees quoted by Josephus , the sep aration o r isolation of the Jews from the people among whom they were living is commented upon , and they were allowed to live and act in all things

according to the customs of their forefathers .

It cannot be a matter of surprise then , that , in

their comparative isolation , the Jews retained all

their laws and customs , and exercised j urisdiction over the members of their nation in all minor mat

r ela ti on o a r ters pertaining to their Law . The f p

e n ts t o th ei r child r e n res on , their authority , their p

sibili t y , and also the love which they owed their "

f a . of spring , is emph sized in several cases Behold

6 8 ED UCATION AMONG TH E JEWS

i g ous instruction of their children , for the bringing up in the nurture and admonition o f the Lord . The instruction , however , was not confined to the home .

n a o ue o f The sy g g s ( houses of assembly , prayer , of teaching) that are mentioned throughout the histor

f ha ical books o the New Testament , d their origin " at the time Of the first kings : They have burned up ”

o f Ps . . all the synagogues God in the land , 74 , 8

e o as At the tim of the R mans , there w a synagogue in P every city of any size in alestine , as well as in many other cities where the Jews were at all numer "

. a ous Jesus went about all Gal ilee , te ching in ”

h . 1 M a tt . 2 . . their synagogues , 4 , 3 9 , 3 5 3 , 5 4

2 1 . 6 2 . 1 I 1 0 . Mark I , , 3 9 , Luke 4 , 5 . 3 , John

1 P 8 , 2 0. There was a synagogue at Antioch in isi

1 1 dia ( Acts 3 , Iconium ( Acts 4 , Thessa

1 1 lonica (Acts 7 , Berea (Acts 7 , Athens 1 1 (Acts 7, Corinth (Acts 8 , Ephesus

1 ( Acts 8 , there were several in Dam ascus

2 1 ( Acts 9 , , Salamis in Cyprus (Acts 3 ,

Alexandria in Egypt , and Antioch in Syria . These synagogues were not used for services only , consisting of Scripture readings and prayer , but also for lec tures and expositions of the Scriptures ( Luke 4 ,

2 1 if . ) These l ectures may sometimes have been " o f 1 held in the adj oining house learning , Acts 9 ,

1 9 . The school of Tyrannus mentioned in this pas sage was probably a school patterned after the TH E ROMAN PERIOD

Greek Gymnasia . That there were also other schools at this time , appears from several references " in the N ew Testament . After three days they

o f found him in the temple , sitting in the m idst the doctors , both hearing them and asking them ques ”

2 6 . a o tions , Luke , 4 Here we h ve a scho l of a P special kind , which will be spoken of later . aul

o o f was br ught up in Jerusalem at the feet Gamaliel , and taught according to the perfect manner of the ”

o f 2 2 . law the fathers , Acts , 3 Here we have a

of f school a still di ferent kind , and apparently a very

on e P advanced , for aul was versed not only in the

Law , but also in secular knowledge , and even showed familiarity with Greek poetry . I t is evident , then , that the educational system o f the Jews was devel

in oped quite highly this period . Just how far the

Jews were advanced , will be evident from the dis cussion f o Talmudic times .

TH E TAL M UD I C PERI OD

The Talmudic period , though considered as be ginn ing after the destruction of Jerusalem and the

o diss lution of the Jewish nation , may nevertheless be

o said to extend back to the time f the exile . There

are three principal reasons for this statement . In

the first place , as noted above , Jewish tradition in regard to the Great Synagogue and the oral trans 70 EDUCATION AMONG T H E JEWS

mission o f rabbinical exposition cannot be ignored

entirely . In the second place , the nucleus of the Mishna in its unwritten form extends back several

re centuries before Christ . The cessation of prophecy

a moved certain restriction upon writing , and the ex ample o f Jesus Sirach was undoubtedly imitated o f

tener than accounts relate . And lastly , many of the institutions referred to in the Talmud date back sev eral centuries , and the discussion thus throws light on conditions that existed long before the actual

- o . u n gathering of the materials in b ok form I t is , fi fortunately , extremely dif cult to fix dates in the

n a discussion with the ecessary exactness , but the p proximate time may be given according to tradition .

Even at the time of Jesus , the tradition of the ” e elders played an important part in som discussions ,

M h 1 2 e att . 5 , , 3 , and lsewhere . And the schools of

Gamaliel , of Hillel and Shammai , where the pre cep ts o f tradition were taught ( Mishna) were in a flou rishing condition even before the fall of J e

m . rusale After the destruction of Jerusalem , Rabbi

Johanan ben Zakkai , who had gained the favor of

to Vespasian , asked permission establish a school of

Jewish law , and when this was given , settled at Jab neh , or Jamnia , near Joppa . In this school , to which Jews from all over the world sent their sons , was begun the final development of the form o f the tradition or exposition of the Law . Gamaliel the TH E ROMAN PERI OD

Younger and Akiba were especially influential

o f Rab teachers . About the end the second century , bi Juda ben Simon was the leader of this school . H e established as authoritative and decisive the Mishna of Akiba , which probably at this time ceased to be oral and was committed to writing . The Jabneh

e teri school was transferred to Tiberias , but soon d orated . The scholastic center shifted to Babylon in the production of the Gemara or the Talmud prop t f t er . The great teacher instrumen al in e fec ing this

Ba change was Rabbi Abba Rab , whose school at b ylon soon had 1 2 00 students . His academy was

o P located at Sura , but was often transferred t um ’ b i N e e d ta . h ar ea Samuel s academy was at d , a con t i n at ion u , according to tradition , of the academy founded by king Jehoiach in .

D . In the fifth century A . , Rabbi Aschi had the oral explanations , discussions , decisions , etc . , based on the Mishna collected in the Babylonian Talmud . P About the same time , the teachers in alestine made a similar collection , which is known as the Jerusalem

Talmud . The Mishna , then , is the oral tradition , or the oral common law of the Jews since the time of the exile , and , in part , probably dating back even farther . The Midrash , or commentary in general , embraces every kind of explanation or elucidation of

Scripture , including the Mishna , but especially the

or Gemara, Talmud proper , and the Tosephta . The 72 EDUCATION AMONG TH E JEWS

Haggadah is th e illustrative an d practical , the Hala chah the exegetical commentary on the Old Testa

a of u ahha- s ment . The Halach h collection J d Na i

6 a ( 3 tracts ) is generally known by that n me, while other collections of Halachah are designated as Bar i h a t a . Among these collections were those called

P : H an assi Tosephta . eters says Rabbi Judah col lected all attainable rulings and precedents and pub lishe d them in what we call the Mishna ( 1 53 2 years

o after the giving f the Torah ) . Many de c isi on s n ot included ( in the Mishna ) were collected later under the name of Boraithoth in a work called T h ose tha . the p , or Addition ( Supplement )

Yet other Borai thoth are t o be found in the Gemara .

The Gemara is a comment on the M ishna , j ust as

on or . the Mishna is a comment the Torah Law , p 79 That the education o f the Jews about the time o f the destruction o f Jerusalem w as very highly ad

an ce a v d , is evident from such ex mples as that of

P . aul ( mentioned above ) , and that of Josephus The " latter says of himself : I was brought up with my brother , and I made mighty proficiency in f the improvements o my learning , and appeared to

have both a great memory and understanding . More

u e over , when I was a child , and about fo rte n years

o f as f or age , I w commended to all the love I had to learning ; on which account the high priests an d TH E ROMAN PERIOD principal men o f the city came then frequently to me together , in order to know my opinion about the ” accurate understanding of points o f the law ( Life " N o For o n of Flavius Josephus , . 2 ) those of my w nation freely acknowledge that I far exceed them in t h e learning belonging to Jews ; I have also taken a great deal of pains to obtain the learning of the

Greeks , and understand the elements of the Greek m language , although I have so long accustomed y self to speak our own tongue that I ca nn o t pronounce Greek with suffi cient exactness ; for our nation does not encourage those that learn the languages of many

o nations , and so adorn their disc urses with the smoothness of their periods ; because they look upon

of to this sort accomplishment as common , not only

of f all sorts free men , but to as many o the servants as please to learn them . But they give him the

e o f m an ac t stimony being a wise , who is fully

uai n t e I q d with our laws , and S able to interpret their meaning ; on which accoun t , as there have been many who have done their endeavors with great patience to obtain this learning, there have yet hard ly been so many as two o r three that have succeeded

fci r therein , who were immediately well rewarded ” their pains (Antiq . , Book XX , Chap . XI ) . Someone may argue that both Paul and Josephus

were exceptions , being extraordinary men , even

‘ geniuses or at least unusually gifted . But the facts 74 EDUCATION AMONG TH E JEWS show that they had the opportunity to study and to advance themselves in knowledge , right in the midst o f their ow n people . Moreover , Josephus writes in " a very general way : Our principal care o f all is

r this , to educate ou children well , and we think it to

o r be th e m st necessary business of ou whole life , to observe the laws that have been given us , and to keep those rules of piety that have been d e li verd ” down to us (Against Apion , Book I ) .

As a matter of fact , while private schools , pro phet schools , academies of learning, and synagogues

o f had been in existence for quite a number centuries , and some of them , at various times , had been in a f flourishing condition , it was in the last century o the existence of the Jewish nation that the Jews advanced still farther and founded a school system f or all boys , a public school system , maintained at

o a public expense . Simon ben Sh t h , who lived in the reign of Alexander J an n eus and queen Alexan dra

- 1 . ( about 06 70 B C . ) ordered the establishment o f P schools in all the large cities of alestine . An d

o f - during the reign Agrippa I I ( 4 4 70 A . D . ) Joshua ben Gamla extended this order in so far as it now included all cities of Pales tine and fixed a min

b Six imum age for school oys as from to seven years , or , according to another account , the completed fifth year . The educational maxims scattered throughout the

76 EDUCATION AMONG TH E JEWS m its embers must be able to speak seventy languages , ” n o so an interpreter would t be needed , Tract Sanhe 0 drin ( XV , 4 ) Women were not entirely excluded " from all learning . It is obligatory for women to ” of hear the reading the Megilla , Tract Megilla

o f ( VI I I , The Megilla includes the Song Sol

o h . om n , Ruth , Lamentations , Ecclesiastes , and Est er

There is no evidence , however , that women were ex cluded from the general reading and study o f the

o f on Law , especially since so many the ordinances c cerned them . Some women among the Jews were " even highly educated . Culture in a woman is bet ” A o P . 1 . s ter than g ld , eters , p 59 for the children , though they were prized very highly , as will be shown presently , their position was always a subor ” " ” in t n o d a e o e . One adduces no proof fr m a minor ,

Tract Megilla (VI I I , The offi ce o f the t ea cher w as a highly respected and a mos t important one . A good teacher was val ued as highly as the most important offi cial o f the state , though , at times , especially in the academies , Ab " he served with out pay , Tract oth ( IX , The ”

e P . teachers are the guardians of th S tate , eters , p " 1 6 1 . He who instructs a ch ild is as if he had cre ” " ated it , ibid . You should revere the teacher even more than the father . The latter only brought you into the world , the former indicates the way into

the next . But blessed is the son who has learned TH E ROMAN PERIOD 77 from his father : he shall revere him both as his fathe r and his master ; and blessed is the father who

P 1 has instructed his son , eters , p . 6 5 . This rever " ence was carried so far that we read : He who

n e on e on e learns from another o chapter , halachah ,

r n verse , or one word o even a single letter , is bou d ”

A . b oth . 6 . to respect him , Tract , Chap , Mish 3 The teaching and the studying of the Law were placed " above everything else . The honoring of father and

os o mother , acts of benevolence , h pitali ty t strangers ,

of visiting the sick , devotion in prayer , promotion peace between man and man , and study in general ( remain intact against the exigencies of the world to come ) , but the study of the Law outweighs them ” " H ershon 1 all , Tract Shabbath ( , 3 , The study of the Law is of greater merit to rescue on e from accidental death than building the temple , and ” r greater than honoring father o mother , Tract

H ershon 1 Megilla ( , 3 , This fact , that teach

n ers were held in such high respect , is ot even changed by reference to the somewhat obscure pas " : sage Seven have , in the popular regard , no portion

: o - in the world to come a notary , a scho l master , the

Of n best doctors , a j udge in his native place , a co ” j uror , a congregational reader , and a butcher , ’ Aboth Rabbi ifli l Tract d Nathan . This d cu t pas sage is , however , explained to some extent by the " following : The j udge sh ould ever regard himself 78 EDUCATI ON AMONG THE JEWS

as if he had a sword laid upon his thigh , and G e henna were yawning near him ; the best physicians are destined for hell , the most upright butcher is a m partner of A alek . The underlying idea seems to

- be that school masters , like the other professional

- and trades people mentioned , are so liable to sin grievously in their calling that there is little h Ope for them to escape everlasting punishment . A teacher " was admonished : Teach the children of the poor without compensation , and do not favor the children ” P 1 6 - of th e rich , eters , p . 3 . Only even tempered " men were permitted in this important station . No ” m an Aboth irritable can be a teacher , Tract ( IX ,

6 0 , The older and more experienced the teach er was , the greater was his value to the community . " Wh om does he resemble who learns from the young ? H im who eats unripe grapes and drinks the wine fresh from the winepress . But whom does he resemble who learns from o ld men ? Him who eats

o Ab oth ripe grapes and drinks ld wine , Tract

: ( IX , The ideal teacher is described as follows The following fifteen customs are ascribed to the

: sages He is pleasant in entering , and so also when leaving ; is prudent in his fear for Heaven ; versed in s wisdom ; wise in his way , has a good conception , a retentive memory , is clear in his answers , questions to the point and answers according to the Law ; he learns someth ing new from every chapter taught to TH E ROMAN PERIOD

h e him ; is going to the wise , he learns for the pur ” of D e rech pose teaching it and performing it , Tract

Ere z - h t Zuta ( IX , That a teacher w o made a habit of flogging was n ot retained is sh own in the " case of a school - m aster w ho was removed because

M c oth he struck too much the pupils , Tract a c

( XVI I , The r e la ti on b etw ee n t ea chers a n d p upils in gen eral was to be one of respect and consideration for

- each other . The school children were regarded as " the greatest asset of the nation . The world de ” - on P . 1 . pends its school children , eters , p 58 A town which has no school Should be abolished , ibid . " Jerusalem w as destroyed because the instruction of " 1 the young was neglected , p . 5 9 . The world is ” - only saved by the breath of the school children , " r e - ibid . Even fo the r building Of the Temple the ” of instruction the children must not be interrupted , " : ibid . A great teacher said o f himself I learn

col much from my masters , more however from my ” leagues , and still more from my disciples , Tract

M o h acc t ( XVI I , On the other hand , respect " ful consideration should actuate the pupil . If the master err , the scholar should inform him , and not wait until it is published in order to gain honor for ” Sh ebuo th himself , Tract ( XVI I ,

u ils So far as p p , disciples , or scholars in general

classifica are concerned , there are some interesting 80 EDUCATION AMONG TH E JEWS

tions to be found in the Talmud . There are four kinds of pupils : on e understands readily but forgets

— soon u there the ad vantage is swallowed by the fail ing ; another grasps but slowly and seldom forgets there the failing is outweigh ed by the talent ; a third

— understands , readily and is slow to forget his is a good portion ; a fourth understands slowly and for ” — t gets quickly his is a poor endowment , Trac Ab oth ( IX , Almost of the same kind is a " passage following shortly after : There are four

of of : kinds the disciples the wise sponge , funnel ,

: — strainer , and sieve sponge sucking up all things ; funnel— allowing all that is received in the one end to flo w ou t at the other ; strainer— letting the wine run through and retaining th e dregs sieve— blowing ” o ff Abo h the bran and keeping the flour , Tract t

( IX , 1 3 8 ) A passage wh ich presents the same idea is found a few pages before ( IX , That the ad

o-f f vantage absorbing readily , o a perceptive mem o r y , lies with the young , is expressed in the follow " ing passage : One who is taught when young ab

o sorbs the w rds of the Torah in his blood , and he can utter them explicitly , but the reverse is with one who is taught when old . There is also a proverb to this effect : I f tho u hast n ot des ired them in thy ” how W ol ? youth , ilt thou reach them in thy d age A " Tract both ( IX , 88 , also To what may he be compared who teaches a child ? To on e who TH E ROMAN PERIOD writes on clean paper ; and to what may he be com ? pared who teaches an old m an TOon e who writes ”

P . 1 6 2 . on blotted paper , eters , p For a complete religious education a knowledge not only of Scrip

ture , but of the Mishna and Gemara ( M idrash ) " also , including the Halachah , was required . Who

s soever is versed in Midra h , but not in Halachah , has not tasted of wisdom ; an d he w ho is the oppo

- of . site , has not tasted of the fear sin One who is versed in Midrash , but not in Halachoth , is

o n e like unto a strong man , but who is unarmed ; who is opposite is like an armed weakling . One , how

w ho i n ever , is versed both is like unto a man who is ” A t both strong and armed , Tract bo h ( IX , The meaning is that theoretical knowledge and p rac

o . tical applicati n must go hand in hand The age , at which the various parts of religious instruction " is should be given , stated as follows : One five years old should study Scripture ; ten years — Mishna ; thirteen years old should practice the commandments ;

fifteen years old should study Gemara ; at twenty , Ab pursue the study of the Law , Tract oth ( IX , The ages given in this outline are approxi mately the ages of the pupils in the various schools infant school , elementary school , secondary school ,

or academy college .

st ud in stak In y , the greatest industry , the most pa ing application was required on the part of the pu 8 2 EDUCATION AMONG TH E JEWS

pil , and , at the same time , the most indefatigable pa " tien ce on the part of the teacher . Every disciple w ho has studied and then abandons his studies , has

to no share in the world come . Whoever

does not visit the college which is in his city , has no ” Ab h share in the world to come . Tract ot ( IX , " If you interrupt your studies for one day

tw o it will take you to regain what you have lost ,

P . 1 6 . eters , p 2 The patient teaching and learning " by rote was carried so far that Rabbi Perida had a pupil to whom he had to rehearse a lesson four hun ” dred times before the latter comprehended it , and

on e in case , when the mind of the pupil had been dis " tracted , he rep eated the lesson a second four hun ” Ei ruv i n H ershon 2 2 dred times , Tract ( , 4 , The rule was "A master is bound to rehearse a ” ir v in lesson to his pupil four times , Tract E u , Her

2 . shon , 73 , 6 The rehearsing and the memorizing " re of a lesson was to be carried on aloud . I t is corded that Rabbi Eliezer had a disciple who also

u i n st died silence , but that after three years he for ” Ei ruv i n got all that he had learned , Tract , Her b 2 2 . a shon 2 4 , 9 Rav says a man should never

- sent himself from the lecture hall , not even for one hour ; for the above Mishna had been taught at col

o f lege for many years , but the reason it had never been made plain till the hour when Rabbi Chan in a Ak i ben av a came and explained it , Tract Shab

84 EDUCATION AMONG TH E JEWS

h necessary , feed and support is parents , ibid A

: child owes his life to three to God , to his fath er , and ” " to his mother , ibid . H e who honors his father and mother enj oys the fruit in this life , and stores ” " up a treasure for the future , p . 6 6 . While the son honors his parents , God holds it as if He were

r e dwelling near the child , and were H imself ec iv ” " ing honor , ibid . Even if it happens that the son t is a teacher , yet if the father is present , the son mus f ” rise before him in the presence o all his pupils , ibid . " n ot A child must contradict his father , and when he

o f names him , he must use a term respect , such as ‘ ’ my honored father , p . 6 7 . A child must love and honor his parents while they are l iving , and must l ove and respect them after they are dead ; and as they loved and honored God , he must love and honor

ow n God , and thus make his parents live again in his ” " good deeds , ib id . If in after life the son prospers and is richer than his father , he must see that his prosperity is shared by his parents . He must not live in greater luxury than they ; h e must not allow ”

f . them to su fer poverty while he enjoys wealth , ibid In order t o show to what extent one is bound to

t o honor his fa her and m ther , Rav Ulla told the story of the Gentile son who would not even wake his

of father , though he had the promise great gain ,

H ershon 2 1 . should he do so , Tract Kiddushin , , 74 , 3 The general d uty of the pa r e n ts toward their chil TH E ROMAN PERIOD

dren consisted in this that they were responsible for their bringing up and had to make this their special " ho . w care H e loves his wife as his own self , and

w ho he educates his children in the righ t way , to

‘ e him applies the divine promis , Thou shalt know that P " there is peace in thy tent eters , p . 6 2 . The " daughter is as the mother was, p . 6 3 . What the ” ou t child says of doors , he has learnt in doors , ibid . " h What a child speaks in the street , it as heard ” o r either from its father from its mother , Tract " Succah ( VI I , It is a woman alone through ’ whom God s blessings are vouchsafed to a house . She teaches the children , speeds the husband to the house of worship and instruction , welcomes him when he ’ returns , keeps the house godly and pure ; and God s ” s P 6 bles ings rest upon all these things , eters , p . 3 " ’ ’

The daughter s doings have been the mother s acts , p . The responsibility o f the father included not only the providing of instruction in schools , but the " ’ tea chi n o a tra d e to g f his sons . I t is a father s r duty , not only to provide for his minor child en , but also to take care of their instruction , and to teach his son a trade and whatever is necessary for his f u ” "

P . 6 h ture welfare , eters , p 4 . He w o teaches his ”

al . 6 . son no trade is as if he taught him to ste , p 8 " He wh o does n ot teach his son a handicraft trade ” " neglects his parental duty , ibid . Beautiful is the

t rac intellec ual occupation , if combined with some p 86 EDUCATION AMONG TH E JEWS

tical work , p . 8 7 . It is well to add a trade to your

o studies , you will then be free fr m sin , ibid .

’

During the first years of the child s life , from its

o r birth , more exactly , from the time it w as weaned

1 . 1 2 2 2 ( Sam , 4 , Macc . 7 , 8 ) till the completed fourth or fifth year , so long as it remained exclusively

b e in the home , the parents had the special duty of " n tr cti on r i t r es ginning its i s u in the Sc p u . As soon l as he can talk , his father sha l teach him the Torah ? and to read Shema . ( What is meant by Torah

: The verse of Deut . 3 3 , 4 The law which Moses commanded us is the inheritance o f the con

n ? gre ga tio of Jacob . What is mean t by Shema "” . 6 : The first verse , Deut , 4 Hear , O Israel The

Ka dd i sh prayer in its various forms , a liturgical

2 prayer or doxology based upon Ezek . 3 8 , 3 , begin " : ning , as a rule , with the words Magnified be Thy "” name , O Lord used especially upon very solemn occasions , was also taught in early youth and was thought to have great power , notably also for pre ’ Kit zu r serving from Gehenna , Tract Sh eh , Her

m o h 2 1 0 . ran d t shon , 3 3 , It is related of Lois , the g

i n er , and Eunice , the mother of Timothy , that they " ” structed him in the Holy Scriptures from a child ,

a o b r e h o s 2 . 1 . 1 . e u Tim , 5 3 , 5 The xpression p p ’ shows that the beginning of Timothy s religious i n

struction had been made in h is infancy . That even the very small children were accustomed to religious TH E ROMAN PERIOD

observances , appears from the following passage " Children are not made to fast on the Day o f Atone

on e old ac ment , but when or two years , they are

o customed to do it , so that they bec me habituated to ” o o obey the religi us commandments , Tract Y mah

o f ( VI , In their entire treatment children parents were warned to be entirely impartial , for " m an nothing so harms discipline as inj ustice . A should never Show preference for on e ch ild above ” I his other children , Tract Sabbath ( ,

With the completion of the fourth or fifth year , f according to the order o Jos hua ben Gamla , the

m s time ca e for the pupil to go to the first chool , the i n a n t s ch ool im ukot f , the Talmudic t shel bet rab ‘ ’ ’ o f o ban , the babies the teacher s h use . This school w as later , together with the elementary school , called

of Heder . I t is concerning the discipline in a schoo l " : this kind , probably , that we read Never tease a young pupil their kingdom is behind their

re tears ( i . e . when they become older they seek

Pesachim Tract ( V , It has been

s cr ib e thought that s had charge of the infant schoo l .

Information on the subj ect is wanting . In the later

Heder , a lower Rabbi was teacher . Besides contin

uing their Scriptural studies (principally by rote ) , the young pupils were n ow taught th e Hebrew alpha

bet . A very ingenious and interesting method of

o f making the memorizing the letters eas y , by com 88 ED UCATION AMONG TH E JEWS

paring them with animals and other well -known ob

ects 1 j , is given in Tract Sabbath ( 1 , The

pupils also learned to count , which was quite easily

taught , since the letters of the H ebrew alphabet are ,

at the same time , their numbers .

ele m e n ta r s choo With his entry into the y l, the ‘ ’ - ha- o Bet Sefer or House of the Bo k , the boy was

o fully launched int his education . Boys from their sixth to their completed ninth year attended this school . I t happened , however , especially in later

e n years , that children up to the age of thirteen were

i n rolled the primary school . I t seems that a fee " o f s : was required the boys , at lea t at some time To ” of begin the study the Torah required 2 00 zuz ,

Bathr Tract Baba a ( X IV , If there w as no b uil n for con di g erected the purpose , a dwelling was

s ch ool-h ouse verted into a , and the equipment was

or very meagre . There was an elevated place plat form for the teacher . The pupils , in early times ,

on or squatted before him the floor ground . Later l on , at least in some of the schoo s there " b e were chairs for the pupils . Let thy house the

e - me ting place of the wise ; sit gladly at their feet , and drink in their words with avidity . The house should be for the use of the scholars and their dis

i l on c p es . ( The pupil ) shall not sit before thee

o the bed , chair , or bench , but on the flo r , and every word that thou utterest he shall receive with awe , TH E ROMAN PERIOD

A terror , fear , and trembling , Tract bo th ( IX , 2 7 Twenty- five children was the highest number of pupils permitted to each teacher in a cl ass for elementary instruction . There should be an assistan t appointed , if there be forty in number ; and if fifty there should be two competent teachers , Tract Baba

Bathra H ershon 1 o , , 79 , 77 . There is a story t ld in th is ’ connection about a teacher s negligence and superfi ci alit r bb or y which is very significan t . The a i ci t e n m a n y p , who taugh t the boys , was designated as teacher . H is Hebrew name was modeled after the

a i o o Greek p d ag g s . There were also artisan mas

f or ters the instruction in the trades , upon which the

1 re Talmud insisted , Tract Sabbath ( , The ligi ous s ubj ects taken up in the Bet—h a- Sefer were the book of Leviticus , followed by all the books of A ib the Bible . This is the order in which qu a and his son studied . In addition , there was the review of the alphabet and the alphabet backwards , reading and

n writing , grammar and compositio . Some attention was also given to hygiene in the ques tion o f proper

f r - o o 1 1 1 . diet school b ys , Tract Sabbath , , 3 8 The age of the boys in this school was considered th e " best for memory work . He who learns as a lad , what is he like ? To ink written on fresh paper . And

e ol ? To he who learns wh n d , what is he like ink ” on Aboth written blotted paper , Tract ( IX , ‘ s e con d ar c ol -ha— as o e The y s ho , Bet Midr h , the h us 9 0 ED UCATION AMONG TH E JEWS

’ ‘ ’ o f or of study house learning , was the next step in ’ the boy s education . According to rabbinical tradi

tion , this school looks back upon a long term of ser f . o o 1 . 1 vice The scho l Samuel at Rama ( Sam 9 ,

1 on e o f 9 ) was said to have been this type . Solo

mon built many , Hezekiah fostered them , the young

of of the ai men the tribe Issachar , with d of Zebulun ,

the merchant , attended them . At the time o f Vespa w sian , Je ish writers assert , there were 4 80 schools ,

-ha- -h — Bet Sefer together with B et a M idrash , in Jeru

or o salem . There were houses ro ms set apart for

of f the purpose teaching , called houses o learning ,

s where the pupils sat before their master , at the

of Aboth time Hillel , on chairs , Tract ( IX , The average age of the pupils in this school was from

r b s ten to fourteen years . The a bi , who had charge

o u of the schools , were not to receive pay fr m the p

D erech Eretz - pils , Tract Zuta ( IX , There was evidently a privilege as to choice of teachers ,

though the passage may refer to academies only . " n When thou hast studied under o e master , say not

‘ ’ I t is enough "but go and study under another . I t is a duty to study under three masters ’ Because thou canst not kn ow which master s teach ” ing will remain with thee , or perhaps all are good , Th Tract Abo th ( IX , e instruction consisted

Keth uboth principally in the Mishna , Tract , Her

1 1 a shon , 3 8 , 9 , which was memorized and expl ined

9 2 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS

l ’ of scho ars , in the days of Jose ben J aeze r of Zereda in Maccabean times , where the hearers or disciples

on sat the ground before their teachers . There was one high school of special renown in

e Jerusalem in the templ hall , where advanced pu pils were admitted and discussions of the Law and

- - the Mishna were held . That w as the Bet ha Mid

- ha- adol rash g , which the boy Jesus visited , when he was twelve years old , Luke 2 . The college was the meeting- place o f advanced

lV i hn a scholars , such as had finished the Torah and I s , as well as the elementary studies in other branches . For though the Jews made religious teaching the

of basis all instruction , yet they did not by any means confine their school system to religious instruction . " o f It is necessary to have a knowledge the world ,

of the P . beside a knowledge Holy Law , eters , p

1 . 6 4 . And their aim was certainly a splendid one " The ultimate end o f all kn owledge an d wisdom is ’ man s inner purification and the perform ance of ” good and noble deeds , p . 1 6 3 . Though the various schools were not so sharply defined as to a ge as in our day , the rule was that the pupils of the college were from fifteen to eighteen or twenty years old .

There was a college in every larger city , apparently , because the Talmud speaks of them quite casually ,

Aboth a ca d e m Tract ( IX , The term y seems to have been confined to the schools of the great TH E ROMAN PERIOD

of N ehar ea P educational centers d , Sura , and umbo

an dita , in Babylonia , d Jerusalem , Jamnia , and Ti be ri P o f s . as , in ale tine In many the colleges the stu

o e dents were evidently crowded for ro m , b cause it is stated that four and even six men sat to on e

? Erub in (square ) ell , Tract ( I I I , The col leges seem to have been conducted to some extent on " - The the boarding school plan . disciples of the col lege ate in the inns of the valley and pas sed the ” E bin night at the college , Tract ru ( I I I , There was a hostelry ( inn ) started in the

o of neighb rhood the college of Eliezer , Tract

A oth o b ( IX , 3 0 In th e c llege , a teach er was n ot limited to twenty- fi ve pupils as in the ele mentary grades , because H illel the First had eighty

A oth disciples , Tract b ( IX , Moreover , in ” the college the most scholarly has preference to age ,

a hr Tract Baba B t a ( XIV ,

' : ub cts o f As to the s j e taught , the religi ous subj ects course ranked first . The passages praising the study

of of the Law are almost innumerable . A few the " shorter ones are : There is n o love such as the love o f o f the Torah . The words the Torah are as dif ” fi c l Aboth u t to acquire as silken garments , Tract " ( IX , Turn it and turn it again , etc . , Tract

Aboth 1 ( IX , 3 3 Study Law in ol d age as f well as in youth , in years o famine as well as in

Aboth years of plenty , Tract ( IX , The sub 9 4 EDUCATION AMONG TH E JEWS

ects j taught are enumerated in Tract Succah ( VI I , " : 3 7 f . ) as follows Bible , Mishna , Gemara , Halak

se o f b hoth , Agadoth , ob rvations the B i le , observa tions of the scribes , lenient ones and vigorous ones ,

of the analogies expression , equinoxes , geometries , the language of the angels and the language o f the evil spirits , and the language of the trees , the fables , the great th ings , the heavenly chariots and the small

s of . things , the di cussion Abayi and Rabha It does not occasion surprise therefore that we hear of lec tures on profane subj ects by a noted teacher , Tract

Pesachim ( V , And since the Torah was taught

m em ori z and reviewed in the college , not merely by

as ing , but by discussion and argumentation well , there was a training in logic and rhetoric which was

in st r of great value . There must also have been uc

b e tion in medicine given , at least to some extent , cause physicians are so often spoken of and various remedies discussed . It is true , of course , that a great many remedies were those of superstiti t ion and witchcraft .

t ra i n i n n e The g at the college was a very strict o , " and a thorough knowledge was in sisted upon . Schol ars engaged in studying Law must stop for the read ” o-f n ing Shema , but they need o t stop for prayer , " Tract Sabbath ( I , Man should not absent

for on e himsel f from the house of learning, even l hour . wan should never ab sent himself from the TH E ROMAN PERIOD

o f n o f house learni g , even when at the point death ,

1 6 1 Tract Sabbath ( I , The explanation was thor i " r b n 1 2 6 ff . o ough , Tract E u ( I I I , ) One shall n t willfully sleep till past the hour of reading the

fo r o Shema , by d ing so he neglects the Law . One should not make a practice o f talking to his o wife , s ns , or daughters , when he is studying at

fo r o home , by doing s he neglects the Torah .

n o One should t lounge with idlers in the market , ” o Abo th lest he neglect the T rah , Tract ( IX , 80 ,

an d One who walks by the way and learns ,

o ff H ow breaks his studying and says , beautiful is

" o " en this tree and , How fine this furr wed field is ” Aboth dangering his own life , Tract ( IX , Never in my life came a man to the house of learn

o f ing before me , and I never slep t in the house learning a long o r a short time ; I never left a man in the house of learning when I w ent away , is the

of boast a great rabbi , Tract Succah ( VI I ,

s t ud en t r a bili ti es In regard to the s and thei , we " find some keen observations . There are four kinds of visitors in the house of learning : he that goes and

s does not practice ( i . e . he accepts the le sons with

o r o f out any examination study them ) , the reward of going only remains with h im ; he that practices

( i . e . he that studies at home ) and does not go , the reward o f practice remains with him ; he that does

" both is pious ; he that enrolls among the college vis 9 6 EDUCATION AMONG TH E JEWS

-rs n o ito , but neither goes t practices , is wicked , " Aboth 1 Tract ( IX , 3 1 Gamaliel the Elder compares disciples to the following four kinds o f

: fish an unclean , a clean fish , a fish fou nd in the Jor

dan , and one found in the Ocean . By an unclean fish

of w ho n otw i th is meant a disciple poor intellect , ,

o f standing his study Scripture , Mishna , H alakhoth ,

- and Agadoth , still remains poor m inded . By a clean

fish is meant a disciple of rich intellect , who studies t Scrip ure , Mishna , Halakhoth , and Agadoth , and develops his mind . By the fish from the Jordan is meant a scholar who has studied all the menti oned

t an subj ec s , but has not acquired the faculty of s eri n w g questions put t o him . And by a fish found in the Ocean is meant a scholar who studied all the above subj ects and has the ability o f answering the ” questions put to him , Tract Aboth ( IX , 1 3 8

i n bo u The subj ects , then , which a Jewish y , co ld

: i n expect instruction , were A systematic , thorough struction in Religion , Reading , Writing , Grammar ,

Rhetoric , Logic ; a less systematic , perhaps some

fli i n eo ra what in su c e t instruction in Philosophy , G g P phy , H istory , Geometry , hysiology and Hygiene ,

o o . Astronomy , Zo l gy , Botany , Music , Medicine The order of subj ects taught in the twelfth cent ury

: o a was as follows Reading , Writing, T r h , Mishna , P P Hebrew Grammar , oetry, Talmud , hilosophy of

Religion , Logic , Arithmetic , Geometry , Optics , As TH E ROMAN PERIOD

r n om h t o y , Music , Mec anics , Medicine , Metaphysics .

Th is list is given only for the sake of comparison .

to In conclusion , i t seems but fair and j ust say that the comparatively high developmen t o f the Jewish educational system has done much to give the race the intellectual prominence which it now enj oys . B IB LIOGRAPHY

The Hexaglot B ible .

Josephus , Wars of the Jews , Antiquities o f the

Jews , Against Apion . i ’ Rodk n son s Babylonian Talmud .

Hastings Bibl e Dictionary .

- f Schaff Herzog , Encyclopedia o Religious Knowl edge .

Jewish Encyclopedia .

Catholic Encyclopedia .

m r . Matthew Henry , Co menta y

a . Meyer , Commentary ; Lange , Comment ry P f C . o eters , Madison , Wit and Wisdom the

Talmud .

H ershon , A Talmudic Miscellany .

Kent , H istory o f th e Jewish People .

Day , Social Life of the Hebrews .

of Delitzsch , Jewish Artisan Life in the Time

Jesus .

Leipziger , Education of the Jews .

Schenk , The Sociology of the Bible .

Cheyne , Jewish Religious Life after the Exile . ’ Kent , Israel s Historical and Biographical Nar i rat v es .

Baehr , Symbolik des mosaischen Kultus .

et et Goodwin , Moses Aaron seu Civiles Eccle i s as tici Ritus .