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Home , Cabul, Emmaus Nicopolis, Jaddua, Onias I, Onias II, Simeon ben Shetach

History of the Jewish Nation after the Destruction of under Titus by Rev. ALFRED EDERSHEIM, M.A., D.D., Ph.D.

a Grace Notes study

Grace Notes – Warren Doud, editor http://www.gracenotes.info

Jewish Nation after the Destruction of Jerusalem 2

History of the Jewish Nation after the Destruction of Jerusalem under Titus by Rev. ALFRED EDERSHEIM, M.A., D.D., Ph.D.

Table of Contents

Preface to the Third Edition ...... 3 Author’s Preface ...... 3 Editorial Note ...... 5 Chapter 1 – The Hebrew Commonwealth ...... 6 Chapter 2 – Closing Scenes of of Independence ...... 18 Chapter 3 – The Dispersed of ...... 27 Chapter 4 – Political and Religious State of the after the Destruction of Jerusalem ...... 44 Chapter 5 – Internal History of the from the Return of the Captivity to the Destruction of Jerusalem ...... 53 Chapter 6 – History of the Synagogue from the Destruction of Jerusalem to the Jewish War of Liberation ...... 67 Chapter 7 – The Last Jewish War under Bar Cochba ...... 87 Chapter 8 – State of the Synagogue after the Last Jewish War ...... 101 Chapter 9 - Social Condition of ...... 119 Chapter 10 – Progress of Arts and Sciences among the Hebrews ...... 155 Poetry and Music ...... 155 The Eighteen Berachas ...... 162 Scientific Knowledge ...... 166 Jewish Law ...... 170 Chapter 11 – Theological Science and Religious Belief in Palestine ...... 180 Interpretation of Scripture ...... 180 Mysticism and Philo ...... 191 Mysticism and Philo ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. The Essenes ...... 199 Jewish Theology ...... 200 Chapter 12 – The Patriarchate under the Last Pagan Emperors ...... 209 Chapter 13 – Extinction of the Patriarchate and Final Dispersion of the Jews ...... 226 Appendix I. The Great Synagogue ...... 242 Appendix II. The President of the ...... 244 Appendix III. The Site of Bethar ...... 245 Appendix IV. Rabbinical Exegesis ...... 246

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Preface to the Third Edition consequent upon his conversion to Christianity, it is indeed remarkable. The years which have elapsed since the death of Dr. Edersheim have served to enhance rather In preparing a new edition, two objects had to than to diminish the sense of his loss. He had be kept in view. It was of course essential to go more than one contemporary who was, like through Dr. Edersheim's own later work, so as himself, at once Jew and Christian, and, like to take account of every modification or himself, had command of the common ground development of opinion in the author himself; of both. In particular, there was a group and it was also desirable to check the results by gathered round the great Franz Delitzsch, Dr. comparison with the collateral literature which Ferdinand Weber, whose System der altsytia has appeared since 1856, and especially with jogalen palastinischen Theologie, published the great work of Schurer, Geschichte der posthumously under the editorship of Delitzsch judischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi, now and Schnedermann, is a work of the highest translated into English (first edition, 1874; utility, and Dr. J. H. E. Biesenthal, who left second edition, 1886-1890; Eng. translation, behind an edition of the Epistle to the Hebrews, 1885-1890). Dr. Schiirer and Dr. Edersheim which contains some information not accessible may be said to be the complements of each to everyone. At Christiania there was Dr. C. P. other : with the one the centre of gravity rests Caspari, a giant of learning, whose field of labor in the Greek and Roman sources, and in the was, however, less characteristic of his origin. balanced judgment of the trained Western philologist; with the other, in the and In England we had also here and there a the inborn imaginative sympathy with every Christian rabbi. But now all these, or nearly all, side of Jewish life. I hope and believe that are gone; and though there still remain some something of these double excellences will be distinguished Jewish scholars who treat of found in this new edition as it has been things Christian, and some distinguished prepared by Mr. H. A. White, to whose loyalty Christian scholars who treat of things Jewish, I and care I gladly bear witness. know not where we could point either to the Jew whose Christian profession opened to him Thanks are also due to the publishers, who, the secret of the , or to the although they had acquired possession of the Christian whose Jewish birth gave him the stereotyped plates, liberally consented to almost indispensable key to the stores of the forego the use of these, and to issue the work in Talmud. a form which is altogether improved, and, in its present shape, a fitting memorial to its author. For these reasons, every work of Dr. Edersheim's is invested with peculiar value; W. Sanday. Oxford, November 1895. and it will, I think, be felt that this applies in a Author’s Preface high degree to the work which is now once Foe many years have I cherished the desire of more offered to the public. The first edition writing a History of the Jewish Nation. It is appeared in 1856, and was quickly followed by remarkable, that a work apparently of such a second. The book was written some ten years interest and importance to the Christian after the author's admission to the Scottish Free student should not long ere this have been Church, and when he was engaged in active supplied. It is my deliberate conviction that parochial work at Old Aberdeen. A brief Jewish History casts much light on the account of this period is given in the Memoir evangelical accounts in the Gospels, on the prefixed to the collection of Thoughts and Book of Acts, and on later Ecclesiastical History, Aphorisms published after his death under the both in its records of the spread of Christianity, title Tohu-wa-Bohu (Longmans, 1890). As the and of the origin and development of heretical work of a young man of thirty, whose career sects. had been broken by the struggles and sacrifices The illustrations which Jewish History affords of the New Testament are not confined to a Grace Notes – Warren Doud, editor http://www.gracenotes.info

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description of the circumstances, social misbelief to its source and origin, and to relations, and religious opinions which are connect it, as far as possible, with the erroneous there assumed as well known. It is impossible tendency in the Church from which it sprung, to read even a single page in the Gospels and to which it claims kindred. It is thus only without being struck with the contrast between that Ecclesiastical History, in its facts, the spiritual tendency and direction of the Old development, and contests, can be satisfactorily Testament, as there brought to light, and the presented. To these considerations it is formalism and literalism of the Synagogue. A unnecessary to add anything regarding the simple and impartial account of on the interest which must attach to the history of the one hand, and a perusal of .the Gospels on the Jewish Elation in the minds of those who take a other, constitutes one of the most convincing proper view of their past, their present, and proofs of the Divine origin of the Christian their future. religion, and of its organic connection with that In preparing my materials for this volume, I of the Old Testament. have freely availed myself of the labors of any, Again, it is impossible to read the Gospel Jews or Christians, historians or antiquarians, narrative in the light of Jewish history without whose productions were within reach, or could feeling that the notions and circumstances to be of use. This general acknowledgment must which it alludes, are exactly those of the time in be taken instead of detailed references in every which Christ lived and taught on earth. case to special sources of information, which They apply to that period, and to that period would needlessly have encumbered the book. only. The notions, the modes of speaking, the To have mentioned once a work or a section to opposition and its very manner, to which the which I was indebted, must be held to imply New Testament refers, are exactly those of that that I availed myself as frequently and fully of period. If a copy of the Gospels were put into its aid as I felt requisite. The researches, of the hands of an impartial Jewish historian, he which this volume is the result, have been could not fail to discover that the events there laborious and conscientious. They have been chronicled must have taken place exactly at the unremittingly prosecuted during four years, so time when, according to Christian belief, Jesus far as ministerial and other engagements have walked amongst men. The Gospels, historically permitted. I can only add, that I have attempted speaking, cannot be an after-production. to write fairly and impartially, and, although However, as it was my purpose not so much to thoroughly convinced of the truth of illustrate the New Testament as rather to give Christianity, and cordially attached to my an account of the Jewish nation, I have, in this nation, have not allowed either the one or the book, almost entirely omitted direct references other to bias me in the representation of facts. to its statements. The information which this volume is intended In the course of this history I have sometimes to communicate has hitherto been scattered indicated the bearing of Jewish upon over a large number of books and pamphlets, Ecclesiastical History, and especially on the and been partly buried in ancient and neglected origin of Gnosticism. Without entering on the records. Amongst ourselves, later Jewish common causes of all mysticism, every student History has been almost entirely neglected. must have felt some difficulty in accounting for With all respect for the writers, it can scarcely the sudden rise of the Gnostic sects, and for the be maintained that in the existing manuals the apparent extravagancies of their systems, the History of the Jews, after the destruction of more so as coming so soon after the Jerusalem, has ever been satisfactorily written promulgation of Christian truth. in the English language. But if it be true that these sects found their Even the minute investigations of the Germans prototype in Jewish mysticism, their origin and have produced a large variety of treatises spread is explained. In general, it may be rather than a connected history. The first and desirable to trace back every heresy or the most impartial of modern German Jewish

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historians was Dr. Jost of Frankfort, whose this History to our own days, will shortly history, extending over ten volumes, opened appear. the way. The work of Dr. Gratz (of which only Any disproportion between the period over one volume has as yet appeared) contains later, which this volume extends, and that which the and in many respects more accurate next is to describe, can readily be explained. information, but is disfigured by violent Many previous facts of Jewish History which partisanship, and an uncompromising enmity could not be taken for granted, had to be to Christianity, which often does violence to introduced in the first volume, and in general plain historical facts. the commencement of the Christian era seemed The short sketch in Ersch's Encyclopedia, by to require a more elaborate record. Besides, in Sehg Cassel, who, I am glad to know from his deference to the judgment of those in whom I later writings, has since become a convert to have full confidence, I resolved to condense in Christianity, is, as all the writings of that author, one volume what had originally been meant to replete with sound sense, and contains most extend over two. extensive and accurate information. To these In acknowledging my obligations to others, I historians I have been deeply indebted, as well have specially to thank the authorities of King's as to the researches of Prideaux, Lightfoot, College, Aberdeen, for the liberal use which Selden, Buxtorf, Bartolocci, Wolfius, and the they have allowed me to make of its library; Dr. classical labors of Winer, Delitzsch, Zunz, Jost of Frankfort, for his advice, as also the Rev. Frankel, Hirschfeld, Dukes, Franck, Dahne, Dr. Hanna of Edinburgh for the encouragement Ideler, Gfrorer, Forbiger, Hartmann, Schwartz, given by him. My friend the Rev. Walter Wood, etc. Basnage is not always accurate, and adds of Elie, has rendered me most valuable little to one's stock of information; but he was assistance, both during the composition of the one of the first in the field. The works of manuscript and the revision of the proofs, by Eisenmenger, Wagenseil, and others of the the suggestions which his extensive reading same stamp, are disfigured by their violent and elegant taste have prompted. hatred of Judaism and the Jews. Of the works of In bringing these labors to a close, I may Christian Fathers and of ecclesiastical writers I perhaps be allowed to plead the extent and have availed myself so far as requisite. difficulty of the undertaking, in extenuation of It was the peculiar object of this History, not any imperfections which may be pointed out. only to give an impartial account of facts, but Still, I am thankful and glad that these, the .especially to describe the state of society, of “first-fruits” of my studies in Ecclesiastical trades, commerce, agriculture, arts, sciences, History, should be devoted to a cause and theology, etc., during the first centuries of our service which I have so deeply at heart. era. In this respect I beg to refer the reader Old Aberdeen, 3rd May 1856. more especially to Chapters IX., X., and XI., which have probably cost more labor and Editorial Note involved more research than any other part of A FEW words of explanation must be given with the book. Too often, in the narrative of events, it regard to the additions and alterations has been necessary to indicate that some Jewish introduced into the present edition of the accounts were apparently more or less History of the Jewish Nation. Where small legendary or exaggerated,, a circumstance changes or obvious corrections were required, which could perhaps scarcely be avoided in the they have been made without acknowledgment. then state of science, and by writers who Larger alterations, on the other hand, are composed their accounts very much in the enclosed within square brackets, except where spirit of religious partisanship. the editor had the express authority of any of The materials for it being ready, I hope that the Dr. Edersheim's more recent writings. It did second volume, in which I intend to bring down not, however, seem to be necessary to mark in any special way passages which have been

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simply abridged, or passages in which a truths, which ultimately could not belong, and quotation has been corrected by a comparison were not meant to be confined to any one race. with the words of the original author. It has not These realities are necessarily universal; they been possible to be quite consistent in are designed for and apply to all, both to those indicating the fresh matter, for which the who are afar off, and to those who are nigh. present editor is alone responsible; but the Another, and a kindred feature, of the endeavor has been made, in no case to seem to preparatory dispensation, was its typical attribute to Dr. Edersheim opinions which he character. Israel, its history, its ordinances, its perhaps would not have himself endorsed. In prophecies, all were not only so many present the preparation of this edition the valuable realities, they pointed also to something future, library of Dr. Edersheim, which was presented to which they stood in the relationship of after his death to Exeter College, has been of the shadows. The grand end and meaning of the greatest service. preparatory stage was to show the need of, and References to the Mishnah are given according to open the way for, the advent of the Savior. to the edition of Surenhusius, but in the tractate With His coming, what was typical gave place to Firke Ahoth according to the edition of Strack what is real, what was preparatory ceased. “ (Berlin, 1888). In Philo the pages cited are Grace and truth have been brought to light by those of Mangey. In quotations from the the Gospel.” Talmud and Midrashim, use has generally been The truths which the Old Testament made of the translations of Wunsche, where dispensation and history embodied, were available. chiefly these,, that Jehovah is the living, and that Chapter 1 – The Hebrew Commonwealth He is the true God. In opposition to heathenism, it exhibited the unity, the personality, the In the Divine dispensation, Israel was destined character, and the purposes of the Deity. We do to sustain the highest and most important part not deny that certain traditions, containing that can be assigned to any nation. Originally some portions of spiritual truth, circulated chosen to be the depositary of spiritual truth, amongst the heathen, nor that the spirit of God and separated from all other nations in order to who moved over that chaotic deep awakened fulfill this mission, it was preserved till the amongst them aspirations after, and ultimately Divine purposes were accomplished. These produced a general preparedness for, the purposes seem to have been, to serve as the coming of the kingdom. But we hold that the channel and as the exemplification of Divine pre-Christian history of the world only truth, and to afford a medium by which the exemplified the experience contained in the fullness of Divine truth, and of Divine fact, Book of Ecclesiastes, and may be summed up in might become embodied in the person of the the words of an Apostle, “The world by wisdom Lord Jesus Christ. knew not God.” If every nation is the representative, and its Here all the different tendencies of thought, of history the embodiment, of some truth, this morals, and of fact, were allowed to ripen into applies in a special manner, or at least becomes maturity, and in turn proved that, in the highest specially manifest, in the case of Israel was and only true aim, man left to himself is as meant to be a theocracy. Not only in its unprofitable, and hence must, in the righteous ecclesiastical, but in its political constitution dispensation of his Lord, meet with the same also, was it to show forth the supremacy, the doom as did the unfruitful fig-tree which Jesus authority, and the continued presence of cursed. The Jewish nation also, notwithstanding Jehovah with His Covenant people. If this truth the eternal seed in the midst of it, was to be exhibited in the world, it became misunderstood its mission, and, when finally necessary to fix upon and to separate from the left to its own development, only exhibited by rest one nation. But though in the preparatory its judgments the truths which at one time it stage national, these were spiritual facts and

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had, and is again designed to declare and to till their bringing in prove “ as life from the enjoy. dead.” The misunderstandings of the Jews reached During the period of the Judges, the nation of their climax in the national rejection of the Israel was gradually gaining in unity and Savior, and after this the downfall of Jerusalem strength, and it enjoyed its greatest prosperity was not long delayed. Yet even after the in a political point of view under the reign of destruction of the temple and city, they eagerly David. The splendour of 's reign only followed out the same religious tendency which concealed for a while the corruption of the had led to that catastrophe, and developed the social and religious life of the nation which then formalism of true religion to its utmost, until commenced. The introduction of foreign luxury their religion became only a recollection of the and foreign customs soon produced its natural past. Still, Israel was to have a future history, result. From that period we may date the and it could not be destroyed. They wandered, commencement of the peculiar pre-Babylonian but could not be lost. However, in none of their form of religious apostasy. It had, indeed, undertakings could they prosper. appeared even before that event; but now it It was vain for them, once and again, to renew rapidly developed, and finally assumed gigantic the unequal contest for national restoration, proportions. In this stage the idolatry of Israel although they achieved deeds of valor consisted not so much in the rejection of the unsurpassed by those of any other nation. They truth, as in its admixture with and thought and labored in their colleges; they neutralization by foreign elements. prayed and fasted in their ; they The worship of Jehovah was not wholly set wrought and gained in their temporal pursuits. aside, but He was only looked upon as their But their researches were fruitless for good; national Deity; and along with Him other they did not benefit the world by their religious national Deities were more or less avowedly ardor; nor were they even allowed to enjoy the made objects of worship. The sad consequences advantages of their activity and commerce. of this made themselves felt in the series of Ichabod was written upon all their national judgments, which terminated in the undertakings, for the glory had departed. Israel deportation of Israel, and then of Judah to and its history are typical; yet will they, as such, Babylon. Israel without its God, became Israel meet with a blessed realization. without its country. This judgment had so far Viewed in this light, the history of the Jews its effects, that the spiritual degeneracy of Israel gains additional interest and importance. Their never afterwards appeared again in the form of past importance can scarcely be overstated; idolatry. they gave to the world a and a Savior. There were some who, in the school of Their present importance is indicated by their affliction, had in Babylon sought after the Lord almost miraculous national preservation, and God of Israel. But side by side with them were the fact of their being scattered by the Divine those who, while willing to acknowledge their hand broadcast over the fields of the world and former national sins, and desirous of returning of its history, as so many seeds of spiritual to the land of their fathers, expressed their truths. Their future importance lies in this, that repentance by simply going to the opposite they are seeds which are yet to take root, to extreme of an exclusively Jewish formalism. spring up and to bear fruit; and that their future And now Jehovah was still only a national Deity, is connected with the last and brightest events although the only national Deity, just as the of coming history. Israel and its history are Jews were the only nation; all others had inseparably connected with Scripture. We meet neither meaning nor purpose. Judaism as such, them everywhere; and everywhere their past, in its national and typical state, was the sole their present, and their future are full of the and the highest truth. deepest meaning. And so shall it continue to be,

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Such, in its religious aspects, was the Jewish power. A Jewish tradition relates that, when the nation when the captives returned to the land high priest refused to pay to him in of their fathers. It will readily be conceived that future the customary tribute, on the plea of his this event encouraged and strengthened the oath of allegiance to the Persian monarch, peculiar national tendencies to which we have Alexander advanced against Jerusalem. But at already alluded. In fact, the second or post- no great distance from the city he was met by a Babylonian form of spiritual degeneracy had solemn procession, with the high priest at its now been entered upon. It consisted in laying head, who had come to welcome the conqueror, an extreme value upon the form and letter as in obedience to a command given to Jaddua in a such, and developing it alone. In room of the vision. priest came the teacher or Rabbi; in room of It is added that Alexander had seen a similar experience, knowledge; in room of the spirit vision, and, in accordance with its injunction, and reality of the Bible, its letter and form. So now received the deputation most graciously, much was this the case, that even when the not only spared their city and temple, but even temple was at last destroyed, and the Old offered sacrifices there, and accorded great Testament economy had thereby become privileges to the Jewish nation. This narrative, impossible, the change was only felt in a whatever may be its historical value, and the national, not in a religious point of view. It was numerous other stories about Alexander which this tendency which opposed itself to the Jewish legend has to record, prove at least the spirituality of the Gospel, and led to the deep impression which his appearance made; rejection of the Son of God. That event must not and certainly ever afterwards the Jews be looked upon as an isolated fact. The contest remained attached to his interests. It is well between the and the Lord was in known that Alexander succeeded in his reality that of opposing religions; as far as the enterprises, that he conquered Persia, and at Scribes were concerned, it was a life and death last died in the midst of his prosperity at struggle. The synagogue contended for Babylon, continued existence in its peculiar form. It After his decease, his former generals, who overcame, because it could make use of carnal obtained possession of the various provinces weapons; but from that moment the doom of which had constituted his empire, became Israel was sealed. Before the coming of Christ, speedily involved in mutual hostilities. The first two parties might co-exist within the Jewish consequence of these disturbances, so far as nation and the synagogue. A contest was still was concerned, was that Lagus, possible. But His advent closed it by bringing it to whom had been assigned, along with it to the issue of a battle. After His death, and seized upon Palestine. The reign of that prince before the destruction of Jerusalem, a mistake was very prosperous. Mild and humane, he not was still possible. But the latter event made any only confirmed the privileges which Alexander misunderstanding for ever impossible. With His had conferred on the Jews, but encouraged own hand God took down the , and their settlement in the city of Alexandria, and in closed the temple doors : He put His seal to the the province of Cyrene. But when his rival termination of the Old Testament dispensation. Antigonus, whose ambition was equaled by his But we have so far anticipated certain points in courage, possessed himself for a time of , the religious history of the Jews, to which we , and Palestine, the latter country shall have to recur more fully in the sequel. We became the theatre of war. return to sketch their political history. After This circumstance must have contributed to their return from Babylon, the Jews continued swell the number of Jewish emigrants into subject to the kings of Persia, and under the Egypt. But a victory gained over his antagonist administration of their own high priests. But at Gaza soon restored Palestine to Ptolemy. At when Alexander the Great on his march of the same time the allies of Ptolemy attempted conquest subdued Syria, Judea also fell into his to make a diversion in the East against

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Antigonus. Seleucus, a general who shared the Parthian Empire. The war between the enlightened policy of Ptolemy, was encouraged monarchs of Syria and Egypt was at last to endeavor there to found an empire for terminated by the marriage of Antiochus with himself. Babylonia gladly welcomed him. He the daughter of Ptolemy 11. But on the death of became the first of a dynasty. His accession was the latter monarch, his daughter, the Syrian hailed in the East as the commencement of a queen, was repudiated. Antiochus recalled in new era. Men reckoned after it, and the so- her stead a former wife of his, who, dreading called “Seleucian Era” dates from the period of the fickleness of her lover, murdered him, and his gaining firm possession of the above placed her son Seleucus on the throne. Ptolemy province (about 312 b.c.). ill. now marched upon Syria, in order to avenge Soon afterwards, Antigonus, who had gained the disgrace and the murder of his sister, who some successes against the and in had fallen a victim to her former rival. , attempted an invasion of Egypt, but was The queen-mother was killed, and Seleucus completely repulsed. The ambitious plans of obtained from Ptolemy a ten years' truce. He that restless monarch, together, perhaps, with a was defeated by the Parthians, who thus growing desire on the part of Seleucus, who had secured their independence, and, dying after a now firmly established his power in the East, to reign of twenty-one years, was succeeded by possess himself of the dominions of Antigonus, his son, Seleucus in., and, after the murder of led to a grand combined attack against the the latter, by Antiochus iii. Meanwhile the latter, in which Seleucus took the lead. inhabitants of Palestine had continued to enjoy Antigonus was beaten, and fell in battle; and the favor of the Egyptian monarchs, to whom Seleucus received Syria, Asia Minor, and the they were tributary. The successors of the high provinces east of the Euphrates, as his share in priest Simon the Just were , , the common spoil. and Onias ii. (about 250 B.C.). All these priests Seleucus prosecuted the same liberal policy in farmed the revenues of Palestine for a certain his new dominions, which had secured for him sum, which they undertook annually to pay to the attachment of his Babylonian subjects. He the king of Egypt. In return, they exercised a built a number of large cities, amongst them kind of sovereignty in Palestine, where they and , and encouraged administered affairs according to the Divine the influx of wealthy, industrious, and loyal law. Jewish settlers, by according them privileges But Onias had, for a considerable time, omitted similar to those which their brethren enjoyed in to pay this tribute, a course which, but for the Egypt. These not only constituted them citizens, timely interposition of his nephew Joseph, but made them in some respects independent, would have led to serious circumstances. It is by placing them under the government of rulers about this time that the political leanings of a of their own. Meantime the Jewish high priest certain party of the Jews towards Syria, and the Jaddua had been succeeded by (about moral deterioration by the introduction of 321 B.C.), and the latter, by Simon the Just Grecian manners and modes of thinking, led to (about 300 B.C.), to whom tradition ascribes an the formation of a Hellenizing party. The extensive and important part in the religious influence of the Syrians became daily greater. history of the Jews. The Egyptian king, Ptolemy iii., had been But the successors of the kings of Syria and succeeded by his son, Ptolemy IV, who Egypt did not inherit the moderation of their abandoned himself to every vice. Encouraged fathers. They became embroiled in mutual by the inactivity of the Egyptians, Antiochus III. jealousies and in hostilities, which led to no of Syria overran and took Phenicia and decisive result in favor of either party, but Palestine. But Ptolemy at last roused himself enabled the disaffected subjects of Antiochus it., from his drunken revels, met and overcame his on the eastern banks of the Tigris, to found antagonist near Sophia (217 B.C.), and what afterwards grew into the formidable recovered his ancient possessions.

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The Greek romance known as the Third Book of Probably it was only superstition which the Maccabees records the persecutions which arrested the Syrian general at that time, but a the Jews are said to have suffered at the hands well-known legend relates how the treasurer of Ptolemy upon his return to Egypt. We are Heliodorus was struck down by a supernatural told that after his victory the king visited apparition when he attempted to plunder the Jerusalem. There he attempted to penetrate temple. Onias appealed to Seleucus against into the Holiest of all, against the advice of the Simon, and for the rest of his reign that king high priest, Simon ii. (who had succeeded Onias seems to have been favorable to the Jews. ii.), and was struck down by the hand of the But a period of severe persecution commenced Lord. On his return to Egypt he meant to vent after the murder of Seleucus by Heliodorus, his resentment upon the Jews of Alexandria, when Antiochus IV, surnamed Epiphanes, who whom he deprived of their privileges, and even had just returned from Rome, succeeded his resolved to exterminate. For this purpose he brother on the throne of Syria (175 B.C.). First, caused them to be shut up in the arena and Onias ill. was superseded by his brother , exposed to elephants. But when these animals who had bribed the king, and obtained not only only turned against the assembled spectators the priesthood, but leave to erect a gymnasium instead of the Jews, and other portents at Jerusalem. This institution proved a source of appeared, the superstitious king as suddenly very great temptation to the Jewish youth, by changed, and restored to the Jews their former leading them to conform to Grecian manners. privileges. Under that wicked priest the Grecian party Ptolemy IV was succeeded by his infant son, became almost dominant. Ptolemy V Antiochus of Syria availed himself of Jason was in turn superseded by a new rival, the period of helplessness of the Egyptian , who had promised a larger sum to monarch, to regain Coele-Syria and Palestine. In Antiochus than that which had been paid by his this undertaking he was encouraged by a party predecessor. In order to raise it, he plundered amongst the Jews. At last a peace was the temple treasury, and then incited his concluded between the two monarchs, on accomplices to the murder of Onias, who from condition of a marriage between Cleopatra, the his exile had protested against the sacrilege. It daughter of Antiochus, and young Ptolemy, and was in vain the Jews appealed for redress to on the understanding that Cleopatra should Antiochus; their deputies were only receive the disputed provinces as her dowry. slaughtered. This treaty left Antiochus at liberty to Meantime, Ptolemy v. had died, and the encounter other and much more powerful executors of his children claimed from opponents, in the coming masters of the world Antiochus the provinces which had been the Romans. But he was unsuccessful, and was promised to their father. On the refusal of obliged to conclude a very disadvantageous Antiochus, both parties prepared for war, and peace, and to give hostages, amongst them his the Syrian monarch soon possessed himself of son, Antiochus Epiphanes. Soon afterwards he Egypt. During the confusion, the priest Jason was slain in Persia, and succeeded by his son, returned to Jerusalem, and forced Menelaus to Seleucus IV. seek refuge in the castle of the Syrian garrison Meanwhile the times were becoming more attached to the city. troublous in Palestine, which had never been Antiochus soon marched upon the Jewish surrendered to the Egyptian monarch. A capital, and not only obliged Jason to retire, but, dispute arose between Onias ill., the son and regarding the resistance to his nominee as successor of Simon II., and a certain Simon, a rebellion against himself, he took a fearful captain of the temple guard, who belonged to vengeance, by slaughter of the inhabitants of the Hellenizing party. Simon appealed to the Jerusalem and plunder of the temple. Two years cupidity of the Syrians by referring to the later (168 B.C.), Antiochus again invaded Egypt, untold treasures deposited in the temple.

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when the Roman Senate peremptorily ordered and youthful son, . him to withdraw. He sullenly obeyed, but Notwithstanding their great disparity in vented his anger upon the Jews. He dispatched numbers, Judas routed and slew Apollonius, the Apollonius, his chief collector of tribute, with Syrian general. 22,000 men to Jerusalem, where the To obtain means for carrying on the Jewish and inhabitants received them cheerfully, not other campaigns, King Antiochus proceeded surmising any evil. Then the Syrian soldiery eastwards, in the hope of replenishing his was let loose upon the Jews. The men were exhausted treasury by the spoil of temples and slaughtered, and the women and children sold cities. Meanwhile the governor Lysias, to whose into slavery. charge the king had committed his infant son, Whoever was able escaped from the city; the was to continue the Jewish war. So confident sanctuary was deserted, and the daily worship were the Syrians of success, that a large ceased. Jerusalem was henceforth to be a Greek number of slave merchants thronged their city; and the better to ensure this result, the old camp, preparing to purchase the expected walls were broken down, and the citadel in the Jewish captives. A Syrian detachment, neighborhood of the temple was newly fortified considerably superior to that of Judas, was sent and occupied by a Syrian garrison. And now to meet the Jews. But the latter eluding them, began an unprecedented persecution, for the managed to surprise the Syrian camp, routed Syrian king had resolved on nothing short of an the panic-stricken soldiers, killed many, took extinction of the Jewish faith. For that purpose others captive, and got an immense booty. he converted the temple at Jerusalem into one When the Syrian detachment which had been dedicated to Jupiter Olympius. A small heathen sent to meet Judas returned from its altar was reared on the great altar of burnt unsuccessful expedition, and discovered the offering, and on the 25th Chislev (December) camp in flames, terror seized them, and they the first sacrifice was offered upon it. also fled precipitately. A second campaign, Circumcision, the keeping of the Sabbath, and undertaken the following year, terminated as every outward observance of the law, were disadvantageously for the Syrians; and Judas, made capital crimes. Every copy of the law was advancing to Jerusalem, purified the temple, to be surrendered to the authorities and and solemnly rededicated it, exactly three years destroyed; every Jew in Palestine was to be after its desecration. obliged to apostatize. In the persecutions which During the next two years the Syrian now ensued, many noble instances of a government was fully occupied by events preference of death to blasphemy occurred. At elsewhere. Antiochus Epiphanes died towards last, Mattathias, a priest, and the head of the the close of the year 164, and Lysias Hasmonean family, raised the standard of administered the kingdom during the minority resistance to the Syrian tyranny, and called of his successor, Antiochus v. Judas meantime upon all the faithful in Israel to arm in defense was engaged in fortifying strong positions in of their lives and laws. The mountains of Judea Judea, and chastising the hostile heathen afforded the little band a secure retreat and border tribes. But when he laid siege to the meeting-place. Gradually the number of armed citadel of Jerusalem, some of the Syrian patriots increased into a little army. The first garrison who had escaped, together with important step they took was to agree that it representatives of the Grecian party among the should be considered lawful to defend Jews, appealed to Lysias for help. He invaded themselves on Sabbath-days a resolution of Judea with a powerful army, and forced Judas to great practical moment, as it protected the Jews seek safety behind the fortifications of from hostile attacks, which frequently were Jerusalem. The prospect was becoming planned in the belief that they would not be hopeless, when troubles at home recalled the resisted on the day of rest. The aged Mattathias Syrian army, and led to a treaty of peace, in soon died, but was succeeded by his vigorous which the Jews acknowledged Syrian

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supremacy, but were secured liberty of appear to have made terms with one another, conscience and worship. After his retreat Lysias and the power of the Hasmoneans steadily is said to have put to death the apostate high increased. The views of the national party had priest Menelaus. It was probably a few years enlarged during these campaigns. They now later that the son of the murdered Onias, who sought not only religious but political had taken refuge in Egypt, seeing no prospect of independence also, and circumstances soon ever receiving his priestly inheritance, founded occurred which furthered their designs. a rival temple at Heliopolis. A rival to King Demetrius had been set up in Judas Maccabaeus was now practically at the Syria, and both parties contended for the head of the Jewish people, and from this point a powerful co-operation of , by new period commences. Since the Syrian attempting to outbid one another in promises. monarch's rule had ceased to be oppressive, the The Jews espoused the cause of the pretender, original cause for the struggle no longer and, on his accession to the Syrian throne, existed, while the Grecian party in Judea felt Jonathan was declared Meridarch, or themselves endangered by the measures of commander in Judea. But his predecessor's Judas. Demetrius, son of Seleucus IV, who had misfortunes did not teach the new Syrian been murdered by Heliodorus, was now on the monarch to eschew his vices. Accordingly, throne of Syria. When, therefore, in answer to Demetrius ii., the son of Demetrius, was soon the complaints of the Grecian party, he welcomed back by his subjects, and regained appointed their leader as high priest, his father's throne. the Chasidim, or strict Jewish party, were at Although the Jews had formerly supported his first disposed to support him, in spite of the opponent, they obtained from him a opposition of Judas. Soon, however, fresh confirmation of their privileges, on condition of troubles arose. Judas once more took the lead in rendering him aid against his rebel subjects. resisting the intruder and his allies, and the But the ingratitude of Demetrius ii. alienated all Syrian army was completely routed, and their hearts from him, and enabled Tryphon, the general Nicanor slain. Still, the prospect was far guardian of the young son of the pretender, from reassuring, and division had already once again to bring about a change of dynasty, appeared in the ranks of the Jews. Judas took by procuring the throne of Syria for his ward. therefore the bold step of appealing for help to The latter, who assumed the title of Antiochus Rome. But before aid could be granted, he vi., was only a puppet in the hands of Tryphon, succumbed to superior numbers, and fell in an who desired ultimately to gain the crown for engagement, together with the greater part of himself. To attain this purpose, be first sought his adherents. to get rid of Jonathan, who had given in his The command now devolved on his brother adherence to the new government. In this he Jonathan. The new commander retired to succeeded by treachery, as also in , where he successfully defended himself. accomplishing the murder of his young master. The Syrian general, after taking measures for The government of Judea now devolved on the complete subjugation of Judea, and Simon, the last surviving brother of Judas and establishing strong Syrian garrisons in the Jonathan. Simon prosecuted the same line of country, withdrew once more. An interval of policy as his predecessors, and, like them, peace ensued, which Jonathan assiduously endeavored to secure the sympathy of the employed in strengthening his party. Romans. By espousing the cause of those who On the return of the Syrians to Palestine two could be of use to them, and, laying hold of years later, the Jewish leader was so successful every opportunity for extending their sway, the in the almost passive resistance which he Maccabees had gradually obtained all but the offered, that the Syrian Bacchides was wearied title of kings. To further his objects, Simon now out, and a treaty of peace was made. In the made overtures of reconciliation to the period which followed, the Jewish parties

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dethroned Demetrius ii., whom his brother had their endeavors to secure national power and forsaken for Antiochus vi. independence. By a treaty, the Jews were no longer obliged to By tradition and necessity, Hyrcanus belonged pay tribute; Simon was made hereditary prince; to the sect of the Pharisees, but there was too and, indeed, such terms were obtained from the much of the ambitious warrior about him to fallen monarch, that the Jews ever afterwards suit the tastes of the stricter Jews, nor were dated from this year as the first of their they pleased with the innovations introduced liberation (143 B.C.). Still the cause of by him in religious matters. Ultimately an open Demetrius seemed hopeless, and in an quarrel broke out between this party and expedition against Parthia he was taken Hyrcanus, and decided him to join the prisoner. He was, however, kindly treated by . The subsequent history of the the Parthian king, whose daughter he married. Maccabees presents a picture of rapid His brother, Antiochus vii., now took up the declension. At his death (105 B.C.), Hyrcanus struggle against Tryphon. left the principality to his wife; but their eldest While his success remained doubtful, Antiochus son, Aristobulus} deposed his mother, and she courted the favor of Simon, but no sooner had soon afterwards perished in prison, as the story he gained a decided advantage than he changed went, by hunger. his attitude towards the Jews, and refused to His favorite brother Antigonus also fell a victim acknowledge their claims to independence. He to his jealous suspicions, and after a reign of marched an army into Palestine, which was only one year Aristobulus died of a painful repulsed by , the son of Simon. disease. He was succeeded by his third brother, But when Hyrcanus became high priest and Alexander Jannabus probably the most warlike, governor (135 B.C.), his father and brothers as he was the most cruel and least popular of having fallen victims to a foul conspiracy, the Hasmoneans. His ambitious projects were Antiochus again invaded Palestine. not attended with success, and as, besides, he Jerusalem was besieged, and Hyrcanus was was a professed Sadducee, the public obliged to sue for peace, which the Syrian discontent broke, on two distinct occasions, monarch granted on reasonable terms. Soon into open rebellion. These insurrections were after, Antiochus vil. fell in an expedition against indeed quelled, but not without much the Parthians, and his brother, Demetrius II., bloodshed. who had escaped from the captivity in which he Alexander left the kingdom to his wife, with had been kept by the Parthian court, which only directions that, after his death, she should join used him as a tool, re-ascended the throne of the party of the Pharisees, whose adherence to Syria. John Hyrcanus meantime extended his her rule was thereby procured. After her sway in Palestine; he subdued the , decease, Hyrcanus, her elder son, a weak and also conquered the Idumeans, whom he prince, would have seized the crown, but found forced to become Jewish proselytes. But a rival in his younger and more energetic Demetrius II. did not long retain the Syrian brother, Aristobulus (69 B.C.). Hyrcanus, crown. After the brief reign, of a pretender, he indeed, resigned the crown in his favor, but by was succeeded by his son, Antiochus viii. The the advice of one Antipater, an Idumean, who reign of the high priest Hyrcanus is marked by had acquired considerable influence, betook the first public contest between the two great himself for assistance to Aretas, king of Arabia, Jewish parties, which seem to have made their who gladly espoused his cause. Judea now appearance about the time of the high priest became the scene of a civil war between the Jonathan. The Pharisees, the representatives of rival brothers. Hyrcanus advanced with an the earlier Chasidim, were the more strictly army, and shut up Aristobulus in Jerusalem. religious party, while the Sadducees consisted Meantime the Roman general Pompey had of the more moderate men, who sympathized penetrated victoriously into Syria, and both with the later tendencies of the Maccabees, and

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brothers hastened to submit their claims to him Antony, a friend of Antipater; and Herod, for arbitration and assistance. though he had previously given assistance to Though the Roman chief delayed his decision, the republican party, soon gained his favor. he was clearly disposed to favor the weak In vain did the Jews send successive Hyrcanus as more likely to be serviceable to deputations to complain of the exactions of the himself, and Aristobulus resolved to fight for sons of Antipater. The latter were confirmed in the crown. He at first attempted to defend the government of Judea under Hyrcanus, and Jerusalem, but surrendered on the approach of their power was still further established by the Pompey. His adherents retired to the temple, betrothal of Herod with the beautiful which, after a three months' siege, was taken by Mariamne, the grand-daughter of the high assault on a Sabbath day. Hyrcanus was now priest. Soon afterwards Mark Antony was confirmed in his dignity as high priest, but he captivated by the charms of Cleopatra. was deprived of the crown, and became Antony's inactivity and exactions exposed his tributary to Rome. Aristobulus and his children provinces to the inroads of the Parthians, who (with the exception of Alexander, who escaped soon possessed themselves of Syria; but the by the way) followed Pompey as captives (63 threatening aspect of affairs in Italy obliged B.C.). Antony to return immediately to Rome, where It was in vain that Alexander, and afterwards he happily effected a temporary reconciliation Aristobulus, endeavored again to raise the with his colleagues. During his absence from standard of rebellion in Palestine. The watchful the East, Antigonus, a son of the late and energetic Romans, who were now virtually Aristobulus, had secured from the Parthians the masters of the country, specially Mark Antony, recognition of his claims upon the Jewish defeated all their plans. At the same time, throne (40 B.C.). Antipater succeeded in ingratiating himself By treachery, both the aged high priest with the new lords of the soil. Hyrcanus and the brother of Herod were made The war between Caesar and Pompey seemed captives and put in chains; but Herod himself at first to hold out new prospects to the party of had managed to escape to , where he Aristobulus, as Antipater had espoused the placed his friends in safety, and then departed cause of Pompey; but the adherents of the latter for Rome. Meanwhile Herod's brother had killed Aristobulus and his son, while Antipater committed suicide in prison, and Antigonus had himself seasonably changed sides, and cut off the ears of Hyrcanus, in order to unfit compensated for his former opposition by him for the priesthood. Herod had originally rendering such effective assistance to Caesar, gone to Rome, for the purpose of procuring the that he obtained even greater privileges than he government of Judea for Aristobulus, the had before possessed, being nominated Roman brother of Mariamne, under whom he hoped to procurator in Judea. The national party was act as Antipater had done under Hyrcanus; but, naturally jealous of the unbounded influence when there, he succeeded in obtaining his own which the Idumean Antipater and his sons (of elevation to the Jewish throne. whom Herod was the most promising) were Herod returned to Palestine to conquer his new acquiring in Palestine. But, though Antipater kingdom by help of the Romans, and, after a was poisoned, the influence of his sons two years' struggle (37 B.C.), recovered the remained unshaken, and they preserved their country. Antigonus was executed, and Herod power in spite of all the revolutions which at reigned undisturbed. One by one he removed this period took place throughout the Roman his dangerous rivals of the family of the world. Hasmoneans out of the way. The first victim Caesar had been slain, and the short-lived was young Aristobulus, his brother-in-law, who republic was succeeded by the triumvirate. The was far too great a favorite with the people to affairs of the East were now confided to Mark be allowed to live. Next followed the aged

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Hyrcanus, who had inconsiderately returned to the nation, would in any case have rendered Palestine from his asylum in Parthia. By and by difficult the administration of the province. But, none of the Hasmoneans remained. in fact, the breach between the Romans and the While ridding himself of every possible rival, Jews was made continually wider, owing to the Herod also knew how to conciliate the favor not rapacity and cruelty with which almost all the only of Antony, but, after his fall, of Octavius. In governors of Judea exercised their office. this brief sketch we cannot refer more fully to The most noted of these procurators was the eventful reign of Herod. Cunning, ambitious, Pontius Pilate, under whose administration the bold, and energetic, he was equally hated and Lord Jesus, being delivered by the Jews into the feared by his subjects. The two distinguishing hands of the Romans, “ offered Himself by the features of his character and government were Eternal Spirit unto the Father.” But Pilate's the most unrelenting cruelty, which sacrificed tyranny was too great to be long tolerated. even those nearest to him to the slightest When, on another occasion, he caused a suspicion, and a magnificence which induced number of unoffending Samaritans to be him everywhere to raise lasting monuments to slaughtered, he was sent to Rome by Vitellius, himself. Signal instances of the former the legate of Syria, in order to answer for his occurred, when he caused not only his wife, but conduct before the Emperor Tiberius (37 AD). even his sons and other near relatives, to be The Roman legates and procurators imitated executed. the conduct of Herod in frequently changing the Of the latter, the rebuilding of the temple of occupants of the high priesthood, to gratify Jerusalem, and the foundation of new cities, their own avarice or caprice. such as Stratonis, are examples. But to [Nevertheless the high priests retained no monument does Herod owe the preservation considerable power down to the fall of of his memory so much as to the fact that Jerusalem. They were almost always chosen towards the close of his reign Jesus was born in from among a few favored families, who formed . The last act of Herod's life is an influential aristocracy, and strengthened the sufficiently indicative of his character. The power of the high priest.] loathsome disease, which at last cut him off, Even Jewish authorities represent these priests had for some time preyed on his vitals. When as morally and religiously so degraded as by he felt his end approaching, he summoned the their sins to have called down the Divine principal men amongst the Jews, and ordered vengeance upon the people. them to be shut up and to be killed immediately after his decease, in order to secure (as he said) Once more, ere its final extinction, a brief that his decease should occasion a general prospect of comparative independence was mourning throughout the land. held out to the Jewish nation. Herod Agrippa, a grandson of Herod by one of those sons whom Happily this cruel behest was not obeyed. The he had ordered to be executed, had been possessions of Herod were divided by the educated at Rome. There he had gained the emperor between his three sons. Archelaus was favor of Caligula, who, on his accession to the made ethnarch of Judea, , and Idumea, empire, gave him the tetrarchy of Philip, who but soon afterwards banished to Gaul; Herod had died in the interval, together with that of Antipas (the Herod of the Gospels) obtained Abilene, and bestowed on him the title of king. and ; and Philip, the northern This unexpected elevation of Herod Agrippa district on the eastern bank of Jordan. On the (the Herod of the Book of Acts) excited the envy banishment of Archelaus, Judea was brought of his uncle, . He applied to the directly under Roman rule, and placed under a emperor for similar honors, l)ut was banished, procurator, who was to some extent and his tetrarchy of Galilee and Perea given to subordinate to the imperial legate of Syria. The Herod Agrippa. After the assassination of Jewish hatred of foreign rule, and the inability Caligula, Claudius obtained the purple, partly of the Romans to understand the prejudices of

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through the influence of Herod Agrippa. In Agrippa I, a Roman province. In the year 48 AD, acknowledgment of these services, Herod now Cumanus was appointed procurator of received Judea, Samaria, and Idumea, so that Palestine. Under his administration, the his kingdom was actually more extensive even discontent which had long prevailed in the than that of his grandfather Herod, an instance public mind, manifested itself, for the first time, this (we may observe by the way) of historical in acts of open resistance. The first outbreak justice to the descendant of the murdered son occurred during the celebration of the Passover of Mariamne, from whom he had sprung. of that year. In order to preserve order amongst Agrippa was thoroughly Roman in his habits the multitudes who thronged the capital at the and modes of thinking, though in a certain way great feasts, a guard of Roman soldiers was attached to the national religion. By his placed in the corridors surrounding the temple. influence with the emperor, he had already Some idea of the numbers usually present at succeeded in averting one and another storm of these festivities may be conceived, from the fact persecution from his subjects, whose favor he that, about twenty years afterwards, the courted by an apparent zeal for the synagogue. inhabitants of Jerusalem, during that period, From such motives he caused James, the were computed to amount to nearly three brother of John, to be killed, and imprisoned millions. The grossly outrageous conduct on Peter. The signal judgment which put an end at this occasion of one of the Roman soldiers, who the same time to his presumption and his life, is was not brought to justice for it, excited a well known to the readers of the New popular tumult, which was quelled only after a Testament. considerable loss of life. This indignity was soon followed by other acts of lawless Although the Jews had cause to deplore the oppression and of outrage upon the Jewish death of Herod Agrippa, who may be faith. The Samaritans were not slow to avail designated as the last native prince who held themselves of the growing anti-Jewish feeling authority in Palestine, the Greek inhabitants, on the part of the authorities. Some pilgrims and even the Roman soldiers in Caesarea, coming from Galilee were murdered in a publicly exhibited their joy at his decease in so Samaritan village. If the Romans did not indecent a manner, as to induce Claudius to connive at it, the Samaritans at least escaped resolve on removing these cohorts from Judea. unpunished. As usual, before the outbreak of a Caesarea was one of those places in which the revolution, numbers of the national party now contentions, which now became very general, formed themselves into bands of guerillas, and between the Jewish and the inhabitants resorted to the mountains of Judea, where all of Palestine were most continuous and bitter. who were disaffected joined them. This plan Although built by Herod the Great and with had been the commencement of a successful Jewish money, it was, on various grounds, resistance to foreign tyranny under the claimed by the Greeks as a heathen city. Being Maccabees, and the land of Judea offered the seat of the Roman government and of their peculiar facilities for it. At last, Agrippa, who principal garrison in Palestine, the collisions instead of Chalcis received the former tetrarchy were frequent between the heathens, who were of Philip, successfully pleaded the Jewish cause numerous and influential, and the Jews, and with the emperor, and obtained from him the their contentions for supremacy in the town recall of Cumanus, in room of whom Felix was peculiarly obstinate. It was here that the spark appointed (probably 52 AD). This governor, fell which ultimately enveloped Judea in the who speedily became the husband of Drusilla, flames of a great national war. one of King Agrippa's sisters, was as tyrannical Herod Agrippa II. (the King Agrippa of the Acts) and corrupt as his predecessor. was ultimately appointed king of Chalcis, and When Felix was at length recalled, Nero, who superintendent of the temple. Palestine itself succeeded Claudius in the empire, appointed remained, ever after the death of Herod Festus procurator {circ. 60 AD). The latter was,

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on the whole, a much better governor than any character of a national war. The most moderate of his predecessors; but he only lived to amongst the Jews now felt that they had administer Jewish affairs for about two years, entered on a struggle which the Romans would and was followed by Albinus, a man whose feel in honour bound to prosecute to the end, covetousness made every attempt at and in which they would indiscriminately take administering justice impossible. In 64 AD he vengeance on all prominent persons in the was recalled, and Gessius Florus, in many nation. The only chance of safety now lay in respects the worst governor whom Judea had successful resistance; and if death by Roman ever seen, was appointed in his place. hands were ultimately to fall to their lot, it was The historian charges him with at least desirable to meet it in honorable almost every crime. It is certain that his mal- defense of their liberty and faith. Accordingly, administration converted the public excitement however unwilling they might formerly have into the utmost state of frenzy. In 9 AD, Cestius felt, all now entered cordially into plans which Gallus, the governor of Syria, and the superior were too hastily conceived, and imperfectly of Florus, attended at the paschal festivities at carried out. Jerusalem, In vain did the Jews prefer their To Josephus, a Jewish general, the defense of complaint against Florus; they were put off Galilee was entrusted. Against him , with promises, while the procurator stood by Nero's ablest general, had been dispatched. laughing. Events were now hastening to a crisis. Successful in every engagement, he took city The last and decisive provocation was given at after city. At last Josephus surrendered to him Caesarea, which was adjudicated by Nero to ,an event which threw the leaders of the belong to the heathens, who were in future to national party in Jerusalem into the utmost hold first rank as citizens in that town. consternation. In that doomed city, instead of Dissensions soon arose, and acts of provocation harmony, strife and contention had reigned; on the part of the heathens drove the Jews into instead of uniting against the common foe, they an open rebellion, which speedily extended to were engaged in an internecine war. Three Jerusalem. parties fought for supremacy in Jerusalem. It was in vain that King Agrippa, and the more They sought only to destroy one another and moderate party, besought the people to abstain the stores which were so necessary for a from entering on so unequal a combat. Eleazar, protracted defense of the city, and at last killed the president of the temple, refused to offer every wealthy and peaceably disposed person. sacrifices for the prosperity of the Roman In the interval, Vespasian succeeded to the empire; and one, Menahem, a son of Judas of , and left the command of the Galilee, openly took up arms against Rome. But army to his son Titus, who appeared before although he and most of his adherents were Jerusalem in April 70. The garrison soon felt the murdered by Eleazar, who in turn assumed combined horrors of famine and pestilence, of authority, the insurrection was not quelled. the reign of terror within, and the presence of a Cestius now marched against Jerusalem, and relentless enemy without the city walls. The took and burnt one of the suburbs. He then siege lasted altogether four months, and was proceeded to attack the temple mount, but, attended with varying success. We purposely after six days, when a part of the northern wall abstain from giving any of the details connected had been already undermined, he most with it. The Jews displayed the greatest valor, unaccountably withdrew. The Jews followed and an enthusiasm which almost bordered on him, and routed the Romans with great madness. slaughter. Many of their military engines fell They fought under the conviction that some into the hands of the Jews, who afterwards deliverance must at last be wrought for them, employed them against the Romans. since God could not give up His city, people, and This event changed a partial rebellion into a temple. But Titus, who, in order to prevent any general rising, and invested it with the escape from the city, had caused it to be

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completely surrounded with a stone wall, made flowed down the steep streets of Mount Zion to continuous though slow progress. Gradually he the valley of the Son of Hinnom, were dried up; penetrated into the city, until, on the 10th Ab the groans of the dying, the lamentations of the (August), the temple was burnt, and, on the 8th bereaved and the captives, were hushed. Of the EM (September), the upper city destroy ed. beautiful and proud city nothing remained but Titus had to the last been most desirous to three towers, left to indicate the strength of a spare at least the temple, but a torch thrown place which, after so protracted a defense, into it by a soldier quickly enveloped it in could not resist Roman prowess; a portion of flames, which could not be suppressed. the old wall, to serve as defense to the garrison; Thus perished the proud and beautiful city, and a few houses here and there, where the which “ would not have this man reign over it.” aged, the feeble, and, in general, those from With it perished the last remainder of the whom nothing could be apprehended, found a typical dispensation, and of the Jewish state. A shelter. new era now commences. Israel is again cast Before marching against the capital of Judea, forth as a wanderer, but this time without a the Roman generals had wisely resolved to home in view without a tabernacle in which to subdue the whole country. By this plan worship and without the cloud by day, or the Jerusalem was isolated, the defenders of Jewish guiding pillar of fire by night. Yet can we learn nationality were ultimately shut up in it, all many a lesson as we trace the footmarks in the supplies cut off, while the fall of the city sand of time. And these footmarks they have necessarily put a period to farther resistance. left on every shore, as they have inscribed their This plan of operations, and the fact that the name on every page of history. siege of Jerusalem overtook the Jews during the A nation without a country, a religion which, celebration of the Passover, when multitudes historically speaking, belongs to the past, and came to worship in the temple, will also has become impossible in the present a people account for the large number of captives taken persecuted yet not exterminated, driven from in that city. When it is said that these amounted every place yet always reappearing, and who, to not less than 97,000, that 1,100,000 had without having a present, bear in their past the fallen since the commencement of the war, seed of future greatness such is the picture now while multitudes escaped from the city during presented to us. Israel can be neither its protracted siege, it will be understood what transformed nor subdued by the hand of man. gigantic proportions the war had assumed. They belong to God. Since the destruction of All the captive Jews were ranged on the summit Jerusalem, a continual miracle, kept as a of the temple-mountain, to have their testimony to the God of the Bible before the respective sentences awarded by a Roman eyes of an unbelieving world, and as the captain named Pronto, and a freedman of Titus, harbinger of future blessings in the prayers of to whom their adjudication had in the first an expectant Church, both they and their place been committed. Influence with the history are unaccountable by an ordinary mode victors secured the release of many. Amongst of reasoning, and can only be understood when others, the historian Josephus, before his viewed in the light of scriptural statement and surrender to the Romans one of the Jewish prediction. generals, obtained a free pardon for 190 of his personal friends. Others bought their liberty by Chapter 2 – Closing Scenes of the Jewish War pointing out to the Romans places were articles of Independence of value had been concealed by the besieged. The last embers of the conflagration had died The rest of the prisoners were sentenced by out at Jerusalem, and silence reigned in her court-martial either to death or to servitude in deserted streets, save that the hollow tread of the mines of Egypt. This fate befell all above the Roman guard betokened the presence of the seventeen years of age; those of more tender conqueror. The streams of blood which had years were sold into slavery.

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It need scarce be mentioned that the Romans threw back his cloak and surrendered himself. eagerly ransacked the city in search of plunder, He was sent in chains to Caesarea, there to the more so as fabulous accounts of the wealth expect the arrival of Titus. stored up in Jerusalem had previously been Before leaving Jerusalem, Titus had addressed circulated. Amongst other places, the his soldiers in language highly commendatory subterranean vaults which intersected of their bravery and fidelity, and distributed Jerusalem in all directions, almost like streets, amongst them valuable gifts. Some were carefully examined. There a number of acknowledgment of their services the soldiers Jews had found a brief respite. had indeed deserved, for their courage, The two principal actors in the defense of endurance, and manifest attachment to the Jerusalem, John of Giscala and Simon Gioras, person of the young Caesar. When at last the had fled to these hiding-places. If John and his Roman standards had been planted on the east friends had ever hoped to be able to remain in gate of the temple, their enthusiasm could no concealment till the lapse of time induced a longer be restrained, and they proclaimed Titus relaxation of vigilance on the part of the Roman Imperator. guards, they soon felt constrained to relinquish The war being virtually at an end, the these expectations. Hunger obliged them to auxiliaries were then dismissed to their surrender to the enemy. Simon Gioras had respective countries, and the legions chosen apparently more promising means of transported to other battlefields. The 12th securing safety. When, with a small party of legion, which at the beginning of the war had friends, he retreated to the vaults, they took suffered so ignominious a defeat from the Jews, with them provisions, pickaxes and other tools, was sent to Melitine in Cappadocia, near the with which they hoped to work their way Euphrates. The 10th, entrusted to the command underground to some place of safety. They of Terentius Rufus, was left as garrison in penetrated as far as the vaults extended, but the Jerusalem; the 5th and 15th legions, which labor of excavation was impeded by the ruined were to be sent to the banks of the Danube, state of the city and the stench of putrefying accompanied Titus to Caesarea, whence he bodies, which in some places almost filled the intended to set sail for Egypt. But before finally vaults. leaving the soil of Palestine, he visited Caesarea At the same time their means of subsistence Philippi (Paneas), the city of King Agrippa and began to fail, notwithstanding the care with of Bernice. which they had from the first been husbanded. Wherever the victor appeared at Paneas, Although constrained to desist from this Berytiis (), and in other Syrian towns attempt, Simon was not the man to perish festivities were celebrated in honour of himself, underground. Hoping to take advantage of the of the Emperor Vespasian (Titus's father), and superstitious fears of the Roman soldiers, he of Domitian (his brother). As usual on similar stripped one of the bodies, and arrayed himself occasions, thousands of Jewish captives had to in a white tunic, over which he then arranged a contend in the arena, either with each other or costly purple cloak. Thus attired, he surprised with wild beasts, for the amusement of the the guard stationed near the temple. As he had spectators. On his return, Titus passed once hoped, terror struck the bystanders at the more through what had been Jerusalem. It is sudden and strange apparition, but they soon said that the sight of the ruins filled with recovered from their alarm and arrested his sorrow and awe the conqueror, in whose progress, demanding his name. Some strange character (according to the statement of fancy, or a desire not to surrender to an inferior contemporaries) good and evil strangely perhaps a hope to move the pity of an equal, or alternated. to secure his interest induced Simon to demand A Jewish legend has embellished this to be brought before the general of the circumstance, by describing in the most garrison. When Terentius appeared, Simon

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fabulous terms certain tortures which Titus had Titus threw himself into the arms of his parent, to endure in punishment for the destruction of warmly exclaiming, perhaps with reference to Jerusalem and the temple. On his voyage from the above-mentioned reports, “ I have come, my Egypt to Italy (so goes the story), Titus was father, I have come.” Rome greeted the overtaken by a storm, which threatened to victorious Vespasian and Titus with a triumph, destroy the vessel that bore him. Conscious of in which the envious Domitian took an the righteous anger of the God of Israel whom unwilling part, following the victors' car, he had offended, Titus broke forth in mounted on a white charger. The captive Jews blasphemies against Him, as if His power were who were to grace the triumphal entry, had limited to the sea in which He had once already arrived. They consisted of seven destroyed Pharaoh, and now threatened his hundred of the noblest and fairest of the youth own safety, while He was unable successfully to of Palestine, and of the two leaders of the contend against him upon land. insurrection, Simon Gioras and John of Giscala. A voice from on high rebuked the blasphemy. The sacred roll of the law, the table of The storm was hushed; but no sooner had Titus shewbread, the golden candlestick, and other landed than he felt excruciating pains in his parts of the temple furniture, were exhibited in head, occasioned, as it afterwards turned out, the triumph, and then deposited amongst the by an insect gnawing on his brain, which, spoils. according to the Divine threatening, was to The procession ascended the Capitol, where, continue his tormentor through life. Only once, according to usage, it halted till the leader of and for a short time, the noise from a the rebellion had been scourged and executed. blacksmith's shop caused the insect to desist. The senate adjudged this punishment to Simon On his deathbed, Titus ordered the physicians, Gioras. John of Giscala was sentenced to after his decease, to open his skull, in order to perpetual imprisonment; and the rest of the ascertain the occasion of this ceaseless agony. captives were employed in various public To their astonishment they discovered in it an works. Amongst others, the Coliseum, built by animal, which had grown to the size of a Vespasian, was, according to a late Christian swallow, two talents in weight, with metal bill tradition, mostly reared by Jewish labor. and claws, which had gnawed at the emperor's Very different from the fate of the generality of brain. So far the tradition, by which Jewish the actors in this melancholy drama, was that of hatred sought to avenge itself on the destroyer three who had more or less openly sided with of Jerusalem. We have mentioned it in order to the enemies of their nation. indicate how firm the conviction which the At one time, indeed, King Agrippa and his fair Jews entertained, that God had not forsaken sister Bernice seemed deeply interested in the them, but would avenge their cause; and also to welfare of their countrymen. But where show what extraordinary fables could pass principle of any kind is wanting where current on such subjects. selfishness and the love of sin are dominant During Titus's absence in the East, a report had mere ebullitions of generosity are at best spread, perhaps partly on the ground of his transient, and all such manifestations of largesses to the soldiers, that he intended to kindness only capricious. Queen Bernice soon found in the East an empire independent of his descended to become the paramour of Titus. father Vespasian. The circulation of such Report accused her even of incest with her rumors, to which a reported attempt on the brother. At the termination of the war, Agrippa part of his brother Domitian to excite the and Bernice enjoyed, as reward for the part Germanic legions to rebellion, may have lent they had taken in it, all the pleasures which the appearance of likelihood, had induced Titus wealth could procure or the ingenuity of luxury to hasten his return to Rome. On his approach, devise. his imperial father, the senate and magistracy, hastened to meet him.

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Bernice was also honored with the special have been most strenuously defended. It confidence of the emperor, and was even certainly seems strange that Josephus should allowed to sit as judge on a certain occasion, not only have at first accepted, but afterwards when Quintilian pleaded her cause before her. so tenaciously clung to his appointment, when The attachment between her and Titus was so it clearly appears that if he did not throughout great, that nothing but the general outcry of the play into the hands of the Romans, he neglected Romans against an alliance with a Jewess, could most obvious duty, was ever anxious to induce the heir-presumptive of the empire to propitiate Rome, her friends and her allies, and repudiate one whom it was generally believed careful to prepare a way for his own safety. he had secretly espoused. Although this step After his surrender to the enemy, Josephus caused deep sorrow to both parties, it seems proved in various ways most helpful to the doubtful whether Bernice had at any time been Roman cause, and was at last richly rewarded faithful to her imperial lover. At least, Caecina, a by Titus, whom he accompanied on his return man of consular dignity, had to expiate with his to Rome. He received from the emperor life her supposed favors. Up to the period of her possessions in lieu of those which he had held repudiation, Bernice had lived in the palace, near Jerusalem. He was made a Roman citizen, and in every way acted as the future empress, and had a pension assigned to him; and, while her brother had been elevated to the rank notwithstanding the intrigues of his enemies, of praetor. Afterwards she left Rome about the retained the full confidence of the court. It must year 75, and though she returned after the be allowed that, except when private interests death of Vespasian, she came no more to court. or a thirst for revenge actuated him, he used his The part sustained by the historian Josephus influence in favor of his countrymen. Josephus had been even less honorable than that of had, by the order of Vespasian, married in Agrippa and Bernice. Unfortunately we only Caesarea a captive Jewess, in spite of the Jewish possess his own version of his conduct and of law which interdicted connections between Jewish affairs generally. Yet, on comparing his priests and captives, but he soon separated Jewish Wars with the Account of his Life, drawn from her. He was subsequently married a up twenty years after the former work, in reply second time, during his stay at Alexandria, and to the elegant and telling history of his had three sons, of whom, however, the opponent, Justus of , startling youngest only attained to maturity. incongruities and damaging admissions become Finally, having repudiated his second wife, with apparent. It is not our present purpose to whose conduct he was dissatisfied, he united discuss the conduct of Josephus; but where himself to a wealthy, talented, and noble Jewess gross exaggerations, vanity, and bitterness from Crete, who shared his happy retreat at against those with whom he had formerly Rome. His third wife made him father of two acted, are prominent features, we have fair sons, Justus and Simonides Agrippa. From the grounds for suspecting the honesty and good moment that he betrayed his country's cause, faith of the writer. he was as violently hated and persecuted as he If Josephus was not from the first a traitor, his had before been respected by the Jews. conduct, at least, appears sufficiently Nor did the intrigues of his enemies cease with treasonable, and seems to have early roused the Jewish war. In Rome, various attempts were the suspicions of his colleagues. Perhaps made to undermine his influence and position; Josephus speedily perceived that the cause of but these proved ineffectual, and he remained Israel was in a desperate state, while he did not to the end a favorite with Vespasian, Titus, and see his way, or else did not choose, to Domitian, and specially enjoyed the good graces relinquish the command which had been of the Empress Domitia. Among his principal entrusted to him in Galilee. Unfortunately, his opponents was one Jonathan, a Zealot, who had was of all the most important position, which fled from Judea and excited a rebellion in might have been longest held, and ought to Cyrene. We shall by and by refer more

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particularly to his intrigues. Suffice it in the appreciate the surrender of one in whom the meantime that his accusations against Josephus Jews had reposed such confidence. His were found false, and Jonathan was scourged attachment to the national cause (till driven and condemned to the stake. Even one of from it), his bravery, and yet his entire Josephus' eunuchs, to whom he had confided devotedness to the conquerors, served to the training of his sons, conspired against him; recommend him; while his acquaintance with but he also met with deserved punishment. the country, the language, the habits and Domitian exempted Josephus from all taxes. He resources of the Jews, must have been of signal must have survived beyond the year 100 AD, service to them. the date of the death of Agrippa 11., to which in It will readily be conceived what impression the his autobiography he alludes. tidings of his treachery made upon his In the absence of other historical documents, countrymen. A party more zealous, or more the writings of Josephus must always remain a discerning than the rest, had long suspected most valuable source of information, both of him; but, by his cunning and violence, Josephus the events which befell and the views which had managed to elude their vigilance. After his were entertained by the Jewish nation. After surrender, their policy seemed the only safe making due allowance for exaggerations, we one; and when at last the most unwilling and may accept his relations of facts as substantially incredulous became convinced of the general's correct, though his mode of representing them, treachery, a feeling of general distrust and the inferences which he draws, are often possessed the minds of the community, and calculated to give a wrong impression. It must prepared the way for the reign of terror be borne in mind, that confessedly he not only inaugurated by the violent Zealots. surrendered to the Romans, but tried to The chiefs of the moderate party in Jerusalem promote that cause against which he had were slain, without respect of age, character, or formerly led the armies of Judea. station; and those fearful scenes were enacted Naturally, then, he would attempt to represent which preceded, and in measure made the himself as first ardently patriotic, and ready to capture and destruction of the city possible. It fight his country's battles against those whom will be understood how hateful even his he believed its enemies. But his nation's crimes appearance must afterwards have been to the had called down the Divine judgment, and he brave defenders of their country; and, now felt it his duty to espouse the cause of accordingly, whenever he addressed them in Judea's enemies as warmly, and from the same favor of the Romans, in language which we can convictions, which had induced him formerly to scarcely call aught but canting and hypocritical, embrace that of the national party. If, besides, the Zealots were often roused to sheer frenzy, we take into account the egotism and vanity and the Romanizing Jew narrowly escaped with which constitute such prominent his life. Unfortunately, the important history of characteristics of our author, it will be the Jewish war by Justus of Tiberias has been understood on what grounds he presented his lost. Josephus composed his Autobiography in country's struggle and his nation's sins in the reply to it. Some passages in this work throw a light in which he attempted to place them. light on events detailed in the Jewish Wars, A representation of his own importance and different from that in which the author had sufferings in the cause of the Romans, which he intended to present them. had only reluctantly embraced from a Besides the Jewish Wars and his conviction of its rightness, would also secure Autobiography, we possess from the pen of the gratitude of his protectors, while an Josephus a Reply to the Misrepresentations of exaggerated account of the crimes of the Jews Apion concerning the Jews; but the small and the virtues of the Romans, would serve as treatise on the Power of Reason, in which the an apology both for the invaders of Judea and martyrdom of seven youths during the time of for his own conduct. The Romans could not but the Maccabees is described, though from early

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times attributed to Josephus, is doubtless not of Zealots, belonging to the national party, his composition. His largest work is one on the Cerealis took no steps to drive them out of . This book contains these last strongholds. He was succeeded, only many inaccuracies and liberties with the text of a year after his appointment, by Lucilius Scripture, but is valuable on account of some of Bassus, who immediately addressed himself to the explanations which it offers, and the insight the task which Cerealis had neglected. it affords into Jewish manners and modes of Herodion, so named after Herod, its builder, thinking. and situated near Jerusalem, surrendered The substantial accuracy of Josephus' without attempting a defense. description of the last Jewish war was Not so , a strong citadel, reared on confirmed by Titus, who received the work into the eastern shore of the Dead Sea. It dated from his collection of books. In conclusion, we may the time of the Hasmoneans, who destined it as notice the strange mixture of religious elements a bulwark against the inroads of the Arabians. which combined to make up the creed of Situated on an inaccessible rock, and Josephus. He was truly an eclectic Jew. The surrounded on all sides by deep valleys, it was, Pharisees, the Sadducees, the Essenes, and the in truth, one of the strongest places in Palestine. Grecians, might equally claim him by turns. Gabinius, the legate of Pompey, had, indeed, When such a stage of religious consciousness once destroyed it; but Herod I restored it, and becomes general among the educated, it always built a palace there, encompassed by strong marks a period of decadence. The Jews, at a walls, and protected by impregnable towers. A much later period, added to the genuine small town, likewise surrounded by walls, had writings of Josephus those of another Josephon, sprung up around the citadel. Such was the or Josippon ben Gorion, which contain a appearance of Machaerus when Bassus treatise on Jewish history, written in elegant commenced operations against it, selecting as Hebrew, but full of the grossest anachronisms. his base a valley to the east of the fort, which Two memorials of the destruction of Jerusalem, was less deep than the others. each characteristic in its own way, remain to But the place seemed capable of enduring a our days. Rome erected a triumphal arch, on long siege. The town derived its supplies of which the seven-branched candlestick and water from one of the many streams which other principal spoils of the war are passed through the valleys, while the fort was represented. Israel has marked the day of well supplied by a large number of cisterns. ' desolation by a national fast. By a strange This place was, according to Pliny, a fortress coincidence, that same day, the 9th of the second only to Jerusalem in importance. There Jewish month Ab, commemorates at the same was no lack of provisions or of arms, and the time the threefold loss of Jewish independence garrison was brave and resolute. The that under Nebuchadnezzar, that under Titus, population of the town consisted originally of and again, at a later period, that under Hadrian. Syrians and of Jews. On the approach of the In the plaintive strains of the religious services Romans, the latter retreated into the citadel, for that day, Jerusalem is likened to a sorrowing leaving the foreign part of the population in the dove; yet confession and mourning are mingled lower town. The Jews of Machaerus were under with ardent and high aspirations after an the command of Eleazar, a young man of noble anticipated and complete deliverance. birth and of great courage. The defenders, After the fall of Jerusalem, Judea was formed however, differed considerably from the into a province entirely independent of Syria. Zealots of Jerusalem; for, though firmly The first governor appointed after the attached to the national cause, they seem from departure of Titus was Cerealis, who was at the the outset to have considered the possibility of same time the commander of the garrison. saving their lives, if need be, by surrendering Though three fortresses Herodion, Machaerus, their citadel. and Masada were still held by desperate

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However, at first everything seemed to be to whom the termination of the Jewish war was favorable to the Jews. Their frequent sallies reserved. interrupted or destroyed the siege-works of the Masada, the strongest Jewish fortress, was also Romans, and harassed them incessantly. the last to hold out against the common enemy. Eleazar was always foremost in the sallies. It would scarcely have been possible to have Unfortunately, on some such occasion, the chosen a better site, or to have added more youth, whether from bravado or inadvertency, judiciously to the defenses of nature by the lingered behind his comrades, conversing with appliances of art and military science. For a soldier on the rampart. The Romans between three and four miles, one approach to perceived their advantage, and one of them, Masada called, from its narrow windings, “ the Rufus, rushed forward, seized the youth, and Serpent “ led over steep and otherwise carried him off to the camp. Rightly judging it inaccessible rocks, and along fearful precipices. the best means for subduing Eleazar and The nearer the fortress was approached, the inducing his friends to surrender, Bassus more difficult became the way to it. caused him to be stripped and scourged in sight At last, however, a fertile plateau was reached. of his soldiers, who raised a loud wailing. Its well-cultivated fields were intended to A cross was next erected in a conspicuous supply sufficient support to the garrison. This place, and preparations made for the execution plateau was surrounded by a wall, eighteen feet of Eleazar. These indications upset the courage high and twelve feet broad, and defended by of the young man. His own lamentations and thirty-seven towers, each seventy-five feet in the affection of his followers who, perhaps, had height. On the east, the fort was also protected never been very sanguine of ultimate success by the Dead Sea; on the west, a second rocky against the Romans induced them to capitulate, way to it was commanded by a high tower. Such on condition of freedom to their general, and a was the place which Herod I had designed for a safe-conduct to themselves. The Syrians were retreat in cases of extreme danger, and where, not prepared for such a termination. Whether according to his usual practice, he had reared a they had not been included in the agreement, or palace, which in splendour rivaled that of had even been actually betrayed to their Jerusalem. enemies, certain it is that, under the impression A resolute garrison might have been able to of treachery, they attempted to escape from the hold the place for any number of years. A large city. number of cisterns contained an abundant Their example and influence prevailed on some supply of water, irrespective of that which was of the others to follow them. But the Romans derived from the valley; great stores of oil and were not willing to allow their prey thus to corn had been laid up, sufficient for the wants escape. Only a part of the fugitives succeeded in of many years; and the arsenal was replenished leaving Machaerus, the rest were seized the with ammunition of every kind. When Silva men slaughtered, the women and children marched against Masada, it was held by a party condemned to slavery. Meantime, about three of those Zealots who, in their fastnesses, had so thousand fugitives had sought safety in a dense long dreamed of victory and liberty. Their wood, on the road from Machaerus to commander was Eleazar, a man well fitted to Jerusalem, Bassus caused the wood to be sustain the part assigned to him in the last surrounded by his cavalry. Felling the trees harrowing scene of the war. A competent before them, they advanced, till at last nothing authority has declared this siege both in the was left for the fugitives but to cut their way attack and defense of Masada unequalled by through the Romans. In this hopeless attempt anything in modern warfare. However all perished. After this victory if so it may be memorable the former sieges of Jerusalem had styled Bassus returned. He died soon been, this surpassed them in some respects, as afterwards, and was succeeded by Flavius Silva, in the horrors of its termination, so in the skill and determination displayed by both parties.

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The first object of Silva's care was to protect the woe; in the distance, as far as the eye could siege works, about to be constructed, from the reach, the desolate landscape bore the marks of sorties of the enemy. Accordingly he first the oppressor. Before them was the camp of the surrounded the place of his operations with a Roman, who watched with eager anxiety for his wall. He chose as his point of attack, a rock on prey and the morrow. All was silent in Masada. the west side of the fort, and immediately Defense now seemed impossible, and certain beyond the tower which commanded the death stared the devoted garrison in the face. approach. Though four hundred and fifty feet Despair settled on the stoutest heart, deepened lower than Masada, it was really the only by the presence and the well-known fate of the possible point of attack. On this rock he reared women and children. Nought was heard but the a mound three hundred feet high, and upon it a crackling of burning timbers, and the ill- platform of stone seventy-five feet in height, suppressed moans of the wives and children of and as much in width. Thus the besiegers were the garrison. Then for the last time Eleazar only seventy-five feet from the top of the summoned his warriors. In language such as fortress. fierce despair alone could have inspired on his, To complete his preparations, a tower with iron or brooked on their part, he reminded them of gratings was placed on the stone wall above their solemn oath â– to gain freedom or to die. described. The various machines now hurled One of these alternatives alone remained for stones and darts against the defenders of the them to die. The men of war around him had fort, while a tremendous battering-ram was not quailed before any enemy, yet they shrank employed to effect a breach in the wall. They from the proposal of their leader. A low soon succeeded in this; but with rare ingenuity murmur betokened their disapprobation. Then the defenders had reared an inner wall, which flashed Eleazar's eye. Pointing over the burning bade defiance to the battering-ram. It was rampart to the enemy, and in the distance constructed partly of wood and partly of earth. towards Jerusalem, he related with fearful The framework of wood was supported by truthfulness the fate which awaited them on the earth, with which also its interstices were filled morrow, to be slain by the enemy, or to be up. Of course the projectiles hurled by the reserved for the arena; to have their wives enemy had no other effect than that of devoted in their sight to shame, and their strengthening and consolidating this defense. children to torture and slavery. Silva ordered burning arrows and pieces of Were they to choose this alternative, or a wood to be thrown upon it, in order, if possible, glorious death, and with it liberty a death in to set it on fire. He succeeded. obedience to their oath, in devotedness to their At first, indeed, an adverse wind threatened to God, and to their country? The appeal had its carry the flames against the Roman tower and effect. It was not sudden madness, nor a machines. But the wind veered round, and momentary frenzy, which seized these men, speedily the last hope of the defenders was when they brought forth, to immolate them on removed. The wooden wall and part of the the altar of their liberty, their wives, their palace were now in flames. At this sight the children, their chattels, and ranged themselves Romans raised a shout of joy; and, having taken each by the side of all that had been dear to him every precaution against the possible escape of in the world. The last glimmer of hope had died the garrison, they retired to their camp, out, and with the determination of despair the intending on the morrow to storm the last defenders of Judea prepared to perish in dismantled fort. the flames which enveloped its last fortress. Evening with its calm and silence settled on the First, each heaped together his household gear, scene around. The stars twinkled, just as they associated with the pleasures of other days, and had done in happier days, over the burning set fire to it. Again they pressed to their hearts walls of Masada. Beneath rolled heavily the their wives and children. Bitter were the tears Dead Sea the monument of former wrath and wrung from these iron men; yet the sacrifice

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was made unshrinkingly, and each plunged his affected to despise. Nor was the issue of the sword into the hearts of his wife and children. struggle unimportant to the Roman State. Then they laid themselves down beside them, Defeat under any circumstances would have and locked them in tender embrace now the been the first step in the decadence of the embrace of death. Cheerfully they presented empire, which was now only delayed by the their breasts to ten of their number, chosen by able administration of the early emperors. On lot to put the rest of their brethren to death. Of the other hand, the Jews contended for all that these ten, one had again been fixed upon to slay is dear to a people. They fought for national the remaining nine. Having finished his bloody existence, for political and religious liberty, for work, he looked around to see whether any of their lives, for their hearths and homes. Flushed the band yet required his service. But all was at first by victory, relying on the zeal and silent. The last survivor then approached as enthusiasm of the whole nation, and defending closely as possible to his own family, and fell themselves in their own country and amongst upon his sword. Nine hundred bodies covered its fastnesses against the foreign invaders, the the ground. Jews fought with the despair of men who knew Morning dawned upon Masada, and the what awaited them in case of defeat. Nor was Romans eagerly approached its walls; but this contest merely one for national within was the silence of death. A feint was independence; it was essentially also a religious apprehended, and the soldiers advanced war. Jerusalem was not only a political, but also cautiously, raising a shout, as if the defenders a religious capital. on the wall implored the help of their brethren. In fighting for their country, the Jews fought Then two women, who, with five children, had also for their religion, which, indeed, was concealed themselves in vaults during the almost inseparable from the soil of Palestine, murderous scene of the preceding evening, and hence, as they thought, for the name and came forth from their retreat to tell the Romans cause of their God. Were it requisite, proofs the sad story. So fearfully strange did it sound, could readily be adduced of this. Even after they that their statements were scarcely credited. had been defeated, it was stated by the Slowly the Romans advanced; then, rushing theological expositors of popular sentiment, through the flames, they penetrated into the that since the day of the destruction of the court of the palace. There lay the lifeless bodies temple, God had mourned for the fate of His of the garrison and their families. It was not a people, and that joy had become a stranger in day of triumph even to the enemy, but one of the celestial mansions. Hence they confidently awe and admiration. They buried the dead and reckoned all along on the Divine assistance. withdrew, leaving a garrison. “ Jerusalem, The Maccabees had in former times, with a Jerusalem, thou that killest the prophets, and mere handful of men, defied the Syrian hosts, stonest them which are sent to thee; how often and why should not similar success be would I have gathered thy children, as a hen vouchsafed to them under more advantageous gathereth her chickens, but ye would not ! circumstances? And even if it turned out Therefore, behold, your house is left unto you otherwise, surely it could only happen in desolate.” judgment, and for a season, that their God had Thus terminated the war of Jewish nationality. left His covenant people. His special favorites, Various causes conspired to make this contest for whose sakes even heaven and earth had one of the most obstinate ever witnessed. The been created, and who alone fulfilled the end of Roman legions were led by the ablest generals their being by glorifying their Maker. Whatever, of the empire, and instigated by the recollection then, might be their divinely-appointed fate, to of the shameful defeat which they had conquer or to die, the Zealots were ready to sustained at the commencement of the war, and meet it in such a cause. by the obstinate resistance now made by a small and unwarlike race, whom they had long

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Nor were the expectations entertained about Roman Empire as cause and effect; but it is that time of the sudden appearance of a certain that the former immediately preceded Messiah, who would suddenly come forth to the latter event. The insurrections in the deliver His people from the enemies which northern parts of the empire were only quelled threatened them, without their effect on the for a while, the fire still smoldered under the minds of the people. Though the life and death ashes, in due time it burst forth anew, and of the blessed Savior had too lately taken place destroyed that mighty engine with which the for the leaders of the people lightly to risk the Lord had, in fulfillment of prophecy, punished safety of the synagogue, by bringing Messianic His people. So has it ever been : the rod of His views prominently forward, as they did at an vengeance, after having served its purpose, has after-period in the war under Bar Cochba, in always been speedily broken in pieces. order to inflame the zeal of their followers, such considerations must, no doubt, have had some Chapter 3 – The Dispersed of Israel influence. At times these hopes seemed about Considering the large number of Israelites to be realized. More than once were the Roman dispersed over the various parts of the world, generals in imminent danger the Roman who, by their annual contributions, and the engines destroyed the Jews successful the delegation of parties to offer vicarious legions panic-struck or dispirited. Yet the sacrifices, had been wont to acknowledge scepter passed finally and irrevocably from Jerusalem as their political and religious capital, Judah by the same Hand which had at first it may at first appear strange that some attempt placed it there. should not have been made by them to assist True it is that “ the history of the world is the their brethren in the common national contest. judgment of the world “; and the people, which, Although the Jews who had settled in other in its national existence, had exhibited the right lands had in some cases departed from the relationship between religion and life, even to pious observances of their co-religionists in its climax in the Incarnation of the Son of God, Palestine, theirs was the exception, and not the sank when it had misunderstood and perverted rule, as even the successful zeal of so many to that truth, and confounded the type with the win proselytes to Judaism amply attested. Their reality. The grave could no longer contain true apathy on this occasion has been ascribed by religion the living was no longer to be found some to the liberty of conscience which they amongst the dead it rose on the morning of the enjoyed in the lands of their dispersion, to the , and went forth to animate and to feelings of patriotic attachment which they regenerate the world. The lifeless form of the consequently entertained towards those nation, which had misunderstood and countries, and to the political alienation from neglected its task, lies in the valley of the slain. Palestine which had thereby been induced. In judgment are they dead as a nation, yet alive But we must not lay too much stress upon such as individuals. Still even now mercy is mixed motives. It is true that, while we hear of with judgment, for we may yet witness that soul attempts made by means of embassies to rouse returning, and Judea arising to embody the full the Babylonian Jews, the only aid actually given idea of a Christian theocracy. Israel is not dead, to the insurgents in Palestine was that rendered it but sleepeth ! by the proselyte princes of Adiabene. But the About the same time that the Jewish war fact that the rising in Palestine took place terminated, Rome attained the climax of her before any plan had been properly pre- grandeur. Hostile movements had taken place concerted, and that the war itself had been in other provinces, but these had now been prematurely hastened on by the actions of a suppressed, and Vespasian closed once again party, besides the confusion arising from the the temple of Janus. But this prosperity was of want of one recognized leader, would have short duration. We do not mean to connect the rendered any regular co-operation extremely destruction of Jerusalem and the decline of the difficult. The distance, also, between the various

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lands of the dispersion, and the peculiar to mixed dough,” the Jews of Babylon in turn circumstances of their Jewish inhabitants, go characterized their brethren of Palestine as far to account for their inactivity. A rapid only like “ dough,” when compared with their survey, not so much of the history of their claims to purity. migrations, as of their state in the countries Without doubt the various distinctive elements which they inhabited, will place both this of the synagogue had originated during the stay matter and their condition generally more of the nation in Babylon. Always afterwards a clearly before our minds. numerous and wealthy class in that empire, According to the narrative in the Book of Acts, they prosecuted not only commerce and Parthians, Medes, Elamites, dwellers in agriculture, but also the study of the law, and of Mesopotamia, inhabitants of Cappadocia, science in general. In fact, in the latter the Pontus, Asia {i.e. Ionia, the Roman province of Babylonians greatly excelled their brethren of Asia), Phrygia, and Pamphylia, as well as Jews Palestine. Besides, some of the leading who had settled in Egypt, Cyrene, Crete, and theologians of Judea were of Babylonian even in Arabia, were amongst the worshippers extraction, although they had been principally at Jerusalem to whom Peter addressed his educated in Palestine. Thus, to go no farther, memorable discourse. The mention of these the grand founder of Jewish theology, Hillel, countries sufficiently indicates the wide extent who flourished shortly before the time of our of territory over which we have to follow the Lord, was of Babylonian origin. But, till the dispersed of Israel. For convenience' sake, we decay of the schools in Judea, those of Babylon may classify them as Asiatic, African, and were subject to the former in all authoritative European Jews. Of these the most important interpretations of matters of faith and practice. branch were the Asiatic Jews, and, among them, The patriarch and the Sanhedrin of Judea those who inhabited the Parthian Empire. Their continued the supreme court of decision and of history lies in the main outside our present appeal. Thus all decrees concerning things subject, and we relate only what is absolutely declared lawful or unlawful, and the important necessary to be known. function of fixing the beginning of every new A considerable number of the Jews, who had at month, on which the arrangement of the first been transported by their enemies to festivals depended, originated in Judea and Babylon, by and by came to prefer the quiet and were communicated to Babylon the latter by a comfortable settlements in that wealthy empire kind of telegraph by means of watch-fires. The to a return to the land of their fathers. The Jews of Babylon were indeed for a long period disturbed state of Palestine at later periods under the rule of a Prince of the Captivity, who increased the number of these settlers, and claimed descent from the house of David; but, when at last the Babylonian seats of learning until the extinction of the patriarchate in even excelled the schools of Palestine, the pride Palestine, his government was rather secular of the exiles found expression in a vaunting than spiritual, and he himself confessedly claim of superiority, the more arrogantly subject to his colleague of Judea. This preferred that Palestine still continued to claim relationship is easily accounted for by the the spiritual allegiance of all her scattered former position of Palestine in religious descendants. Thus it was asserted in Babylon, matters, and by the continuation of the Jewish that when the Jews returned from Exile, the schools, which claimed to be the lawful best portion had remained behind. While, with substitutes for the authorities of the temple, reference to their purity of descent (their non- after its destruction had virtually put an end to admixture with Gentile and other interdicted the Old Testament economy. Of course the Jews elements), the Hebrew population of Judea of Babylon managed the affairs of their own claimed to stand in the same relation to their synagogues, and their spiritual authorities brethren, scattered throughout the various taught and administered their laws throughout provinces of the Roman Empire, as “ pure flour the land.

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At the time when the Romans suppressed the was generally considered the commercial rebellion, and brought the Jewish war to a capital of the dispersed. Its inhabitants were successful termination, the greater portion of deemed very clever, but equally unprincipled. what had formerly constituted the Persian Accordingly a common proverb advised “ If a monarchy owned the sway of the Parthians. person from Pumbaditha journeys along with Indeed, the Romans and Parthians met in Syria, you by the road, see to it that you quickly the western part of which was held by the change your quarters.” Following the course of former, and the eastern by the latter power. the Euphrates southward to where it forms the The Parthians were semi-barbarous and wild, lake Surah, the city of Sura was reached, a place and the authority of the king was often inhabited partly by Jews and partly by disputed by his nobles. But they were heathens. Not far from Sura was Mata- uncompromising enemies of the Romans. Mechasia. Owing to the yearly inundations of Under their government the Jews enjoyed not the Euphrates, the whole of that neighborhood only liberty and peace, but even a kind of was reputed to have been as fruitful as the independence. valley of the Nile. The inhabitants were This is the more remarkable, as the same exceedingly simple and honest. Hence the benefits were not extended to their Greek and common saying “It were better to live on a Syrian subjects. Perhaps their common hatred dunghill in Mechasia, than in one of the palaces of, and resistance to the Romans, may, in some of Pumbaditha.” measure, account for this distinction. Some On the banks of the Tigris, and near to the towns in Parthia were almost wholly held by termination of the royal canal (the Nahar- Jews. Thus the cities of Nahardea and Nisibis Malka), lay the city of Machuza, situated only a afterwards so celebrated for their colleges were few miles from Ctesiphon, the capital of the fortified and almost exclusively occupied by Parthian Empire. Close by it was the fortress of Jews, who there deposited the annual tribute Coche, which commanded Ctesiphon. So for the temple, which was sent to Jerusalem thoroughly Jewish were these important places, under a strong escort. It was asserted that King that a later Rabbi expressed his astonishment Jeconiah had been deported to Nahardea (600 at not finding, according to Jewish wont, at the years before Christ), and that he had built there entrance to Machuza, that portion of the law a synagogue, partly with materials taken from affixed which is always conspicuous over the the temple at Jerusalem. The synagogue of doors and gate-posts of Jewish houses and Shafjatib, as it was termed, was in consequence cities. of this deemed so peculiarly sacred, that, as It was asserted that the majority of the Jewish tradition expresses it, even the Shechinah might inhabitants of Machuza were not pure Hebrews, dwell there. Near this place was also the but had descended from proselytes. Their synagogue of Hozal, reputed equally sacred worldliness, lightness, and frivolity procured with the former, and by tradition traced to Ezra, for them the common appellation of who was said to have founded a theological “candidates of hell.” The men were but little school there. engaged in mercantile pursuits, and were much Besides these two principal cities, there were given to luxury; the women were famed for other Jewish towns which alternated in rank their idleness and vanity. In proof of this, it was and importance according to the lore and related that when the Sanhedrin in Palestine celebrity of the teachers resident in them. A few allowed Jewish females to wear on Sabbaths miles to the south of Nahardea, and fifty miles golden or jeweled frontlets, only twenty-four from Ctesiphon, lay Piræus Shabor, which females in all Nahardea availed themselves of numbered no less than 90,000 Jewish this privilege, while one quarter alone of inhabitants. Not far from it, and on one of the Machuza sent forth no less than eighteen ladies many canals formed by the Euphrates, was arrayed with the most gorgeous head-dresses. Pumbaditha, a beautiful and strong city, which Many Jews also lived in Ctesiphon and in

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Ardshir. That district of the country was and even received from the members of the plentifully supplied with water, and so fair and synagogue there resident the designation of “ fertile as to present the appearance of a garden. the land of Israel.” Its inhabitants had To this productiveness of the soil, and to the preserved themselves pure from Gentile vicinity of the capital, with its attendant luxury, admixture, and were hence characterized as “ the general corruption of manners, and the healthy.” On the contrary, in this respect Media religious indifferentism of the inhabitants, were was said to be “ sickly “; Elymas “ in the last ascribed. Hence the common saying “ A basket gasps “; and Messene to be “ dead.” of dates for a cent and let the inhabitants For a long time after their deportation into forbear from studying the law.” Babylonia, the Jews lived there unmolested in Besides the above mentioned, from twenty to the enjoyment of liberty and happiness. They thirty other Jewish cities, referred to in inhabited all the fruitful districts beyond the Talmudical writings, have been identified. A Euphrates, except a small portion of the glance at the map of Asia will convince the neighborhood of Babylon. But, some twenty or reader how extensive were the Jewish thirty years after the birth of our Lord, settlements in those regions. On the east circumstances occurred which put an end to bounded by the Zagros mountains, on the west this state of prosperity. At that time Artabanus by the Euphrates, they extended southward as III occupied the throne of Parthia. His reign was far as the Persian Gulf, and included Southern disturbed by internal dissensions and Armenia, Mesopotamia, Chaldea, Messene; and insurrections. The immediate occasion of the east of the Tigris, Cordyene, Assyria, Adiabene, persecution of the Jews was the following Susiana, and Chusistan. The settlement of Jews occurrence : In Nahardea lived a poor widow, in a part of Isphahan, which bears to this day whose two sons, Asinius and Anileus, early the designation of “ Jehudia,” dates from the deprived of their father, supported themselves third century of our era. From biblical and and their mother by the same trade which St. other sources we also know that Jews had Paul exercised tent-weaving. settled in Elymas, Media, Corbiene, etc. That Some trifling cause led to a dispute between the they had enjoyed peace in Susiana, is apparent youths and their employer, in which the latter from the fact recorded by Jewish tradition that maltreated them. Bent on revenge, they seized a representation of Susa was placed above one the arms in the house, and, with a few like- of the gates of Jerusalem, to remind its minded companions, fled to the neighborhood inhabitants of the favors there received. of Babylon, There they built a small citadel, in a But even the above-mentioned boundaries did position easily defended. Gradually, as they not confine the Jews. As already mentioned, a were allowed to plunder unresisted, their distinction was made between the Jewish followers increased in number, until, like the inhabitants of various provinces, some of whom feudal lords in the Middle Ages, they levied had intermarried, or otherwise become mixed regular contributions from all around, in return up with their heathen neighbors. The latter for which they afforded protection to the were denounced and despised as having inhabitants. At last the satrap of the province become impure. A kind of scale of the degrees marched against them at the head of a of purity and impurity existed, showing how considerable force. He had hoped to surprise tenaciously the Jews of the dispersion clung to them on the Sabbath, perhaps unarmed, or at their religious nationality, and to the usages of least otherwise occupied, expecting that the the synagogue. T religious prejudices of his enemies would he district most favored in respect of purity was obviate the necessity of engaging them. But the that included between the Euphrates and the scouts of Asinius had brought him timely notice Tigris, and extending probably no farther north of the plan. The Jewish leader accordingly went than the 34th degree of latitude. It was pre- to meet the satrap, slew the greater part of his eminently the “ land of Babylon “ of the Jews, followers, and •put the rest to flight.

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The party of Asinius acquired such celebrity again, though not under the same and influence by this exploit, that the Parthian circumstances. Anileus had gradually lost his king courted their alliance, in the hope of veteran soldiers, partly in battle, and partly in availing himself of their services against his consequence of his idolatrous practices. The own rebellious nobles. Accordingly, upon his reinforcements which had joined his standard invitation, Anileus repaired to court, with a consisted mostly of untrained recruits; hence, large retinue and rich presents for the king. though numerically superior, he was in reality Asinius, who had at first distrusted the Parthian inferior to his opponent. monarch, soon followed his brother. He was The Jews were beaten, and obliged to flee to the nominated governor of a considerable portion woods, whence they continued to make of Mesopotamia, and continued in authority for marauding expeditions into the plains of fifteen years. Of these two brothers, both Babylon. The inhabitants naturally became equally brave, the elder, Asinius, was small and exasperated, and demanded that Nahardea delicate, the younger, Anileus, tall and noble- should surrender its chief. Compliance with this looking. demand was impossible, as Anileus was not in Unfortunately, a Parthian noble was appointed their power; but Nahardea concluded a to preside over the province adjoining that of separate peace, and a deputation, consisting of the Jewish brothers. The beautiful wife of the Jews and Babylonians, was sent to induce Parthian captivated the heart of Anileus. The Anileus to come to terms. The Babylonian lady seems to have encouraged his advances. ambassadors finding that, under the impression Anileus surprised and killed her husband, and that the war was virtually at an end, Anileus married the widow. But the Parthian wife had yielded to security, brought back tidings of brought with her the Parthian idols, and, to the this. Their companions hastened to avail sorrow and disappointment of her husband's themselves of the unprotected state of their followers, she introduced their worship. At last enemies, surprised them, and killed all, Anileus growing dissatisfaction forced Asinius, who had amongst the rest. always been most indulgent towards his Far from allaying the passions of the populace, brother, to remonstrate with him on this this success only incited them to a general subject. As might have been expected, he was persecution. Finding the Jews dispirited and unsuccessful, and the Parthian lady soon defenseless, they rose everywhere against the afterwards got rid of the troublesome monitor unsuspecting Hebrew inhabitants of the by poisoning him. different towns, slew all on whom they could Anileus now reigned alone. But, carried away lay hands, and forced the rest to seek safety in by self-confidence, love of plunder, and military flight. Most of the latter took refuge in Seleucia, fame, he undertook an expedition against the on the banks of the Tigris. That city seemed to province of Mithridates, one of the noblest offer peculiar advantages, being at that time satraps, and son-in-law of the Parthian king. almost an independent State. It had originally Mithridates was routed and taken prisoner; but, been destined by its builder, Seleucus I, a instead of using his victory with moderation, celebrated general of Alexander the Great, to Anileus caused the captive satrap to be become the capital of the new Greco-Syrian conducted naked, and riding on an ass, through Empire, which extended from the shores of the the Jewish camp, a treatment viewed by the Mediterranean to beyond the Indus. Parthians as inflicting the greatest insult. At Afterwards, however, the seat of that last, fear of the king procured the liberation of government had been transferred to Antioch, a Mithridates, who returned to concert measures city on the Orontes. The distance of that capital of revenge. To this he was still more incited by from the provinces beyond the Euphrates his proud wife, who refused to own him as her enabled the Parthians to drive the Greeks from husband till he had wiped off, in Jewish blood, the eastern banks of that river. At the period to his late disgrace. Thus the antagonists met once which we refer, Seleucia was no longer held by

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the Greeks, though not yet formally occupied by Pasitigris and the Rulseus, which was also the Parthians, while, happily for the fugitive known by the name of Spasini Charax and Jews, it was inhabited by native Syrians and by Characene.2 Izates married the daughter of the Greeks, who lived in continual jealousy and king, and received with her a small province as enmity. When the Jews arrived in Seleucia, they dowry. At the royal court a Jewish merchant of made common cause with the Syrians against the name of Ananias exercised considerable the Greeks. Soon afterwards, a pestilence, influence. He succeeded in converting not only which broke out on the banks of the Euphrates, some of the noble ladies, but in convincing even drove great numbers to Seleucia, and this the heir of Adiabene of the truth of Judaism. seems to have produced a change in the state of Strange to say, about the same time, Helena, parties. Certainly the Syrians began to feel that Izates' mother, had undergone at home a they had more interests in common with the similar change. Soon afterwards, Monabazus, Greeks than with the Jews, and they succeeded feeling his end approaching, recalled Izates, and in coming to terms with their former assigned to him the administration of a opponents. Disturbances broke out in the city, beautiful tract of the country, where he which, as frequently under similar continued to reside during the remainder of his circumstances, were in the last instance father's life. entirely directed against the Jews. A fearful At the time of the decease of Monabazus, carnage ensued, in which no less than 50,000 neither Izates nor Helena had publicly Jews fell. Flight alone prevented their complete professed Judaism. But the latter was so far extermination. The fugitive Jews found in part a influenced by its principles, as to refuse her resting-place in Nahardea and in Nisibis. But, consent to the proposal of the nobles to follow notwithstanding those popular risings, which to up the proclamation of Izates by a wholesale a greater or less extent occurred throughout murder of all the other princes. They were, the whole land, the number of Jews in however, confined to prison, there to await the Babylonia continued very considerable. arrival of Izates. Only Monabazus, Helena's It is probable that during those persecutions eldest son, who in the meantime was to many Jews betook themselves to Adiabene, a administer the government, was allowed to province of Assyria lying east of the Tigris, and retain his liberty. On his arrival, Izates between the greater and lesser Zeeb. Jewish immediately liberated the captive princes, but settlers seem to have lived in Adiabene so early sent them as hostages partly to Rome and as the time of the captivity of the ten tribes. The partly to Artabanus, king of Parthia. The time throne of Adiabene was at the period to which had now arrived when Izates proposed by our record refers occupied by Izates, a Jewish circumcision to make an open profession of proselyte. The history of the conversion of that Judaism. But Helena, who dreaded a popular royal family is too interesting to be omitted. rising in consequence, and Ananias, who The father of Izates, King Monabazus ,had a son apprehended that the fury of the populace by his sister Helena, to whom he was might vent itself on the religious adviser of the afterwards united in wedlock. Informed in a king, tried to persuade Izates that this dream that his first son (after the marriage with observance was not binding on him. But the Helena) should enjoy the special favor of the neophyte, who had more spiritual and less gods, he preferred him to all his other children, temporal anxiety than his advisers, could not be even to his elder brother Monabazus. This so easily satisfied. favorite son was Izates. Another teacher from Galilee, Eleazar, was now Under the apprehension that the jealousy of the sent for. On his arrival he found the king princes might endanger the safety of Izates, his engaged in the study of the law. This father sent him, laden with rich presents, to the circumstance afforded the zealous teacher an court of Abennerig, king of Charax, whose opportunity of urging the duty of immediate capital lay in Messene, an island formed by the compliance with all its requirements. His

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representations were successful, and the sacred Judaism. These multiplied defections to a rite was performed before the queen -mother foreign and despised creed at last incited the or Ananias had even been informed of his nobles to discontent and rebellion. The intention. Happily this bold step had no evil insurgents, who had secured the assistance of consequences. To express her gratitude for Abia, the king of Arabia, were successful in the what was looked upon as a Divine interposition, first engagement, owing to treachery amongst Helena undertook a to Jerusalem. Izates' troops; but in a second battle the king Izates accompanied her part of the way, and defeated the rebels, and Abia escaped capture added his largesses to the rich presents which only by falling on his sword. she carried to the temple. She found the However, soon afterwards another insurrection inhabitants of the Holy City hardly pressed by a broke out. This time the malcontents had, by famine. To relieve their wants, she sent for corn representing Izates as being generally to Alexandria and , and caused it to be unpopular, prevailed on the Parthian king, distributed amongst the poor. In these Vologeses, the third on the throne since largesses Izates followed her example. Artabanus, to deprive Izates of his former Shortly after these events, the ruler of Adiabene privileges, and even to declare war against him. had occasion to show kindness to his liege lord, Izates could not have resisted the whole force the king of the Parthians. Artabanus, the then of the Parthian Empire, but tidings of an reigning monarch, being driven from his insurrection within his own dominions obliged throne, sought safety with Izates, The unhappy Vologeses to return. From that time Izates fugitive met Izates returning on horseback to enjoyed undisturbed peace. Helena continued his capital. in Jerusalem during the lifetime of her son; [It was to provide against the same famine that after his decease she returned to Adiabene, but Paul and Barnabas collected and brought to soon died. Jerusalem the offerings of the Church at Monabazus succeeded Izates, having been Antioch. To this concurrence the reports of selected in preference to the children of the Helena's conversion to Christianity may be latter. He caused the bodies of his mother and due.] brother to be interred in Jerusalem, and erected According to Eastern custom, Artabanus threw a splendid sepulchre, which is still pointed out himself on the ground, and implored protection as the best preserved, and in some respects the and assistance. But no sooner had Izates heard finest, monument in the neighborhood of that the tale of the fugitive, than, displaying a city. Orosius (a later ecclesiastical writer) conduct vastly different from that of other speaks of the conversion of the royal house of governors, he immediately dismounted to Adiabene to Christianity; but his account is assign the place of honour to Artabanus, historically and internally unsupported. After proposing to walk on foot beside him. The this period we lose sight of this royal family, friendly dispute which ensued about this mark except that two of its members, Izates and of respect, terminated in the two monarchs Monabazus, were in Jerusalem during the last entering the capital side by side. But the war. Titus showed great attention and kindness friendly offices of Izates did not exhaust to these princes. They seem to have encouraged themselves in marks of attention. He prevailed the Jews to look for help to the East. Without upon the Parthians to restore Artabanus to his doubt, although the Parthians were prevented throne. In token of gratitude, Izates received by their king from rendering active assistance great privileges from Artabanus. Amongst to the Jews in their struggle, much sympathy others, he got possession of the town of Nisibis, was felt for them, and many of the fugitives which was chiefly inhabited by his co- found a ready welcome on the Parthian religionists. Izates sent five of his sons to be territory. educated at Jerusalem. Monabazus and the rest Besides their settlements in that province, the of the king's relatives by and by also embraced Jews seem to have spread over the whole of

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that portion of Asia. They were specially has been supposed that on this occasion there numerous in Armenia, where, as in Adiabene, was a large removal of Jewish families to they had settled from a very early period, and Armenia. many of them claimed to be descended from Our principal authority for Armenian history is the ten tribes of Northern Israel. Without the work of Moses of Khorene, based largely entering into particulars which properly belong upon popular ballads and legends of the to the history of a previous period, we may country; but the historical value of the book is mention that the Talmud interprets the Gidbor much less than was once supposed. Up till the of the Bible, not as the river Chaboras, but as third century of our era, it is proved by the country of Adiabene. Elsewhere, we are told contemporary Greek and Roman annals to be that the ten tribes travelled along the road to quite untrustworthy. Moses of Khorene Armenia; while other accounts speak of them as describes the honors bestowed upon the noble dwelling in Phrygia, in Media as far as the Jewish family of the Pacarduni,2 and he also Caucasus, in Africa, and in the mountains of records the persecutions which the same family Seloug. endured at different times on account of its These varying accounts imply that the exiles of faith.3 Another noble family claiming to be of Israel were already lost among the native tribes ancient Jewish origin, was that of the with whom they dwelt; but it is probable that a Pagratides, who gained the supreme power in small portion of them still survived in the North and Central Armenia in the year 743 AD, Jewish population of the Caucasus. Of recent and established a dynasty which lasted for years numerous attempts have been made to more than three hundred years. We have only rediscover the lost ten tribes in the Afghans, the to add, that Christianity found at a very early Chinese Jews, and elsewhere. The most period disciples among the Jewish descendants successful attempt of this kind was that of Dr. and proselytes who inhabited the ancient Asahel Grant, who behaved that he had provinces of Armenia and Adiabene. discovered the lost tribes among the Still more interesting, at least at the period Nestorians, in the mountains north of old which we now describe, are the settlements of Nineveh. The argument, however, derived from the Jews in Syria. The proximity of that country similarity of customs, is generally insufficient; to Palestine, and the privileges conferred on the for in many cases the customs appealed to are Jews resident there, caused such an influx of common to many Oriental peoples, and the settlers, that some of the rural districts, and features of the Nestorians are by no means of most of the larger cities, were extensively an exclusively Jewish type. Even if these people inhabited by Jews. A very close connection was are really of Jewish origin, as they boast, we maintained between Antioch and Jerusalem. cannot be certain that they are descended from The Jews of Antioch transmitted regularly their the ten tribes. annual contributions to the temple treasury; Large masses of Jews undoubtedly settled in they had synagogues, and were subject to their Armenia at an early date; but it is uncertain own independent rulers or archons; the study what circumstance led to their settlement in the of theology was not neglected, and the Jewish country. We first hear of direct relations law was administered very much as in between the Jews and Armenians in the later Palestine. But Grecian culture, or at least its Hasmonean tunes, when Tigranes, king of deleterious moral consequences, had spread Armenia, had made himself master of Syria into Syria, and made sad havoc amongst a (about 75 BC). Towards the close of the reign of people naturally inclined to luxurious habits. It Queen Alexandra, Tigranes assumed a is well known how detrimental the introduction threatening attitude towards Palestine; but the of Syrian manners and modes of thinking had queen was able to pacify him with presents, and proved even in Palestine at a former period. shortly afterwards the advance of Lucullus against Armenia compelled Tigranes to retire. It

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It is, then, scarce to be wondered at' that the their obligations by a destruction of the public Syrian Jews did not escape the contamination. records. But the mob laid the whole blame upon When the king of Syria had despoiled the the Jews. A fresh slaughter took place, which temple of Jerusalem, the synagogue of Antioch doubtless would have only ended with the did not hesitate to receive from his successors extermination of all the Jews, had not the and to retain the articles abstracted. On other Romans interposed. Though the innocence of occasions, however, the Syrian Jews pleaded for the Jews was soon afterwards fully established, exemption from military service on pretence of the Antiochians were not easily satisfied; and religious duties. But although they enjoyed a when Titus made his entrance after the long period of peace and prosperity, and even destruction of Jerusalem, they mingled with gained many proselytes, they were despised their shouts of welcome clamorous demands and hated by most of the natives. for the expulsion of the Jews.- On Titus's second An opportunity at last occurred for manifesting visit to that city, the inhabitants again the popular feeling.- Strange as it may appear, requested him to consent to the destruction of as if all Israel's political troubles were to befall the brass tablets on which the civic rights of the the generation which rejected the Savior, the Jews were recorded, as well as to the expulsion persecutions which we are about to describe, of the hated race. But the Roman general like those of Parthia, occurred during that refused, on the ground that it was impossible to period. The story is the more sad, that it stands banish from the lands of their dispersion those connected with one of the few examples of filial whose country had now been rendered ingratitude recorded in Jewish history. desolate. After this the Syrian Jews enjoyed unbroken peace under the protection of the From motives not well ascertained, Antiochus, Roman emperors. the son of a Jewish ruler, had resolved to destroy the leading men of his nation, and with Another scene of horror enacted in Asia them his own father. At an assemblage in the remains to be told. From a very early period theatre, he disclosed a pretended plan hatched Jews had settled in . Their number by the Jews, under the direction of his father, was very great at the time when the Jews of the object of which was stated to have been the Palestine rose to shake off the Roman yoke. destruction of Antioch by fire. The Many of the heathens indeed, almost the whole improbability of a story rarely prevents its female population of Damascus had also reception by the populace, especially if their embraced Judaism. The tidings of the rising in prejudices or their passions are in any way in Palestine caused considerable uneasiness in favor of it. Without further inquiry, the accused Damascus. By way of precaution, a large Jews were committed to the flames. But even number of Jews were shut up in the arena. this summary punishment did not allay the When the news arrived of the first and brilliant popular excitement. Antiochus, who had in the success of the insurgents, and that Cestius meantime apostatized, kept up the irritation, Gallus had been routed, the Damascenes, and proposed, as a test of their innocence, to whether in revenge or by way of protecting call upon the Jews to violate the Sabbath, and to themselves, fell upon the Jews, and in one hour sacrifice to the gods. Only a few bought their killed no less than 10,000 of them. lives at such a price. The Jews in Asia Minor shared in the general The apostate now put himself at the head of the degeneracy of its inhabitants. There the populace. The synagogue was destroyed, and a Romans encountered no longer the spirit of dreadful carnage ensued amongst the Jews. No valor and independence which had once sooner had the storm abated a little, than a fire distinguished its people. The same causes really broke out in the city, and spread with which had led to the decline of the native rulers, alarming rapidity. A later investigation proved, also operated, as in Syria, detrimentally upon indeed, that it had been the work of some the Jewish settlers. Mostly engaged in trade, hardly-pressed debtors, who hoped to escape they had accumulated wealth, which excited the

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cupidity, while their refusal to engage in penetrated into Greece Proper, and spread over military service, on the plea of religious the whole of the Peloponnesus. scruples, called forth the indignation, of the Turning our steps again towards the East, we populace. come upon the important Jewish settlements in By and by the annual exportation of large sums Arabia. By the ancients that country was as contributions to the temple treasury was commonly divided into three districts or denounced as involving a public loss, and gave provinces, called respectively Arabia Petraea, rise to bitter complaints. Under the partial Deserta, and Felix (the Stony, the Desert, and administration of corrupt Roman governors, the Happy). The plains and mountains round several attempts were made to prevent or to the coast are in part barren, in part susceptible alienate these contributions. The Jewish of cultivation. The high central plateau is inhabitants of the isle of Delos appealed for tolerably fertile, but is separated from the coast protection to Julius Caesar, who bore a grateful region by a broad strip of desert waste. The remembrance of the valuable aid afforded him south-western portion, close by the Red Sea, is by the Jews in Egypt. Their prayer was granted, the most fertile, and is well known in history as and a special decree secured their freedom. the kingdom of Saba, of Yemen, of the After the murder of Caesar, the opportunity Joctanites, or of the Homerites. seemed favorable to renew former hostile This diversity of names proves that the country attempts against the Jews this time on the plea was peopled by different tribes. of their resistance to military service. Hyrcanus [The discovery of inscriptions has greatly the Hasmonean, however, advocated their increased our knowledge of the Sabeans, whose cause in Rome, and succeeded the more readily language is proved to have been closely allied that the troubled state of the empire did not to the Arabic] admit of argument with distant provinces. After It is impossible to determine at what time the defeat of Brutus and Cassius, renewed Judaism found its way into this country, and disputes were again settled in favor of the Jews. whether it came from Palestine across the Still the Jews were not free from occasional desert, from Ethiopia across the Red Sea, or interferences, and when Herod accompanied from the east (Persia, etc.) across the Gulf. Agrippa through that province, they publicly Probably at different periods Jewish wanderers complained of their grievances. found their way into Arabia from all these Nikolaus of Damascus represented their case, directions. The intimate relations which and they obtained immediate relief. They now subsisted between Arabia Petraea and Judea increased rapidly in numbers and influence. We belong to an earlier period, that of the later find them in Crete, Cyprus, Phrygia, Lydia, Hasmonean princes. We cannot dwell on them, Mysia, in Cappadocia, with its capital Mesheg, and only gather the most interesting particulars and in Cilicia, with its capital Tarsus. Philo gives connected with the history of the other two a glowing account of their state and prosperity. provinces of Arabia. Indeed, from the time when Antiochus the Tradition speaks of a very early connection Great had transplanted 2000 Jewish families between the Jews and the native Arabian tribes. into Phrygia and Lydia, in order to serve as a From the time of Mohammed it was even counterpoise to the rebellious native maintained that the Kaaba, or ancient temple of population, they seem to have rapidly Mecca, had been originally dedicated to the God multiplied and spread into Pamphylia, Galatia, of Abraham. Under the reign of Solomon, Jewish and Mysia. They enjoyed at first considerable merchants traded to Saba, probably exporting privileges; amongst others, they were thence the products of Arabia Felix. The visit of exempted for ten years from all taxation. the Queen of Sheba to King Solomon affords Finally, references in the New Testament and in proof of a further connection between Arabia the writings of Philo prove that Jews early and the Jews.

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More than one of the kings of Judah afterwards origin, but all united to make a brave defense attempted to reopen the trade with Arabia by against the besiegers. The siege was prolonged, the Red Sea, but with only partial success. The and the Homerite king began to suffer from intercourse between the nations continued to want of water. This circumstance disposed him be carried on mainly by land along the regular to peace, and two Jewish teachers in the town caravan routes. As troubles at home and abroad sought and obtained an interview with Abu- obliged the Hebrews to seek shelter in more Cariba. The Jewish sages were able to interest distant regions, the number of Jews in Arabia the king in Judaism; he himself adopted their increased. Their comparatively settled mode of religion, and compelled his army to do the living, their cultivation and wealth, must have same. secured for them a peculiar influence among Some of the neighboring princes also became the nomadic tribes of that country. No doubt converts to Judaism. Abu-Cariba did not long they improved their position, amongst other survive his conversion. Two of his sons, who ways, in attempting to gain proselytes. At a were both Jews, succeeded to the throne in later period, many Jews passed with Gallus turn; and after the brief reign of a usurper, the across the Red Sea into Arabia in his youngest son, Zorah or Dhu-Nowas, obtained unsuccessful expedition against the Sabeans. the crown. But the zeal displayed by Dhu- The Talmud mentions the Jewish settlements in Nowas for the creed which he had adopted led Arabia, and records some ordinances referring to the downfall of his power. In retaliation for to them. After the fall of Jerusalem, many Jews the persecutions, which the Jews had to suffer doubtless retreated to Arabia. When the oasis about this time in the Byzantine Empire, Dhu- of Yathrib or Medina first appears in history, it Nowas began to oppress the Christians of was mainly occupied by Jews; and Jewish Yemen. The Christians appealed for help to the settlements were also numerous and ancient in Ethiopian king Elesbaan, who at once prepared the district of Cheibar, four or five days' journey for war. He invaded Yemen, drove Dhu-Nowas from Medina. There warlike Jewish tribes had from the throne, and established a viceroy in reared and held fastnesses. They adopted many the country {circ. 519 AD). A few ,years later, customs from the Arab races around them; and Dhu-Nowas recovered his power and renewed the testimony of the Talmud shows that his persecutions. Elesbaan thereupon fitted out heathen customs and the peculiar forms of another expedition, which was completely idolatry and immorality common in those successful. Dhu-Nowas was killed, his kingdom districts were well known to Jewish authorities. fell into the hands of the invaders, and an But Judaism was not merely tolerated in South Axumite dynasty ruled Yemen for seventy Arabia it became dominant for a short period. years. The first Jewish king of the Homerites, Abu- But the wanderings of the Jews extended much Cariba-Asad, flourished about the year 500 AD, farther, and at some unknown date many though legend has fixed his reign several penetrated eastwards as far as China. In the old centuries earlier. His conversion is accounted Jewish temple at Kae-fung-foo, there is an for in the following manner - Abu-Cariba, a inscription, claiming to have been erected in brave and warlike sovereign, while on an 1488 AD, which states that the first synagogue expedition against Persia and the northern there was built in the year 1166 AD Another parts of Arabia, occupied Medina, and left his inscription states that the Jewish religion son there as governor of the province. entered China during the Han dynasty (205 B.C. to 226 AD). Copies of the Scriptures which have The inhabitants rose in rebellion, and slew their been obtained from Kaefung-foo are written governor; and to avenge this deed, and quell the according to the Rabbinical principles, and insurrection, the king turned back with his contain no variations of importance from the army to Medina. The population of this town text of our Hebrew . From the occurrence was partly of Arabian and partly of Jewish of Persian words in the inscriptions and in

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certain manuscripts, it seems probable that not sit promiscuously, but were arranged these settlers came originally from Persia; but according to trades or guilds, so that a stranger their early history is involved in obscurity. The might be able at once to join himself to his own Chinese Jews have now, through long isolation, craft. The synagogue at Alexandria seems to forgotten the and Jewish have been destroyed in the time of Trajan. rites.] The Egyptian Jews continued in the enjoyment From an early period the relations between the of peace under Roman domination till the time Jews and Egyptians were very intimate. Many of Caius Caligula, about the year 38 of our era. instances of this are met with even in biblical But the readiness with which the then times. But these occurrences, their settlement rose against the Hebrews, proves that the in the city which Alexander the Great built and public mind must have been long excited called after his name, as well as their against them. Nor is it difficult to understand subsequent history, and the rearing of the rival the cause of this. Egypt was no longer what it temple in Heliopolis, to which the passage Isa. once had been. Its Jewish inhabitants were now, 19:18,19 was applied, belong to a former if not the most learned, yet the most period of our history. The Jews of Egypt industrious and wealthy in the land. Their enjoyed considerable privileges, and for a long number, privileges, thriving condition, and the time, on the whole, a greater amount of liberty advantages accruing from their constant and safety than did their brethren in other connection with their brethren in other countries. They were under a chief or ethnarch countries, were a continual source of of their own, whose place after the time of annoyance to the Egyptians. Augustus was taken by a Sanhedrin. The first opportunity which presented itself for The temple of Heliopolis, built by the fugitive displaying their feelings was eagerly seized. high priest Onias, was to have rivaled, not only During a visit to Alexandria, the Jewish king in importance, but in beauty, that of Jerusalem. Agrippa was exposed to the open scorn of the It was built in the form of a tower, ninety feet Alexandrian mob. Elaccus Avillius, the Roman high, and the altar at the entrance of it was governor, tolerated if he did not connive at this similar to that of Jerusalem. Instead of the conduct. Encouraged by this, the populace soon golden candlestick which graced the temple of increased in violence. The Emperor Caius, of Judea, a golden lamp was suspended in front of whose reign it would be difficult to say whether the veil. The temple of Heliopolis was destroyed madness or wickedness was its most prominent by Vespasian. The Jews had also many other characteristic, had taken the fancy of insisting synagogues throughout Egypt. The most upon the universal adoration of his statue. On magnificent of these was in Alexandria. pretence of showing respect to the emperor, Tradition describes its splendour in almost the Alexandrians attempted to place the idol in fabulous terms, and declares that the person the various synagogues. who had not worshipped there, had not The Jews resisted, and in the contest some of witnessed the glory of Israel. It rose like a large their sanctuaries were burnt down, others , and was said sometimes to have violated, and statues of the emperor set up in contained a number of worshippers twice as them. The occasion seemed favorable, and great as that which Moses led out of Egypt. Elaccus, instead of interfering to restore order, Seventy golden chairs, richly studded with permitted, and indeed encouraged, the erection gems, were placed in it for the members of the of statues in the synagogues. He next proceeded Sanhedrin. In the middle of the synagogue was to revoke by a proclamation the privileges of the wooden platform occupied by the person the Jews, and to sanction an organized who led the devotions. As one rose to read in persecution. the law or during prayers, an officer waved a The populace now rose against, the Jews in flag, and the vast congregation responded from various districts of the city, profaned their all parts of the building. The worshippers did

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synagogues, and practiced all manner of Jewish home. But the change of governor did cruelties upon them. In Alexandria, the Jews not bring the hoped-for relief. The mob had had, not from necessity, but from choice, learnt to indulge unchecked in its hatred of the inhabited two separate quarters of the city. Jews. Insult and licentiousness had not only They were now shut up in one of these. Many been tolerated, but a way discovered by which were obliged to remain in the streets, exposed to procure money more easily than by industry. to hunger and the inclemency of the weather. Accordingly, the disturbances were soon Meanwhile the mob pillaged and burnt their renewed. 'At last a deputation was dispatched dwellings. All business was at a stand, and to the emperor, to induce him to revoke the everywhere the shops were shut. Many Jews privileges which the law had hitherto accorded perished from want, others from overcrowding; to the Jews. others were brutally murdered by the populace, At the head of this deputation was Apion, well who hurried them off to the market-place, known in Alexandria as the author of an burnt them alive, trampled them under foot, Egyptian history, a work none the less popular and even dragged them along the streets till that in its pages the shafts of bitter irony were their mangled members covered the pavement. so frequently directed against the Jews. The Neither sex, age, nor dignity were respected. Of Jews met this measure by a counter-deputation, the members of the Sanhedrin, thirty-eight at the head of which was the brother of the were, by order of Flaccus, publicly scourged, Alabarch, Philo, the celebrated eclectic Jewish and some of them died in consequence; three philosopher. The Jews secured in Rome the were deprived of their property, and chastised; friendly offices of Agrippa, who providentially others were crucified. The Jewish females were was in the capital at the time. ordered to eat pork : in case of refusal, they The Egyptians gained for their cause Helicon, a were at once given up to torture. During the special favorite of the emperor. Thus prepared, whole time that these infamous deeds were both parties awaited the arrival of the emperor perpetrated, the populace feasted and made in Rome. But though their petitions were merry with games and rioting. The Jews had handed to Caligula, their cause was not probably at first attempted to resist these immediately heard. The ambassadors unprovoked attacks; at any rate, the plea of a accordingly followed the emperor to Puteoli, search after weapons, and of disarming the where, to their dismay, the Jews learned of the Jews, afforded pretext for continual acts of attempt to set up the emperor's statue in the violence. temple at Jerusalem. Still they persisted, and at Meanwhile, the chiefs of the .congregation had last, in Rome, an audience was granted, which resolved on appealing to the emperor. painfully illustrates the state of the empire at Unfortunately, they entrusted the petition to the time. Flaccus, who did not transmit it to Rome. The While both -parties were each urging its cause, Jews then applied to their countryman. King the emperor went through one of his palaces Agrippa, who was a favorite with the emperor. ordering improvements, etc., and only He forwarded their petition, together with an occasionally accosting the deputies in his own account of the conduct and motives of Flaccus. peculiar way. Caligula reproached the Jews as Caligula immediately sent Bassus to depose and being the only people who refused to own his punish the presumptuous governor. Flaccus claims to divinity. At this the Alexandrians was enjoying the pleasures of the table when shouted assent, and accused their opponents of the imperial envoy appeared to lead him in even refusing to offer sacrifices for the chains to the isle of Andros. A year afterwards, emperor's welfare. It was in vain that the Jews he was put to death, by order of the emperor. denied the latter charge. The emperor retorted, No sooner did tidings of this unexpected that it did not matter though they offered for deliverance reach the Jewish quarter, than a him, if they refused to sacrifice to him. This general burst of thanksgiving rose from every altercation was intermixed with some of the

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emperor's wonted follies, and with blasphemies now ensued, and blood literally flowed down against the God of Israel. the streets of the Delta, as the principal quarter Silence now ensued, during which the emperor of the Jews was termed. The steady onset of the continued his tour of inspection, the regular and well-disciplined troops overcame ambassadors following him. Of a sudden he the desperate courage of the Jews. A carnage turned round to ask the Jews why they refused commenced, in which, without distinction, old to eat pork. and young, male and female, were cut down. The glare of the burning houses lit up that night Shouts of laughter greeted this query. In vain of horror, and discovered a multitude of bodies the Jews urged, that every people had its covering the streets. Thousands had already peculiar customs. It was evident the emperor fallen, and probably the whole Jewish was only in a mood to deride them. At last, population would have been exterminated if when questioned as to their claims for civic they had not implored quarter. rights, they referred to documents. The emperor then refused to continue the audience, Once again, after the destruction of Jerusalem, a and dismissed them with the remark that, after number of Jewish Zealots, who escaped to all, these people were not so wicked, but rather Africa, had almost involved their countrymen to be pitied for not discovering that he really there in fresh troubles.- The recollection of was a god. Philo and his friends returned their past sufferings induced the Jews of without having succeeded. At Agrippa's Alexandria to resist the solicitations of the intercession, Palestine was indeed exempted fugitives to rise against the Gentiles. The from adoring the Roman god, but their co- ringleaders and many of their confederates, in religionists in Alexandria remained exposed to all 600 persons, were delivered to the Roman the fury of the rabble. Happily the world was authorities; but some fled to Thebais. An soon freed from Caligula, and his successor attempt at resistance proved vain, and the Claudius restored to the Jews their ancient captives chose to undergo the most exquisite privileges. tortures rather than own fealty to the emperor. Thus perished the remainder of that resolute Five-and-twenty years had elapsed since the band. above events had taken place, and the Jews of Alexandria were beginning to recover their From Egypt the Jews had, since their first former prosperity, when the storm broke out settlement, spread towards the west, and afresh. The former dissensions had left a feeling occupied Libya and Cyrene. Indeed, Ptolemy of mutual distrust and bitterness, and the Jews Soter, the Egyptian king, had transported them and Gentiles kept almost entirely aloof from into these districts, and accorded them great each other. But a popular assembly had been privileges. They seem to have been a turbulent convoked to consult about some embassy to community, and they took a prominent part in Nero, at which, unfortunately, some Jews made the disturbances which broke out in Cyrene in their appearance. This was the signal for an 86 b.c. So thoroughly did the Jews remain outbreak. separate from the other inhabitants, that in describing the population, Strabo enumerates A cry of treason was raised. The mob attacked them as a distinct class. the Jews. Some were killed while fleeing, others flew to arms, and soon all Alexandria was in The materials for their history are but scanty. commotion. The Jews attempted to set fire to We know that a Cyrenian Jew, Jason, wrote a the amphitheatre, and thus to destroy the work on the victory of the Maccabees, part of multitude there assembled; but the governor, which is preserved in the second of the two Tiberius Alexander, an apostate Jew, marched apocryphal books which bears that name. In down the Roman garrison, with leave not only Berenice, one of the five principal cities of to kill the resisting, but to plunder and burn Cyrene, the Jews must have possessed down the Jewish quarter. A desperate struggle considerable influence, as is indicated by an inscription, dating probably from the year 13

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B.C. From this source we learn that the Jews rumors had been current about them. Thus it formed a separate community under nine was asserted by some that Minilek, a son of rulers of their own. After a long period of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, had undisturbed prosperity, they seem, during the there founded a Jewish dynasty. reign of Augustus, to have been obstructed in At all events, an Ethiopian chronicle mentions a the exercise of their religion, and specially to Jewish queen, Sague, who, in the beginning of have been prevented from sending their usual the tenth century, drove a Christian king, contributions to Jerusalem.- An application to Deland, from his throne, and founded a dynasty, Rome brought them relief from this which reigned for three and a half centuries. interference. Travelers record that up to the close of the Thus matters continued prosperously till after sixteenth century, the mountainous districts of the destruction of Jerusalem, when one of the Ethiopia were inhabited by Jews. Their fugitive Zealots, Jonathan, endeavored, by the posterity, forced to abandon their religion, are practice of magic, to rally followers round his said to be still easily recognized by the features standard. The peaceably disposed amongst the peculiar to the Jewish race. In Gondar, the Jews denounced the plot to Catullus, the Roman principal city of Abyssinia, there is still a Jewish governor, ere it had time to develop. The yet quarter inhabited by about sixty families. unarmed followers of the impostor were The Jews are called by the nations “ Falasha,” or surprised, and many of them slain. At last wanderers; but they repudiate that name. From Jonathan himself was captured. In revenge, he the peculiar contents of their sacred canon, it denounced the noblest of the Jews and all his may be inferred that they came originally from personal opponents as secret accomplices in Egypt, not earlier than the close of the second the plot. century before our era; while the absence of a Apparently glad of the excuse, Catullus cruelly fast to commemorate the destruction of the slew about 3000 Jews, and confiscated their supplies perhaps the latest date goods. To give an appearance of justice to these possible for their emigration. Their present proceedings, he resorted to the fiction of a customs indicate a strange mixture of corrupt widely spread conspiracy, in which fortunately Judaism and of equally corrupt Christianity. some of the most respected persons, such as Amongst other superstitious rites, they the historian Josephus, were said to have been celebrate on the twelfth of every month a feast implicated. A strict investigation proved the in honour of St. Michael. They divide the year groundlessness of this charge. Catullus died into lunar months, and intercalate a month of soon afterwards in contempt and obscurity. thirty days at regular intervals of four years. About the same time, and probably in Fifty days after the Passover, they have the connection with these disturbances, the Jewish Feast of Marar, in commemoration of the giving temple of Heliopolis, in Egypt, was closed by of the Law. On the fifteenth day of every month order of Vespasian, and during the they celebrate the Feast of . The governorship of Lupus. Paulinus, his successor fourth Sabbath of the month is deemed in Alexandria, despoiled it of all its treasures. It peculiarly solemn. The Feast of Drums (of had stood altogether for about 230 years. Trumpets, or the New Year?) takes place on the The writings of the New Testament and the first of the seventh month. Ten days after it is statements of Philo confirm other accounts, the Feast of Astary, or of the appearance of God which detail the spread of Judaism and of Jews to Jacob. On that day the sins of the past year throughout Egypt, Cyrene, Libya, and even are supposed to be forgiven. This is also Ethiopia. Philo computes the number of his commemorated on the tenth day of every countrymen in Egypt at a million of souls. month. On the thirteenth day of the seventh Recent investigations have brought to light a month is the Feast of Booths. Amato-so is a number of interesting particulars connected feast on which prayer is offered on the top of with the Jews of Ethiopia. Until lately various the mountains. They observe a great number of

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fasts, said, variously, to have been instituted by The kindly feelings of Augustus towards the kings and prophets some lasting six, ten, Jews were no doubt increased by his private THE DISPERSED OF ISRAEL 75 friendship for Herod, and the many tokens of fidelity and attachment which that monarch and even eleven days. Generally they fast three had given. The religion of the Jews was at that times every week, on Mondays, Thursdays, and time not only tolerated, but every facility was Fridays. Their canonical books, which are in the given them for the exercise of their rites. Thus it language of the country, contain also some of was arranged that, when the distribution of the Apocrypha. They also possess some non- corn and money (to a certain class of citizens, canonical writings. They have a kind of order of according to ancient custom) fell on a Sabbath, monks established amongst them, and suppose the Jews received their portion on the following that some of the Old Testament saints practiced day. celibacy. A person who touches a dead body has to be purified on the third day with the ashes of But the exclusiveness and the isolation of the a red goat which had been offered up by a Jews at Rome raised against them popular priest. The Ethiopian Jews are ignorant of prejudice. The Romans, who were indeed Hebrew. The accounts which they give of the willing to assign some place to the national occasion and the course of their wanderings are Deity of the Jews, could not understand on what manifestly fabulous. grounds the Jews kept so much aloof, nor why they despised them and their worship, as if the Having briefly traced the dispersion of Israel to gods of an empire which had overcome and was the farthest limits of Asia and Africa, we return virtually reigning over the Jews, were to yield to inquire into their condition in Italy. Passing to a deity of a conquered country. Their over the legend which traces the origin of Rome practices also excited popular suspicion. Even to a grandson of Esau, a fable possibly due to the better informed gave way to prejudices. the Jewish identification of that empire with Thus Cicero bitterly inveighed against their Edom, we first hear definitely of the Jews in practice of sending large annual contributions Rome in the time of the Maccabees. Judas to the temple. He dreaded their number and Maccabeus, shortly before his death, sent an influence in the popular assemblies, and even embassy in order to form an alliance with the denounced their creed, attempting to prove Romans, and from this time onwards the Jews how little acceptable to the gods that nation came more and more in contact with the must be whose country had been subdued. masters of the world. Under Pompey, Jews were However, Cicero's political opinions may in sold in Rome as slaves. They soon, however, some measure account for this aversion. But gained their liberty, for their adherence to their even these denunciations prove that the Jews national customs rendered them inconvenient were at the time numerous and influential in servants in a heathen household. Many received Rome. the privileges of Roman citizenship; and Julius Caesar was so great a patron of the Jews, that As Judaism became better known, and the after his murder their lamentations rent the air. political state of Palestine one of increasing Augustus was generally an enemy to all foreign subjection to Rome, this contempt and hatred religions, and even praised Caius, the son of increased. Rome tolerated, indeed, all religions, Agrippa, for not having sacrificed in Jerusalem. but only because there was a bond of affinity, But he showed unvarying favor towards the both in religion and in practice, between all Jewish people, and even ordered that sacrifices kinds of polytheism. All readily admitted of for his welfare should be offered in the Jewish being incorporated in the Roman body politic, temple. Under his reign the Jews attained to a and soon became integral parts of it. Not so the high degree of importance. Even Horace, with religion of the Jews. all his contempt for the race, bears testimony to Not that the Jewish rites were so poor, empty, the extent of their influence. and meaningless, for they possessed at least the powerful charm of mysteriousness; but as in

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both cases religion and life were so closely to have been derived from the Egyptians. intertwined, while their fundamental principles Various opinions prevailed as to the origin of were antagonistic, Romans and Jews lived side the city and name of Jerusalem (Hierosolyma). by side, but always remained strangers to, and One party traced it to the people of Solymi, entirely separate from, each other. Besides, the celebrated in Homeric verse. Again, the blowing continual recurrence of Sabbaths, of feasts, of of trumpets, the use of branches in some of the circumcision their manifest attachment to those feasts, and the name of Levites (supposed to be of their own nation, and their equally manifest derived from Evius), were taken as indications contempt of heathenism, if not of heathens of their service of Bacchus. On the other hand, contributed to embitter the public mind. some accused them either of Atheism, or else of The grossest misapprehensions prevailed the adoration of an invisible god, or even of the among all classes, as to the origin, history, and sky and of the clouds. The Jewish hatred of the creed of the Jews. Thus even Tacitus (90 AD), Romans is described to have been such, that recounting the current traditions of their origin, they would not point out the road to a stranger, in which most other heathen historians agree, or conduct the thirsty to a well. However, the relates that the Jews derived their name from superstitious Romans imitated their rites, and Mount Ida; that they had at one time been many of them were even circumcised.' Jews expelled from Crete; that Jerusalem had been were frequently resorted to for soothsaying called after Hierosolymus, who, with Judah, was and the preparation of charms, or consulted as the leader of their wanderings; that they had to the future. found their way into Egypt, whence they were In Rome the Jews engaged in all kinds of trade. expelled on account of their leprosy. They had The poorer classes are ridiculed as vendors of left that country under the leadership of Moses. matches and similar trifles; others are A troop of wild asses had conducted them to a characterized as beggars, as in abject poverty, spring, when they were almost perishing from or as renting the ground where Numa had been thirst. wont to meet his friendly nymph. They seem to On this account they ever afterwards adored have inhabited separate quarters of the city, the the golden head of an ass, which was kept in region where they first settled being the district their innermost sanctuary. Their abstinence beyond the river and the Tiber island. As in from swine's flesh was accounted for, either on other countries, they had rulers or archons, the ground that they adored that animal, or else who, as far as was practicable, administered the because swine were peculiarly liable to leprosy. Jewish law. They also maintained a continual Their observance of the Sabbath was variously intercourse with Palestine.” Under the reign of traced to the service of Saturn (to whom the Augustus, 8000 Roman Jews are said to have Romans had dedicated that day), the supposed joined a deputation from Palestine. Their god of the Ideans, or else to the superiority of number at that time is calculated to have the star of that name. Some reported that the amounted to 40,000. Jews fasted on Sabbaths, others that they spent The first direct persecution of the Jews the day in idleness and feastings. occurred under the reign of Tiberius, who sent It was also suggested that the Jews observed 4000 Jewish youths against the robbers of the Sabbath, as being the day on -which they Sardinia, purposely exposing them to the got possession of Palestine. They were inclemencies of the climate, and who banished described as exceedingly dangerous to the all the others from Rome. The ground of this State, on account of their contempt for the decree is stated to have been the emperor's religion of the Romans, and their hatred of all desire to suppress all foreign superstitions, but their co-religionists. Their rites were said to more especially the Jewish, which numbered be contemptible, and their whole creed empty many proselytes. Josephus explains that a and unmeaning. Circumcision formed a theme certain Jewish impostor, who acted as a Rabbi of never-failing scorn, and was stated by some in Rome, had, in concert with three other Jews,

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succeeded in proselytizing Fulvia, a noble indicate the entire subjugation of Palestine and Roman lady. of the whole Jewish people; On pretence of collecting for the temple, they [otherwise the political rights of the Jews were received from her large sums, which they respected by Vespasian] appropriated to their own purposes. The fraud . The first of these enjoined that the annual was detected, and Sejanus, who at that time contribution hitherto paid by all Jews to was high in the emperor's confidence, used the Jerusalem should in future be rendered to the opportunity for inciting his master to a general temple of Jupiter Capitolinus at Rome. The persecution of the Jews. After the death of second assigned the whole country to the Sejanus, the Jews were allowed to return to emperor as his private possession. Grants of Rome. Of the mad attempts of Caligula to be land were, however, made to favored adored by them, we have already spoken. individuals, such as Josephus; and, 800 Claudius (41-54 AD) again decreed the discharged veterans were settled at the village expulsion of the Jews from Rome, probably on of , near Jerusalem. The first of these account of the disputations and tumults excited measures, though not really involving any by them in consequence of the spread of additional pecuniary payment, was yet a Christianity; continual national and religious affront. The [it appears, however, that the edict was never inhabitants of Palestine had previously groaned fully carried out] under the burden of an excessive taxation; all . Nero, who persecuted the Christians, had property was subject to a land tax; every apparently not molested the Jews; and, indeed, individual had to pay a kind of poll-money; the Empress Poppea seems to have had a agriculture and commerce were hampered by leaning towards Judaism. Such was the the exaction of excessive customs and duties. In chequered history of the dispersed of Israel addition to all these imposts, the Roman during the period which ends with the government now claimed the temple half- destruction of Jerusalem. The events which shekel (about one and three pence of our befell them in the Roman Empire and money). It will readily be conceived that this elsewhere, will form the subject of subsequent forced diversion of a religious contribution to history. the support of a hated idolatry must have been felt to be peculiarly galling. Chapter 4 – Political and Religious State of [The inhabitants of Palestine were terribly the Jews after the Destruction of Jerusalem impoverished by the long struggle, and even The destruction of Jerusalem, and the final after the end of the war a general feeling of subjugation of the land of Israel, do not seem to insecurity prevailed. When lands were offered have permanently affected the condition of the for sale, which had been violently taken from Jews either in or out of Palestine. Immediately their original owners by freebooters, or by the after the taking of the capital, Vespasian is said Roman government, the Jews hesitated to to have instituted an inquiry after the purchase, fearing that the original owners descendants of the house of David. This might establish a claim to their property. To investigation was the signal for a fresh enable the Jews to settle again in their own persecution. But the search could not have been country, the Sanhedrin, or highest religious very extensive or long continued, as certain tribunal, decreed that all sales of land in Judea Rabbins could at a later period claim kindred made after the destruction of Jerusalem were to with the royal family. At all events, the Christian be held valid, provided that the original Jews, who, in accordance with the Lord's proprietors had previous to the sale given their injunction, had left Jerusalem and fled beyond consent to the transaction. This decree was Jordan, escaped unmolested. Two Roman subsequently modified, and it was determined ordinances were promulgated, meant to that the purchaser must give to the original

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owner one quarter of the price which he paid fearful eruption of Mount Vesuvius buried the for the land.] cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii. In this Vespasian died on the 23rd June, AD 79, much catastrophe perished Agrippa, son of Drusilla, as he had lived, proud and unconcerned. When and nephew of the last Jewish King Agrippa, the he felt his end approaching, he observed, in last member of the Jewish royal family whose ironical allusion to the deification of his death history records. Then a pestilence predecessors, “ I suppose I am becoming a god.” ravaged Italy with such virulence, that, At his express request, he was lifted from his according to one account, for several days its bed, as he wished to die standing, as became a daily victims in Rome and its neighborhood Roman emperor. amounted to 10,000. Titus was about thirty -nine years old when he Again, a dreadful fire destroyed, during three succeeded Vespasian. His brother Domitian, days and nights, many of the principal buildings envious of his merit and honors, accused him of in Rome, and seemed specially to direct its fury having forged the title to the succession. The against the Capitol. The Jews naturally viewed former connections of Titus sufficiently these visitations in the light of national indicated that the present occupants of the judgments, in consequence of the destruction of throne had risen from comparatively humble Jerusalem and of the sanctuary. The reign of circumstances. His first wife, Arrecina, had been Titus is often represented as that of the the daughter of a Roman knight. After her kindliest and wisest monarch; and, in decease, he married Marcia Furnilla, of whom confirmation, his well-known saying is cited he had a daughter. In Palestine he formed a when he had spent a day without having done connection with the Jewish queen Bernice, and some good, “Friends, I have lost a day,” It is not probably on her account repudiated his wife. difficult to decide whether such unqualified Nature and art seem to have combined in praise is justly due to his brief reign. favoring Titus. His face was handsome, and his His successor, Domitian, displayed, at the figure, though not tall, commanding. beginning of his reign, a moderation and care With these natural advantages he combined for justice which had been quite unexpected; gallantry, excellent horsemanship, grace of but after a few years any dreams of the return deportment, and great muscular power. of a golden age were speedily dissipated. It was Considerable attention had also been paid to suspected, and perhaps not unjustly, that his education. He possessed accomplishments Domitian had poisoned his brother. His which were highly esteemed at that time. He subsequent conduct, amongst others, to Julia, was a beautiful and rapid writer, a good Titus's daughter, confirmed this rumor, which musician, an engaging companion, well versed in part arose from his well-known jealousy and in Roman and Greek literature, and even an hatred of his brother. Julia's husband was put to author. After Vespasian's accession to the death; she herself was made the mistress of her purple, Titus was made prefect of the uncle, and afterwards forced to use means for praetorian guard. But in this situation he not procuring abortion, under which she died. But only disappointed the hopes of his friends, but this crime was not a solitary instance of excited the lively apprehensions of all. The dark Domitian's debauchery and cruelty. rumors which were current regarding his Not only Jews and Christians, but Gentiles of all licentiousness, avarice, and cruelty painfully classes, fell victims to his suspicions, to his recalled the reign of Nero. whims, or to his cupidity after their Happily Titus did not realize these fears; or his possessions. One historian alleges that, from reign, at least, was of too short duration to the frequency of these executions, it was at last display the dark side of his character. It only found desirable or necessary to discontinue lasted two and a half years, during which some their registration. In the rhetorical language of severe disasters befell the empire. Thus, a an eyewitness, “ the sea was covered with the banished, and the rocks reddened with the

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blood of those who had been exposed on them.” continual apprehension for his safety. It was The system of regularly employing spies and under the influence of such feelings that, when denouncers (which had been discountenanced informed that some of the maternal relatives of by the emperor in the earlier part of his reign) Jesus Christ were still in Palestine, he was now fully carried out, and any person who summoned the grandchildren of Judas, the had either private or public opponents, or a Lord's brother, to Rome. fortune, was no longer safe from public But theirs was not a worldly ambition or prosecution. To the general avarice of his earthly grandeur. Their humble appearance, ancestors, and of the Flavian family generally, and the marks of hard manual labor which they pressing requirements were added, as the bore, convinced even Domitian of the dissipation of Domitian had ruined his fortunes, groundlessness of his suspicions. They were while his unbridled passions always led to fresh accordingly dismissed. Jewish authorities demands. In order to have an excuse for record that, at the same time, commissioners confiscating properties and legacies, new were appointed to inquire into the character of crimes were invented; and the most the distinctive doctrines of the synagogue. The unsatisfactory testimony was held sufficient to result was favorable to the Jews. They reported, ensure conviction. however, against the restrictions which Under the reign of Domitian, ecclesiastical prevented a fuller intercourse between Jews history chronicles the second general and heathens, and that, in their opinion, the persecution of Christians. During its course, property of heathens was not so jealously amongst other sufferers, the Apostle John was respected by the Jewish law as that of Israelites. banished to Patmos. Nor did the Jews escape The latter suggestion was immediately unmolested. The oppressive character and the attended to, and the Jewish patriarch published peculiar mode of levying the taxes which were an ordinance, by which the properties of Jew specially exacted from them, induced some and Gentile were placed on the same footing. either to conceal their origin, or at least not If Domitian persecuted Jews and Christians, it publicly to declare themselves Jews. will readily be believed that proselytes were Notwithstanding the energetic remonstrances objects of his special rigor. The number of of the spiritual authorities, others amongst converts to Christianity was continuously and them, perhaps, some who had abandoned largely increasing. Some of these had, no doubt, Judaism even submitted to a painful operation as at the first, passed from heathenism to to efface the bodily mark of their descent. As Christianity through the preparatory stage of thereby some might have succeeded in evading Judaism. To distinguish those who remained, or payment of the Jewish tax, denouncers were even who had first become Jewish proselytes, employed to bring the offenders to justice. from those who, from the first, or ultimately, A Roman author speaks of the disgust with joined the Church, is often extremely difficult. which, when young, he had witnessed a public Heathen authorities vaguely allude to charges examination instituted upon the body of a man of Atheism, or of devotion to foreign ninety years of age, for the purpose of superstitions; while ecclesiastical writers and discovering his Jewish descent. As many Jewish authors each claim for their own party members of the Church were of Jewish the sufferers for conscience' sake. Under these extraction, the Christians were often molested circumstances we can only balance the in this manner. Indeed, although the authorities probabilities. had learned to distinguish between the two It is, however, certain that many Romans, and parties, and were ready to persecute Christians amongst them persons of rank, had at that time as such, it sometimes served their purpose to either adopted Jewish practices, or wholly confound the Church with the synagogue. An joined the synagogue. From Dio we learn that administration such as that of Domitian was many who had gone astray after the manners of necessarily detested, and the tyrant was kept in the Jews were executed, others were banished,

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and their property confiscated. Some historians in a subsequent Jewish war but too painfully would include amongst them Flavius Clemens exhibited the sincerity of these hopes. Arrived and Domitilla his wife; at Rome, the Rabbins learnt that the Senate had [but Domitilla was certainly a Christian, and it passed a decree ordering a wholesale slaughter is now generally admitted that her husband of all the Jews in the Roman Empire at the end was also.] of thirty days. This tidings was given to them by a senator who secretly favored their cause. Clemens was a noble 'Roman, closely related to Domitian. He had formerly shared with the The senator's wife, herself a proselyte also, emperor the consular dignity, and it was nobly suggested a plan by which to ensure the supposed that his children might even succeed safety of her co-religionists, although at the to the empire. sacrifice of her husband's life. The story apparently presupposes that it was a practice in But Clemens was denounced for attachment to Rome to declare a decree void if one of the Jewish customs and for Atheism or sacrilege. senators had died between its enactment and His rank and circumstances did not protect him its execution. To take advantage of this : he was executed, and Domitilla banished to provision, the lady suggested that her husband one of the small islands, Pontia, where she should empty the poisonous contents of the remained till after the death of Domitian. ring which he wore. It is said that the senator Another sufferer of note, claimed on somewhat followed the advice, after having undergone doubtful grounds as a Christian, was Glabrio, a circumcision. ' Another account relates how a man of high rank. He was exposed to wild Roman noble called by the Jews Ktia har beasts, but overcame and killed the lion which Shalom pleaded successfully before Domitian in had been let loose upon him. This circumstance, favor of the Jews, but fell a victim to his zeal. It however, did not preserve his life. is added that he left his extensive property to Jewish authorities record the persecution of Rabbi Akiba and his friends. Certain it is that if one Onkelos bar Kleonimos, a nephew of Titus, any such decree as that to which we have who was a proselyte. In connection with his alluded ever existed, it was not carried into history, we may mention certain Jewish execution. traditions, without warranting their truth in all Notwithstanding the rigor of the law, particulars.' Tidings of some impending danger conversions to Judaism must have been had caused great alarm in Judea. Although the numerous during the reign of Domitian. Thus a season was unfavorable, the patriarch, in tombstone has been discovered, which records company with three of the leading Rabbins, in bad Latin the good deeds of a Roman lady, hastened to Rome, if possible to avert the who, at the age of seventy, had become a calamity. The fact of this journey seems proselyte, and is described as “ mother “ sufficiently attested, though several of its (probably builder or chief supporter) of various details exhibit marks of traditional ornaments. synagogues. This lady, called on the tombstone When the Rabbins reached the neighborhood of Beturia, has been identified by some with the Rome, the noise of the yet distant capital so proselytes Beruzia and Beluria, who are forcibly brought before their minds the sad mentioned in Jewish writings. contrast between the busy capital of the West and their own desolate Zion, that they could not We are informed that before Beruzia was refrain from bursting into tears. formally admitted into the synagogue, she had administered the baptism by which proselytes Only one of their number, Rabbi Akiba, retained were initiated to some of her slaves. According his composure, and suggested to his friends, by to the patriarch's decision in the case, these way of comfort, that if God had thus mercifully slaves obtained thereby immediately their dealt by His enemies, the portion reserved for freedom, as, according to Hebrew law, a His children would certainly at last prove much heathen could not possess Jewish slaves. The more glorious. The part sustained by that Rabbi lady herself, and all her household, soon

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afterwards became Jews. Beluria is said to have the first years of his reign were characterized been well versed in the Scriptures, and in cases by such liberality and love of justice, that a of difficulty to have applied directly to the writer remarks that Roman judges had never patriarch for advice. before been less accessible to corruption; but as The empire was at last relieved of the tyranny Domitian gradually imitated the vices of of Domitian by his assassination on the 18th Tiberius and Caligula, his cruelty increased like September 96. The Empress Domitia, so theirs. At last it became almost a passion. It notorious for her boundless passion for the seemed his chief occupation to invent new pantomime Paris, was privy to the plot. She had torments; it was his delight first to excite false accidentally seen a list of parties proscribed, hopes in his victims, and then to witness their and, amongst others, descried her own name on sufferings. When wearied with tormenting men, the fatal list. To anticipate her fate, she he would busy himself for hours tormenting immediately entered into negotiations with flies. some of the chamberlains whose names were The Senate equally hated and dreaded also amongst those about to be killed. At the Domitian. Not so the populace, who did not feel head of the conspirators was Stephen, the the effects of his cruelty, and were amused by steward of Domitian's niece. He had been the frequent games which he celebrated, and charged with misappropriation of some funds, gratified by the splendid buildings which he and was now prepared and allowed to seek this reared. Domitian was a special favorite of the mode of safety and revenge. soldiers, whose pay he raised by one-fourth. So To disarm all suspicion, Stephen, who much were the guards attached to him, that undertook the lead in executing the plot, when his successor, who probably had been appeared with his arm bandaged, and in a sling, privy to the plot, refused to hand over the as if suffering from some injury. At the conspirators to justice, they took summary appointed hour he presented to Domitian a vengeance on them. memorial, purporting to divulge the particulars Nerva, an old and respected senator, was of a conspiracy which Stephen had discovered. proclaimed Domitian's successor. It is matter of While the emperor was greedily poring over regret that the reign of an emperor equally the contents of the memorial, Stephen wounded distinguished for wisdom and moderation him in the abdomen with a dagger which he had should have been so short, and have occurred concealed within his bandage. Domitian, who under peculiarly unfavorable circumstances. was endowed with great bodily strength, Nerva endeavoured as much as possible to immediately precipitated himself on his retrieve the disastrous consequences of his assailant, and succeeded in throwing him to the predecessor's reign. He opened the prisons and ground. A child who never left his chamber was recalled the banished. The adoption of Judaism now ordered to bring the emperor a sword or of Christianity was no longer punished as a which hung over his bed; but this emergency crime. One of the reforms instituted which had been provided against, and only the hilt proved most grateful to the Jews, was the stuck in the empty scabbard. The child ran to modification of the special tax which his call the guards; but every door had been locked. predecessors had imposed on them. In A fearful struggle for life or death now ensued. acknowledgment of this relief, a medal was While Domitian held down Stephen, he sought struck to commemorate the removal “ of the to wrest the dagger from him, and with his calumny of the Jewish impost.” It bears on the bleeding fingers made for the eyes of Stephen; reverse a palm-tree, with fruits depending, and but the other conspirators hastened to the spot, the inscription, “Fisci Judaici calumnia sublata.” and the emperor was dispatched. It will readily be understood that a mild It is strange that Domitian should have so much reformer such as Nerva could not be popular in disappointed the expectations of the people. those degenerate times. The crimes of Domitian Before his elevation he cultivated letters; and had not injured the populace, nor had his vices

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shocked them, as they bore no greater their countrymen without violating their proportion to theirs than did his rank and consciences. means. On the other hand, he had spent But in the providence of God the separation immense sums partly raised by unjust became daily more decided. Partly the procedure against rich persons in public increasing admissions of heathens and amusements. Nerva had neither the inclination proselytes into the Church, partly the nor the means of following the same course. His increasing hatred and persecutions of the endeavors lay rather in the direction of synagogue, as the distinctive dogmas of the curtailing the public expenditure. Accordingly, gospel became better known and the zeal and his popularity declined, and attempts were piety of its disciples extended its sway, and even made upon his life. The soldiers, who partly providential circumstances, by degrees might have ensured his safety, could but ill forced Jewish believers to stand more apart brook the government of an old and un-martial from their unconverted brethren. Even the senator. To put an end to the discontent, the historical portions of the New Testament bring emperor wisely resolved to conjoin with the operation of these causes to light. himself in the empire Ulpius Trajanus, a This gradual separation between the Jews and Spaniard by birth, whose victorious exploits the Christians was completed by the removal of had procured him both popular favor and the the Church from Jerusalem to Pella beyond support of the legions. Jordan. Only the first fifteen bishops of Judea Soon afterwards Nerva died, having held the were of Jewish descent. The decided reins of government for a period less than two estrangement in doctrine and life which years, and was succeeded by Trajan. afterwards took place between them, led to the It is not our delightful task to trace the spread formation of an intermediate party of of Christianity under the above-mentioned professing Christians, who still kept either part emperors, nor our province to record the or the whole of the law, and entertained struggles and the trials which attended its opinions more or less unsound on the person of progress. Yet should we fail to give an accurate Christ and on other subjects. This party, which sketch of the history of the Hebrew nation, did separated equally from the Church and from we not, even at this stage, chronicle the the synagogue, split again into sects more or progress of Christianity amongst the Jews since less orthodox, which were known as the the destruction of Jerusalem. It has already Nazarenes, Ebionites, etc. At the same time, the been mentioned that, in obedience to the general disposition of the Church and the tone warning given by our Lord, the Christian of ecclesiastical writers became gradually more Israelites, on the approach of the Romans, hostile, not to Judaism, but to the Jews, and retired from Jerusalem beyond Jordan, to Pella Christians took increasing care not to identify and its neighborhood. themselves with the synagogue. The synagogue From the then existing relations between the naturally manifested in return its bitterness Jews and Christians, the latter, however averse and enmity. Not only were believers denounced to Roman domination, or favorable to Jewish in the synagogues and expelled, but the Jews nationality, could not have taken part in the last frequently tried to stir up the multitude against war, even although they had not been directly them, and some of the fiercest persecutions warned to separate themselves from their were encouraged by the Jews. They are also guilty brethren. At first the Christians had no charged with circulating accusations of an doubt been only considered as a Jewish sect, atrocious character against Christians. Thus the and had continued to frequent the temple and calumny, afterwards so fearfully retaliated the synagogue, and to take part in such of the upon themselves, that in their feasts the Mosaic rites as were either partly national, or Christians used human blood and indulged in else had not yet been wholly accomplished. disgraceful orgies, was said to have originated Such observances gave them ready access to with the Jews.

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However, Christianity had from the first taken a Gospels, as in his opinion inciting to rebellion deep hold on Jewish society. Even the many against God, and to hatred against the ordinances passed by the synagogue to prevent commonwealth of Israel.' By and by all friendly its spread, prove that it retained this position. relations between the two parties entirely There was specially one practical argument in ceased. Religious discussions were interdicted favor of Christianity which appealed to the as tending to weaken the faith; Jewish experience of all. We refer to the miraculous Christians were anathematized as worse than cures performed in the name of Jesus. As heathens or Samaritans; and Christian books intercourse between the two parties had not at placed in the same category with works on first been strictly prohibited, this mode of magic. Such was the mutual estrangement, that appeal was for some time practicable, and the ordinary civilities of life were not to be probably the capability ceased with the exchanged, and the bread, wine, oil, and meat opportunity of employing it. used by Christians declared polluted. The New Testament record offers many Especially, all miraculous cures in the name of instances of converts whose domestic relations Jesus were strictly proscribed. At last a form of with their unconverted friends were not imprecation against the ‘heretics” was apparently immediately interrupted. Some introduced into the daily prayers of the Christians obtained considerable influence by synagogue. As all these ordinances were their character, or by an attestation of their communicated by letters to the different divine mission in their ability to perform congregations out of Palestine, a simultaneous miracles. Thus Jewish authors mention a and combined effort was thus made by the certain Hebrew-Christian physician, James, synagogue to resist the progress of the gospel. with whom one of the most exclusive and These measures, which were well known to the bigoted Rabbins maintained for a time a Christians, naturally increased their animosity. friendly intercourse. When the nephew of If Christianity made rapid strides in Palestine another teacher had been bitten by a serpent, before the destruction of Jerusalem, it will we are informed that he intended to apply to readily be inferred what an impulse the latter that disciple for a miraculous cure. Another event must have given to its spread. Judaism, as young man, connected with the leading Jewish a sacrificial system, had now become an sages, joined the Church at Capernaum, and impossibility, and many pious Jews must have was removed by his friends to Babylon, in order felt the want of the temple, with its sin- to withdraw him from Christian influences. cleansing sacrifices, a want which nothing but a But gradually, as Christian Jews understood substitute, in the truest sense of the term, could more, and perhaps felt less, ignominious have met. The Jewish national and religious epithets were applied to the Jews. The latter hopes were now also, to all appearance, for retaliated by calling the Christians heretics. So ever blasted. Under these circumstances, some great became at last the enmity, that a Jews resolved to lead a life of continual celebrated Jewish sage declared that, although penance. They renounced all pleasures, the Gospels and the other writings of the abstained from meat and wine, and would not “heretics” contained the sacred names of the even have their houses, the dwellings of Deity, they ought to be burnt; that heathenism mourners, whitewashed. The zeal of Christians was less dangerous than Christianity; that soon discovered many who were prepared to heathens offended from ignorance, while listen to their tidings of “the Lamb of God, Christians did so with full knowledge; and that which taketh away the sin of the world.” he would prefer seeking shelter in a heathen Another of the secondary causes which temple rather than in a meeting-place of the powerfully contributed to the spread of the “heretics”. gospel, was the entire and felt want of real Another and more moderate Rabbi also religious provision in the synagogue for recommends the burning of every copy of the unlettered Jews, and the contempt in which

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they were held by the learned. From the very But while the synagogue despised and nature of the case, as their religion was very neglected the lower classes, Christianity much a system of casuistry, and individual addressed itself to them, and broke down the religious duties became in the classrooms of the middle wall of partition between learned and teachers matters of dispute, which often unlearned. To this benignant influence of the depended for decision on the most ingenious gospel we may add, as another argument in its sophistry, the unlettered became by and by favor, that the general conduct and bearing of estranged from the synagogue. Add to this the many Jewish Christians were such as to self-complacency and hauteur which sought constrain the respectful attention of the Jews to merit, connected temporal and spiritual their message. We have already recorded an greatness with a mere knowledge of the law instance of this in the intercourse between the and of traditions, and excluded from all honors, physician James and a Jewish Rabbi. and even from the kingdom of heaven, those We add, as another illustration, the who were ignorant; and think of the hatred circumstances which attended the death of the which this exclusiveness must have engendered Apostle James, of which Hegesippus gives us a in those classes which are, at any rate, more or less legendary account. The care of the suspicious and envious of their superiors, and Church in Judea had probably at first devolved their mutual relations will be readily on James the Just. For a period of thirty years understood. he had watched over the flock at Jerusalem, Thus, according to the statement of the when (62 AD) his enemies succeeded in Pharisees, there is scarcely any crime of which silencing his testimony. He was generally and the country people, the peasants, or unlearned, deservedly respected, not only by Christians, are not guilty. They are described as dishonest but also by Jews. His influence, which was in their transactions, indelicate in their families, uniformly employed for the spread of the without honour or self-respect, as observant of gospel, was felt to be great. Making use of this only so much of the law as suited their circumstance, the Pharisees took him to an convenience, along with other similar charges. elevation in the temple which overlooked the The patrician Hebrews abstained from all worshippers, and called on him to warn the intercourse with them, forbore from eating at assembled multitude against the doctrines of their tables, and even avoided touching their the gospel. James, however, availed himself of garments from fear of being thereby polluted. the opportunity for giving a decided and Marriages between the two classes were distinct testimony for the Lord Jesus Christ. A deemed misalliances, and compared to tumult was now raised, in which James was throwing one's daughter to a lion, or coupling thrown down amongst the people, and stoned one's son with cattle. The illiterate were not to by some of those who had come together. While be allowed to bear witness, to be curators of he yet breathed to pray for his murderers, a orphans, or to discharge any office connected person in the crowd dashed out his brains with with the synagogue. Journeying in company a fuller's club. with them was to be avoided. Indeed, almost If the Church Catholic exercised such influence any treatment of, or crime against, them was upon the synagogue, the latter made itself felt deemed allowable. It will readily be understood in the way of inspiring the views of many of the that such conduct evoked the hatred of the heretical sects. Some of these were purely lower classes. One Rabbi goes so far as to Jewish. To this number belonged those who declare his belief that the illiterate would observed the Law (in whole or in part), and the murder all the sages if they could get on various sects who rejected the doctrines of the without them. Another sage, who had sprung Trinity and of the Incarnation of the Son of God. from the lower classes, confesses that formerly But even Gnosticism derived its principal he had often wished to have an opportunity of elements from the synagogue. The tendency of injuring any of the patricians.

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that heresy, as a whole, was, as its name (gnosis) of “the deep things” (the “depths” of indicates, after “ gnosis,” or knowledge. the Book of Revelation) led them either into The various speculative difficulties connected asceticism or into licentiousness, agreeably to with the creation of the world, its government, their views of the character and authority of the and the relation of the Supreme God to it, were law, and of the relation subsisting between a objects of inquiry to the various Gnostic sects. true Gnostic and the world around him. The ascetic sects found a point of internal [Like the later Jewish mysticism, Gnosticism connection, and gradually gave a peculiar sprang from the contact of Judaism with the shading to the whole system of theology. The religious speculations of the farther East. licentious sects necessarily soon passed away, Probably the mystical tendency found in though not without inflicting serious injury. As Essenism a soil favorable to its growth and the ascetic, so the licentious sects had their development. As the system itself was Jewish in counterparts in Judaism. The latter, happily, origin, so the earliest representatives whose were rare, and almost foreign excrescences, names have been handed down to us were which manifested themselves more by birth. Thus the traditional prominently in distant places, as in Persia and founder of Gnosticism was a Samaritan, Simon Arabia. of Gitta, who since the time of Justin Martyr has commonly, but perhaps erroneously, been However, the licentious Gnostics seem to have identified with the Simon Magus mentioned in entangled some Jewish youths, partly by their Acts 8:2] peculiar mode of interpreting Scripture (which in many particulars resembled the Rabbinical), Christian legends describe Simon as equally and still more, perhaps, by ministering to lust corrupt in practice and in doctrine, and under the cloak of religion. Jewish history mention Rome as the field of his labors. It records an instance of this kind, details the seems not unlikely in itself that the impostor Gnostic perversion of Scripture for the purpose should have resorted to the capital, the more so of justifying their licentious practices, and adds as, according to the statements of the appropriate exclamation of horror on the contemporaries, all religious adventurers part of a Rabbi when called to witness such a flocked to it to make religious capital of the scene “And is it possible that such deeds are corruption and superstition of the degenerate enacted by Jews!” Romans. We shall, in conclusion, rapidly glance at the The second heresiarch and leader of the spread of the gospel amongst Jews and Gnostics, to whom ecclesiastical history refers, proselytes out of Palestine. History and legend was Menander, like Simon a Samaritan by birth. are here unfortunately so frequently and Under his auspices, and those of his successors, closely intertwined, that it is next to impossible Gnosticism assumed more and more its definite to indicate where the one ends or the other shape. In general, that system had two great commences. Thus much only can be affirmed branches, the one, in which the doctrine of with confidence, that while St. Paul pursued his emanation played an important part, and missionary labors, the other disciples were also derived from Persian elements; the other, more engaged in the same blessed work. Mark is said dualistic (an attempt to combine theology with to have carried the gospel to Egypt, Thomas to Platonism), and bearing traces of Alexandrian Parthia, and Andrew to Scythia, while culture. In like manner we may also, from a Bartholomew planted the cross in India, by practical point of view, distinguish between the which, perhaps, the ancient Yemen may be two branches of Gnosticism, which more or less meant. More trustworthy traditions speak of enjoined or else opposed an observance of the Philip in Phrygia. law. At the same time, other Jewish heralds brought This distinction led in turn to different modes the glad tidings to the benighted heathens, and of conduct, according as their knowledge with the simplicity and earnestness of a real

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faith went forth to the ends of the then known inconsistent.- Here it will be sufficient to say world, with their lives in their hands. While that probably this assembly represents rather a multitudes of Jews and proselytes became succession of men than one synod, the obedient unto the faith, the needs of the ingenuity of later times filling in with fictitious dispersed of Israel were not forgotten by the names a period of history which was in reality apostles, and James addressed himself almost a blank. But the most important fact particularly to them in his Epistle. Little if any underlying these vague traditions is the impression, indeed, appears to have been made growing influence of the scribes in the period on the Jews in Babylonia (meaning by this term extending from the days of Nehemiah to the the country between the Euphrates and Tigris). troublous times of the Maccabees. How far they We have, however, abundant evidence that were at this time organized as a regular Osrhoene and Armenia countries in which the teaching body, we are unable to say. Jews were numerous received the Gospel at a Under the guidance of the scribes (Sopherim), very early period. Some of the churches in these the traditions to which value was attached lands date almost from the earliest periods of increased in number and authority. Hence Christianity, and doubtless there were many of numerous purely ceremonial ordinances were Jewish descent among the earliest converts. afterwards traced to this period. A few of them Thus even when the synagogue rejected are even ascribed to the authority of Ezra Christianity and persecuted its disciples, the himself/ although their character scarcely Lord left not Himself without witness among bears out these pretensions. His ancient people. An important part of the functions of the Chapter 5 – Internal History of the scribes was that which concerned the study, Synagogue from the Return of the Captivity arrangement, and interpretation of the sacred to the Destruction of Jerusalem text. The duties connected with the public reading and exposition of the Scriptures The return from Babylon marked a new period naturally devolved upon the more learned, in the history of the Jews. Many important who, in any case, at a later period were changes had taken place in the political and regularly set apart for this purpose; and they religious condition of the nation. When Ezra appear to have delivered lectures or attempted to reform the Jewish polity, he found exhortations on stated days in the various his countrymen both ignorant and careless in synagogues which speedily sprang up religious matters. Elements were also at work throughout the length and breadth of the land. within the community which did not give promise of good to the people generally. It was As the readers had mostly to translate the Ezra's first care, when undertaking the religious original text into the dialect of the people, to reformation of his brethren, to cause the whole which they probably often added a brief of the Book of the Law to be read and exposition, the religious education of the people expounded to the people. It was his desire that was almost entirely committed to them. The the restored Jewish commonwealth should rest influence which they thus gained, the fact that, upon a scriptural foundation. from the paucity of books and the general ignorance, the people depended entirely on this To enable him the more readily to carry out the religious aristocracy, together with the growing needful measures, tradition affirms that he tendencies of the age in that direction, associated with himself in the spiritual contributed not a little to place religious government of the people a council of 120, eminence in mere knowledge and outward consisting of prophets, elders, and scribes, or observances, without spiritual experience or men learned in the law, which is known as the love. It also laid the foundation of the Great Synagogue. Considerable diversity of exaggerated notions which both teachers and opinion exists as to the nature of this body, and taught afterwards formed of the dignity of the the Talmudic notices about it are often Rabbi or teacher.

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Ordinarily, the various congregations met on secondarily a religious party; and their Sabbaths, on Mondays, and Thursdays; on the theology, which was rather negative than latter occasions for the adjudication of causes positive, was due in a large measure to their according to the law of Moses, as well as for the political position. For the Sadducees represent reading and interpretation of the Bible. The the party which supported the Maccabees, not principal teachers have left behind them one or only in their struggle for religious liberty, but more theological commonplaces, which are also in their later national and political chiefly valuable as indicating the bearing of aspirations. Their adherents were drawn their theology and the direction of their mainly from the noble and wealthy classes, and teaching. They were afterwards collected into especially from the party of the priestly one of the treatises of which the “Mishnah” or aristocracy. The progress of events gave them traditional law is composed, and which bears more and more influence, and in the reign of the name of “ Pirke Aboth,” or Sayings of the John Hyrcanus, as has been related in a Fathers. previous chapter, the Sadducees obtained for a The first of these Fathers is Simon the Just, who time political supremacy. is described as belonging to “ the remnants of It is in the same reign that we should probably the Great Synagogue.” From Josephus we learn place the establishment or reconstruction of the that this was , who was the high priest Jewish tribunal known as the Sanhedrin. At an in the beginning of the third century BC His earlier period we hear of a Senate, in the time of motto is recorded to have been, “ The world is Antiochus the Great (223-187 B.C.). This, as the based upon three things : on the Law, on title shows, must have been an aristocratic worship, and on works of righteousness.” This body, and was doubtless presided over by the sentiment sufficiently indicates that Simon high priest. Under the earlier Maccabees belonged to the Pharisaical party; and his title reference is frequently made to a Senate or “ of “ the Just “ was probably given by them on eldership,” called in the Talmud the “Tribunal account of his strict observance of the Law. of the Hasmoneans “; and there are reasons for A long interval separates Simon the Just from supposing that this body was reorganized by Antigonus of Socho, the first of the Sopherim Hyrcanus. Yet it is only in the reign of Hyrcanus who bears a Greek name. He lived in the II that we find the name of “Sanhedrin” actually terrible time of Antiochus Epiphanes and the given to the supreme council at Jerusalem. great Syrian persecution, and his recorded [According to the analogy of the later saying sounds like an echo of the political state Rabbinical courts of justice, Jewish tradition of the country. It was, “ Be not like servants constantly represents the Sanhedrin as merely who serve their master for the sake of reward, a body of scribes and learned men. This, but be like servants who serve their master however, was not strictly the case. Till the fall without a view to the getting of reward; and let of Jerusalem, the priestly aristocracy generally the fear of heaven be upon you.” The attempt of took a leading part in it; although the influence Antiochus to force Grecian culture and idolatry of the Pharisees and of the scribes belonging to upon the Jews, led to the popular rising under this party was considerable, not only under the Maccabees. The independence of Israel was Queen Alexandra, but also in Herodian and secured for a time, and the Maccabees ascended Roman times.] the Jewish throne as the Hasmonean princes. The power of the Sanhedrin would, of course, A late Jewish legend traces the origin of the sect vary with political circumstances. of the Sadducees to , a disciple of [It is not to be supposed that the Sadducees Antigonus of Socho. We are told that the were merely the party of the priests. The distinctive tenets of this sect were due to a Pharisees always recognized and maintained misunderstanding of the saying of Antigonus the rit.hts of the priesthood, and both before just recorded. In reality, however, the and after the destruction of the temple we hear Sadducees were primarily a political, and only

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of many priests who were themselves etiquette (originating in the pride of some of Pharisees.] the Nasis) prevailed. Thus, when the The somewhat indefinite accounts of their entered, all the members were expected to rise, spiritual activity become more distinct as we and to remain standing till he had invited them approach the period of the Savior’s advent. The to resume their places. When the Ab-bethdin Sanhedrin was the supreme court. All juridical entered, the first row had to rise, but was and theological questions were, in the last allowed again to sit down without intimation to instance, to be submitted to its decision. It that effect; while the Chacham was only saluted consisted of seventy -one members, with two by each individual member rising as he passed, clerks. Their first meeting place (for the and immediately sitting down again. It is, necessities of the times obliged them to remove however, right to add that the more to different localities) was one of the spacious independent Rabbins resisted regulations like apartments connected with the temple- these. Twenty-three members were necessary buildings, which was termed the “Hall of Hewn to form a quorum. Stones.” The members of that court were not In the Mishnic treatise A both, after the names necessarily professional men in the sense of of Simon the Just and Antigonus of Socho, come devoting their whole time to their peculiar the names of the five so-called Zugoth or avocation, or deriving their livelihood from it. A “Couples,” of whom Hillel and are the truly devoted or Pharisaical Jew was, according last. to the current notions of the time, expected Later tradition has represented these chiefly to devote himself to theological studies, successive couples as respectively the president and to follow his worldly calling only in order and vice-president of the Sanhedrin; but several to support himself, or to minister to other of them appear to have been merely students of the Law. Hence, as the honour of distinguished scribes, and the heads of the being a member of the Sanhedrin was not Rabbinic schools. It was the men of this class reserved for the priestly order (although a who devoted themselves to theological considerable proportion of its members pursuits; whereas a large number of the priests probably belonged to it), so the members of any seem to have been almost entirely engaged in trade, except those which were supposed to be the services of the sanctuary. Even the degrading, or to have a tendency to harden, occupation of the high-priestly office required might aspire to this distinction. no knowledge-qualification. This is shown by The members of the Sanhedrin were chosen for the fact that the traditional law contemplates life, and regularly ordained by the imposition of and makes provision for cases when the high hands (the “Semicha”). Every description of priest might be unacquainted with the meaning their arrangements and order of procedure of the rites, and the laws concerning them. necessarily dates from a later period, and we Opposite to the judges, in three rows (each row cannot be certain how far it will apply to the containing twenty-three), sat the students, first century B.C. It was said that the members arranged according to their merit. Another sat in a semicircle with the Nasi (prince) or body of hearers were ranged all around the president in the middle, the Ah-heth-din (the hall. There were thus two orders, the members father or head of the juridical college) or vice- of which expected promotion. The hearers president at his right, and the Chacham (wise might be elevated to the rank of regular man, whose special duties are not precisely students, and the students might advance from known) at his left. row to row, and finally become members either The other members occupied places according of any of the provincial colleges, or of the to their rank in the college, so that the fourth, Sanhedrin itself. the sixth, etc., in dignity sat to the Nasi's right hand, and the fifth, the seventh, etc., to his left. At a still later period a certain punctilious

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[In view, however, of the influence possessed made by which the preacher communicated his by the powerful priestly families, and of the discourse in a low tone to an “interpreter” (the political condition of the country Meturgeman), or “speaker” (Emora), who in [On the question who was the President of the turn rehearsed it to the audience in a plain and Sanhedrin, see Appendix II.] popular form. Thus in the laws referring to the Day of After these few explanatory remarks, we turn Atonement, members of Sanhedrin are to the history of the Sanhedrin. The first appointed to instruct the high priest; and, in president and vice-president of the Sanhedrin general, it is evidently contemplated that he are said to have been Joses ben Joeser, from may be an ignorant person. Zereda, and Joseph ben Jochanan, from Jerusalem. There is considerable doubt about In order to understand the position of the the real date of this “couple.” Probably they Sanhedrin, and its relation to other colleges, we flourished about 150 B.C.; but some historians must remember that in the Jewish State the place them half a generation earlier, and spiritual and secular administration were in suppose that Joses fell a martyr to his faith reality not separated. The authorities of the during the Syrian persecution. Little is known synagogues were at the same time the of their peculiar teaching. Their fundamental ministers of justice. Thus every considerable principles are somewhat vague, but point in the synagogue had its Sanhedrin, or college of direction of increasing Rabbinical influence and justice, consisting of twenty-three ordained pretensions. The Nasi said : “Let thine abode be members, who were entitled to pronounce a meeting place for sages; cover thyself with the sentence even in capital cases. The smaller dust of their feet, and eagerly (with thirst) synagogues, or those in towns with fewer than drink in their words.” The vice-president said : 120 heads of families and ten men of leisure, “Let thy house be wide open, and let the poor possessed an inferior college of justice, which be the children of thy house. Do not multiply was only allowed to adjudicate on civil cases, speech with a woman. If this applies to one's and which consisted probably of three own wife, how much more to that of another members. From the local court or college an man ! Hence the sages say, that the man who appeal might be taken to the nearest college of multiplies speech with a woman brings evil twenty-three, and from the latter to the Great upon himself, swerves from the words of the Sanhedrin in Jerusalem. The priests seem to law, and will finally inherit destruction.” The have been to a certain extent independent, for vice-president differed from the Nasi as to the they decided on all matters purely relating to necessity of the imposition of hands on the them or to the temple police. head of a sacrifice. Such was the esteem in If certain judicial duties devolved on the which both sages were held, that at their members of the various colleges throughout the decease it was said, “those in whom every land, it was theirs also to provide for the excellency was found had now departed.” spiritual instruction and edification of the The next couple was Joshua ben Perachia, said people. Hence, on Sabbaths and feast days, to have been Nasi, and Nithai, who is called Ab- lectures were delivered in the synagogues, and beth-din. Their sayings may here be recorded. at a later period in the various schoolhouses Nithai of Arbela said : “Depart from an evil also, at which all were invited to attend. Men neighbor, and associate not with the wicked, and women sat separately, and listened and grow not thoughtless of retribution.” The respectfully to the lecture or address delivered motto of Joshua, which is very characteristic of by a Rabbi or distinguished stranger, the the Pharisaism of the time, was : “Have a Darshan (preacher), as he was designated. But teacher, procure an associate, and judge every in case the preacher should use language too man as favorably as possible.” These two men abstruse, or fail to adapt himself to the weaker lived in troublous times. capacities of his hearers, an arrangement was

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The throne and priestly office were conjointly in Egypt; nor during the lifetime of the king did occupied by John Hyrcanus, one of the they again return to the land of Judea. Only one Maccabees, who, justly or unjustly, was man of note seems to have found shelter in supposed by the Pharisees to have been Palestine. This was Simeon ben Shetach, who is derived from a mother who at one time had said to have been the brother of the Queen been a captive. In their view this incapacitated Salome. The most distinguished Rabbi among him for being high priest. Whether this was a the refugees in Egypt was Judah ben Tabbai, pretence to hide their general opposition or who, like Joshua before him, took up his abode not, their enmity soon manifested itself. At a in Alexandria. banquet, an imprudent Pharisee ventured to [Joshua and Judah are, indeed, sometimes call upon John to resign the mitre on the ground confused in the Rabbinic legends, and certain above mentioned. The king, who had hitherto stories told of Judah in the belonged to the Pharisaical party, perhaps glad are in the later Babylonian Talmud transferred of the pretext, interpreted this demand as an to Joshua ben Perachia] avowal of the views of the party, and . immediately joined the Sadducees. The statement of the Talmud about the slaughter of Simeon ben Shetach was soon recalled to the leading Pharisees is incorrect; but there can Jerusalem, probably at the instigation of the be no doubt that they were removed from queen, and, after the death of Alexander Jannai, power and exposed to persecution. Joshua is he exerted himself to procure also the recall of said to have escaped to Alexandria, By a strange his friend Judah ben Tabbai, who was still in anachronism, some Jewish authorities declare Egypt. The following enigmatical letter was this Joshua to have been the teacher of Jesus of accordingly written and dispatched in the name Nazareth. of the people of Jerusalem : In the year 105 B.C., Hyrcanus was succeeded in “Jerusalem the Great to Alexandria the Little. the government by Judas Aristobulus, and, after How long shall my betrothed still remain with the brief reign of that prince, by Alexander you, whilst I dwell forsaken?” Jannai. The latter also belonged to the sect of Judah readily understood the purport of this the Sadducees. This circumstance, together message, and. immediately returned to with the despotism of his reign and the many Jerusalem, where, together with Simeon, he sanguinary wars in which he engaged, rendered now exercised in matters of faith an influence his administration more than ordinarily almost unbounded. The next move of Simeon unpopular. The feeling of the masses displayed was to remodel the Sanhedrin. The story which itself unmistakably, when, on the Feast of is told of his plan for expelling his opponents Tabernacles, the worshippers threw at from the council deserves mention, (as it Alexander, who officiated as high priest, the affords evidence of the ideas with regard to the citrons which at that feast they always carried character of the Sanhedrin, which were current in their hands, and loudly reproached him with in the times of the Talmud). his descent from a captive. It is related that on one occasion, when the king Alexander Jannai took fearful revenge, and his and queen honored the Sanhedrin with their bodyguard slew not less than 6000 of the presence, Simeon prevailed upon that body to rebels. A series of insurrections broke out resolve that in future every theological or during the next six years, and a party of the juridical discussion should be supported by an Jews even called in the aid of the Syrians - appeal to Scripture. An occasion soon offered against the king. for putting this resolution in force. As usual, At length, however, Alexander gained the upper questions were proposed and answered by the hand, and treated his opponents with such Sadducees after their own manner. Simeon cruelty that a general flight of the Pharisees insisted on the requisite proofs. One of the ensued, some taking refuge in Syria and others senators promised, indeed, to bring them

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forward at the next sederunt; but, being unable speedily overtook the malefactor, and that a to do so, he felt obliged to resign. His place was viper bit him, so that he died. filled by one of Simeon's students. By similar The importance attached to these differences measures, the benches formerly occupied by on legal questions is sufficiently evidenced by the Sadducees were gradually filled by the frequent references made to them. On such Simeon's adherents. Judah ben Tabbai is said to points Judah and his colleague Simeon have now become Nasi, while Simeon ben frequently differed, though both were Shetach contented himself with the office of Ab- Pharisees, and strenuous opponents of the beth-din. Sadducean party. One instance of this is The first victory over the Sadducees was recorded, in which the scrupulosity of Judah is followed by the repeal of a number of said to have given his colleague a great ordinances which were not in harmony with ascendancy over him. the Pharisaical views, and by the substitution of On one point the Sadducees were more lenient others in their stead. One of the most marked than the Pharisees. They deemed it unlawful to differences between the Sadducees and the punish a false witness with death, unless the Pharisees, was the scrupulous mode in which victim of his false testimony had actually been the latter adjudicated in criminal cases, giving executed, thus rather avenging the injury every benefit to the accused. However excellent inflicted than punishing the crime committed. the motive of diminishing the number and In his excess of anti-Sadducean zeal, Judah had severity of punishments, it was carried by them on one occasion, under the abovementioned to a most dangerous excess, and the ends of circumstances, gone to the opposite extreme, justice were sometimes defeated by their and actually ordered the execution of a false punctilious adherence to the letter of certain witness. rules. On relating it to Simeon, the latter allowed, Thus the accordant testimony of at least two indeed, the soundness of Judah's principle of witnesses was always necessary, the evidence procedure, but, by a characteristic quibble, required to be clear and decisive, while merely demurred to its application in this case, and circumstantial evidence, however plain, was charged his friend with having shed innocent not admitted, at least in capital cases. Again, the blood. Henceforth the conscience of Judah gave witnesses were to be scrupulously cross- him no rest, and day by day he would resort to questioned; every particular favorable to the the grave of the victim of his orthodoxy to accused was to be brought forward, while every bewail his sinful rigor. At last the congregated consideration adverse to him required to be multitude would have proceeded to acts of narrowly sifted. Hence it must be allowed that violence, under the impression that the wailing in criminal cases the judges too often acted proceeded from the murdered person, had not rather as pleaders for the accused. the matter been explained to them. It is added, This is well illustrated in a case related by that after this occurrence Judah resolved never Simeon. “As I hope for consolation I saw a man to pronounce a decision in the absence of pursuing another into a ruined building. I ran Simeon. after him, and beheld the sword yet in his hand. [To this circumstance may perhaps be It was reeking with blood, and the murdered attributed the fact that the Talmud expresses man lay wallowing on the ground. I exclaimed. an uncertainty whether Simeon or Judah Thou wicked man, who has committed this occupied the foremost place in the Sanhedrin] murder I or thou? Alas ! thy life is not in my . power, for two witnesses are requisite for conviction before sentence of death can be We may infer the importance attached by all pronounced. But He who knoweth man's parties to the mode of administering justice, thoughts will recompense the murderer of his from the mottoes or maxims of various neighbor.” It is added that divine vengeance Rabbins. Thus the recorded principle of Judah

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was : “Make not thyself like those that At the same time, he gave such explanations of predispose the judges (to favor one party certain events in their lives as satisfactorily to against the other). When parties are before account for the permission on the part of God of thee, treat them as if they were guilty; and the deplored mistake in the burial. Satisfied on when sentence is pronounced and they depart, this subject, inquiry was next made as to the act towards them as if they were innocent.” On period at which the publican's torments were the other hand, it was the principle of Simeon : to end. The heavenly visitor simply replied : “Be extremely careful in examining witnesses; When Simeon ben Shetach comes to take his and beware lest from thy mode of questioning place. Naturally enough the astonished sage they should learn how to give false testimony.” asked of what crime the Ab-beth-din were But Simeon himself did not always exhibit that guilty. He was then informed that, before his leniency which his avowed principles or his elevation, Simeon had vowed that if he should remonstrance to his friend might lead us to ever be advanced to the high dignity which he express. Indeed, the assertion of the Talmud, now occupied, he would exterminate all that he had “hot hands,” points to his readiness witches in the land. But he had failed to to adopt extreme measures when the perform this promise, and no less then eighty of circumstances of the case seemed to require it. these women were at that moment practicing One instance of this deserves a place as the black art unmolested in a cave near illustrating the superstition of the period; . At last the anxious sage obtained leave to warn Simeon of his impending danger. [but since Ashkelon, where the scene of the story is laid, was at that time an independent Simeon at once resolved to put an immediate town, and not in Jewish territory, we can hardly stop to witchcraft. The only difficulty regard the narrative as having a historical anticipated was, that the witches might, by the foundation] aid of magic, resist if not altogether elude capture. But it was believed that magic could . We are told that a celebrated sage had died at only be practiced on “terra firma” and Simeon Ashkelon. resolved to avail himself of this fact. The funeral was, of course, attended by the Accompanied by eighty youths, of whom each principal Jewish inhabitants of the place. At the had a white garment concealed about his same time another procession carried the body person, he went on a rainy day to the “cave of of a publican to the same cemetery. When both the witches.” parties had reached the place of interment, but While the youths concealed themselves, ready, before the last rites could be performed, a troop at the first call, to throw on their white of hostile strangers surprised and quickly garments, and, at the second, to enter the cave dispersed the mourners. Only one friend of the and act their preconcerted part, Simeon departed sage lingered behind, and anxiously entered alone, representing himself as a watched all night by the body of the Rabbi. Next magician. In his account of this expedition, he morning the funeral attendants returned to pretended that he had seen the witches finish their sad offices. But, notwithstanding practicing their magic art, producing viands, every remonstrance, the coffins, which were wine, etc. At last they had asked him to display similar in appearance, were exchanged, and the his powers. “I undertake,” said he, “when I call Rabbi descended into the publican's grave, twice, to produce eighty youths who, in spite of while the latter reaped all the Rabbi's honors. the rain, will appear dressed in white, and with This mistake had deeply grieved the faithful whom ye may dance and enjoy yourselves.” “Be friend, when in a vision the departed Rabbi it so,” exclaimed the witches. appeared to console him by a description of the happy mansions in which he now resided, and The Rabbi now gave the preconcerted signals, of the tortures which the publican suffered. and the young men appeared. While dancing, each youth lifted his partner from the ground. Having thus deprived them of their magic

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powers, the witches were dragged out, and, Her eldest son Hyrcanus was now proclaimed without further investigation, immediately king; but Aristobulus, his more energetic executed. This summary proceeding was brother, put himself at the head of the contrary to the course of ordinary justice, and Sadducean malcontents, and forced the weak only excusable on account of the supposed Hyrcanus to abdicate. But, as before related, the difficulties of the case. In general, the Jewish Idumean, Antipater, the father of Herod, whose law did not allow capital sentence to be ambition, vigor, and talent were equally great, pronounced on more than one criminal in one sensible that the exaltation of a weak prince day. was the surest means of promoting his own The rigor of Simeon naturally roused the hatred schemes, persuaded Hyrcanus, after his of his opponents, and, according to tradition, abdication, to flee to Aretas, king of Arabia. some of them vowed vengeance against him. Antipater gained Aretas for the cause of the They concocted a false accusation against fugitive prince. No sooner was the irresolute Simeon's son; and so concurrent were their Hyrcanus made aware that he could depend for testimonies, that the youth was wrongfully assistance on the Arabs, than he broke the sentenced to death. On his way to the place of compact with his brother, and, at the head of a execution, he emphatically declared his Jewish and Arab force, advanced upon innocence, and called God to witness against his Jerusalem. Aristobulus went out to meet Aretas, accusers. So convincing were his assertions, and was defeated in battle. A large portion of that the witnesses confessed the falseness of Aristobulus' army now deserted to Hyrcanus, their accusations, and the judges wished to and indeed most of the people were disposed to arrest the sentence. But the prisoner himself accept their old king once more. Aristobulus protested that if the witnesses were allowed to with his few remaining adherents was obliged withdraw their testimony, no further credence precipitately to flee to Jerusalem, where he could be given to them. Simeon admitted the defended himself behind the temple walls. truth of this protest, and the unhappy youth It was at that stage that recourse was had to the died a victim of judicial formalism. The same celebrated Honias, a man of high repute among inflexible rigor is said to have induced Simeon, his contemporaries for his piety and power of in another instance, to summon even the king working miracles. We are told that once, when Jannai before the Sanhedrin. The king a season of unusual drought threatened the appeared; but the divine displeasure was so land with famine, a deputation came to Honias signally manifested in consequence, that a law to bespeak his prayers. At their request he was enacted to this effect : “The king neither entered the magic circle; nor did he leave it till, judges nor is he judged.” in answer to his prayers, rain descended; at The “days of Simeon ben Shetach and Queen first in drops, but afterwards in such quantity Salome” were naturally regarded by the that he had again to intercede for its cessation. Pharisees in later times as a golden age, and Thereupon Simeon, who disapproved of the tradition describes in extravagant language the embassy, and of Honias' conduct, sent the fertility of the land during this reign. But the following characteristic message : “If thou hadst Pharisees did not know how to use with not been Honias, I would have excommunicated moderation the influence which they enjoyed. thee; for it would have been better for us to They put to death several of the counselors of have suffered famine as in the days of Elias, the late king; and such was their persecuting than that the name of the Lord should have spirit; that at last a revolt broke out, and the been profaned by thee. But what can I do? Thou Sadducees, headed by Aristobulus, the younger sinnest against God, and yet He yieldeth to thee son of the queen, occupied many of the even as a father to a spoiled child. If it says, strongest fortresses in the country. Before any Lead me to a warm bath, the parent obeys; if it measures could be taken against them, Salome demands to be bathed in cold water, he still herself died • (69 B.C.). yields; if it asks for nuts, almonds, peaches, or

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pomegranates, it obtains its request. Holy writ Sanhedrin was at one time reduced by Gabinius refers to thee in the passage, ' Father and to the position of a judicial council for one-third mother rejoice over him, and she that bare him of Judea (56 B.C.) \ but under the exults over him.” administration of Caesar its former jurisdiction On the present occasion Honias was brought to was restored (47-44 BC). During part at least of the superstitious army of Hyrcanus and urged the reign of Hyrcanus, two of the leading men in to pronounce some magical curse against the the Sanhedrin were Shemajah and , defenders of the temple. Unable to obey, he is who are regarded by tradition as respectively recorded, instead of the desired curse, to have the president and vice-president of the uttered the following beautiful prayer : “Lord assembly. God of heaven, and King of the world, since That the political relations subsisting between those that now stand with me are Thy people, Palestine and the Romans prevented anything and those that are besieged are also Thy like independent action on the part of that priests, I beseech Thee that Thou wilt not hear tribunal, requires no proof. At the same time, their prayers against each other for evil.” Herod, the son of Antipater, was not disposed It is added that Honias was immediately stoned to tolerate any independent authority co- by the disappointed claimants of his aid. During ordinate with his own. His first appearance the protracted siege which now followed, before the Sanhedrin, even during the lifetime another plan, if possible more absurd and of Hyrcanus, when he occupied only a superstitious, was resorted to, in order to gain subordinate position, had already proved that possession of the temple. Hitherto a regard for he did not acknowledge its sacred character; the temple and its services had induced the for, when summoned to answer for some besiegers to furnish the priests besieged in the arbitrary acts, he appeared at the head of a temple with the animals required for the daily considerable force before the overawed Senate, sacrifices. not in the garb of a culprit, but armed from head to foot, and more like an accuser than one One of the Grecian Jews in the army of accused. Of all the senators only Shemajah Hyrcanus now suggested, as the most likely ventured to protest against this presumption. means of success, that this supply should be He reprobated energetically the insolent discontinued. The advice was acted upon, and conduct of the youth, and Herod had to flee, but although a high price was taken from the soon returned again at the head of an army to defenders of the temple, yet when the vessel take vengeance. From the execution of this was lowered over the wall, instead of the lamb purpose he was only diverted by the entreaties destined for the altar usually placed in it, an of his father and brother. unclean animal was sent up. It is said that this profanation was the occasion of an earthquake We are told that, on the occasion when the throughout the land. To mark the national youthful Herod was summoned before the horror of this blasphemous scheme of the Sanhedrin for trial, Shemajah predicted that on Grecian, an anathema was pronounced against account of their cowardice the members of that all who kept unclean animals, and against the council would yet fall victims to Herod's study of Grecian science generally. None of vengeance. Ten years later this prophecy was these devices succeeded, and Aristobulus fulfilled. Herod inaugurated his reign by putting obtained temporary safety by securing the to death all the principal adherents of protection of the Romans. Antigonus, including many members of the Sanhedrin. The vacancies in the council were We pass over the different events which at last filled by men who were disposed to submit to deprived Aristobulus of the favor of Rome, and the new king, many of them belonging to the induced Pompey to recognize Hyrcanus as high party of the Pharisees. The Sanhedrin must now priest, but without the title of king. During the have lost all real power, and one consequence political disturbances which followed, the of their lack of independence was an increase of

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legislation on purely religious questions, or out as the man who gave its peculiar tone to the rather on the civil institutions connected with religious thinking, not only of his own period, religion, consisting not so much in an but to that of Jewish theology in general. This elaboration of a system of doctrines or period was the golden age of Talmudism. dogmatics, as in a kind of canon law. The personal history of Hillel is exceedingly Accordingly, we find that subsequent teachers interesting. Born in Babylon about the year 70 appeal with more than ordinary frequency to B.C., of poor parents, although, it is said, Shemajah and Abtalion as authorities for their descended in the female line from the house of own juridical decisions in these matters. Of David, he married when twenty years of age. Shemajah few distinct notices are left besides ' His son was called Simeon, and was, according the principle : “Love labor, hate lordship, and to some authorities, the first to bear the title of do not press forward to the authorities.” Of his Rabban. It is, however, remarkable that there is colleague Abtalion, tradition has chronicled not a single allusion to him in the Mishnah. more particulars. Jewish legendaries, who love Jewish legend extends the life of Hillel much the wonderful, and delight to connect their beyond the usual period. It is said that at forty names with an ancestry inimical to the Jews, so years of age he emigrated into Palestine, where as to show the triumphs of their faith, state that he studied and taught for forty years, at the his father was a heathen, and had descended termination of which period he was elevated to from Sennacherib. His learning and authority the rank of Nasi, which he is supposed to have were very great. The principle to which he gave filled for other forty years. Like many other utterance was : “Be cautious, ye sages, in your sages, he was poor, and obliged to support words, lest ye be condemned to captivity, and himself by the labor of his hands. It is asserted led into exile, to places of noxious waters, from that he earned daily a very small sum, the half which, if your pupils drink, they will die, of which he gave to the doorkeeper of the whereby the name of God would be college in order to be admitted to the lectures dishonored.” of Abtalion and Shemajah, and that with the The second consequence of the change in the rest he supported himself and his family. position of the Sanhedrin was the increase of The mode in which he attracted notice is colleges, instituted for the purpose of initiating curious. One day his supply of money had the youth in the traditions of the elders, and in failed, and the janitor would not admit him into theological casuistry. the lecture-room. Although in the depth of [In the Sanhedrin the real authority fell more winter, the zealous scholar, rather than lose the and more into the hands of the priestly families day's instruction, climbed from the outside up whom Herod raised to power. But in the to the window, where he sat till he was schools the great Rabbins were still able to completely covered with snow, and rendered gather their disciples round them, and to take insensible by the cold. Sabbath morning part freely in the discussion of religious dawned, and the teachers wondered why the controversies.] light remained excluded from the schoolhouse. Three sages of this time Menahem, Shammai, On examining the window, they discovered and Hillel deserve special notice. Menahem has their zealous hearer. Glad for the sake of so been identified with an Essene of that name promising a student even to break through the who foretold Herod's accession to the throne. sanctity of the Sabbath, the requisite remedies According to one Jewish tradition, he forsook were applied, and, to the joy of all present, the schools and retired to the court of Herod, Hillel was restored to life. accompanied by a large number of his disciples. From that time his fame increased, and the Of all persons mentioned in the literary and following account is given of his appointment religious history of the Hebrew nation, few, if as president of the Sanhedrin. Once an any, equal Hillel in fame. He may well be singled

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important question was laid before the sons of “Be thou of the disciples of , a lover and Bethera follower of peace, a lover of mankind, and one [perhaps the members of a priestly family who binds them to the Law.” He was also wont which had been placed in office by Herod] to say : “Whoever aims after fame shall only lose his name. Whoever does not increase in . The difficulty which had arisen was, whether, learning, decreases. Whoever will not acquire as the Passover occurred that year on the knowledge becomes guilty of death. Whoever Sabbath day, the solemnities of the feast were tries to make gain of the crown (of the study of to take precedence of those of the Sabbath or the Law) shall perish.” He also said : “If I am not not? The question does not seem to have been to be for myself, who then shall be for me? and discussed at any previous period, and the sons as long as I only am for myself, what am I; and if of Bethera confessed their inability to decide it. not now, when then?” Hillel was now sent for, as having been a distinguished pupil of Abtalion. His arguments We subjoin a few other choice sayings of this failed, indeed, to convince the members of the father of the synagogue; they will indicate the college, but his appeal to the authority of direction of theology at the period of our Lord's Shemajah and Abtalion settled the question. advent, when Hillel flourished : The sons of Bethera resigned their office, and “Do not separate thyself from the Hillel was elevated to the presidency of the congregation; and do not put confidence in Sanhedrin. thyself till the day of thy death.” The learning of Hillel, whom tradition places “Judge not thy neighbor until thou art in his side by side with Ezra, was celebrated in situation.” hyperbolical language. It was said to have “Say not. When I shall have leisure I will embraced, not only Scripture and tradition, but study; for perhaps thou mayest never have languages, geography, natural history, in fact, that leisure.” all sciences, human and superhuman. To show the extent of his influence upon the rising “An ignorant man cannot properly abhor generation, it is asserted that Hillel had eighty sin; a peasant cannot be pious : a bashful pupils. Of these, thirty were, in the language of person cannot become learned; an irascible the time, described as worthy that the divine man cannot become a teacher, nor he who glory should rest upon them, as it did upon engages much in business a sage; and Moses; thirty, that at their command the sun where there are no right men, see to it that should stand still in the firmament, as in the thou prove thyself such a one.” case of Joshua; while only twenty were less “He who has gotten a good name has gotten noted. it for himself. He who has gotten to himself Amongst them Jonathan the son of Uzziel was words of the Law, has gotten to himself the the most distinguished, while Jochanan the son life of the world to come.” of Saccai, who afterwards sustained so From these various maxims we can see that, important a part in Jewish history, was the least like the other Rabbins, he ascribed the highest celebrated. Statements like these are meant to merit to, and connected the kingdom of heaven impress posterity with a sense of the greatness with, the study of the Law. Although his of Hillel. learning was so great that it had procured for [The fact that he is never spoken of as Rabbi him the place formerly occupied by the sons of Hillel proves clearly that this term had not yet Bethera, yet in the multitude of traditions even been introduced as a distinctive title; and his he is said on one occasion to have forgotten a grandson, Gamaliel I, is the first to whom the certain ordinance. Hillel was extremely simple Mishnah applies the title of Rabban.] in his mode of living, modest, meek, patient, and kind. To him the merit is due of having laid The following are amongst the theological down definite rules for guidance in deducing principles of this sage, as handed down to us : Halachoth or laws of custom from the written

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law. Of these rules, which were seven in Of the learning of Jonathan, fabulous accounts number, more will be said in another place. are left. When he busied himself in the study of But the most prominent, though perhaps the the Law, it was said the birds which flew over least tangible consequence of his teaching, was his head were burnt up. Jonathan is best known the peculiarly speculative direction which he as the author of a Targum, or periphrastic gave to Jewish theology, to which he may be translation of the Prophets, which bears his said to have given its peculiar form, as he name. According to the tradition, when he imparted to it that bias which it ever since brought out this work, a voice from heaven was preserved. The voice from heaven, to which the heard to say : “Who is it that has revealed my Rabbins in the last instance appealed for secrets to men?” The existing Targum, however, decision, declared indeed at first that the which must be distinguished from the Targum principles of the school of Shammai, which of a pseudo-Jonathan on the Pentateuch, is a were opposed to those of Hillel, were equally work of a later date, and must be regarded as a correct with those professed by their Babylonian recension of the old Palestinian opponents. But while the teaching of both Targum. schools was declared to be “ the words of the Shammai was very wealthy. He was said to living God,” the views of Hillel were adjudged to have carried his punctiliousness so far as to be authoritative or Halakhah. have “ daily eaten in honour of the Sabbath.” Although agreeing with Hillel in all essentials, a Deeming it meritorious to reserve the best food greater contrast could scarcely be conceived, for the Sabbath, he was wont to purchase for both in method of teaching and in manner of that purpose any fine animal exposed in the life, than that between Hillel and his great market. This process he is said to have repeated contemporary, Shammai. daily, until at length he always dined on what had originally been selected for the Sabbath If the former was poor, frugal, and mild to meal. His recorded theological principle is laxity, the latter was rich, irascible, intolerant, characteristic both of his scrupulosity and his given to the pleasures of the table, and yet peculiar method. towards other offenders severe to harshness. He said: “Let the study of the Law be a fixed As the speculative principles of the former were occupation; say little and do much; and receive liberal, so those of the latter were strictly all men with a frank and respectful traditional; and as the method of Hillel was that countenance.” of free development of thought, so that of Shammai consisted in a rigid adherence to the Both he and the teachers who followed in his letter. It would, however, be a mistake to wake were strict traditionalists in matter and suppose that the ordinances of Hillel were method, in opposition to the school of Hillel, always the more mild and liberal. which adhered indeed to traditions, but freely applied and developed them. Although the [Even the strictness of Shammai could be made starting principles of these two teachers seem a means of showing generosity. Thus we are almost identical, their application and continual told 2 that Jonathan ben Uzziel, reputed as the development would gradually bring to light and ablest of Hillel's scholars, was disinherited by continually increase any real differences which his father. Uzziel left his property to Shammai, obtained between them. Ultimately the who thereupon sold one-third of his bequest for difference became such, that it was said that, by his own benefit, gave another part to the temple the opposing teaching of Hillel and Shammai, treasury, and returned the remaining portion to the one (law) had become two. the legitimate heir. He bade anyone who protested against this conduct to recover the Political differences helped to increase the first two portions before he could touch the enmity between the rival schools, and on one third.] occasion, probably about four years before the destruction of the temple, when the parties

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met, blood was actually shed. Altogether, such The sages found him busy working in the was the authority enjoyed by these two fields. To their salutation, “Peace to you!” he teachers, that a Christian Father reports Jewish returned no answer, deeming it dishonest Christians were wont to apply the prediction to his employer to interrupt himself in the (in Isa. viii.), that Christ should be a stumbling- work for which he was to be paid by him. block to both the houses of Israel, to these two The sages remained beside him till even, schools; nor does this estimate of their when, after having collected a bundle of influence upon the theological thinking of their sticks, and laid an upper garment which he own and the following generations seem had borrowed over his shoulder in order to extravagant. save it, he led the way home with the same Among the other prominent sages of that and punctiliousness which had throughout the next period, we may mention Rabbi marked his conduct, taking care neither to Jochanan ben Hachorani, a disciple of Hillel, waste his shoes nor to injure his feet. who was the son of a proselyte mother from the At the entrance of his house, his pious wife, district of Haran; Ben Bagh, also a disciple of clean, and beautifully arrayed, so that her Hillel and a proselyte, who had, during his life, husband might always fix his regards only earnestly sought the advancement of the study on her, awaited his return. Chilkia made her of the Law; and Rabbi Chananja ben Chiskia ben enter first, as he did not know his guests Garon, a person well known in Jerusalem, sufficiently to allow them to remain alone in whose dwelling was the scene of the bitter her company. He did not invite the quarrel between the adherents of Hillel and of strangers to partake of supper with him, as Shammai. there was scarcely sufficient for all, and he Amongst other things, Chananja was said to felt unwilling to accept thanks for what was have written a Commentary on the prophecies not sufficient. of Ezekiel, by which he restored to the Jewish After the meal, Chilkia communicated to his Church the use of the writings of that prophet wife the errand of the strangers, but asked which the Rabbins had interdicted, from an her to ascend with him to the roof, in order apprehension that it contradicted, on the to pray there, so that the strangers might subject of sacrifices, the law of Moses, Baba ben not know that the rain had descended in Bota is mentioned as a disciple of Shammai, answer to their prayers. While engaged in who was consulted by Herod on the rebuilding that exercise the desired refreshment came, of the temple. Rabbi Nahum Halliblar had been the clouds first gathering over the spot one of the secretaries of the temple Sanhedrin, where Chilkia's wife stood. For this Rabbi Papias, who survived the destruction of circumstance Chilkia accounted on the the temple, was a witness whose evidence was ground that his wife, who was always at afterwards adduced to decide the legal practice home, was able, by an immediate supply, to of earlier times. gladden the poor, while he could only give Chanin Hanachba and Abba Chilkia, both them money, which could not procure grandsons of the noted Honias, were reputed to instantaneous relief of their wants. have inherited from their grandfather the In connection with this anecdote, and as an faculty of working miracles. The latter was illustration of the duty of charity, the author of equally distinguished for scrupulousness in the book from which we quote it relates an legal observances. ordinance (ascribed to Ezra),i which enjoins A story which is told of an incident in the housewives to bake bread every Friday life of this sage will sufficiently illustrate morning, so as to be able to distribute it both qualities. Want of rain induced the amongst the poor for their use on the Sabbath Rabbins to send a deputation to Abba while fresh and palatable, and to accompany Chilkia, to bespeak his prayers for relief. the gift with kind and encouraging words, that

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the recipients of the charity might, if possible, who were ardent nationalists, was not opposed for a time forget their misery. to Roman supremacy. We can only briefly Such were the most prominent among the sages allude to his measures for the regulation of the whom their theological attainments, personal Jewish calendar. The appearance of the new character, or reputation for sanctity, placed at moon was of the greatest importance for the the head of Jewish religious society. We have computation of the Jewish feasts. It had been faithfully traced their portraits, and purposely the practice for those who first observed its dwelt at some length on incidents in their appearance to hasten to Jerusalem and intimate history, that the reader may be enabled to judge this to the Sanhedrin, by whom they were for himself of the state of religion amongst the closely questioned on the subject. To secure people, and of the direction which theology, more certainty, and to be less dependent on piety, and religious ardor assumed at that unsatisfactory reports, Gamaliel laid down period. The age of Hillel was, in many respects, certain astronomical rules by which the the most distinguished. It was also that in accuracy of the witnesses might be tested and which Jesus Christ appeared. doubtful cases decided. Several of the Rabbins whom we have named The tradition that Gamaliel became a Christian must have witnessed His advent, and have rests upon no solid foundation. In reality he taught during His lifetime, even if they did not remained to the end firmly attached to the have a more or less direct share in His rejection traditions of the fathers. At his decease, about and death. Considering the state of the eighteen years before the destruction of synagogue, can we still wonder at this? Could Jerusalem, it was said in the magniloquent their pride and exclusiveness, their wrangling language of the period, and perhaps not and learning, their religious zeal and ardor, without reference to subsequent events, that have found satisfaction in the life, the work, or the glory of the Law had departed, and that the teaching of Jesus of Nazareth? general wickedness had seized men. The recorded principle of Gamaliel expresses his Hillel is said to have been succeeded by his son adherence to traditionalism, and his Simeon as president of the Sanhedrin. This abhorrence of wrangling and over- tradition perhaps really relates to the headship scrupulousness. It is : “ Procure thyself a of the Rabbinic school; but very little is teacher; avoid being in doubt; and do not recorded in the writings of the Jews about this accustom thyself to give tithes by guess.” In the Simeon. The grandson of Hillel was Gamaliel I Christian world Gamaliel is known as the (the elder), the same who gave the temperate teacher of the Apostle Paul. advice which led to the suspension of the persecution of the early Church. His learning Of Simeon the Second, the son of Gamaliel, little and high character gained for him not only the is known, save that he took an active part in the universal respect of the people, but also a defense of Jerusalem, and that he opposed the position of great authority in the Sanhedrin. wild fanaticism of the Zealots. The principle to which he gave utterance was : “All my life have I [The common Jewish tradition, indeed, been brought up among sages, nor have I found represents him as president of that body; but anything better than to keep silence, for, to act this representation does not accord with the and not to explain, is the principle and basis of language used of him in the Acts (5:34).] all; but he who multiplies words only induces Deeply versed as he was in the current sin.” theological lore, he seems to have attempted to We shall, in conclusion, make mention of a moderate the discussions between the rival contemporary of these Rabbins, who has schools of Hillel and Shammai. Like Hillel, who sometimes been identified with a Jewish ruler had throughout supported the government of who appears in the New Testament, we mean Herod, he also abstained from political Nicodemus, who came to Jesus by night. A agitation; and unlike the school of Shammai, Naqdimon, or Nicodemus ben Gorion, is

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described in the Talmud as one of the three cannot recall a single instance in which the wealthiest men of Jerusalem (Ben Zizith and latter were in any proper sense discussed, or Ben Kalba Shabua being named as the other even referred to, in the religious teaching of the two). His name, Nicodemus, is derived by Rabbins. Throughout, it was the outward Talmudists from a miracle which is reported to observance, and not the spiritual effects of any have taken place in answer to his prayers. His ordinance, which were made the subject of former name is recorded to have been Bonai, study and discussion in the Jewish colleges. and a certain Bonai is expressly named in the Dogmatics, or any system of doctrines, were not Talmud as one of the disciples of Jesus. professed in the synagogue. The doctrinal views But in spite of this coincidence, we can hardly of the sages were indeed of a loose and believe that this somewhat legendary undefined character, and can only be gathered Nicodemus was the Nicodemus of the Gospel. in an indirect manner from a consideration of After the fall of Jerusalem, it is said, the their religious poetry, of their prayers, etc., to daughter of Nicodemus ben Gorion was which we shall have occasion to refer more exposed to such want as to be obliged to pick fully in the sequel. up from the ground grains of barley. Then It was grounds such as those above indicated passed by Rabbi Jochanan ben Saccai, who had that, however much the loss of the temple was signed her marriage contract, in which her deplored by the people, its want was in reality father had promised her a dowry of a million little felt from the first. The worshippers had pieces of gold. “Unhappy nation,” he exclaimed, clung to it only as they clung to the letter of the “you could not serve God, and therefore you law; and as in the latter case the traditional must serve foreign nations; you would not offer took the place of the written law, so in the half a shekel for the temple, therefore you must former the synagogue, with its prayers and pay thirty times as much to your enemies.” ordinances, took the place of the temple with its rites and sacrifices. In the present instance the Chapter 6 – History of the Synagogue from change had been fully prepared. For more than the Destruction of Jerusalem to the Jewish two centuries the influence of the Rabbins had War of Liberation been steadily increasing. The synagogues had The destruction of Jerusalem and its sanctuary, long been the proper centers of religious life to which shook the Hebrew commonwealth to its the masses, and one set of ordinances might foundation, and removed the last remainder of now be substituted for another, in agreement national independence, while it destroyed the with the wants of the times. We would even go old Sanhedrin, produced few marked changes farther, and say that in the existing state of the in the synagogue. It is true that the temple rites, synagogue such a change had become and those sacrifices which constituted the necessary, and the detachment of the sole central point of the Old Testament economy, remaining member of the old economy could had now become impossible, and in only promote the development of consequence the priesthood gradually receded traditionalism. In reality, then, so far from being from public life; but the sacrifices had already affected by the cessation of the Mosaic lost much of their interest and importance. In economy, and the removal of the Sanhedrin point of fact, the religious views of Israel had from the capital, Judaism afterwards not only undergone a gradual modification, to which the grew, but rapidly attained its full maturity. destruction of the temple, and the cessation of Twice before, we are told, had the Sanhedrin its ritual, served only as the completion. been obliged to change their place of meeting. The people clung, indeed, with passionate Forty years before the destruction of Jerusalem tenacity, to the sanctuary and its ordinances; they removed from the Chamber of Hewn but what of that attachment was not purely Stones to the Bazaars, and subsequently from national, belonged to the form and letter, not to the Bazaars to Jerusalem. These Bazaars are the spirit and meaning, of these rites. We usually identified with the Bazaars of the Sons

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of Hanan, which are said to have been life and teaching. He is represented as destroyed three years before the temple, and scrupulously observant of the traditions, as may perhaps denote the temple market, where entirely engaged with the study of the law, and victims for the sacrifices were sold. as surrounded by a numerous and intelligent [It must, however, be admitted that our class of hearers. His virtues were afterwards authorities do not enable us to determine the summed up in the following characteristic site with certainty, and one passage just cited catalogue. suggests that these shops were outside the city It was said, he had never been known to engage proper. The Mishnah never mentions them, and in any profane conversation; he had always indeed always speaks as though the Sanhedrin been the first to enter the academy; he had had continued to meet in the Chamber of Hewn never wittingly or unwittingly allowed himself Stones (Gazith) down till the time of the to be overtaken by sleep while in the academy; destruction of the temple.] he had never gone abroad a distance of four Even before the fall of Jerusalem, Jochanan ben cubits without carrying about his person a copy Saccai, who had escaped from the besieged city, of the Law and the phylacteries; he had never had founded a school at Jamnia or Jabne, a city been found idle, but had always been occupied near the shores of the Mediterranean, and with the study of the law; he had always in between the ancient cities of Joppa and Ashdod. person lectured to his pupils; and he had never According to tradition, as we have already taught anything which he had not received mentioned, Jochanan was the least amongst from his teachers. To complete the sum of his Hillel's eighty students. excellences, he had never been heard to say that it was time to leave the college. To this Rabbi now fell the honour of becoming the first Nasi or President of the new Contemporaries also celebrated his longevity, Sanhedrin, a body which combined the which he himself ascribed to scrupulous characters of a tribunal and a college of learned observance of the traditions, and to diligent men. It can hardly have obtained as yet any study of the law. He afterwards recommended formal recognition from Rome, but it was these measures to others as the surest means of regarded unhesitatingly by Israel as the prolonging life. No doubt Jochanan's fame was supreme court of law, and in course of time in great measure due to the influence which he even usurped the right of exercising criminal afterwards exercised at Jamnia. But even before jurisdiction. the destruction of Jerusalem he had been a member according to some, one of the leaders Jochanan owed his position partly to the of the sacred college. Tradition reports the influence he formerly possessed in the old arguments with which he contended with the Sanhedrin, and partly to his own political and Sadducees on four points, partly religious and religious moderation. partly juridical, which they controverted. These [Unless we accept the age of 120 years which were: legend assigns to Jochanan ben Saccai, it seems 1. Whether the Feast of Weeks (Pentecost) at least doubtful whether he can ever have required always to be celebrated exactly on actually heard the great Hillel; but he may truly the first day of the week? be spoken of as one of his disciples.' We know but little about his earlier years.] 2. What was the precise portion of the sacrifices due to the priests? According to one tradition, for the first forty years of his life Jochanan had been engaged in 3. Whether the daughters of the original business; after that he wholly devoted himself testator had a claim to an equal share in the to the law. Besides giving glowing descriptions inheritance if the male heir-at-law had died of his learning, which, as usually, is said to have leaving only female successors (a point comprised the whole cycle of the knowable, asserted by the Sadducees and denied by Jewish legends furnish abundant notices of his the Pharisees)? and lastly,

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4. Whether the restrictions imposed by the egress. At last he caused tidings of his decease school of Shammai upon the use of the to be spread. It was proposed to elude their Scriptures, the handling of which they vigilance by carrying the Rabbi in a bier out of declared Levitically defiled the hands, were the city. One of Jochanan's relatives was captain binding, an ordinance this which must have of a company of Zealots in charge of the gate greatly restricted their use? through which the party was to pass. Although The grounds on which the orthodox opinions the precaution had been taken to put a piece of were defended by Jochanan, however powerful putrid flesh into the bier, some of the Zealots they may have appeared to a Rabbinist, are in had almost insisted on examining it; but their themselves not very convincing. leader, who was privy to the plan, restrained them by protesting against a profanation of the In some respects Rabban Jochanan may be obsequies of so great a teacher. designated rather as the representative of all the various tendencies in the synagogue, than Ultimately the procession was allowed to pass, as member of any party or as an independent and safely reached the Roman camp, where thinker. He employed and developed Hillel's Vespasian welcomed his arrival, and allowed method. Like Hillel, he was also liberal in his him to proffer a request. Rabbi Jochanan is said general views. Thus he seems to have to have first conciliated the general's favor by frequently engaged in discussions with predicting his future accession to the purple, on heathens; and such was his general affability the ground that the temple could only be taken and courtesy to all, that no man was ever by a monarch (Isa. 10:34). Then, instead of known to have anticipated his salutation. asking any personal favor, he only requested permission to continue at Jamnia those schools On the other hand, like the school of Shammai, which had hitherto flourished in the capital. he was tenaciously attached to the traditions of This request was granted; and he now settled the elders. To complete the cycle, he also busily with his disciples in Jamnia, there to await the occupied himself with the study of mystical issue of events. theology. Thus, from his peculiar cast of mind, Rabban Jochanan was exactly the man for the When tidings of the destruction of the temple times, and his deficiency in independence did arrived, the assembled scholars rent their important service in the way of consolidating garments, and mourned as for the death of a parties and preserving peace at a very critical relative; but their master comforted them by period. Another trait in his character was a love reminding them that Judaism still existed, and of peace, which inclined him to favor Roman that works of beneficence might now be domination. During the siege of Jerusalem he substituted for sacrifices, as it was written : “I had often besought the Zealots and leaders of have chosen mercy, and not sacrifice,” an the revolution not to bring certain destruction interpretation (be it observed) in perfect upon the city and the sanctuary. He went even agreement with the spirit of traditionalism. further, and from some evil omens ventured to The next step taken by Jochanan and his friends predict the impending desolation. Such was to convoke a Sanhedrin at Jamnia, of which declarations, no doubt reported to the Roman he was chosen president, the more readily that general, afterwards secured for him a favorable Gamaliel ben Simeon, the representative of the reception in the camp of the enemy. house of Hillel, was probably a minor, and had But the suspicion of the Zealots had been only escaped the vengeance of the Romans roused, and Jochanan had to flee. It is said that, through Jochanan's special intercession. having obtained the assurance of personal Besides, Simeon's share in the defense of safety from the Romans, he forthwith prepared Jerusalem would have excited suspicion against to leave Jerusalem; but the accomplishment of the Sanhedrin of Jamnia, if any of his immediate this was matter of considerable difficulty, as the descendants had been named its president. In Zealots guarded the city gates and prevented all the hands of this council the work of transforming and adapting Judaism to the

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altered political circumstances proved a task of the one in 1 Tim. 6:4, as “ questions and strifes little difficulty. Jamnia had only to be of words “; the other as “fables and genealogies” substituted for Jerusalem, a few ordinances to (1 Tim. 1:4). The body of traditional ordinances be discontinued or slightly altered, and certain forms the subject of the Mishnah or Second prayers or good works to be substituted for the Law; but it must not be supposed that Halakhah sacrifices; and the change was effected without and Haggadah formed entirely distinct leaving any trace of violent revolution. branches of study. Indeed, one tract of the From what has been stated, it will not be existing Mishnah consists wholly of Haggadah, difficult to form a correct estimate of Rabbi and many Haggadic passages are to be found Jochanan's character and activity. Although also in other tracts. In time the Mishnah itself destitute of originality or brilliant talents, he came to require interpretation, hence the origin was specially the man for the circumstances of of the Gemara or Talmud, which contains the the synagogue. With considerable learning explanation and application of the Halakhah to stored up in a faithful memory, he combined an certain cases in dispute. A third discipline, earnest assiduity to do all in his power to which formed in some respects a transition recommend himself to the favor of the Deity. from the Halakhah to the Haggadah, was the Besides, he served as a channel for Midrash. It consisted in explanations of communicating traditional lore to more Scripture according to certain defined rules, independent thinkers. and was meant to derive the various Halakhah from the sacred text, or at least to connect them The absence of independence in his religious with it. teaching secured for him the support of all parties, while it enabled him to furnish from his The Haggadah was a peculiarly fascinating pupils Rabbins belonging to all the different branch of study. Attractive to the hearers by tendencies of Rabbinism. The most notable act brilliant sallies, by displays of ingenuity, or by of his public administration was to secure the wonderful stories, it gave special scope for the full recognition of the rights and privileges of cleverness or the imagination of the Rabbins. the assembly at Jamnia, which was now By it a Halakhah might be illustrated, or more authorized to fix definitely the commencement frequently a passage of Scripture commented of the new month even in the absence of the upon in a novel fashion. Without binding Patriarch. In principle, the Nasi was a Hillelite. himself to any strict or even rational exegetical His liberality induced him, for example, to principles, the Haggadist would bring almost admit that even heathens, if deserving of it by anything out of the text, and interweave his acts of beneficence, might inherit the kingdom comment with curious legends. A sign or a of heaven. In strange contrast with a liberality particle in the verse under consideration, so unusual in those days, was Jochanan's strict would be twisted so as to convey a special practice, in which he followed the school of meaning, in short, it was an ingenious play Shammai. The branch of theology in which the upon the Scriptures. Nasi really excelled was that known as the At the same time, the Haggadah remained only Haggadah. the personal saying of the individual teacher, In general, traditionalism may be divided into and its value depended upon his learning and two portions, which respectively treat of the reputation, or upon the names which he could Halakhah, the legislative enactments of the quote in support of his statements. Hence the Fathers, or engage in the Haggadah, or free Haggadah, which contained the main body of interpretation. While the latter expressed for Jewish moral and dogmatic theology, possessed the most part the varying views of the times, no absolute authority. Probably it was the former was strictly traditional, though considered that the various Rabbinical earlier enactments might be extended and principles enunciated or defended by the developed to almost any extent. Both seem to Haggadists were correct, and that their be referred to in Scripture, and characterized, interpretations, or rather illustrations of

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Scripture, were of comparatively secondary assented to that of Ben Arach, who found the importance. Nor should it be overlooked that most desirable object to be a good, and the the student of mystical theology derived most grievous an evil heart. considerable assistance from the Haggadic Of the sages who had gathered round the Nasi method of interpreting Scripture. It enabled in Jamnia, there were many who had seen the him, although according to certain defined temple in its glory. Amongst these, several exegetical principles, to elicit the hidden deserve particular notice. Rabbi Hananiah was meaning of the text. We shall have an one of the few who prayed for the Roman opportunity of dwelling on these points in the Empire : sequel. [he was probably the last to hold the office of To return : Jochanan excelled principally in prefect of the priests in the temple.] Haggadic and mystical studies; and some rather Upon Rabbi Nahum the Mede had devolved the ingenious Rabbinical comments, which bear his sad duty of absolving from their vows some name, have descended to us. It was his who only reached Jerusalem in time to find the fundamental principle : “If thou hast much sanctuary desolate. Admon and Chanan were learned in the law, claim not merit to thyself, celebrated jurists, whose sometimes diverging seeing thou hast been created for that very legal decisions are recorded. Rabbi Zadok was a purpose.” pupil of Shammai. Foreseeing the destruction of Among the pupils of Jochanan were five men the temple, he had, in grief for the anticipated who afterwards attained to considerable event, fasted for forty years. In consequence of eminence in the synagogue. They were Eleazar these privations, his health had become so the son of Hyrcanus, whom, on account of his shattered that it never afterwards became tenacious memory, and attachment to the completely restored. Halakhah, Jochanan compared to a well- Rabbi Dosa ben Harchinas was a man of great plastered cistern, which does not let out a wealth (able to accommodate his guests on single drop; Joshua the son of Chananja, whose golden chairs), and a bitter partisan of the mother he declared a happy woman; Joses, school of Hillel. He did not hesitate to warn whom he termed “ the pious priest “; Simeon others against the insidious opinions of his own the son of Nathaniel, “ who feared sin “; and brother, who belonged to the school of Eleazar the son of Arach, who is described as “ a Shammai. But his views were not always fountain whose waters continually increased.” homologated by his contemporaries. Abba Saul Among these five youths, Eleazar ben Arach, ben Botnith had been a wine merchant in Eleazar the son of Hyrcanus, and Joshua were Jerusalem, and was noted for his conscientious the most prominent. The former was famed for honesty in business transactions. It was said the study of Jewish mysticism. that he had not retained for himself even the To such a degree did he excel in this, that on dregs of the wine, deeming them the rightful one occasion the divine glory was said to have property of his customers. On his deathbed he shone around him, and his delighted teacher extended his right hand, and declared that it pronounced Abraham happy to have had such a had always been scrupulously exact in its descendant. On the other hand, his colleague, dealings. Eleazar ben Hyrcanus, was a faithful The more noted Abba was for uncompromising representative of strict and simple honesty, the more painfully truthful appears traditionalism. Rabbi Jochanan's peculiar mode the sad picture which he drew of the general of instruction, in its most favorable aspect, is corruption prevailing amongst the noble illustrated in certain questions which he is said priestly families before the destruction of the to have put to his five favorite pupils. They sanctuary. Another sage who deserves a were to determine respectively the most passing notice, was Chanina ben Dosa. It was desirable and the most undesirable object. said that his worth had been such, that a voice Among the various replies offered, Jochanan

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from heaven had daily declared that the whole “Nay rather, alas ! if ye did not see me so world was only preserved for the sake of suffering.” Chanina. His fundamental principle is Rabbi Nahum was distinguished in theology as remarkable as being more practical than those an original thinker; he followed Hillel's method of many others. “The wisdom of a man will be of biblical interpretation. The latter had laid abiding if his fear of sin precedes his desire down a number of rules, according to which the after wisdom; but where search after wisdom meaning of the text was to be ascertained. To precedes the fear of sin, wisdom will only prove these exegetical principles (which we shall a temporary possession.” mention by and by) Nahum added another In the same sense he used to say : “The man canon, important in the development of whose works exceed his wisdom really Rabbinism. Certain articles and prepositions in possesses firm and lasting wisdom; but he the text were now stated to serve not only a whose wisdom excels his works, will find that grammatical purpose, but also to indicate that the former also will prove unstable.” Many the obvious meaning of the text required either anecdotes are related to show this Rabbi's to be enlarged or else restricted. It will readily power. It was supposed that when praying for be conceived what a wide door this canon the sick, he felt, by his liberty of utterance, or by opened to fanciful interpretation, particularly the want of it, whether the person prayed for when afterwards carried to all its would recover or die. Thus, when Rabban consequences. Gamaliel sent to entreat Chanina's intercession To this exegetical innovation Rabbi Nechuniah for his son, who lay dangerously ill, after was, on the other hand, decidedly opposed. complying with the request, Chanina Untrustworthy tradition, later than the communicated to the messengers that the lad Talmudic age, represents this teacher as was restored, a fact which he gathered from his occupied chiefly with mystical theology, and liberty in interceding for him. It is added, that ascribes the composition of the oldest cabalistic the event proved the correctness of his works to him or to his father. Naturally of a assertion. mild and kindly disposition, Nechuniah, who But the two most remarkable Rabbins at Jamnia obtained the title of the Great, attained to a very were Nahum from Gimso (the present Jimzu old age, which he ascribed to the fact that he near Lydda) and Nechuniah ben Hakanah. The had never sought honour in the disgrace of his former of these sages was severely tried. With neighbor, or gone to rest with evil thoughts Rabbinical resignation he viewed his trials as so against anyone; that he had always been liberal, many consequences of his own harshness and and never accepted a bribe. Himself a living unkindness. It is said that on one occasion he protest against the supposed worldliness of had carried to the house of his father-in-law some of his con-temporaries, he was heard to some valuable presents. A poor person had declare that the person who submitted himself asked him for assistance while he was engaged to the yoke of the law would find exemption unloading the beasts which had carried the rich from the burdens of this world, while an burden. Nahum bade him wait. But before he opposite course would entail corresponding was at leisure to attend to him, the person who burdens. It is interesting to notice that had asked his help had sunk from want and Nechuniah was one of the few who were wont exhaustion. In grief for an unkindness which to ejaculate a short prayer, both when entering had caused the poor man's death, he invoked the college and again when leaving it. He blindness upon his eyes and paralysis upon his assigned the following reasons for this unusual hands and feet. These imprecations were soon practice: “When I enter,” he said, “I pray that I verified, and Nahum gladly suffered in order to may not be the occasion of error; and when I expiate his sin. Accordingly, when his pupils, at leave I bless the Lord for my calling.” the sight of his sufferings, exclaimed, “Alas ! Rabbi Jochanan the Nasi died as he had lived. that we see thee in such suffering,” he replied, Before his decease he manifested, to the

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astonishment of his disciples, deep spiritual outweigh all the sages of Israel put together, anguish, in the prospect of meeting, as he came at last to be ridiculed for his ignorance of expressed it, not an earthly king who might be the law. appeased, but the righteous Judge, who Rabban Gamaliel was a close imitator of his punishes sinners with everlasting destruction. predecessors of the house of Hillel. His He dreaded to be called in question for his character exhibited a curious, though not manifold iniquities, and wept in the uncertainty unusual, combination of different elements. On whether heaven or hell would become his the one hand, he was kind to his inferiors, portion. Before expiring, he expressed to his readily moved to pity, well versed in traditional friends the wish, that the fear of God might as law and the cognate sciences, and of such much influence their conduct as the fear of liberal principles as even to cultivate man.- Thus in his life and death the Nasi was intercourse with Gentiles. Indeed, Gamaliel felt made to feel and to exemplify, that “ by the himself at liberty to do things which would deeds of the law there shall no flesh be have been denounced in any other as little less justified.” than apostasy. His successor in the sacred office was Rabban Trifling as it may appear to us, such indulgences Gamaliel II., the great-grandson of Simeon, as having a figure carved upon his seal, bathing Hillel's son. He obtained the dignity of at Ptolemais in a place where a statue of Venus president, both in virtue of his extraction and of had been placed, and in general displaying a his merits. taste for the beautiful in nature and art, were [A man of undoubted energy and ability, always serious innovations to a Pharisaical Jew. But his ready to adapt himself to circumstances, and virtues were, on the other hand, marred by possessed of unfaltering faith in the future of stubbornness, by ambition, and a Judaism, he was in many ways admirably fitted determination to carry his own views, if for the position now conferred upon him.] necessary, by violence. Perhaps delicate health Unfortunately his was an imperious disposition. may have added a degree of nervous irritability Unable to brook contradiction, he exercised the to his natural disposition. His public and private prerogatives of his office in a despotic manner, conduct (if impartially viewed) bear out this silencing by excommunication those whom he view of his character. His extensive properties could not convince by argument. This attempt he let to farmers, demanding in return only a at spiritual tyranny, however, ultimately issued share in the harvest; and so scrupulous was he in his own humiliation. Gamaliel was in his dealings with them, that when they surrounded by his former class-fellows who repaid the seed-corn which he had supplied, he had now become Rabbins, by some of the would only compute its value at the lowest colleagues of his own teacher, and by their figure at which it sold in the market, so as to pupils. But jealousies were not wanting among avoid even the appearance of usury. these theologians. The Nasi had a favorite slave, Tabi, At the very outset, and immediately after distinguished for his Rabbinical lore. His master Jochanan's death, Eleazar ben Arach withdrew would willingly have restored him to liberty, to Emmaus, probably in the expectation that but some Rabbinical ordinance prevented it. the sages would feel his presence When at last poor Tabi died, the Nasi's feelings indispensable, and that the Sanhedrin would overcame his scruples, and he mourned for him thus become virtually dependent on him. If as for a relative. such had been his hope, he was doomed to We have already indicated that jealousies disappointment. It is said that, living at such a prevailed between the sages at Jamnia. The first distance from the Sanhedrin, and cut off from question which caused serious disagreement intercourse with the other Rabbins, the man was an attempt to settle the controversies long whom Jochanan had at one time declared to pending between the schools of Hillel and of

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Shammai. During the short term (probably the mere assertions of rival schools and extending only over a few years) of Rabbi authorities. By common consent, this was Jochanan's presidency, these controversies had sought in a more general reference to, and remained in abeyance, not more from the interpretation of. Scripture, according to necessities of the times, which required certain fixed exegetical canons. In this combined action, than from the peculiar particular branch of theological science Rabbi disposition of the Nasi. But the greater the Akiba became specially distinguished; but any inactivity of parties during that interval, the hope of good which the prospect of recurring more violent was the shock of the collision, more frequently to the sacred text might have when a direct descendant of Hillel's, of the opened, was soon disappointed by the fanciful disposition of Gamaliel, led the ranks of a party method and the ingenious devices which the whose opinions were, at any rate, in the various doctors employed in their attempts at ascendant amongst Jewish theologians. Scripture interpretation. There were men of note and influence among Meantime Gamaliel was resolved to follow up the Shammaites also. Accordingly, an attempt the victory of his party. In the prosecution of his was first made to reconcile both parties. For plans he adopted peculiar tactics. To prevent three years were the discussions continued any popular declaration against himself, and at which bore on the fundamental principles of the same time the increase of the opposite the two schools. At last, as might have been party, he stationed a door-keeper at the expected, compromise was found impossible. entrance of the college, whose duty it was to To settle the dispute, it was now asserted by prevent the admission of parties who might the Hillelites that a voice from heaven (the prove dangerous or disagreeable.- At the same Bath-Kol, literally, daughter of the voice) had time, he assumed a more dictatorial tone in the declared that the principles of both parties college, putting down all contradiction with a were the words of God, but that the Halakhah, strong hand. When his authority failed to or traditional law, was to be fixed in accordance ensure submission, he laid an interdict upon with the teaching of the school of Hillel. the refractory individual. Naturally enough, not only the Shammaites, but Two, or rather three kinds of spiritual censures others also, and especially Rabbis Joshua and are named in Talmudic writings. The first of Eleazar, were unwilling to yield to so summary these, rather a reproof than a punishment, was a mode of settling controverted points; but adjudged for trifling offences. During its their opposition was vain, and they were at last continuance, persons so visited had to stay at obliged to submit. Rabbi Joshua gave vent both home and to abstain not only from to his skepticism and his dissatisfaction, by amusements, but even from needless observing that such miraculous solutions of intercourse with others. The second, a kind of difficulties must always prove unsatisfactory, as interdict which always lasted for at least thirty the law was designed for those on earth, and days, was inflicted for graver offences, not for those in heaven, adding, that he especially for contempt of the law, of attached authority to the decision of the recognized traditions, of the person of any of majority of sages, but not to supernatural the sages, or for any other breach of religious interpositions. statutes, of which a later Rabbi instances To allay the general dissatisfaction, it was felt twenty-four. necessary to pass a bye-law, which left both If the person thus punished showed no signs of parties at liberty to follow in practice their own repentance within that month, this ban was theological convictions. But one important confirmed, and along with it the nature of the consequence of this discussion was, that both offence published. A person under the ban was parties became sensible of the necessity of deserted by all except the members of his having some independent and ultimate basis family, or those who resorted to him for strictly for, and criterion of, traditional law, instead of necessary purposes. He was not allowed to

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change his garments, and had to share in many friends lived in affluence, while he and other of the observances of those who were in deep deserving men were exposed to want. mourning. If he died while under this ban, a Treatment like that to which the Rabbins were stone was laid on his coffin. now exposed on so many occasions, Joshua, in The last and highest censure was spite of his gentle and yielding disposition, excommunication, which was, however, but could ill brook. Their mutual ill-will could not rarely pronounced. The individual upon whom long remain concealed. The occasion only was this sentence rested, was neither allowed to wanting for open rupture, and this was soon expound the Law nor even to listen to its afforded. The question had privately been exposition. The Patriarch or Nasi arrogated to proposed to Rabbi Joshua, whether an animal himself the power of pronouncing these accidentally wounded in the lip might sentences, and Gamaliel was not sparing in the afterwards lawfully be presented in sacrifice by exercise of his spiritual prerogative. Thus an a priest learned in the Law, who could not be unfortunate sage, Rabbi Joses ben Tadai of suspected of having intentionally injured the Tiberias, who had ventured to demur to a animal in order to render it unfit for sacred Rabbinical conclusion (an application of the use? It will be observed that this question was conclusion a minori ad majus to ritual not one of any possible practical importance, questions), and to exhibit its fallacy in a and it presents a fair specimen of the subjects somewhat sarcastic manner, was amongst the commonly chosen for theological discussion. first to be punished for his temerity. His At any rate, Joshua gave it as his opinion that ingenuity was visited by the Nasi with such an animal might be offered in sacrifice. excommunication. The same punishment was The question was next proposed to the Nasi, inflicted on Rabbi Eleazar ben Hanoch for who decided in an opposite sense from Joshua. venturing to doubt the necessity of washing Gamaliel resolved to bring the matter before one's hands before partaking of bread. Even the Sanhedrin, Here Joshua, without regard to Rabbi Akiba, one of the most influential men in his former opinion, pronounced a sentence in the synagogue, barely escaped agreement with Rabban Gamaliel's views. The excommunication, which the Nasi at length Nasi now charged his opponent, in presence of hurled against his own brother-in-law, the the whole college, with prevarication. Not celebrated Eleazar ben Hyrcanus, on occasion satisfied even with this public humiliation, of a trifling dispute between them. Gamaliel did not invite Joshua to resume his This arrogance of one who in age was inferior seat, while he himself complacently entered on to many of his opponents, naturally evoked a long disquisition of the subject, until the strong opposition. For, besides doing violence indignant exclamations of the sages interrupted to the convictions of others, he paid no regard him. to their personal feelings when attempting to Nor was this the only manifestation of his carry his point. Foremost in the ranks of his enmity towards Joshua. On another occasion, enemies, as their most able, determined, and Rabban Gamaliel, who was proud of his lunar therefore most dangerous representative, was observations, a subject of considerable Rabbi Joshua ben Chananja. By extraction a importance, it will be remembered, had rashly Levite, he had enjoyed the honour of assisting, given credit to insufficient testimony about the along with his brethren, in the solemn services appearance of the new moon, and had, contrary of the temple. Since its destruction he had lived to the opinions of Rabbis Joshua and Dosa, fixed in great poverty, supporting himself and his the Day of Atonement accordingly. Rabbi family by the manufacture of needles, or, as Joshua's astronomical knowledge was superior others assert, by working as a blacksmith. to that of the Nasi; and, besides, the Probably Joshua had felt the hauteur and pride observations of others had shown the of the Patriarch the more, that the latter and his erroneousness of Rabban Gamaliel's reckoning. Still it was in vain that Joshua proposed to lay

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the matter before the sacred college. The Nasi representative of a noble priestly family. The refused, and not only insisted on carrying out Nasi elect was scarcely the person to preside his own views, but, to humble his opponent, over the college. He was too young, and withal ordered him to appear on the day on which too modest, to command the submission of the Joshua had calculated the solemn fast should angry theologians at Jamnia. It had been well fall, as arrayed for a journey with scrip, staff, had he followed the advice of his wife, and and purse, an injunction which, besides doing declined the post. But the offer of the highest violence to his convictions, could not be viewed dignity was too tempting. . Eleazar accepted it, otherwise than as a studied public affront. and was installed on the day of his election. Rabbi Akiba, one of Joshua's disciples, was The Sanhedrin immediately entered upon a selected to deliver the Nasi's message. At first course of reforms. The first measure was to Joshua determined to resist; but, at the earnest dispense with the services of the door-keeper request of his pupils, and of Rabbi Dosa, he whom Gamaliel had employed, and to give free yielded. When the aged sage appeared before admission to all who chose to attend the the haughty Nasi, obedient to his arbitrary sittings of the Sanhedrin; the next, to reopen command, even he could not repress a the questions in dispute between the schools of generous emotion, and embraced him with Hillel and of Shammai, which had formerly been these words: “Welcome, thou, my teacher in so summarily settled by the Bath-Kol. The wisdom, and my pupil in obedience. Happy the various Halakhah were re-examined, and as age in which the greater obey the less!” their reception depended only on the weight of But this fit of humility, and the reconciliation the authorities from which they had been which ensued, were alike temporary. Bent on derived, witnesses were summoned and maintaining his authority over his opponents, examined on these points. Their statements the number of whom daily increased, Gamaliel were carefully considered and taken down. On omitted no opportunity of publicly humbug some subjects the sages took a middle course them. At last his tyranny, became intolerable, between the opposing schools; on others the and led to a general resistance. Once more a decision leant rather towards the school of question had been privately put to Rabbi Shammai. The depositions of the various Joshua. This time it was, whether the recital of witnesses constituted probably the basis of the the customary evening prayers were absolute most ancient collection of Halakhah. In many duty or only a matter of choice? Joshua took the respects the discussions of that day, in which latter, the Nasi the former view. The above the ex-Nasi also took part, were interesting. The described .scene, of prevarication on the part of reader must not, however, suppose that they Rabbi Joshua, and of public humiliation, was were conducted altogether in an impartial now re-enacted. Recriminations between the spirit. Thus, amongst other witnesses, Akabja sages ensued. At last the whole college, ben Mahalaleel, a man of learning and probity, incensed at the treatment to which one of their had spoken in regard to four Halakhah in a number was systematically exposed, rose manner unpalatable to the sages. As nothing against the president, and on the spot deposed could shake his testimony, an attempt was him from the sacred office. made to bribe him into compliance with the The choice of his successor was a matter of theological wishes of the Rabbins, by the some difficulty. Joshua did not possess tempting offer of raising him to the office of Ab- sufficient means properly to sustain the dignity beth-din. of Nasi; nor would it have been delicate to place But the old man remained firm. “Rather,” in the president's chair the opponent of exclaimed he, “may I be termed a fool all my Gamaliel. Rabbi Akiba's rising fame would have life, than for one hour stand as a transgressor qualified him for the honour, had his reputation before God.” It was in vain that a decision of been established. Ultimately the choice of the Shemajah and Abtalion was quoted against him; sages fell on Eleazar ben , the wealthy Akabja would not yield. Argument failing, he

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was excommunicated; and in the conviction of views by scriptural arguments. The discussion the righteousness of his cause, he patiently bore affords so fair a specimen of the method this sentence to the day of his death. But before employed, that we give it in an abbreviated his decease Akabja admonished his son to form. submit to the Sanhedrin. He could not have The ex-Nasi urged against the admission of the done so, as he had received the traditions from proselyte the Scripture injunction (Deut. 23:3) : more than one Rabbi; but his son had only “An Ammonite or Moabite shall not enter into heard them from the lips of his father, whose the congregation of the Lord, even to their solitary testimony should not be set in tenth generation shall they not enter.” Rabbi opposition to that of all the other sages. Before Joshua replied by quoting Isa. 10:13: “I have expiring, the Rabbi also directed his son not to removed the bounds of the people, and have seek the patronage of men, but the robbed their treasures; and I have put down the recommendation of deeds which would deserve inhabitants like a valiant man.” the praise of others. It was the maxim of Akabja From this passage he inferred the removal and : “ Ponder on three things, and thou wilt be kept the mixture of all these nations under from committing sin. Consider whence thou Sennacherib, and argued that the passage in the comest, whither thou goest, and in whose Book of Deuteronomy no longer applied to presence thou must shortly render an account.” them. The ex-Nasi retorted by quoting Jer. 49:6: All the questions discussed in the Sanhedrin on “ And afterward I will bring again the captivity the day of Eleazar's election were not of a of the children of Ammon “; from which he purely ceremonial or speculative character. concluded that they must have been again Amongst them were some of general restored. To prove that this prediction was yet importance to the synagogue, and even to the unfulfilled, Joshua quoted the analogous world. One of these concerned the inspiration promise, Jer. 30:3 : “I will bring again the of some of the books of Scripture. Even at that captivity of my people Israel and Judah.” At last period doubts were raised as to the claims of the Sanhedrin decided in favor of the proselyte, the Books of Ecclesiastes and the Song of whether convinced by Rabbi Joshua's Solomon to be received into the number of arguments, or because they wished to support canonical writings. The school of Hillel his authority against the ex-Nasi, we will not defended, that of Shammai opposed, their attempt to decide. claims to inspiration. Ultimately the Sanhedrin It will have been noticed that Rabban Gamaliel, decided in favor of the views of the Hillelites. though deposed from the presidency, continued Rabbi Akiba especially vindicated the Song in in the Sanhedrin and took part in its very energetic terms, amongst other arguments deliberations. Indeed, the ambitious prelate had declaring that if all Scripture were “holy,” the no intention readily to relinquish the office Song was “the holy of holies.” which he had so long held. However, that day's Another point of some importance was that discussions had taught him at least the raised by the request of a descendant of necessity of abating his pretensions, and Ammon, a proselyte, to be allowed to “enter the conciliating those whom he had hitherto only congregation of the Lord.” It will be sought to control. He was now as ready to make remembered that the law of Moses expressly concessions as he had formerly been forbade such admissions. But whether from overbearing. Accordingly, on the day after his liberality, or from a sense that the synagogue deposition he waited on the leading members required in measure to relax its strictness, the of the opposition to ask their forgiveness for his temper of the majority of the sages was in favor former harshness, and to secure their support. of the admission of the proselyte. However, the The most humiliating part of this duty was the ex-Nasi as violently opposed as Rabbi Joshua necessity which it involved of condescending to advocated this measure. Both parties appealed appear as suppliant before Rabbi Joshua. He to the law of Moses, and tried to defend their

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found the latter engaged at his trade. The Nasi between the Rabbi and the emperor's daughter. expressed his surprise and concern when he It is said that the young lady had been equally entered the humble dwelling of the sage, the struck with the Rabbi's mental attractions and blackened walls and empty rooms of which his repulsive exterior, and she had rallied testified to the laborious occupation and to the Joshua with the question, “ How so much difficulties of its inmates. But Joshua was not wisdom could lodge in so ugly a body? “ In mollified, and bitterly reproached Gamaliel for reply, the sage advised her in future to keep her his want of interest in the sages. “Alas !” best wine, not in earthen, but in golden vessels. exclaimed he, “for the age of which thou art the The lady took the advice literally, and when leader; thou art equally ignorant of the cares of afterwards the Rabbi was challenged for the sages and of their difficulties.” Nothing offering a suggestion which had spoiled good daunted by this reception, Rabban Gamaliel wine, he retorted by showing her how it might tried all the arts of persuasion to conciliate be necessary to preserve the most precious Joshua; but in vain. At last he implored his substances in the most worthless vessels. pardon, appealing at the same time to the Gradually, perhaps together with his growing sacred memory of his ancestor, Hillel the Great. political importance, of which more hereafter, To this plea Joshua yielded, and even promised Rabbi Joshua's position in Jamnia became more to use all his influence he is said to have commanding, till after the death of Gamaliel, presided over a theological academy. when he presided over the Sanhedrin. The other leading Rabbi of that age was Rabbi Joshua's poverty had formerly been relieved by Joshua ben Chananja, to whom we have already Gamaliel, who assigned to him the produce of frequently referred, as first the opponent, and his own rich estates. He had also been able, by then the successor of Rabban Gamaliel. means of an ingenious device of some of his Properly speaking, this sage was rather pupils, to regain the tithes to which he was distinguished for readiness and ingenuity than entitled by virtue of his Levitical descent. for depth and accuracy of learning. It has Eleazar ben Azariah (Gamaliel's colleague in the already been stated that in his youth he had, as presidency) had, after the destruction of the Levite, assisted in the ritual services of the sanctuary, claimed the tithes for the priests temple. After the destruction of the sanctuary, alone, denying to the Levites any share in these Joshua was thrown entirely upon his own offerings of the faithful. But a Jewish ordinance resources, and with difficulty supported himself prevented the defilement of a descendant of by his trade. Aaron by touching anything connected with the In spite of the privations to which he was dead. Accordingly, in order to oblige Eleazar to exposed, his disposition was gentle and make some arrangement with Joshua, a number conciliatory, but his outward appearance was of students agreed in future to deposit their certainly far from attractive. But the contorted tithes in a garden which could only be and emaciated little figure, and the blackened approached through a cemetery, while they face, concealed a vivacious intellect, ready to refused to allow them to be collected through a grapple with intricate questions or to give a third party. It is related that this practical telling repartee. So distinguished was Joshua argument speedily convinced Eleazar, and he for the latter quality, that after his decease forthwith restored the tithes to his brethren of some entertained serious apprehensions for the the tribe of Levi. cause of Judaism, from the want of one who had The theological and literary activity of Joshua always been ready to give an apt reply. Various was very considerable. After the decease of anecdotes are related to illustrate this feature Rabbi Jochanan, his teacher, he had opened a in our Rabbi. college at Bekiin, between Jabne and Lydda. The best known of these refers to an interview There he trained a number of most intelligent at Rome, during Joshua's presence in that pupils, of whom some became distinguished for capital on an embassy, which took place attainments in the Halakhah, others for their

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mystical pursuits. Some also became famous for water. In general, Joshua was opposed to the their attainments in mathematics. In the latter unnecessary imposition of legal burdens. He branch Rabbi Joshua himself attained declared himself dissatisfied with certain considerable celebrity. An anecdote is related of measures which, some four years before the fall him which, if true, would display an of Jerusalem, the school of Shammai had carried acquaintance with mathematics and astronomy (known by the name of the eighteen far beyond that of the age in which he enactments), and which were designed to flourished. prevent as much as possible all intercourse It is related that, when on a long sea voyage, in with Gentiles. “ On that day,” said he, “ the company with Rabban Gamaliel, perhaps on school of Shammai in reality diminished the their journey to Rome, the provisions of all on measure of doctrine : just as when water is board began to fail, with the exception of those poured into a vessel filled with oil, the more of Joshua, who could even supply the wants of water is poured in, the more oil will run over,” his less provident colleague. In fact, the journey In fact, he went even further, and viewed with had lasted far beyond its anticipated duration, suspicion the indefinite multiplication of and Joshua had foreseen this by calculating that Halakhah, some of which, he thought, referred about that time a comet, visible once in seventy to subjects on which Scripture contained little, years, would appear, which the ignorant sailors if any, information. He. expressed his would mistake for a star, and alter the direction skepticism in figurative language : “One pair of of the vessel accordingly. The calculation of the tongs,” said he, “may indeed be made by means course of comets was at that time wholly of another, but how are the first to be made?” unknown. The same skeptical tendency we have previously noticed in his opposition to Another particular which claims our special decisions by the Bath-Kol. attention, was the influence which Joshua possessed with the Roman authorities. Amongst the many pupils of Joshua, none was Frequent allusions have already been made to more justly renowned than Akiba ben Joseph. his journey to Rome, where, as in Palestine, he Indeed, it may well be doubted whether in is represented as living on terms of intimate some respects he did not surpass even Hillel intercourse with those high in power. Indeed, the Great. Combining originality and even he was probably the only Jewish doctor who genius with moral earnestness and integrity, he not only enjoyed the full confidence of the could not have played a secondary part in any Roman authorities, but who also employed his community. If to these natural qualifications we influence for the advantage both of his add delicacy of feeling, a glowing enthusiasm countrymen and of their rulers. which invested with a halo every conviction, and made it as much matter of the heart as of This relationship was the result of his mild and the intellect, and finally, the necessary liberal views on all theological and general condition in his circumstances, extensive and questions, and of an unhesitating adoption of thorough erudition, the picture is complete. His the political principles of Jochanan and of the early history is almost as romantic as his end great Hillel. In opposition to his former was tragic. associate, Rabbi Eleazar, Joshua conceded to virtuous heathens a share in the world to come. Tradition makes him a proselyte, and derives In a similar spirit of liberality, when, after the him ultimately from no less a personage than destruction of the temple, some zealous Jews Sisera. Born in humble circumstances, and mentioned their scruples about partaking in nurtured in ignorance, we first meet the youth future of flesh or wine, since these could no as a shepherd in the service of the celebrated longer be presented upon the altar, he showed Kalba Shabua, one of the richest men (of the the absurdity of these views, by reminding three rich men) of Jerusalem, who had them that on the same ground it might be undertaken to keep the city in provisions deemed improper to eat bread or to drink during a siege of many years' duration. His

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beauty, if not his mental qualities, attracted parts to see the celebrated teacher. The here the attention, and at last secured for the procession moved on, when one whose haggard young shepherd the affections, of Kalba's face was lit up with a more than ordinary glow daughter, the beautiful and accomplished pressed through the wondering crowd, and, Rachel. It was in vain that her father opposed a unable to control her feelings, fell at his feet, union apparently so unsuitable, and at last which she embraced. Already his followers disowned his child with a vow, Rachel gave her were preparing to push aside the forward hand to Akiba. Only one condition did she intruder, but the Rabbi stayed them. “ Let her attach to it, that he should in future devote alone,” said he, “ for what I am, and what you himself to theological studies. Akiba had are, we owe it all to her,” The poor sufferer was formerly equally hated theology and none other than his faithful Rachel, who from theologians. that day shared her husband's honors and His proud spirit could ill brook their wealth. pretensions, or the contempt which they It is said that her neighbors had offered to lend heaped on him and others, whom her new garments to go and meet her husband, circumstances alone had prevented from but the devoted woman preferred meeting attaining to equal, if not greater distinction. Akiba in the rags she had worn for his sake. According to his own statement, he could have Tradition adds that Kalba Shabua was freed killed them; but now everything was changed. from his vow as applying to ignorant and not to Akiba departed immediately after his marriage, learned Akiba, and that he left his ample by desire of his wife, for the college, determined fortune to his celebrated son-in-law. Akiba's to show himself worthy of her he loved; and affection towards Rachel manifested itself in poor Rachel had to leave her father's abode. every possible way. It is said that on one And now began a period of unexampled occasion he presented her with a golden head- devotion on the part of the faithful bride. dress, representing Jerusalem in its beauty.- So Twelve years, it had been agreed between gorgeous was the ornament, that Rabban them, was Akiba to stay away. Gamaliel's wife, jealous of Rachel's distinction, Meantime Rachel lived in a wretched hovel, in would fain have had her husband interdict its extreme poverty. She had been delivered of her use. But the Nasi refused, remarking that she eldest and only child on a straw litter. Such was who for Akiba's sake had parted with her own her destitution, that she had even to cut o and hair, might well wear any ornament on her sell her beautiful tresses to procure a miserable head. subsistence. Meantime her father, bound by his It would indeed have been very difficult vow, was unable to assist her unless she seriously to disagree with Akiba. Better than renounced her husband. The twelve years of any other, he knew how to overcome separation had elapsed, and Akiba was prejudices, to disarm suspicion, and to conquer hastening to his beloved Rachel. He had envy and jealousy. He could whisper comfort reached her abode, when he overheard a into the heart of the mourner, or stimulate the conversation, in which Rachel replied to the languishing into energetic action. Equally objections of her father, by expressing a desire beloved and respected by his teachers and his that her husband should remain with the sages pupils, by the learned and illiterate, his other twelve years. Without entering the devotion to his country and its cause was only cottage, Akiba immediately returned to his equaled by his readiness to act and to suffer for studies. At the close of the second period, he it. “Withal, he was so modest, that during the returned the most famed amongst the sages. lives of Rabban Gamaliel and of Joshua, he only At the head of an immense number of followers, filled a subordinate post, although his extensive some state them at 24,000, Akiba approached learning and influence might long before have the place where his devoted Rachel lived in raised him to the highest dignity. wretchedness, and the people flocked from all

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Ever ready to perform a delicate or a Rabbi Akiba was probably indebted to Eleazar disagreeable duty, from which others might for that thorough acquaintance with the shrink, it will be remembered that he was Halakhah which enabled him afterwards to selected to announce to his former teacher, introduce a new arrangement into that science, Rabbi Eleazar, the sentence of known as the Mishnah of Rabbi Akiba. Before excommunication, and on another occasion to that period considerable difficulty had been felt request Eleazar ben Azariah to resign the in the study of the various Halakhah, which presidency in favor of Rabban Gamaliel. These were neither written down nor properly' and similar difficult tasks he performed with arranged upon an intelligible plan; hence it admirable tact and grace. The noisy “odium required enormous labor and a very faithful theologicum” of Jamnia left Rabbi Akiba alone in memory to retain this mass of traditions. the peaceful enjoyment of his honors. Alas, that [Now for the first time the traditional law was his end should present so sad a contrast to his codified and committed to writing.] prosperity ! Happily the loving Rachel was Rabbi Akiba arranged the Halakhah first after taken away before Akiba's martyrdom. their contents : as, for example, into those [We need not attempt to separate solid fact concerning Sabbath days, marriage questions, from poetic legend in the account of Akiba's etc., and then enumerated them in such a early history. It is enough to say that a large manner as to assist the memory of the student. historical basis for the traditions about this Thus, for example, thirty-six kinds of crime Rabbi is implied by the constant allusions were designated by Scripture as deserving of which are made to them in Talmudic literature.] the punishment of being “cut off” - fifteen Rabbi Akiba had studied under three different degrees of relationship constituted valid doctors, and derived from each a claim to obstacles to marriage with a deceased brother's peculiar distinction. From Nahum of Gimso he widow, etc. Besides this arrangement of the had learned those exegetical principles which Mishnah, he also grounded its text upon attached such celebrity to the name of that Scripture, or at least made the first systematic theologian. Eleazar ben Hyrcanus had probably and consistent attempt towards it. By the laid the foundation of his more solid learning, ingenuity of his interpretations, and the while Rabbi Joshua ben Chananja initiated him authority which he enjoyed, he secured a in the secrets of mystical theology. In these general reception of this method, and various departments he seems almost equally frequently even succeeded in substituting his to have distinguished himself, and to have own decisions for older ones. outshone his teachers. Rabbi Eleazar had, A teacher of the reputation and originality of indeed, for a long time been doubtful of the Akiba could scarcely fail to attract numerous spirit and tendencies of his quick, inquisitive students. But more than the enumeration or pupil. His was not the disposition immediately exposition of the Halakhah did his peculiar and to gain upon Eleazar. novel method of expounding the Scriptures For thirteen years, tradition asserts, would fascinate the hearers. It was something new, it Eleazar not condescend upon one single opened ways for the exercise of ingenuity, and thorough explanation in answer to the its results were made subservient to the questions with which Akiba overwhelmed him. interests of traditionalism. Not that this method Nor can we wonder at this, when we remember, was entirely new; it had been originated by on the one hand, Eleazar's strict adherence to Hillel the Great, who had proposed seven pure traditionalism, and, on the other, that exegetical rules. It had been further developed Akiba's exegetical principles must have led him by Nahum of Gimso, under whom Akiba had in in an almost opposite direction from his part studied. According to the view of Nahum, teacher. But in theological controversy Rabbi certain defined particles employed in the text Eleazar was not the peer of his pupil. were to be looked upon as so many indications Notwithstanding the contrast between them, of a hidden meaning in the words. Rabbi Akiba

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not only adopted this principle, but went much their application in the different circumstances beyond it. which the ingenuity of the sages conceived, or Starting with an erroneous notion of the the changes of time brought to light, it was character of inspiration, he refused to submit feared that these unwritten traditions, which the sacred text to the same critical rules as depended on the authority of individuals, other writings. He maintained that every would either be forgotten, fall into disrepute, or sentence, word, and particle in the Bible must by and by prove insufficient. On the other hand, have its use and meaning. He denied that mere while Akiba's method dazzled the sages by its rhetorical figures, repetitions, or accumulations ingenuity and speciousness, it also promised to occurred in the Bible. Every word, syllable, and elevate tradition above passing opinions, and to letter which was not absolutely requisite to place it on an immovable basis. We need scarce express the meaning which it was desired to point out the groundlessness of this hope; but convey, must, he maintained, serve some meantime the synagogue indulged in happy ulterior purpose, and be intended to indicate a anticipations of the future. special meaning. Akiba's method was hailed as the Akiba reduced his views to a system. The seven commencement of a new period. His exegetical principles of Hillel were extended contemporaries yielded to the most and developed, and they were now strictly extravagant transports of delight. Thus Rabbi applied to every possible case, irrespective of Tarphon, possibly the Rabbi Tryphon who the consequences of such conclusions. Contrary afterwards disputed with the Christian to former practice, he applied these principles philosopher, Justin Martyr, who had formerly not only in Haggadic interpretations, but in the been looked upon as Akiba's superior in lore, study of the Halakhah, in the highest judicial now yielded this place to him with these words procedures, and even as groundwork for fresh : “He that forsakes thee, forsakes life : what inferences. tradition had forgotten thou hast restored by thy method of interpretation.” The adoption of views apparently so dangerous will in part be accounted for, when we Rabbi Joshua, Akiba's former teacher, although remember the increase of traditions, and the wary on these subjects, could not repress a felt necessity of finding some support for them wish that Jochanan ben Saccai had been alive to in the Scriptures, if the written and the oral law witness the firm establishment of the Halakhah. were not to be placed in irreconcilable In their extravagance, later Rabbis went so far antagonism to each other. Sometimes, however, as to assert that Akiba had discovered many these principles were put to a severe test. Thus, things of which even Moses had been ignorant. on one occasion they were to be applied to the After the manner of the time, a legend related text, “Thou shalt honour the Lord thy God,” in that Moses had at one time inquired of the Lord which a particle not absolutely requisite was as to the meaning and purpose of the marks discovered. One of Akiba's pupils objected that which He had added to the Hebrew letters in it might be inferred that someone else besides the Bible, and had in reply been informed, that God was to be supremely reverenced; but Akiba after many generations Rabbi Akiba was to removed his doubts by replying that the make them the basis of the Halakhah. It was particle in question was intended to point to added that Moses had requested to be allowed the Law, which ought to be honored next to the to see this great teacher, but that he had to sit Lord. eight rows behind Rabbi Akiba (in token of his inferiority), and felt unable to comprehend the In fact, this method of interpretation had in meaning of his interpretations. reality become necessary, and met the deepest wants of traditionalism. Owing to the number From statements like these, it will be easy to of Halakhah, to the controversies which they infer what amount of authority Rabbi Akiba elicited, and the difficulty which attached to enjoyed in the Sanhedrin. Indeed, such was his influence, that in his absence the sages would

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not decide on any important question. It was his martyrdom will by and by engage our held that “ when Rabbi Akiba was absent, the attention. Law was away.” But it must not be inferred Besides his merits in connection with the that his principles met with no opposition from Halakhah, and his peculiar method of Scripture any of the eminent men of that age. Amongst interpretation, Rabbi Akiba distinguished them none was more distinguished by birth, himself by acquaintanceship with the mystical personal character, or learning, than Rabbi theology of his day. This science, which was Ishmael ben Elisa, the descendant of a priestly only to be communicated to a few initiated, family, the pupil of Rabbi Joshua and of treated especially of the history of the creation, Nechuniah ben Hakanah. of the glory and attributes of the Deity, and of Tradition represents his father as a high priest; His connection with His creatures, as described and a legend relates how Ishmael was at one by the Prophet Isaiah, and specially by Ezekiel time a captive at Rome, where Rabbi Joshua had in his vision of the chariot. seen him, and procured his liberation by a large [The first chapter of Genesis and the first ransom. From that Rabbi he derived much of chapter of Ezekiel were the favorite starting- that sobriety of judgment which was his points for an elaborate system of theosophical distinguishing characteristic. Afterwards speculation, and the strange fancies which were Ishmael retired to his ancestral possessions in thus formed concerning the spiritual world, the south of Palestine, where he employed his developed ultimately into the Kabbalah of the ample means in bestowing dowries on Jewish Middle Ages,] maidens whom the late disasters of his country It was thought that an acquaintance with such had impoverished. Like his teacher, he refused mysteries bestowed peculiar powers on the to acknowledge the validity of any Halakhah initiated. Flames of fire, it was said, played which was not directly based upon the Word, round their heads while engaged in studying and only acknowledged the existence of three the Law; and, when necessary, even miracles exceptions to that rule. As formerly Nechuniah could be performed by them. But, in some ben Hakanah had opposed the exegetical cases, this knowledge also endangered its principles of Nahum of Gimso, so now Rabbi possessors. But Rabbi Akiba had engaged in this Ishmael rejected those of Rabbi Akiba, and kept study only with profit to himself. Before him by the rules of Hillel, which he somewhat Rabbi Joshua, and after him Chananja altered by rejecting one, revising another, and Chachinai, were distinguished mystics. Still subdividing a third into eight parts. These such pursuits were always deemed dangerous, principles of Rabbi Ishmael are known as his and, on one occasion, even Rabbi Akiba was thirteen exegetical canons. The fundamental admonished rather to devote his time to the difference between these two sages consisted study of the Halakhah, and to beware of in this, that Ishmael always retained the natural profaning the name of the Deity. These sense of a passage, and held that superfluous apprehensions are illustrated in a parabolic words or syllables in a text were not meant to account of the fate of four sages who entered “ indicate something foreign to the obvious the enclosed garden,” i.e., engaged in meaning of the passage. theosophical studies. One of them, it was said, [It is, however, only in a comparative sense that had looked round and died; another had looked we can speak of Rabbi Ishmael as upholding the round and lost his reason; a third eventually literal meaning of Scripture.] tried to destroy the garden; while the fourth In opposition to Akiba, he refused to apply alone had entered and returned in safety. mere logical deductions from biblical texts in This parable was meant to illustrate the history criminal procedure, and he opposed the of three contemporaries of Akiba, and of the practice of employing one deduction from the latter sage. The first of these four, Simon ben Law as basis for other deductions. The story of Asai, died at an early age. From a desire to give

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himself wholly to study, he had abstained from also might obtain similar distinction. The a marriage which would have closely connected motives which had influenced Abuja in him with Akiba. devoting his son to the Law being impure, the In the public orations which this doctor latter was afterwards so far left to himself. Of delivered in the market-place of Tiberias, he his conduct and death we shall have occasion to dwelt especially on the unity of God. So deep treat in the sequel. It was said that the and earnest was his study of the Law, that it proximate cause of his fall was the study of was asserted flames of heavenly fire were mystical theology, which, improperly frequently seen to play round his head. Such understood, upset his religious and even his was his moral and ceremonial strictness, that moral principles. However, the change had long his contemporaries gave him the title “ Chasid,” been preparing. the pious. In popular opinion it was thought to At a later period, his former class-fellows would presage piety if a person dreamt of him. relate, that even while attending the Jewish The second of the four theosophical students college, he had often been noticed to carry with was Simon ben Soma, renowned for his deep him writings of the “ Minim “ (probably of investigations into the meaning of Scripture, Gnostics), and that he had even been in the which procured for him the appellation of “ the habit of quoting Greek poetry.” The sage.” Particularly, he endeavoured to explain apprehensions thus excited were realized by in a mystical sense the history of the creation. his apostasy, on account of which he bare the One of his inferences, which at the time caused name of Acher (the other, the apostate). In great indignation, is specially remarkable, and popular belief, it was supposed to be an evil in some respects interesting. From the augury to dream of him. However, even after expression, “ God made, the firmament,” he his apostasy he was frequently consulted by his seems to have inferred that its matter had not former pupil, the celebrated Rabbi Meir, of been created at that particular period, but had whom more in the sequel. The fourth and only previously existed, an inference which, in his unscathed visitor of “ the enclosed garden “ was case, was probably connected with views of the Rabbi Akiba, whose interpretations often bear eternity of matter. In other respects, also, his traces of his favorite study. teaching sometimes bordered on heresy, so that Though naturally of an ardent and even Rabbi Joshua formally pronounced : “Ben Soma enthusiastic temperament, Akiba knew better has gone wrong.” The Scripture saying was than his contemporaries how to console them applied to him : “Hast thou found honey? eat so in sorrows, which he felt even more keenly than much as is sufficient for thee, lest thou be filled, they, and how for a time to bear with patience therewith and vomit it.” the burden of his nation's oppression. He would The third of the students in the parable was always cheerfully express his conviction that Elisa the son of Abuja, a wealthy citizen of whatever happened was sent from heaven for Jerusalem. He was early initiated in the study of good. This principle he was wont, after his own the Law, but afterwards apostatized from fashion, to illustrate by two occurrences in his Judaism, and became a bitter persecutor of his history. brethren. To account for this anomaly in one of It happened, so he related, that on a journey the sacred order of Rabbis, Jewish legend has it night overtook him in a place whose that Abuja, Elisa's father, had one day invited to inhospitable inhabitants refused him shelter; his house all the learned in Jerusalem, and accordingly he had to spend the night at some amongst them both Eleazar and Joshua. distance from that village in the open air. He While these two sages conversed about the had with him a lighted torch, a donkey to carry Law, flames played around their heads. The his baggage, and a cock to awaken him at an ambitious Abuja immediately resolved to train early hour for devotions and study. To his own son to the study of the Law, so that he complete the catalogue of his miseries, the wind extinguished the torch, a lion devoured his

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donkey, and a fox killed the cock. But what was the world is judged in mercy, but everything the astonishment and gratitude of our Rabbi for depends on the quantity of work done by man.” his escape, when he learned that on the same He was also wont to say : “ Everything is given night the inhospitable place which had refused to man on trust; a net is spread for all living; the him shelter had been taken by enemies and shop is opened and the merchant gives credit, completely destroyed ! On another occasion but a book is open, and his hand records every Akiba was travelling with some of his transaction.” companions to Jerusalem. At the sight of it his Besides those already mentioned, other friends could not refrain from tears, and their eminent sages filled up the circle of teachers grief deepened when they saw a jackal running and scholars congregated in Jamnia. Some there across the mountain on which the temple had were amongst them who had seen the temple in once stood. Akiba alone preserved his its glory some belonged to another generation. equanimity, and comforted his friends by In general, we may name as the five principal reminding them that if prophecy had so literally teachers of this period, Rabban Gamaliel, and been fulfilled in the desolation of the temple, Rabbis Eleazar, Joshua, Akiba, and Ishmael. Less they might also anticipate an equal distinguished sages are sometimes described as accomplishment of the promised blessings. “ judging in the presence of the wise.” Of these, Alas ! that erroneous views and too ardent Simon ben Soma, Simon ben Asai, Chananja anticipations should have so far misled him as Chachinai, Chanina the Egyptian, and Simon the afterwards to become the principal supporter Temanite, are specially named; but there is of a leader such as Bar Cochba. When at last he considerable variety in the lists which are given was roused from his dreams of hope, deep of the “judges.” disappointment and bitterness seized him, if we To complete our picture of the Sanhedrin, we may judge from the following misanthropic add a short sketch of other notable personages advice which he is said to have given to his son in the sacred college. Rabbi Tarphon or Joshua : “Teach not in the most elevated place Tryphon, to whom we formerly referred, was a in the city; live not in a town where the friend of Rabbi Akiba, and afterwards the Ab- teachers of the Law have the management of beth-din. He was very rich, and latterly affairs; enter not suddenly into thy house, far dispensed much of his wealth to the poor. less into that of thy neighbor (to avoid seeing Noted as a bitter enemy of Christianity, he any mischief); keep always shoes on thy feet; inclined towards the principles of the school of eat early in summer, lest the heat rob thee of Shammai. The recorded sayings of this doctor the enjoyment in winter, lest the cold benumb prove how intimately that class of theologians thee (enjoy thy comforts before any deprive had learned to connect a heavenly reward with thee of them); convert thy holidays into work the study of the Law, and how largely the days, in order not to become dependent on element of merit bulked in their personal piety. others; and take care to choose as thy Rabbi Eleazar of Modin was deeply versed in companions those on whom fortune smiles.” the Haggadah, and afterwards occupied a We close this sketch by quoting a few of the prominent position in the last Jewish war, in most remarkable of Akiba's recorded sayings. which his death formed one of the saddest “Man is loved of God, for He created him in His episodes. Rabbi Joses the Galilean was well own image; but the love which made this fact known. known to man was even greater than that His two sons also distinguished themselves in which so created him. . . . Beloved are Israel in the theological world. An incident in the life of that they are called the children of God, but Joses is related to illustrate his almost greater still was the love which acquainted proverbial kindness and forbearance. It is said them with the fact of their being called the that his wife had been so imperious and children of God. . . . Everything is foreseen of quarrelsome, that he was ultimately obliged to God, but freedom of choice is granted to man; divorce her. After her separation, she disposed

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of her hand to the watchman of the city. In Thus Rabbi Akiba supposed that the course of time, when her second husband grew punishments of the future world only lasted for blind, and was consequently unable to follow one year, supporting this view by an appeal to his former occupation, she had to lead him Isa. 66:23; while from the same passage Rabbi about the streets to seek alms. Carefully had the Jochanan inferred that they only lasted “from now humbled woman hitherto avoided the the Feast of Unleavened Bread to that of street in which her former husband lived. weeks.” Lastly, amongst these sages Rabbi Joses However, the blind man at last, by continued ill- ben Kisma was known as a warm supporter of usage, forced her to knock as beggar at the door Roman authority, and at the same time so of the house of which she had once been the zealous a student of the Law, that he refused mistress. The sound of her well-known voice the most tempting offers to settle in a place attracted Rabbi Joses. He took her and her where there was no regular college of sages. husband into his house, and from that time Two other names deserve to be mentioned, as provided for them. celebrated even beyond Jewish circles. They are Of the other sages, Rabbi Ishbab was employed those of Samuel the Less, and of Onkelos or as secretary to the council, and at a later period Akylas, the translator of the Bible. The origin of fell a martyr after the suppression of the Bar the title “ the Less,” borne by the former Rabbi, Cochba rebellion. Rabbi Chuzpith had been is unknown. His mild and gentle character is public interpreter to Rabban Gamaliel. Rabbi shown by his favorite maxim : “ Rejoice not Juda ben Baba afterwards nobly sacrificed his when thine adversary falleth; and let not thine life in the endeavor to perpetuate the heart be glad when he stumbles “ (Prov. 24:17). profession of Rabbi; and Rabbi Chananja ben On his deathbed he is said to have uttered a Teradion was throughout a zealous student. prophecy about the troublous times which Tradition relates that he was afterwards burnt were so soon to come upon his countrymen. alive in the roll from which he had so often Samuel the Less was a bitter enemy of taught. His spirit and disposition may be Christianity. At the request of the Nasi, he gathered from the remark, that if two persons composed a formula of excommunication could sit together without discoursing of the against the “ Christian heretics,” which was Law, theirs was “ the council of the ungodly” ordered to be inserted as part of the daily (Psalm 1:1); but if two, when in company, spake prayers. of these things one with another, the glory of Samuel was also famed amongst his the Lord was amongst them (Mal. 3:16). Rabbi contemporaries for modesty. As an instance of Jochanan ben Nuri was a warm friend of the this quality, it was related that when Rabban Nasi Gamaliel, although sometimes his Gamaliel ii. had on one occasion summoned a opponent in theological discussion. council of seven sages to deliberate on the When, after the decease of Gamaliel, his insertion of an additional month into the Jewish successor and former antagonist, Rabbi Joshua, calendar, instead of seven, eight Rabbins had proposed to abolish many of the ordinances appeared. The Nasi, indignant at the intrusion, which he had passed, Rabbi Jochanan without naming him, ordered the individual successfully opposed this petty act of who had come uninvited to withdraw. To spare vindictiveness. He remarked at the time that it another the affront, Samuel immediately rose, was scarcely proper “ to fight the lion after he and declared that he had been the uninvited was dead.” ' On some subjects, however, the assessor, pleading as excuse that he had only views of this Rabbi were neither sound nor in come to gain information. Rabban Gamaliel agreement with those of his colleagues. Thus, understood the motive of Samuel, and bade him along with others, he opposed the doctrine of stay as being in every way worthy to act as, the eternity of punishments. It is remarkable member of such an assemblage. This conduct, how different were the views of the Rabbins more accommodating than truthful, insured generally on this subject. him general commendation. According to

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popular opinion, a voice from heaven Akylas was a friend of Rabbins Eleazar and pronounced him to be “ the worthiest of his Joshua, but especially of the celebrated Akiba, age.” At his death the Nasi himself delivered a by whose instructions he chiefly profited. His funeral discourse. translation of the Bible was almost painfully A difficult and intricate question in Jewish literal. The expressions which in the original history is that which refers to the identity or admit of a doubtful or double interpretation, diversity of Onkelos (whose name is attached to are rendered into Greek in a manner analogous. a paraphrase in ) and Akylas or Aquila, In biblical interpretation he followed the who has left a Greek translation of the Old method of his teacher, and adapted his version Testament. There is, however, now a general to the purposes of Akiba's exegesis. agreement among scholars that the two At a later period Akylas recast his translation, personages are identical, and that the Aramaic when it became, if possible, still more in Targum of Onkelos is really a translation in the agreement with the comments of his master. manner of Aquila, made perhaps in the third This version he submitted to Rabbins Eleazar, century, but based on materials of considerably Joshua, and Akiba, who highly approved of it, earlier date. and applied to it the Scripture prediction, Recent Jewish writers have, on most according to which Japhet (the type of insufficient grounds, sought to identify this Grecianism) should dwell in the tents of Shem. Akylas with Aquila, the husband of Priscilla, It may here be remarked, that the version of the who was so eminent an ornament of Septuagint had formerly been used everywhere Christianity. Of the life of Akylas, or Onkelos, we by the Jews in the Dispersion, and perhaps also know but little, for much that is told about him in Palestine. But, owing to the fuller recognition is certainly fabulous. The stories connected of the deficiencies of the Septuagint, and still with his history, as recorded by the Fathers, more to the use made of it by Christians, this and in the writings of the Rabbins, however, version fell into disfavor. Later Rabbins are, that Akylas was originally a noble heathen, compared the day on which it had been finished a native of Sinope, in Pontus, and related to the to that on which the golden calf had been Emperor Hadrian; that at the time of the return worshipped. On the other hand, the Rabbinistic of the Christians from Pella, he had, on seeing translation of Akylas was pronounced faultless, certain miracles performed by them, adopted declared of equal sanctity with the Hebrew Christianity, but never wholly given up mystical original, and its public use was recommended. studies; that he had finally been expelled from We shall afterwards have occasion to recur to the Church, and then adopted Judaism. this subject, and meantime return to the Other authorities ascribe his apostasy to love of political events which befell Israel at this a Jewish maiden. Be this as it may, Akylas period. became at last a most zealous traditionalist, Chapter 7 – The Last Jewish War under Bar and, by his learning and influence, materially Cochba assisted the Jewish cause. He seems to have been acquainted with the Nasi Gamaliel ii., in It will be remembered that the aged Nerva had honour of whom he celebrated costly and even felt obliged to associate Ulpius Trajanus with royal funeral solemnities. He is described as himself in the empire. He did not long survive even more strict in his observance of the Law this event. Nerva died in January 98, and left to than the Patriarch himself. After his father's Trajan the sole direction of the empire. The death he received his share of the inheritance new emperor was popular with the legions, due to him, but would not consent to take an strong enough to repress the licentious mob, equivalent for the idols which his brothers had and dreaded by foreign enemies, so that his retained. In fact, he threw the compensation accession seemed to bode nothing but sent him into the Dead Sea. prosperity to Rome. Nor were the expectations of his subjects deceived. Trajan's

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administration showed that he was actuated by which these exploits were represented, and a principles of moderation and justice, and he colossal figure of himself was placed. But it was alone of the Roman emperors received the title principally the East which engaged his of “ the Best.” Nevertheless, his reign was not to attention. be one of peace. [Here his presence was urgently demanded by [It would be unjust to Trajan to suppose that the somewhat dubious state of relations his wars were due solely to a desire of between the empire and the Parthians. The conquest; but he was by training and habit a Parthian king had presumed to nominate a soldier, and it was natural that he should prefer successor to the throne of Armenia, although to solve the difficulties which arose on the that State was vassal to Rome. It is true that frontiers, rather by recourse to arms than by King Chosroes and his nominee, alarmed by the the arts of diplomacy. Accustomed to life in the threats of Trajan, expressed themselves ready camp, he must have found it irksome to live in to submit to the emperor's wishes; but Trajan the constraints of society at Rome. The army had resolved to avoid such troubles in future by had now, through his reforms, been brought to reducing Armenia to the form of a province, and a high state of efficiency, and a statesman like as a necessary consequence to extend the Trajan could see the advantages to be gained by frontier line of the empire to the Tigris. All readjusting the boundaries of the empire.] overtures for peace were summarily rejected.] But it was also needful to consider whether the In the spring of 118 AD, the old emperor, now circumstances of the State rendered fresh in his sixty-third year, put himself at the head of conquests expedient. The case is different with his legions, and overran the Parthian a young nation which enters on the career of dominions. Hampered by dissensions within his military grandeur and overruns older empires, realm. King Chosroes could not resist his and a vast empire which has already begun to victorious progress. The occupant of the exhibit signs of decay, and whose boundaries Armenian throne was deposed, and his country only touch upon barbarous tribes. converted into a province of the empire. In general, the latter will rarely be permanently Penetrating still farther, Trajan subjugated subdued, unless they are conquered by the Mesopotamia, and took a number of fenced civilization as well as by the arms of their cities, amongst which we specially name Nisibis opponents, or unless their territory can be as having been almost exclusively held by Jews. readily occupied. These conditions could be Nowhere did he encounter serious resistance. carried out only to a limited extent in the wars Abgar, the ruler of Edessa, acknowledged the waged by Trajan. Consequently, his campaigns supremacy of the emperor, and Mesopotamia led only to endless contests, alike fruitless and became a Roman province. At the end of the weakening to the empire. summer Trajan withdrew, and passed the winter m Antioch. About three years after his accession, Trajan led his legions against the barbarians who In the spring of the year 116, Trajan entered on inhabited the northern bank of the Danube (the a second Parthian campaign. He advanced present Romania), with whom Domitian had beyond Nisibis, crossed the Tigris, and overran formerly concluded a dishonorable peace, by Adiabene. His progress was not unopposed, but which he had even consented to become everywhere victory followed in his wake. tributary to them. Trajan was more successful, [A third province, bearing the name of Assyria, but it was not till the year 107 that Dacia was was added to the Roman Empire. Trajan, who fully converted into a Roman province. On his had received from the Senate the well-earned return to Rome, Trajan celebrated his victories title of Parthicus, now continued his march by splendid popular entertainments, which down the Tigris to Babylonia, where both lasted for 123 days in succession, and Ctesiphon, the Parthian capital, and Seleucia, on perpetuated their memory by a column on the opposite bank of the Tigris, fell into his

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hands. The victor's desire for conquest seemed national prejudices were at all times easily to have been stimulated by success, and when roused, would retaliate as opportunity offered. at length he reached the shore of the Persian And now the Parthians were again risen against Gulf, he is said to have wished for youth, that he their formidable enemies, the victories of the might rival the conquests of Alexander.] Roman legions in the East had led to no lasting But his difficulties were really now beginning, result. Accordingly, while Trajan was engaged and Trajan was soon made to feel how in his Parthian campaigns (about the year 115), unsubstantial his conquests were. The the Jewish rebellion broke out almost at the countries over which he asserted the same time in Africa, in the island of Cyprus and supremacy of his arms could only be held by in Mesopotamia. the presence of the victorious legions. As these [It appears, however, very doubtful whether disappeared, the barbarians rose once more Palestine took on this occasion any active part against their new masters. Even while he was in the revolt.] lingering at the north of the Tigris, his newly - The hostile standard seems first to have been conquered provinces had revolted. Seleucia, raised in Cyrene, where, as formerly stated, the Edessa, and Nisibis had all attacked their Jews had for a long period enjoyed great Roman garrisons, and either expelled them or privileges. The leaders of the insurgents in this put them to death. Meanwhile, by the fatigues province were Andreas and Lucas (or perhaps of this expedition and the vexation occasioned only one individual who may have borne these by its fruitlessness, the emperor had contracted two names). At first the movement had only the a disease which forced him to resign the appearance of a common revolt. The Jews rose command. In these new risings the Jews bore a against their Greek and Roman neighbors, and conspicuous part; nor was their resistance to killed all on whom they could lay hands. the Roman dominion now confined to the As the people were wholly unprepared, and the Parthian Empire. It had already begun to make choice Roman troops had accompanied Trajan itself felt in various provinces. on his Eastern expedition, the rising became Jewish authorities, ignoring all political daily more formidable as the number of the movements, relate fanciful stories to account rebels increased with their successes. Gradually for the disasters which befell their nation the insurrection assumed the appearance of a during the “wicked” Trajan's reign. One legend civil war. It spread, and the Jews of Egypt now informs us that a national feast, celebrating the made common cause with their victorious birth of a son to the emperor, had fallen on the brethren. Then commenced a series of the most 9th of Ab, when the Jews, instead of joining in shocking cruelties against the heathens, such as the general mirth, had mourned, as was their only deep-rooted hatred could have suggested, wont, in commemoration of the anniversary of or long-restrained vengeance perpetrated. The the destruction of Jerusalem, and that this had mixed multitude which follows in the wake of been charged against them as a want of loyalty. every religious movement, destitute of On another occasion, while the imperial family principle, has only passions. were plunged in grief at the death of a daughter If these are no longer restrained, the result of Trajan, the Jews had, as usual at the Feast of must always be terrible. In the present instance, Dedication, lighted up their windows, a these passions had long only awaited an procedure which was misinterpreted into a occasion for their outburst. Now that the Jews demonstration of joy on their part. But it is not were victorious, they fell upon the Greeks and difficult to assign real motives for this renewed Romans. According to the account of Dio, they attempt at liberation. Although the Romans had literally tore them in pieces, they sawed them warm friends even among the teachers of the asunder, they ate their flesh, they wallowed in Law, yet, as their contempt and insolence their blood, they wound themselves round with vented themselves in various acts of petty their entrails, and dressed themselves in their persecution, so the Jews, whose religious and

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skins. It was comparatively a mild fate awarded signal, the Jews now rose all over the island. to some of the heathen captives to fight against They marched on Salamis, the capital of Cyprus. each other, or with wild beasts in the arena. They took and destroyed it. Here also acts of Though some Jewish historians have attempted barbarity, similar to those perpetrated in Africa, to cavil at these details, none has ventured to stained the insurrection. Altogether, not less deny their substantial accuracy. However we than 240,000 Greeks are said to have been may shrink in horror from such deeds, we need slaughtered. scarcely wonder at these manifestations of the The news of this unexpected and threatening savage in man. war must have considerably affected Trajan, The success of the Jews called into the field the whose position in the face of an enemy, Roman garrison under the governor Lupus. But conquered but unsubdued, was in itself the few and dispirited soldiers were not able to sufficiently dangerous. At the same time there make a stand against the wild enthusiasm of the was a terrible war raging in Africa and Cyprus; insurgents. Retreating, the Romans threw Palestine was heaving with the underground themselves into Alexandria, on whose Jewish fire of general discontent; and the Jews on the inhabitants they took terrible vengeance. The banks of the Euphrates and Tigris were taking Jews requited cruelty for cruelty. They now up arms and inciting the natives to renew the overran the whole country, killing all heathens, contest against Rome, But Trajan showed whether found in arms or defenseless, and himself equal to the emergency. spread even as far as Thebais. He immediately detached one of his ablest [The regular Roman garrison in Egypt generals, Martins Turbo, at the head of a numbered less than 10,000 men, and at the considerable force of infantry and cavalry, to present time the greater part of the troops had quell the rising in Africa. The task was one of no probably been called away to the war in the slight difficulty; but, in the end, Roman East, The governor of Cyrene had no army, discipline, and especially the services of the since this was a senatorial province. In both cavalry, of which the Jews were wholly districts, therefore, the insurgents could easily destitute, decided in favor of the Roman hold their own until reinforcements arrived.] soldiery, in spite of the desperation with which While the flame of civil war was thus kindled in the insurgents fought. The Jews yielded only Africa, it also burst forth from the island of after protracted defense and many bloody Cyprus. Considering its proximity to Asia Minor affrays. It was now the turn of the victorious and Syria, Cyprus promised to become the most legions to avenge the wrongs of the heathens suitable headquarters of the rebels. This island and the disasters of their comrades in arms. had long been frequented and partly inhabited There is a Jewish legend which relates to the by Jews, Its commercial position, its important suppression of this revolt. We are told that copper mines, which already Herod I had Trajan was urged by his wife . to punish the rented from Augustus, and its flourishing Jews for their rebellion, before he made war on traffic, offered many attractions to Jewish the barbarians. A favorable wind brought him emigrants. The number of these settlers in five days to the scene of the war. The Jews increased as domestic disasters drove so many were surrounded by the Roman legions, the to seek a voluntary exile. men were at once cut down, and their wives Accordingly, as the Book of Acts also attests, had the alternative offered them of yielding to synagogues were scattered over the whole the lusts of the soldiery, or of sharing the fate of island. Probably there was no immediate their husbands. None would accept such a occasion for the outbreak in Cyprus. From the mode of self-preservation. With one accord temper of the heathens and the circumstances they desired the soldiers “ to do to them who of the Jews, we may indeed infer that were above ground as they had done to those provocations had not been wanting. At a given who now lay beneath it.” For many years the desolation of whole districts deprived of their

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inhabitants, and the ruined and blackened keep the inhabitants in check with a strong cottages, bore testimony to the horrors of this hand. war. Even Alexandria suffered considerably, While his legions were making way amongst and it was only after the lapse of a long time the Jewish insurgents, Trajan himself was less that the traces of Roman revenge were effaced. successful against his antagonists. His troops Probably at this period the celebrated had in vain besieged Atra, a small well- synagogue of Alexandria was leveled with the defended fortress situated in a desert district. ground. Leaving Ctesiphon, the emperor advanced With equal severity the Romans crushed the against it in person; but, after an ineffectual revolt in Cyprus, where the Jews were attempt, in which his life was endangered, he commanded by one Artemion. Without was at last obliged to raise the siege. This event recording the particulars of this campaign, put an end to his long-cherished plans of which no doubt in all essentials resembled that Eastern conquest. of Libya, history has only chronicled the fact Shattered in body and broken in spirit, Trajan that every Jew on the island was killed. Indeed, returned towards Rome. He had only reached such was the bitterness of the inhabitants Antioch, in Syria, when illness prevented his against that wretched race, that ever further progress. Here he appointed Hadrian afterwards Israelites were prevented from governor of Syria. At last he seemed sufficiently setting foot on their inhospitable shores. recovered again to embark, but he had to be Even those who might have been obliged by landed at Selinus, a port of Cilicia, where he shipwreck to seek a shelter there, did not meet died, AD 117. with the sympathy which barbarians would not Many rumors were current as to the intentions have withheld, but fell sacrifices to popular of the late emperor in regard to his successor; fury. However, after this campaign the but there is little reason to doubt that Trajan commerce and influence of Cyprus decreased. had intended Hadrian to succeed him, even if he The flourishing mart of Asia became did not live to formally complete his adoption. impoverished; while, to adopt the graphic We cannot suppose that at this period a language of Jewish chroniclers, the blood of the Moorish captain like Lucius Quietus could have slain in Africa passed through the sea and been designed as the future emperor; and mingled with that of the victims in Cyprus. Novatus Priscus, the favorite of the Senate, Trajan was still unsuccessfully engaged in the could only support his claims upon his fame as attempt to subdue the Parthians, when the Jews a jurist. Hadrian was a relative of Trajan, and of Mesopotamia rose in the rear of the Roman also connected with him by his marriage to army. The emperor dispatched against this new Sabina, the granddaughter of the emperor's foe his favorite general, Lucius Quietus, a sister. In spite of the scandals circulated about Mauritanian by birth, whom, so a later rumor Hadrian, and the odium which he excited in declared, he intended as his successor to the Rome during the closing years of his reign, we purple. Such was the indignation of the may unhesitatingly assert that he was well emperor against these Jews, that Quietus was qualified for a ruler. He had already shown ordered, not only to overcome, but wholly to himself an able officer both in war and peace, exterminate, or at least to expel them from and a skilful administrator in matters military these districts. If it was impossible to carry out and civil. The different stories, which assert literally such commands. Quietus at least put that his adoption was supposititious, vary down the revolt with relentless cruelty. Nisibis considerably in their details. and Edessa were recovered, and thousands of According to one account, in the bed of a Jews were put to death.3 Immediately darkened room adjoining that of Trajan, lay one afterwards Lucius Quietus was appointed of Plotina's accomplices, who, apparently in the governor of Judea, where it was necessary to broken accents of the dying emperor, formally

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adopted Hadrian as his successor in the hearing bounties distributed and benefits conferred. of a large number of witnesses; while at the Meantime Lucius Quietus had administered the same time the empress dispatched letters to the affairs of Palestine in a very different spirit. He Senate to notify the adoption of Hadrian. had already incurred the enmity of the Jews [Doubtless Plotina used her influence to secure through the severity with which he had crushed the purple for her favorite, yet she may have the rising in Mesopotamia, probably the war acted throughout in perfect good faith.] which is known in Jewish history as the war of Quietus. Be this as it may, we know that on the 11th August Hadrian was acknowledged by the It was said that the synagogue had legions of Syria. Hadrian came to the throne at a commemorated the Jewish defeat by certain difficult time. From all parts of the Roman ordinances, such as the injunction on brides no world tidings of a disastrous nature arrived. longer to wear crowns at their marriage, and an The Britons refused any longer to bear the yoke interdict on the study of Greek. of Rome; Mauritania and Sarmatia were in [That there was at this time an actual outbreak arms; Egypt and Cyrene were still agitated by of war in Palestine appears improbable. The sedition, while Libya and Palestine seemed silence of our authorities seems conclusive on ready to renew a war of independence. this point.- But the country was undoubtedly in But the chief danger lay on the eastern frontier, a disturbed state, and Quietus was not likely to where Trajan's conquests had already melted employ gentle measures for the preservation of away. In spite of the warlike enthusiasm which order. Jewish tradition relates that at some Trajan had aroused, the course which Hadrian period the Sanhedrin or sacred college adopted was imperatively demanded by the removed from Jamnia to Usha, again from Usha interests of the State. The new provinces in this to Jamnia, and once more again to Usha. These quarter were abandoned, the Euphrates once migrations may be referred with probability to more became the boundary of â– the empire, the disturbed period which followed the death and Armenia returned to the position of a of Trajan. Perhaps, in anticipation of an vassal State. Hadrian's next efforts were outbreak of war, the Rabbins withdrew to Usha directed to the restoration of peace on the for greater security, returning to Jamnia when other frontiers, and nowhere were the wars of a peace seemed assured. They may have removed serious character. again to Usha on the outbreak of the war of Bar Cochba.] Meanwhile the emperor had written to the Senate, asking for their confirmation of his title, The new governor of Judea was not long and as soon as he was able he himself appeared allowed to enjoy his honors, Hadrian, soon after in Rome. Here he secured the support of the his accession, deeming it prudent to recall his Senate by a judicious show of deference. He powerful general. A Jewish legend preserves a refused to accept all the imperial titles at once; confused reminiscence of the recall and he preferred that they should be voted to him subsequent execution of the hated Quietus. We one by one as he deserved them. Nevertheless, are told that Trajan obtained possession of the the government of the empire became under persons of two Jewish brothers, Julianus and Hadrian more autocratic than it had • ever Pappus, and was about to sentence them to be been before, since the administration of all executed at Laodicea. In the height of his departments of state became centralized in his confidence he addressed to the Jewish warriors hands. In the year 119 AD, Hadrian left Rome the impious taunt that their God should now for a tour through all the provinces of his deliver them out of his hand, even as He had empire. “Wherever he went, he seems to have delivered Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah. The made himself acquainted with the smallest brothers replied that neither he nor they were details of the administration. His visits were worthy of having a miracle performed, yet God always gratefully remembered on account of would surely require their blood at his hand, if he slew them. Before the two Hebrews were led

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to execution, a decree arrived from Rome, and whether Hadrian was even aware that in this Trajan was put to death. This story is told to matter he'' was offending against their explain the celebration of “ Trajan's Day,” which strongest prejudices. was observed annually on the 1 2th of Adar, A story relating to the rebuilding of Jerusalem is about the beginning of March. found in a late Jewish authority, and on the [Now Trajan, as we have seen, died early in strength of this it has been supposed that August, and the real origin of the anniversary Hadrian, in the beginning of his reign, made to remains a matter of conjecture.] the Jews some promises of allowing them to Quietus after his recall was sent to Mauritania, rebuild the city and temple of Jerusalem. and did not long survive. In the second year of Hadrian, it is said, afterwards withdrew this Hadrian's reign a conspiracy against the life of permission, and thus occasioned the Jewish the emperor was discovered, and Quietus, with war. three other men of consular dignity, fell victims Nowhere, however, do Jewish authorities to imperial suspicions. directly assert that this was the cause of the Little is known of the history of Judea during war; nor does the theory in question receive the first years of the Emperor Hadrian. One any confirmation from Christian or heathen untrustworthy authority relates that Hadrian writers, independent reasons being assigned visited Palestine at the beginning of his reign, for the revolt. The story alluded to is as follows: and proceeded to found the new city of Aelia A decree had been published by the heathen Capitolina. It is, however, hardly possible for government authorizing the rebuilding of the Hadrian to have been at this time in Palestine; temple. Both in and out of Palestine collections while on independent grounds it is not were made for this purpose. Julianus and probable that Aelia was founded so early. Pappus established places throughout Galilee It was not till the year 130 AD that Hadrian where the foreign money of the pious passed through Palestine on his way to Egypt. contributors to the temple was exchanged for Coins and medals were struck to commemorate the current coin of the country. But the envy of the visit of the emperor to Judea, and to record the Samaritans was now aroused, and they the good understanding between him and his represented the danger to Roman supremacy if subjects. One of these represents Judea as a the temple were allowed to be rebuilt. female whom Hadrian is lifting from a kneeling In consequence of these representations, the position, while three youths stand by her side. building of the temple was not absolutely There can be but little doubt that this was the interdicted, only it was not to be raised upon its year of the original founding of , old site. But the Jews were in no way deceived Wherever Hadrian went in his dominions, he by Hadrian's conditions; they readily left behind him traces of his presence in the understood the real import of the emperor's numerous useful and handsome buildings exceptions. Stung to the quick, they resolved to which he either erected or restored. Many try the chances of war. An armed assemblage provinces hailed him as restitutor, and several deliberated in the valley of Rimmon on the cities of Palestine have recorded their gratitude steps which required to be taken. When the for his beneficence. It was but natural that he multitudes assembled in Rimmon heard the should wish to restore to its former splendour a emperor's letter read to them, they burst into city as famous as Jerusalem. The new city was passionate tears. But while the people only to bear the name of its benefactor, and to the remembered their wrongs and disappointment, title Aelia was added the title of the deity to there were not wanting some who dreaded the whom the principal temple was to be dedicated, consequences of a Jewish rising. the Capitolian Jupiter. That the foundation of The most influential among them was Rabbi Aelia was intended as a deliberate insult to the Joshua, who since Rabban Gamaliel's death had Jews, is highly improbable. It is doubtful presided over the Sanhedrin, and was well

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known as a friend to the Romans and a lover of Rabbi Joshua's political activity was indeed peace. No sooner had he heard of the proposed paramount at that time. His influence with his assemblage in Rimmon, than he hastened to the countrymen was always exerted for the spot to persuade his countrymen to desist from preservation of peace, and to him may belong the hopeless attempt. the merit of retarding a catastrophe which he Well knowing the character of popular could not wholly avert. These pacific assemblies, which are swayed rather by the sentiments of our Rabbi seem to have been well impulse of the moment than by principle, he known to the emperor. The Talmud illustrates presented to his audience the dangerous this by recording many friendly interviews character of the undertaking in a well-known which were said to have taken place between fable. the Rabbi and Hadrian. There may well have been some foundation in fact for these Once upon a time, commenced the Rabbi, it accounts, although the details (such as Rabbi happened that, as a lion devoured his prey, a Joshua's argument for the resurrection of the bone stuck in his throat. There it stuck body from the indestructible nature of a bone in immovable. The lion coughed, he swallowed the human body called “ luz “) - are often and wrought, but no effort could dislodge the evidently fabulous. troublesome intruder. His danger became extreme; it was a question of life or death. Then Converse with the Rabbi accords well with the the king of the forest issued a proclamation, emperor's philosophical pretensions. In offering a large reward to any of his liege character inquisitive and versatile, Hadrian subjects who would succeed in extracting the seems to have alternated at different times bone. The offer was tempting, but the danger of between superstition and skepticism. The same thrusting one's head into a lion's mouth, and, if disposition which induced him to lend an ear to unsuccessful, probably leaving it there, was too the pleas of Christian apologists, would incline great for the daring of most animals. him also to learn something of Judaism. The Imperial eclectic, who wished to be initiated in At last, and just in time to save him, forth steps all mysteries, would readily enter into a venturous crane to perform the hazardous discussions with one so learned and so liberal operation. Cautiously he puts in his head, which as our Ab-beth-din. It scarcely requires an his long neck enables him to thrust down deep illustration to show the superficiality of into the monarch's throat; and oh, happiness, Hadrian's eclecticism. His satirical judgments out comes the bone in the crane's bill ! Then and hasty scoffing conclusions are well came the question of the promised reward. But, illustrated in a letter which about that time he alas for royal gratitude ! The relieved lion bade addressed from Alexandria to his brother-in- the crane go home, and bless his stars that he law Servianus. Pretending to portray the had got his head safely out of the jaws of a lion. religious features of that frivolous capital, he It was the first, and, added he, it might prove writes with more of oratorical flourish than of the last time. So much, then, for experiments truth : “ upon a lion's throat. The application of Joshua's fable is easy, and the story rightly represents No president of Jewish synagogue, no Joshua as an advocate of peace; but it must Samaritan, no Christian presbyter, adores aught remain uncertain whether any historical else but Serapis. Even that Patriarch who came foundation underlies the narrative. Of Christian to Egypt was forced by some to worship writers who have been appealed to on this Serapis, by others to adore Christ.” We only question, Epiphanius expressly excludes the add, that the Patriarch here referred to was temple from the intended restorations of none else than our Joshua, who visited the Hadrian, while others regard the attempt of the capital of Egypt, and to whom the Alexandrians Jews to rebuild as itself an act of rebellion. on that occasion proposed twelve questions, of which three referred to the Haggadah. However, so long as Joshua lived, peace was

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preserved in Judea. At his demise (130-132 limited the number of such persons, at every AD), his contemporaries rightly observed, national crisis they always exercise a lasting prudence and counsel had now become lost in influence, acting, as they do, upon the inmost Israel. centre of society, and consistently carrying out We have already mentioned the transference of their principles to all the consequences which the Sanhedrin, after the abandonment of their comprehensive minds deduce from them. Jamnia, to Usha, a place situated between Akka Rabbi Akiba's firm faith, both in God's (St. Jean d'Acre, or Ptolemais) and . providence and in the speedy fulfillment of His Amidst the political agitation of Palestine, we promises to Israel, has already been illustrated cannot expect that purely religious questions in a former chapter. In his ardent soul every should have principally engrossed public conviction became a passion, every hope a attention. While, therefore, the study of the Law conviction, and every possibility a hope. was no doubt continued, the active With his whole heart did he cling to his country preparations for the impending war, the and to its faith, and his calm and believing gaze general discontent of the people, and the eager into a brighter future for liberated Israel jealousy of the Romans, combined to make the animated him with a vigor and a determination theological discussions of the Sanhedrin less rarely equaled. It also nerved him with a interesting than they had been before or patience in sufferings and provocations under became after this period. which less ardent souls might have sunk, or Only very few of the decrees of Usha are of any against which they might have risen in the importance. Amongst them are an ordinance, madness of despair. Not so Akiba. More deeply which limits the sentence of excommunication than others did he feel his country's sufferings. (in the case of Rabbins) to the crimes of Thus he was wont to exclaim that no Israelite blasphemy and apostasy; another, which could expect any blessing unless he habitually renders it obligatory on parents to maintain devoted the whole of the fatal Tisha-be-Ab to their sons until their twelfth year, and their solemn meditation.' Not that he meant to waste daughters until the period of their marriage; a in empty sorrow the energy of his people. No ! third, which provides that, if a parent had it was his hope to kindle, not an isolated rising during his lifetime given his property to his son, only, but, if possible, at a given signal, to the latter should be bound to support him; and combine the dispersed of Israel in all countries a fourth, which restricts charitable donations to in a holy war. For this purpose he undertook one-fifth of a person's estate. It is said that frequent and distant journeys to visit his Rabbi Ishbab, the secretary of the Sanhedrin, brethren. had, in virtue of the latter ordinance, been [At least it seems, natural to connect his travels, prevented from impoverishing himself. These which are often alluded to, with preparations decrees afford painful indications of the state of for another struggle against the power of society at the time. Such are frequently Rome.] exhibited on the eve of some great national We hear of Akiba visiting Rome, and travelling crisis, when the bonds of society appear to give through Galatia and Phrygia, Babylonia, Media, way at both extremes, and unbridled and Arabia. Hence it was said of him, and not selfishness and all-surrendering fanaticism without justice, that “his fame had extended meet face to face. from one end of the world to the other.” Only The Jews were powerfully incited by one with few indications of this activity have been whose theological activity we have already handed down, but the simultaneous outbreak of acquainted our readers. The Rabbi to whom we disturbances among the Jews in many parts of refer was none other than Akiba, one of those the world, the part which Akiba himself men who leave the impress of their character, afterwards took in the rising in Palestine, and not only on the theology and literature, but also some direct notices, confirm the supposition on the political events of their times. However that his visits to other lands were made to serve

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political ends, and that everywhere he had the ordinance threatened the continued preached a religious war on a terrible scale. It existence of the Jewish nation.] may indeed be doubted whether he set out with It was a fresh insult in their eyes, when it was a settled plan of proclaiming such a general resolved to erect a new city on the ruins of rising, and his resolution to employ the Jerusalem. opportunity for bringing about a general [As we have seen, it is not probable that insurrection may have been formed gradually, Hadrian was here animated by direct hostility as circumstances seemed favorable. Certainly to the Jews. A city built by him was, of course, to the emotions which he is said to have evoked be in every respect a heathen city, with a were of that peculiar character which, if turned heathen temple in room of the Jewish into a warlike channel, lead to the most terrible sanctuary.] energy. But to the Jews this was nothing less than To multitudes of weeping hearers in Media he profanation, and, following closely upon the preached about the sufferings of Job, whom the edict against circumcision, was an outrage not Lord had meant thereby to prepare for better to be endured. To see all their hopes not only things, just as He now dealt with His beloved blasted, but to have in the new Jerusalem a people. At other times his addresses bore the standing insult to have sacrifices offered to character of direct political harangues, if we Jupiter, where they hoped again to offer incense may draw any inference from an incidental to Jehovah to be forbidden even the initiatory statement, in which he recommends to his rite of their Heaven-given religion was a hearers the practice of the Medes, who, “ when bondage too grievous to be borne. The political they took counsel, assembled in the fields,” and religious existence of the nation was now where their deliberations were less liable to be threatened with utter extinction, and it only betrayed.- Notwithstanding the severity with remained to contend for it to the last. Even which the Jewish revolt had been suppressed in those who had formerly been undecided now the last reign, there was still a widespread saw the necessity of resistance, and the national desire in the nation to shake off the yoke of party was wound up to the highest pitch of Rome. This disaffection Akiba now excitement. In their preparations for the endeavoured to foster, both in Palestine and in struggle one of the first objects of the Jews was other countries besides. to procure arms. If such was Akiba's mission, its eventual success This was not difficult, as they appeared to have was chiefly due to the circumstances of the supplied the Roman legions in the East, either Jewish people and of their Roman masters. At as merchants or as armorers. It is said that the this time the government of Judea was in the earliest indication of the coming contest hands of Tineius Eufus, termed by Jewish appeared in the inferior description of arms authorities Tyrannus Eufus, a man who has which the Jews supplied to the legions, either become notorious for his cruel and oppressive because they reserved the better weapons for rule. A fresh instrument of tyranny was placed themselves, or from a wish to deceive and to in his hands, when an Imperial edict was impede the Romans. The next care of the published which forbade circumcision. national party was to prepare subterranean [It is not certain that this measure was aimed places for meeting or for retreat, where the specially against the Jews, or that it was military stores were laid up. To complete the designed for the purpose of rooting out whole, they quietly fortified and barricaded, as Judaism. It seems rather that the old penalties well as they could, certain important positions. against castration were extended to These preparations had been partly kept in circumcision, and that no exception was made abeyance during Hadrian's presence in Egypt in favor of the Jews, with whom this custom and Syria, when the watchful attention of the was practiced as a religious rite. None the less Romans was fixed on the East. But no sooner

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had the emperor departed for the West (about proclaimed him the Messiah, and applied to him 132 AD), than they were resumed with an passages such as the prophecy of Haggai (Hag. energy which increased as the course of events 2:6-21). hastened on the crisis. Soon the contest actually [It is, indeed, a probable conjecture that the began, as usual, in the shape of a guerilla war. Simon whose name appears on many of the The danger was at first underestimated by the Jewish coins struck during this rebellion, is Romans, and it was expected that Eufus with none other than Bar Cochba. In this case the the troops already at his disposal would be able coins will have preserved the real name, which to put down the rising. The first successes of has been lost to tradition. Rabbinic writers the insurgents naturally encouraged the Jews. usually designate the national leader Bar We must not omit here to mention a Cosiba, a title derived either from his father's circumstance which, however trivial in itself, name, or from the name of his native place. It was considered a favorable omen. It had been was only at a later period, in allusion to the formerly observed that the rise of the city of failure of the rebellion, that some writers gave a Caesarea, renowned in a former war, had dated new interpretation to the title, and called the from the downfall of Jerusalem. The Rabbins unfortunate warrior Bar Cosab, the son of a lie.] had applied to this the passage in Ezek. 26:2 : “I What a difference between the Old Testament shall be replenished now she is laid waste.” promises and this reality what a contrast But now an earthquake had suddenly destroyed between Israel's true Messiah and the “son of a the grandeur of Caesarea, and the Haggadists lie”! They would not have the meek and lowly predicted to the excited multitude that the Jesus and His rest they took to themselves a downfall of her hostile rival indicated the king after their own hearts. He was to be a approaching deliverance of Jerusalem, A mighty giant-warrior, and it became one like circumstance like this would probably have had Bar Cochba. The true Messiah was of God's considerable influence anywhere, but especially giving; Bar Cochba was of Israel's making. amongst the Jews. Only one thing was wanting We do not know what other claims Bar Cochba to transform the guerilla war into a regular and had to be a leader in Israel, beyond those of organized contest, the presence of one bodily strength and indomitable courage. Still recognized leader. This difficulty was removed the great majority of the sages and of the by the appearance of Bar Cochba. The real people adhered to him, and flocked round his name of the Jewish leader has been lost. His standard, perhaps more incited by the example designation as Bar Cochba (the son of a star) and influence of Akiba than by personal dates from his claims to be the long-promised conviction. It does not appear by what means Messiah, and the application to him of the the new Messiah upheld his claims. He does not prophetic message in Num. 24:17. The idea of seem to have attempted to work miracles. making the Jewish leader the Messiah, was one Only one authority, and that of a person equally well calculated to secure its objects to give the credulous and hostile to the Jews, records a stamp of heavenly approbation to the solitary instance of it, which is too transparent undertaking to rally round him all believing even for a Bar Cochba to have practiced. It is Jews to invest the war with the character of the said that he pretended to spit fire by blowing highest religious duty, and to inspire the burning flax out of his mouth. But though warriors with the confidence of assured unsupported by such evidence, the report that success. It may well be doubted whether all the the Messiah had at last appeared and been Rabbins believed in his pretensions. Some, acknowledged by the Sanhedrin, was sufficient indeed, openly objected. One Rabbi, Jochanan to attract crowds of eager combatants round ben Torta, declared that “ grass would sooner his standard. Jews from Palestine and from sprout on Akiba's cheeks than the Messiah other provinces daily came to headquarters. A appear.” But Akiba himself not only joined the general insurrection of the Jews in every party of the deceiver, but carried his standard,

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province seemed to be imminent; while in had formerly sided with the enemy of their Palestine even non-Israelites joined the ranks country, now deserted the Romans; some who, of the national army, many being induced by during the supremacy of the “tyrant” Eufus, had the hope of gain to take part in the rebellion. even submitted to a painful operation in order Historians record a number of particulars to conceal their descent, were now circumcised connected with this army, which seem a second time. exaggerated if not fabulous. Jerusalem was, no doubt, in the hands of the Thus the number of combatants is put down as Jews, but amidst the engagements of the war 400,000; the strength of Bar Cochba is there was no leisure to rebuild its sanctuary, or described as such, that with his knees he could to restore the city to its former importance. hurl back the immense stones which the Roman Meantime Bar Cochba seems to have war machines projected; and various fabulous proclaimed himself Prince of Israel. To indicate tests are mentioned by which he tried the the liberation of his country, he changed the fitness and power of endurance of his followers. coinage, and not infrequently re-stamped the Whatever deductions we may have to make current Roman coins. Some of these coins are from those, accounts of the national army, still extant, in which above the former Roman without doubt the danger to Rome was mark of Trajan or Hadrian, which is still slightly sufficiently formidable. The character of the discernible, we read the name of “Simon,” and undertaking and of its leader, as well as their the number of the year of “ the liberation of confident anticipations of success, appear in the Jerusalem,” or “ of Israel.” The coins are following presumptuous prayer which Bar stamped with Jewish symbols, one side bearing Cochba is said to have ejaculated : “ Lord, if usually the emblem of the temple, a palm tree, Thou art not willing to assist us, at least do not or a bunch of grapes; while on the reverse is assist our enemies, and then we shall prevail.” seen a vase, two trumpets, or a lyre. Bar Such was the Messiah of Israel's choice, whom Cochba's reign had now lasted two years, and they now prepared to support. Only one party the danger had become increasingly great. in the land opposed a passive resistance to the To bring this threatening war to a termination, “son of a lie.” The small and despised number of Hadrian dispatched to Judea from Britain, on Jewish Christians neither could nor would own the uttermost limits of the empire, his ablest the deceiver's claims. They resisted his general, Julius Severus. Severus felt he was overtures, and refused to fight under such engaged in a war which taxed all his energies as colors even for national independence. They a commander, and called for all the bravery of aided not the Romans, but they would not join his legions. Following the usual tactics of the Bar Cosiba. On this ground they were exposed Romans, he endeavoured to avoid regular on the part of the Jews to shocking cruelties; for engagements. By hovering about the Jews, and the reality of their faith in Christ made them continually threatening them with an attack, he specially obnoxious to Bar Cochba and his wearied them out, while he drew his own warriors. Success seemed at first largely to troops round them in an ever closer circle. As attend the arms of the new Messiah. his own rear rested on Syria, he could always Tineius Eufus was unable to cope with his draw reinforcements and supplies; while the opponent, notwithstanding an increase to the Jews, shut up in their mountain fortresses, were Roman army. At one period the Jews held 50 cut off from help, and unable to obtain fortified cities and 935 open villages. It was in provisions. Thus at last Severus succeeded in vain that Hadrian sent legion after legion, and starving and harrying the rebels, and in slowly general after general, to Palestine. They were driving them out of one stronghold after obliged to yield to or retreat before the Jews. another. These results alarmed the emperor, and [We know very little about the progress of the increased the confidence of the Hebrew war. It has been supposed that a first line of warriors. As in former wars, so now, those who defense was established along a mountain

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range which extends through Upper Galilee The war lasted for nearly three years and a half from the Mediterranean to the Lake of Tiberias, (132-135 AD). and that it was protected by the three forts of [Jerusalem was taken by assault, and again Cabul, Sichin, and . It seems, however, destroyed; but the fortifications cannot have more probable that these places were been important, and the city did not form the destroyed during the war with Vespasian. The centre of the war.] main scene of the struggle is termed in Jewish The last Jewish fortress to hold out was the writings Tur-Malka, or the Royal Mountain, and stronghold of Bethar, where the garrison was should probably be identified with the commanded by Bar Cochba in person. mountain country of Judea.] Tradition, as usual, gives a fabulous description Legend relates how in Tur-Simon, or Tur- of the armies and of the inhabitants of that city, Malka, as it is also called, commanded one Bar which, however, do not enable us to form any Droma. Yielding to a fatal security, the safe inference as to its size or the number of its inhabitants were in the midst of festive defenders. enjoyments, when a Roman army to the Thus it was said that the army attacking Bethar number of 300,000 appeared before its walls, had no less than 80,000 trumpeters. Again, so and even penetrated into its streets. The dance numerous were the theological students there and rioting was now interrupted by the cries of assembled, that there were in the city 400 those who, themselves defenseless, fell under synagogues, to each of which were attached the swords of the enemy. Before the soldiers 400 teachers, while each teacher was attended could be collected, the Romans had occupied by 400 students. It is added, that with the the principal parts of the town, and a general points of their writing materials the students massacre continued for three days and three might have repelled any hostile attack; and that nights. In fact, such was the extent of Tur- after the destruction of Bethar no less than Simon, that when the carnage had already forty chests, each containing three measures of commenced in one quarter of the city, the old phylacteries, were discovered. inhabitants of the other, ignorant of their impending fate, were still enjoying the Bethar was doubtless a very strong place, but it pleasures of wine and of the dance. Jewish is not mentioned in earlier times. Tradition historians describe, in their own peculiar way, relates that it used to be visited by many the importance and extent of the towns which travelers, and among others by wandering had now fallen into the hands of the Romans. Jewish impostors, who played upon the credulity of the inhabitants. It is said that on Thus they have it, that King Jannai possessed in this ground the inhabitants of Bethar rejoiced the Royal Mountain 600,000 cities, each over the fall of Jerusalem. containing as many inhabitants as the number of Israelites who had come out of Egypt; while [Bethar was situated not very far from the holy at Tur-Simon 300 large baskets of bread were city. According to the Talmud, it lay forty miles distributed every Friday amongst the paupers from the sea; and its site has been identified, of its large population. It is also said that the with considerable probability, with the modern first signal of the war had been given in Tur- Bettir, three hours south-west of Jerusalem. ] Simon. Some lawless Roman soldiers had The defense of the fortress was long and insulted a bridal procession, and forcibly taken stubborn, and the defenders were reduced to from it the pair of fowls which, according to the greatest distress through want of food and custom, was carried before the newly married water, but history has preserved no details of couple. It is added that the infuriated mob had the progress of the siege. On the authority of a in turn fallen upon and destroyed the Roman Samaritan history (which is quite garrison, an event which had formed the first untrustworthy), it is stated that treason act of open hostility between the two parties. effected what the arms of the enemy could not have accomplished. The hostile agency is here

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also traced to the ancient jealousy of the bade him disclose his treasonable designs. In Samaritans. It is said that the latter discovered vain the old Rabbi pleaded utter ignorance, to the Romans some of the secret passages by even of the presence of the Samaritan. Bar which victuals were conveyed into the besieged Cochba, who in all this saw only a piece of city. acting, enraged at his denial, rudely pushed the A Jewish tradition relating to the siege also old man aside with his foot. Eleazar fell to the speaks of the treachery of the Samaritans. ground a corpse. It is added that a voice from Three years and a half, we are told, did Hadrian heaven was heard to declare that, as Bar besiege Bethar. The Jews were hardly pressed Cochba had in the person of the sage paralyzed on every side; but, still clinging firmly to the the arm and extinguished the eye of Israel, so it hope of heavenly deliverance, the soldiers should be done to himself. prepared for a desperate resistance. Amongst There could be but one issue to the long and those who stimulated the religious energy and desperate siege. At last came the day of assault, encouraged the hopes of the defenders of and Bethar was sacked and destroyed. The loss Bethar, none was more conspicuous than Rabbi of life on both sides during the war must have Eleazar of Modin. Weighed down by years and been enormous. emaciated by fasts, the aged ascetic was daily to [Our most reliable authority, the historian Dio be seen on the ramparts, where, clad in Cassius, referring apparently only to the losses sackcloth and covered with ashes, he would, in of the Jews, asserts that as many as 580,000 the sight of all, implore heavenly aid with tears men fell in battle; while the number of those and by continual fasting. As long as the who perished through sickness, fire, or famine defenders of Bethar saw Eleazar at his post, was never reckoned.] they felt secure under the canopy of his piety, Jewish legend describes in extravagant terms and in the assurance of Divine aid. the horrors of the massacre after the fall of Even the treacherous Samaritans felt the awe of Bethar. Thus tradition has it, that the horses his presence, and were wont to say that Bethar waded in blood up to the bridles, and that the could not be taken “ so long as this cock bed of the river became filled with gore, which remained to crow in ashes.” At last one of their was carried in a stream to the sea. Again, the number undertook to get rid of the object of atrocities of the soldiers were not confined to their fears. For this purpose he entered Bethar those who had borne arms against them. Young by a secret passage. He then managed to and old were indiscriminately slaughtered. Of approach Eleazar, while the latter, engaged as all the young men in Bethar, only Simon, the usual at his devotions on the ramparts, son of Rabban Gamaliel, the former Nasi, remained unconscious of the presence of the escaped. Under one stone alone, it is said, the intruder. But the soldiers around, who brains of 300 children were dashed out. An wondered what the Samaritan stranger had to immense vineyard was completely covered whisper to the Rabbi, seized him the more with dead bodies. eagerly that he feigned an anxiety to escape. He According to tradition, a burial was not even was brought before Bar Cochba and questioned conceded to the Jewish slain, and the cruelty of about his communication with Eleazar. the victors manifested itself in piling up the The Samaritan played his part but too well. At dead bodies like a hedge. Altogether, such was first apparently unwilling to disclose anything, the number of persons who had fallen in this he at last declared that, since he must die, by sanguinary war, that it was observed the the hand of those who had sent him if he told widows of the slain found it almost impossible the truth, by the hand of his captors if he afterwards to procure, according to the custom refused to do so, he would choose rather to of the synagogue, the necessary witnesses to perish now than to disclose the secret message testify to the death of their husbands. The chief which had been entrusted to him for Eleazar. actor in the terrible drama, Bar Cochba, fell in Bar Cochba immediately went to Eleazar and

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this last engagement. We are told that his head line of posts, by which they surrounded the was brought in triumph into the Roman camp fugitives in the mountains, and thus either round his body a serpent had twisted itself. forced them to surrender, or at least prevented When Hadrian saw the corpse, he exclaimed, “If their escape across the Jordan. A military God had not smitten him, what man could have station at Bethel commanded the approach to smitten him?” the mountains of Ephraim and the According to Rabbinic calculation, it was again neighborhood of Jerusalem; another post at the fatal 9th of the month Ab on which Bethar Chamoth, or Emmaus, near Tiberias, watched was completely destroyed by the Romans. With the mountains; while an intermediate station the fall of the headquarters of the insurrection, was established at Kephar Lekitaja. and the death of the false Messiah, the war was Our authorities tell many stories of the dangers virtually at an end. But the victory had not been and sufferings of the unfortunate people, and of achieved without considerable loss to the the cruelties practiced upon them by the Roman army. enraged Romans. In continual apprehension of [Hadrian had returned to Palestine, and was being surprised by the enemy, they hid probably with the army during the most critical themselves in caves and among rocks, and even part of the war.] there scarcely felt secure. Thus it is related that on a certain Sabbath, a large party had When now sending to the Senate a report of the assembled in the interior of a cave. Of a sudden usual phraseology of such documents, and they heard heavy footsteps as of their instead of informing the assembled fathers of approaching enemies. In terror they fled his own welfare and of that of the army, he further into the cave, the intruders following omitted the customary clause. In truth, the them. From overcrowding, from being trampled army had been terribly shattered. The Senate under foot in the precipitate flight, and from acknowledged their services by the usual terror, many of the wretched fugitives perished. rewards to officers and men, and decreed to Severus the triumphal decorations. Thus closed It afterwards appeared that those from whom the second Jewish war of liberation; and so they had fled as Romans were only companions perished the false Messiah, and the unhappy of their misery, whose sandals happened to be victims of this rebellion. armed with heavy nails. The unfortunate mistake was commemorated by the Synagogue Chapter 8 – State of the Synagogue after the in an ordinance, which forbade the use of such Last Jewish War sandals on Sabbath days. But it was not chiefly It appears that, after the fall of Bethar, as from vague apprehensions that these homeless formerly after the destruction of Jerusalem, the wanderers suffered. To all their other contest did not immediately terminate. Armed calamities that of pinching want was added. At bands of Jews still occupied some posts in the last, we are told, such were their necessities mountain fastnesses, which they prepared to that they fed upon the dead bodies of their defend. Especially in the mountainous district friends and comrades. The horrors of this state around the neighborhood of the lake of Galilee, of matters are represented in the account we hear of two brothers who held command, which is given of one of these parties. and for some time successfully resisted or It is said that, in turn, a young man had been eluded the Romans. It was comparatively easy sent to provide the unnatural aliment for his for resolute leaders, in these inaccessible friends. Unable to discover any other corpse retreats, to escape the vigilance of a hostile than that of his own father, he had returned force. It is said that they had gathered empty-handed. Another less scrupulous adherents, and even proposed to proclaim messenger was dispatched, and the youth had, themselves successors of Bar Cochba, when with his companions, completed the unnatural they fell into the hands of the Romans. The meal before he learned that he had feasted on latter are said to have established a threefold the remains of his parent. But, besides

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recounting the privations and sufferings of the but even the fruit trees and vines were fugitives, tradition loved also to dwell on the destroyed. Galilee, once so renowned for its cruelty of the Romans, which was only equaled production of oil, had at the termination of the by their faithlessness. Thus, on one occasion, so war scarcely an olive tree left. It was now the story runs, when a body of Roman troops possible to proceed with the project which had were wearied with waiting for their prey, they led to the immediate outbreak of the war, the promised a free pardon to all who would lay erection of a Roman colony on the site of down their weapons and surrender; but those Jerusalem. who, trusting their word, had come down, were The buildings erected before the outbreak had speedily undeceived. They were marched into probably been destroyed during the war. These the fatal valley of Rimmon, and surrounded by were now restored, and in the place of the holy the soldiery. In cruel sport the Roman emperor city of the Jews, a heathen city, laid out after insisted that they should be slaughtered during Grecian models, and provided with market- the time that he took to regale himself with part places, theatres, and heathen fanes, was reared. of a fowl. Jewish feeling regarded it as an intentional Such of the captives in this war as escaped outrage, when a statue of Hadrian was placed death were to be sold into slavery. Two great where the altar of Jehovah had once stood, and bazaars were held for this purpose, the one at in room of the temple a fane for the Roman Gaza, the other in , the place where Jupiter was built. Over the Bethlehem gate the Abraham of old had pitched his tent.' Such was figure of a pig's head was wrought in relief, the number of the wretched human chattels, probably the symbol of the Tenth Legion, which that a great part of them remained unsold, and still formed the garrison of Jerusalem. were afterwards conveyed into Egypt. On the Even the Samaritans, who had taken no part in passage many of them were mercifully released the war, did not escape unmolested. They had from their sufferings by death. However, a large to witness the erection of a temple of Jupiter on number of Jews contrived to escape to Babylon their holy mount Gerizim; but it is not known and Arabia, where their sympathizing whether this was actually built by Hadrian. The countrymen gave them a ready welcome. very name of the province was changed from The tragic termination of this war was another Judea to Syria Palestina. Coins of the reign of added to the monuments of national judgments. Hadrian and of later emperors bear that name, To preserve it in the minds of the faithful, the and on the reverse the representations of the Synagogue abolished another of the tokens of various heathen deities which under one or joy formerly customary at marriages. In future, other of the emperors were principally when the bride was conducted to her husband's worshipped at Jerusalem. A century and a half house, she was no more, as in happier days, to later, the revulsion was so complete, that when be carried through the streets in a splendidly on a certain occasion a Christian convert, in his ornamented chair. Such demonstrations no examination before the governor, referred to longer befitted their circumstances, or the Jerusalem. descendants of those who had thus suffered. To complete the change, and to make it for ever It is, indeed, almost impossible to realize the impossible to restore Jerusalem to its former desolation of the land. To the Roman legions it position, all Jews were, on pain of death, had from the first probably been a war of forbidden to approach the city, even within extermination against the Jews of Palestine, and such distance as to catch a glimpse of it. At a all subsequent measures taken by the later period, however, the Jews were again government were in accordance with this view. allowed, upon payment of a certain sum to the Everywhere the country had been laid waste, Roman guards, on the anniversary of the fatal and with a ruthlessness for which no plea can Tisha-be-Ab, to enjoy the melancholy privilege be assigned but that of exasperation; not only of visiting Jerusalem to weep over the broken were cities razed, and hamlets burned down, walls of their city and temple. The scene which

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Jerusalem presented on such occasions has of all Jewish practices; and Judaism had so been described by an ecclesiastical thoroughly intertwined itself with common life, contemporary in terms as unfeeling as they are that at every turn a man would be reminded of unbecoming. the tyrannical edict, and made to feel his We quote them chiefly to exhibit the alienation hopeless bondage. But there is one instance to from the original relations between the Church be mentioned of Roman brutality, compared and the Synagogue, and the departure from the with which, if indeed it be a historical fact, all spirit of primitive Christianity. “Those who other acts must almost shrink into once bought the blood of Christ,” exultingly insignificance. writes Jerome, “must now buy their tears; and It seems that even before the fall of Bethar, a even to weep is not freely conceded them. On persecution, mainly directed against the the anniversary of the capture and destruction Rabbins and teachers, had broken out in of Jerusalem, you may descry a mourning Galilee; after the capture of the last important crowd approaching. Behold here decrepit stronghold, the persecution extended over the women, and aged men weighed down with grief whole of Palestine. In Jewish tradition, the and years, hastening to bewail the desolation of years that passed between the fall of Bethar their sanctuary. Their very bearing betokens and the death of Hadrian are known as the that the wrath of God is upon them. But, while “Time of Danger.” We have, however, hardly tears are streaming down their cheeks, while in any means of determining whether the their bitterness of spirit they stand with arms martyrdoms of certain distinguished Rabbins outstretched and hair disheveled, lo ! the occurred before or after the fall of Bethar. It is Roman soldier rudely accosts them to demand equally difficult to fix the dates of some money that they may longer enjoy the liberty important meetings of the Rabbins which took and the privilege of weeping.” - So far the place during this period. theologian. We may add, that the leave Our Jewish authorities name Tyrannus Eufus as accorded to Jews to dwell undisturbed in the most active persecutor, and of the severities Jerusalem dates from the period of practiced against the unfortunate Jews terrible Mohammedan rule, although during the third accounts are given. We are told that the century the edict of expulsion was rarely put in offenders against the Imperial edicts were no force. longer punished in the usual modes. As if to As Hadrian had now succeeded in making behead, to hang, or to bum alive were Jerusalem a heathen city, so would his other insufficient, Roman ingenuity devised new measures, if completely carried out, have modes of punishment. Red-hot balls were rendered the profession of Judaism in Palestine placed in their armpits, pointed canes were impossible. The edict against circumcision, thrust under their nails, the skin was torn off published even before the war, was still their bodies, and similar cruelties inflicted, and maintained; and so strictly was this interdict that often where not even the excuse of having enforced, that certain parties expressed doubts taken part in the former rebellion existed. Spies in how far it was lawful in present and denouncers were always ready to hunt out circumstances to contract marriages. Jewish the refractory. Amongst these spies, the most tradition affirms further, that it was interdicted notorious and dangerous were apostate Jews, to read in the Law, to put on phylacteries, to who, being acquainted with the habits and affix the customary legal mark to the doorposts, practices of their countrymen, were capable of to eat unleavened bread, on certain festivals to inflicting on them more serious damage than use the customary nosegay, to write letters of strangers. divorce, and to solemnize the marriages of Especially did Elisa ben Abuja, from his spinsters on Wednesdays. apostasy called Acher (the other), who, himself Whether this be true or not, to many Jews the once a distinguished theologian, had through prohibition of circumcision meant a prohibition mystical studies made shipwreck, first of his

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faith and then of every principle, distinguish point of importance to agree whether they himself by a hostile activity. He well knew how themselves should take their stand and endure his brethren would attempt to evade the law, martyrdom for these practices, or only in and at the same time observe parts of the defense of their professional studies. Naturally, Jewish ritual, and his ingenuity was exerted in differences of opinion found expression in this rendering these sorry devices impossible. If the council with reference to a stricter or laxer authorities directed their edicts against all observance of the Law. distinctively Jewish practices, it seems to have The main question, however, was decided with been their special desire to see the theological little hesitation. It may, indeed, be a fair schools closed, and the functions of the Rabbins question how far practices can be absolutely abolished. Indeed, had they succeeded in this and religiously binding, which under any attempt, the hated observances would pressure from without can be wholly cast aside. necessarily soon have ceased of themselves. But with reference to the present The Rabbins were strictly enjoined neither to circumstances there was little room for such study the Law themselves nor to teach it to difficulties. The general principle being settled others, and special care was taken to watch by the Rabbins, that as the study of the Law led over the enforcements of these edicts. Here also to its practice, the former was the more Elisa was chief actor. Perhaps, however, his important, the inference was easy. While the conduct may indicate some sympathy with his theologians, therefore, resolved to continue former colleagues, as he is represented as only their teaching, they at the same time granted a breaking up and dispersing, but not strictly general dispensation to the faithful in the denouncing, the theological assemblies. It is meantime only to observe so much of Jewish said that he would unexpectedly appear at a practices as they could do with safety, or in case secret meeting of the academy, and, naming of danger even wholly to intermit them. The those present and mentioning their trades (the only exceptions were those made on the three Rabbins being obliged each to learn some points of murder, uncleanness, and idolatry. trade), call upon them to disperse and go to But even on these points some latitude was their proper work. given, and Rabbi Ishmael declared it lawful in The sages felt that the most critical period for cases of extreme necessity even to simulate the Synagogue had now arrived. It was, of compliance with heathen practices. course, impossible to assemble a Sanhedrin to [From the traditions relating to Hadrian's deliberate on the measures requisite, but some persecution, it appears that, while some of the of the leading theologians met secretly in the Rabbins set the example of observing the “ upper room of one Nitsah, at Lydda. In that decrees of Lydda,” there was also a stricter assembly were Akiba, who, without holding any party which refused, even at the peril of death, official position, was the most prominent Rabbi to neglect any of the traditional observances. of his time. Among these was Akiba, who had been ready to Tarphon or Tryphon the Abbeth-din, Joses of grant to others dispensations which he would Galilee, and perhaps also Ishmael the son of not himself use.] Elisa, the celebrated compiler of the thirteen The rigor of the Romans seems to have been exegetical canons which we have formerly primarily directed against the teaching and the mentioned. The first question which the teachers rather than against the observances Rabbins discussed was that of the comparative and the observers. It is said that, to enlist importance of the study and of the observance popular assistance in enforcing the decrees of the Jewish Law. Under other circumstances against the Rabbis, it was further enacted, that such a subject would scarcely have been not only should refractory theologians be mooted, now it had become a grave question. punished, but that the towns and districts in Manifestly they could not expect the people to which the law was set at defiance should be continue the ritual observances, and it was a held responsible for such offences. This applied

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specially to the ordination of candidates for the According to tradition, the first to suffer in the Rabbinate. It was hoped that by these means cause of Rabbinism were Simon and Ishmael the succession of qualified teachers would be ben Elisa, the learned priest. Besides his other rendered impossible. claims to distinction, so beautiful was the latter, The effects of these measures were, at least for that legend records the emperor's daughter had a time, very extensive. Some apostatized from caused his head to be carried to Rome. When in fear, or were bribed by promises; others, prison, and while led forth to execution, these amongst them, perhaps, Rabbi Tarphon, left the two Rabbins consoled each other by conversing country; others openly denied that they about the Divine holiness and justice. Not continued teaching the Law. Thus, Eleazar ben daunted by his imminent danger, the noble- Parta, when summoned before the judges, minded Akiba prepared to follow in their wake. simply bore false testimony, satisfying his He delivered a funeral oration on the occasion conscience by a reference to the decrees of of their martyrdom, in which he called on his Lydda. But while some of the Rabbins hearers to imitate the example of those who intermitted their usual occupation, whether had gone before, to whom he declared the from favor for the Romans or from honour had fallen of being the first to suffer. It apprehensions for their personal safety, others, was his turn closely to follow them. and amongst them the leading men of the The crime of which he was now accused was Synagogue, prepared to suffer in a cause which that of continuing to teach the Law. He had first to them appeared the most sacred of all. been warned by friends of his impending [Legend has adorned the deaths of the Jewish danger; but Akiba knew that such an accusation martyrs of this period with many additions and could only be a pretext to enemies whose exaggerations. At a much later period, after the vengeance he could not hope to escape. Besides, completion of the Talmud, we find references to the time of his departure had come, and he was the Ten Martyrs, who suffered during the willing to suffer in what he conscientiously persecution of Hadrian, the names of the ten believed to be the cause of God. To his well- being variously given. The earlier literature meaning friends, especially to one of them, only refers casually to the martyr death of one Pappus, who had himself submitted to the Rabbi or another; and even these accounts are decrees of the Roman authorities, he replied in no more trustworthy than many similar a parable, designed to show that theological Christian legends. The circumstances of Rabbi study was his proper heaven-appointed Akiba's death seem better attested than those element, and that if he were not safe in the relating to many of the other Rabbins. Here we element for which God had adapted him, he can only repeat the stories of martyrdom as could not expect security in any other. they are given in the Talmud and elsewhere.] It is said that, by a curious coincidence, the If we remember the leading part taken by Akiba cautious Pappus had been consigned, for some and his companions in stirring up the late other imaginary offence, to the same prison rebellion, it is difficult to understand how they with Akiba. He now deplored his cowardice, can have so long escaped the vengeance of the which, without attaining its object, had made Romans. In the absence of historical him a sufferer in a less noble cause. At the time documents, the actual course of events cannot of his imprisonment Akiba had attained an be determined with certainty. Some have advanced age; tradition assigns to him, as to supposed that, as the Rabbins had not been some other great Rabbins, a length of life equal discovered in arms, they for a while escaped. to that of Moses, namely 120 years. He was in the zenith of his fame and influence, and his sun [Others suppose that the persecution raged went down in a noonday splendour. during the later years of the war, but that Akiba was for a long while kept in prison by Eufus, Tidings of this new calamity seem to have waiting for Hadrian's triumph.] overwhelmed the people and the theologians. Akiba was closely guarded, and prevented from

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holding intercourse with his friends. The While undergoing this agony, the suffering removal of their chief authority had come so patriarch remembered that the hour for suddenly upon the sages, who had never customary prayer had arrived. accustomed their minds to the idea of his loss, In the midst of his tortures he could fix his mind that when it had become a reality, they felt as if on these subjects, and began reciting his last they had not made proper use of his presence prayer. He had reached the closing word in the even during the long period in which it had distinguishing formula of the Old Testament been granted to them. A number of knotty religion “Hear, Israel ! the Lord thy God is one” questions now occurred to them, on which they when death came to his relief ,and in the wished to have his decision. accents of that confession he breathed his last. Partly by bribing the warders, and partly by His constancy had been matter of astonishment clever maneuvers, they are said to have even to his tormentors. We need scarcely succeeded in ascertaining his opinion. Thus, wonder that Jewish legend represented that on one of his favorite students, Jochanan from his decease a voice from heaven had been Alexandria, would disguise himself as a hawker, heard to announce his beatification. Some of his and, passing under the windows of Akiba's faithful disciples contrived to gain possession of prison, while pretending to praise his wares, his body, which they secretly interred. Akiba managed to slip in theological questions. In this left one son and all Israel to mourn his loss. manner, to the call, “Needles, forks who will The next sufferer whom tradition names was buy my good needles? What about marriage that devoted student of the Law, Rabbi with a deceased brother's wife?” Akiba, who Chananja ben Teradion, whose application of readily understood his pupil, would reply, “ such passages as Psalm 1:1 and Mal. 3:16, to Have you any thread? lawful.” On another neglect of, or occupation with, theological occasion, we are told, the sum of 400 denarii questions, we have formerly mentioned. As in was given to a messenger who succeeded in the case of Akiba, Joses, a devoted friend of the holding intercourse with him. Even in prison Romans, had warned Chananja of his danger. the authority of Akiba was more than once But, unlike the cautious Joses, who basked m appealed to for the regulation of the calendar. the sunshine of Roman favor, the zealous sage Eufus himself is said to have become interested continued his sacred employment. The Roman in his victim, and to have had frequent spies caught him engaged in the perusal of a interviews with him. roll of the Law. Jewish legend has recorded, in fabulous To the question how he had ventured to defy language, the particulars of these the Imperial edict, he replied by appealing to conversations, which appear to have been the higher duty of unconditional obedience to almost wholly connected with religious the laws of his God. Rabbi Chananja was controversy. sentenced to be wrapped in the roll in which he Although in prison, and about to suffer, Akiba had been studying, and thus to be bound to the would omit none of his former ritual stake. To prolong his sufferings, the faggots by observances. Indeed, he is related to have which he was to be consumed were to be fresh exhibited an increased ardor and wood, and damp wool was to be put upon the punctiliousness. Thus he used the greater region of his heart. The scrupulous Chananja portion of his stinted daily allowance of water refused to do anything which would abbreviate for the required ceremonial ablutions. In the period of his existence, lest he should incur reality, Akiba prepared to die in a manner the guilt of suicide. It is said that the worthy of his life. As if the leading sage of the executioner, more humane than the judge, nation was to be distinguished by novel and subsequently removed the wool and so cut more than usually terrible tortures, Eufus is short his sufferings, and then, overcome by said to have ordered that the flesh of Akiba what he had seen, precipitated himself into the should be torn off with pointed iron combs. flames which encircled Chananja. The heroic

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wife of our Rabbi fell likewise a victim to her and they retaliated in the only possible manner, faith. by cursing his memory. They left two daughters, of whom one was The Rabbins who escaped the slaughter in married to a celebrated theologian, Rabbi Meir; Palestine fled mostly to Babylon, where so the other was sent to Rome, there to be devoted many of their brethren enjoyed liberty of to prostitution. We shall by and by allude to the conscience and prosperity. Among these story of her wonderful escape. Another sufferer fugitives were the newly-ordained teachers. was Rabbi Chuzpith, who had formerly This exodus gave a new impulse to the study of officiated as public interpreter to the Nasi. He is traditionalism in the provinces beyond the said to have been executed after having had his Euphrates. Not that the Jewish inhabitants of tongue cut out. The martyr death of Rabbi these districts had ever neglected it, but that Ishbab, the scribe, is alluded to, but no details the dependence of the Babylonian Jews on the about it are recorded. Sanhedrin in Palestine, and the supremacy The seventh of the martyrs of Lydda was Judah claimed by the colleges and Rabbins in the Holy ben Baba, designated by his contemporaries the Land, necessarily assigned only a secondary Pious. The death of so many teachers had position to those in the lands of the Dispersion. excited in Judah apprehensions for the Several celebrated teachers resided in preservation of a succession of Rabbins, Babylonia. Amongst them Juda ben Bethera, authorized and capable to administer the perhaps a descendant of the family of the Sons spiritual affairs of Israel. Accordingly, he of Bethera, of the time of Hillel, taught in resolved on the dangerous experiment of Nisibis. In Nahardea lived Nehemiah from Beth- ordaining some candidates. To evade the threat Deli, who consulted Rabbi Akiba when he of destruction which had been decreed against visited this city to settle the arrangement of the the city in which an ordination of Rabbins Jewish calendar. Rabbi Chanina, whom, as should take place, he betook himself to a valley formerly stated, his uncle Joshua had sent to between Usha and Shafram, where he formally Babylon in order to withdraw him from set apart six students to the sacred office. But Christian influences, taught in Nahar-Pacod, a no sooner was the solemnity past than they city not far from Nahardea. The influence of were overtaken by a band of Roman soldiers, Babylon was subsequently felt in Palestine; and, who had got notice of Judah's intention. They had the persecution continued, no doubt came too late to disturb the proceedings. On Babylon would, even at that time, have risen to their approach the aged Rabbi insisted on his the eminence which it afterwards occupied. unwilling young colleagues, for the sake of the Before detailing the events which led to the common cause, abandoning him, and seeking removal of the obnoxious edicts of Hadrian, and safety in flight. He himself calmly met his fate, to the restoration of the Sanhedrin, we glance and fell pierced by 300 lances, or, as tradition in passing at the state of Jewish Christians has it, pierced by them like a sieve. during this period, and at the progress of the A series of persecutions like these would have Gospel amongst the Hebrews. Under the roused the hatred of any nation; nor can we dominion of Trajan, the edicts against wonder that Hadrian's memory was execrated Christians were not of so stringent a character by the Jews even more than that of Vespasian as necessarily to expose them to persecution. or of Titus. It sufficiently indicates the popular That emperor had not enjoined any formal hatred of Hadrian, that whenever any Jew procedure against them, and only ordered mentioned his name, he added to it the Christians to be punished if, when brought characteristic imprecation, “May the Lord break before the magistrates and called upon to his bones!” Indeed, at no previous period had recant, they refused to do so. This left them the Roman government adopted such severe very much dependent on the personal feelings repressive measures against the Jewish nation, of the governors of the different provinces, and also on the passions of the populace.

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Under his reign Christianity not only continued Meantime the separation between the Church to spread throughout the limits of the empire, and the Synagogue had been completed, and but especially in Palestine, where the period of bishops of Gentile extraction henceforth national calamity proved also one of religious presided over the believers in Judea. However, inquiry to many Israelites. “We have already we cannot omit noticing the painfully altered hinted that, previous to the transformation of tone which Christian doctors assumed towards Jerusalem into the heathen city, it had, partially Israel, and the manner in which the bitterness at least, risen from its ruins. We are also able to of carnal zeal took the place of their former infer that Christians lived and labored there in meekness. the cause of their Master. Such, then, was the state of Judea at the If the reign of Trajan was not marked by any termination of a war which had exhausted its general or systematic persecution of the resources, wasted its treasures, depopulated Christians, and if that of Hadrian was even and destroyed its cities, and entailed upon the more favorable to the spread of the Gospel, the surviving inhabitants a series of unwonted Jewish disciples had, at least in part, to share persecutions. The fall of Bethar was, as we have the troubles which befell their nation. We have seen, succeeded by a short guerilla war, after already seen that, unable to support the claims which the members of the national party either of the false Messiah, the inoffensive and non- fell or escaped into exile. At last, when complete resisting Christians were selected as the only tranquility had for some time been restored to victims of the deceiver's vengeance. But the the land, the edicts which had proved so conquest of the land by the Romans, and the obnoxious to the people were also gradually suppression of the revolution, in more than one removed. It is matter of doubt whether any respect effectually improved their measure of relief reached Palestine before the circumstances. No direct persecution thinned death of Hadrian. In fact, that emperor became their ranks, while their decided separation from more cruel and oppressive as he drew near his the national party procured for them the end. permission, together with heathens, to live in Ultimately, such was the popular feeling against Aelia Capitolina, the approach to which had him, that on his death the Senate intended to been interdicted to the Jews. rescind all the ordinances passed towards the It may be true, as Christian tradition asserts, close of his reign, and even to deprive him of that a sanctuary of Aphrodite was built where the title divus (or divine), which since the time the sepulchre of Christ had been; or, according of Augustus had been invariably decreed to the to another account, that a statue of Jupiter was different emperors. But his successor, erected in the place that had witnessed the Antoninus, resisted this manifestation of ill-will, resurrection of the Savior, and a temple of and perhaps for this devotedness to the Venus was reared on Golgotha to profane that memory of the departed, earned the title Pius. place of solemn and sad recollections. It is said Hadrian at first designated Lucius Commodus that Bethlehem had to undergo a similar Verus as his successor to the empire. On his transformation, and that the very cave in which, decease, Antoninus Pius was substituted, according to pious legend, Jesus had been born, although on the express condition that he was set apart to the service of Adonis; so that should in turn be succeeded by the son of the spots which Christians so much revered Lucius Commodus Verus and by Marcus became the scenes of idolatrous and degrading Aurelius as joint emperors. feasts. Under the mild reign of Antoninus Pius, who [Nevertheless, we may be sure that the succeeded Hadrian in 138, about three years profanation was accidental; Hadrian had no after the fall of Bethar, the Jews experienced wish to injure the Christians, and it was quite considerable relief. A proclamation ascribed to gratuitous for them to see in these shrines this emperor represents him as preventing the intentional insults to their faith.] superstitious populace of Asia from destroying

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the Christians by way of propitiating the memorable plain of Rimmon, and offended gods, who were supposed to have characteristically the subject of their manifested their displeasure in the earthquakes deliberation was the intercalation of a month to and other public calamities with which the restore order into the Jewish calendar, which Roman Empire was at the time visited. This had been neglected during the late troubles. rescript cannot be genuine; but it is true that Amongst the sages who met in Rimmon were Antoninus discouraged irregular persecutions those whose ordination had led to the of the Christians, and he showed himself martyrdom of Judah ben Baba. The most equally tolerant towards the Jews. A story is prominent personages in that assembly were told of the measures taken by them to obtain a two favorite pupils of Akiba, Rabbins Meir and repeal of the obnoxious edicts. A Jewish Jochanan of Alexandria. But this long-desired deputation applied, in the first instance, to a meeting had almost proved fatal to the noble lady who was known to feel an interest in prospects of the new Sanhedrin. The council in the cause of the persecuted. By her advice, this Rimmon had assembled by stealth. It consisted deputation, with Rabbi Judah ben Shamua at of a few fugitives who, on their return, bore their head, passed at night under the windows unmistakable evidence of their past sufferings of the governor's palace, complaining in and privations. dolorous accents, “Are we not children of the Yet even under such circumstances the spirit of same parents? why then are we treated so ambition and of discord manifested itself differently from other nations, or why are such amongst them. Rabbi Jochanan claimed pre- fearful sufferings inflicted upon us?” This eminence, declaring that he had listened longer appeal produced the desired effect, and we are to Akiba standing {i.e. as a fully qualified told, on weak authority, that it was in student) than Rabbi Meir sitting {i.e. as mere consequence of the withdrawal of Hadrian's hearer). On the other hand, Rabbi Meir retorted edicts that the 28th of Adar (March) was by reminding Jochanan that, as an Alexandrian, observed as a feast day. his authority was not entitled to much weight. It is said that the first measure of relief was The dispute threatened to become serious, granted on the 15th of Ab (August), when an when happily a reconciliation was effected. edict arrived allowing the interment of the Rabbi Juda ben Ilai was one of the most victims of the last war, whom, according to influential of these refugees, and at the same Jewish legend, a miraculous interposition had time favorably known to the authorities as a preserved from putrefaction. Small and tardy as friend of the Roman government. He now this concession may appear, such was the invited the assembled sages to betake bondage under which the Synagogue had themselves to Usha, where he resided, and groaned, that in commemoration of it a special where the Sanhedrin had met at a former thanksgiving was ordered to be inserted into period. Thither also the Jewish sages flocked the customary prayers. From a different source from all parts of the country, and Simon the son we learn that Antoninus allowed the Jews to of Gamaliel II, likewise returned from exile, circumcise their children. After this no became Nasi of the new Sanhedrin. hindrance was set to the exercise and the In many respects the circumstances in which teaching of Judaism. Only the approach to the sacred college resumed its sittings had Jerusalem was still interdicted, and it was materially changed. The diligence of its specially enjoined that no Gentile was to be predecessors had left few unsolved theological admitted by circumcision into the Synagogue. problems, while the method of Akiba had Tidings of this happy change rapidly spread, developed traditionalism to its utmost limits. and from their various hiding-places the The text of the oral Law, and the peculiar fugitive teachers retraced their steps towards method of Jewish theology, had been almost the land of their affections and their hopes. One completed. Any attempt to extend the latter of their first meetings took place in the ever- could, with succeeding Rabbins who possessed

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neither the learning nor the intelligence of Nahardea, of which he was the president, and Akiba, only degenerate into sophistry and another great theologian, Nechuniah, the Ab- quibbling. Thus theologians would undertake, beth-din. This Sanhedrin now arrogated to with an amount of speciousness and an air of itself some of the functions of the patriarchate, sincerity and conscientiousness, to argue and more especially in regulating the calendar and defend both a proposition and its contrary. It the period of the feast days. The college in Usha, became an exercise of logical ingenuity not or rather the Nasi, resolved to make an end of unlike that of the sophists of Greece. The only this schism, a purpose which was executed in thing which still remained to be done was, their own peculiar way. Simon dispatched to thoroughly to compile the text of Nahar-Pacor two sages, Rabbins Isaac and traditionalism, and to introduce method and Nathan, and furnished them with three order into the collection. This was done by the different letters, of which they were next generation. While the schools declined in successively to make use. In the first, Chanina importance and influence, the patriarchal was addressed as the Nasi's colleague and dignity proportionally rose for a time as a equal, and as “His Holiness Chanina.” dignity or post of honour. But it soon sank to It contained a simple recommendation of the rise no more, while at the same time the bearers. The ruse succeeded. As the two religious state of the nation generally was Rabbins, with unusual modesty, professed to affected in a corresponding manner. have come in order to learn rather than to Rabbi Simon ben Gamaliel II had been almost teach, the unsuspecting Chanina, flattered by miraculously preserved during the persecution the letter of the Nasi, received them graciously. which followed the war under Bar Cochba. It Soon he gave them license to teach, and was said that the party who had been recommended them to the people as men of dispatched to capture the son of the Patriarch learning and authority. But no sooner had the had given a hint of their errand, and that by two doctors secured a position, than, by their connivance the youth had escaped. It is perplexing cross questions and continual sad, but instructive, to notice how little Simon contradiction, they sought to lower in public, had profited by his early disasters. In exile he estimation the authority of the Babylonian Nasi. had neither learned wisdom nor humility. It was too late for Chanina now to recall their When he now came to occupy the highest post license; they defied him in public assembly. At in the college, it seemed his chief endeavour to last, when he expostulated with them on their extend his own sway. conduct, they assigned as its ground Chanina's The necessity may well have been felt of assumption of functions which of right strengthening the central authority, but Simon belonged only to the Sanhedrin of Palestine. An attempted to do so by means only too likely to altercation ensued, in which the Babylonian arouse jealousies. As frequently happens where chiefly pleaded as excuse the closing of the offices which depend on mental superiority are colleges of Palestine. connected with birth and station, the The deputies now produced their second letter, successors of Hillel had gradually increased in in which the establishment of the Sanhedrin at their pretensions. One of the sources of greatest Usha was announced. While Chanina still danger which threatened the supremacy of the hesitated, undecided how to act, the deputies Patriarch during the incumbency of Simon, lay ascended the tribune from which the Bible was in the importance which the rival schools of read and addresses delivered. To show the Babylon had obtained during the late disasters. people the impropriety of supporting any rival Not only had many theologians found a refuge Nasi, one of the deputies read the ordinary there, but the closing of the colleges in Palestine lesson for the day in Lev. 23:4, etc., introducing gave a fresh impulse to those of Babylon. certain alterations to describe their position. If In particular, the famed Rabbi Chanina had the multitude had been indignant when they formed a Sanhedrin in Nahar-Pacor, near heard the first deputy reading, “These are the

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feasts of Chanina” instead of “the feasts of the beth-din, Nathan, to conspire with him against Lord” loud murmurs interrupted the second the Nasi. Nathan had been gained by the deputy as he paraphrased Isa. ii. 3 in the promise of being elevated to the presidential following manner : “Out of Babylon shall go chair, to which he seemed the more entitled as forth the law, and the word of the Lord from being the son of the “Prince of the Captivity,” or Nahar-Pacor.” But the popular excitement was temporal chief of the Babylonian Jews. speedily turned into a different channel, when Everything had been preconcerted. The two the deputies produced their third letter of Rabbins were on a given occasion to instruction, and read the decree of the overwhelm the Nasi with difficult questions, to Sanhedrin at Usha, which, in the case of perplex and silence him, and then to get him continued schism, formally excommunicated deposed. Chanina, and declared the Jews of Babylon cut Unfortunately, their deliberations had been off from all part or lot in the God of Israel. The overheard by a zealous friend of the Patriarch, popular assembly immediately decided in favor who, without in the first place disclosing the of submission. plot, effectually called his attention to the Chanina still hesitated, and went to consult his subjects on which the Rabbins were to question friend Juda ben Bethera at Nisibis. By his advice him, by frequently repeating them in a he at last yielded, and the new arrangements neighboring room in his hearing. Simon, whose were communicated to the various attention was now called to the points to be congregations in Babylonia, debated, had mastered them before the day of But although successful in suppressing, at least trial arrived. The idea of his friend proved for a time, the rival Sanhedrin, the imperious excellent, for, while the Patriarch displayed disposition of Simon almost led to an outbreak before his abashed opponents his lore, he could in Usha similar to that which had ended in the triumphantly confront them, detail the deposition of his father Gamaliel. Inferior to particulars of the foul conspiracy against several of his colleagues in talent and learning, himself, and obtain the exclusion of his Simon was jealous of the abler members of the opponents from the meetings of the sacred sacred college, and anxious even in trifles to college. But their removal was only temporary. assert his superiority, and to assume a position While the Sanhedrin daily felt the want of these different from that which they occupied. As two sages, they managed to puzzle their formerly noticed, the patriarchate had ceased colleagues by sending in written questions, to be regarded simply as an office accorded to which the “assembled fathers” found difficult to learning and merit, and had become now a post discuss in their absence. At last a theologian, of honour and hereditary dignity. Joses, moved their readmission, with the However, a man more prudent than Simon remark, that “although he and his brethren might, at any rate, have executed his ambitious were within the walls of the house of learning, designs with more tact. But the Patriarch's learning itself remained outside that building.” vanity and lack of judgment led him more than The Patriarch could not resist the general once needlessly to offend those who were feeling; but, to avenge himself to some extent, mentally his superiors. Thus it was he who he would not in future allow the names of the introduced the peculiar distinctions in the rebellious Rabbins to appear in connection with official salutation of the various college the legal decisions which they had pronounced. dignitaries, to which we have alluded m Rabbi Nathan soon afterwards made his peace another place. with the Patriarch; but Meir persisted in his Amongst the Nasi's personal opponents, none opposition, and that to such an extent that was more dangerous than Rabbi Meir, of whom Simon would have excommunicated him, had it more later. This theologian, who held the post not been for a former decree of the Sanhedrin of Chacham in the college, persuaded the Ab- which protected the sages from the vengeance of their chiefs. After what we have said, it will

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scarcely be expected that Simon had, during his after his apostasy and subservience to the incumbency, done much to advance Jewish Romans. Although not equal to Akiba, his power theology. He felt it safest simply to adhere to of intellect and freshness of imagination what had been handed down by former recalled the great gifts of that teacher. teachers. So strictly did he observe this rule, [Many sayings of Meir reveal the noble motives that he would even confirm decisions which and depth of purpose with which he devoted had been arrived at upon erroneous premises. himself to the study of the Law. Generous and Tradition reports under his name a number of forbearing, he was for the most part an ardent decisions, of which only three were reversed by lover of peace. Unhappily his vanity and his successors. The maxim ascribed to him was ambition involved him in many disputes with that “ the continuance of the world depended the other Rabbins; while, through the brilliance upon three things, upon truth, righteousness, of his mental gifts, he was often led to employ and peace.” methods of argument which belong rather to a Rabban Simon was succeeded by his son, man anxious for display than to an earnest afterwards the celebrated Jehudia the Holy, seeker after truth.] who even during the lifetime of his father had He was even accused of trifling with the dearest attained a distinguished position amongst the interests of his own family or of the Synagogue. members of the sacred college. His wife was Beruria, the talented and Of Nathan, the Ab-beth-din at Usha, we have accomplished daughter of Chananja ben already spoken. He seems to have occupied an Teradion, who, it will be remembered, was honorable place amongst the sages of Palestine. burnt wrapped in the roll which he had been His literary activity was chiefly distinguished by discovered studying. Meir supported himself by a collection of ordinances and statements making copies of the Scriptures.- This which no longer exist in their original form. The occupation required not only considerable work ascribed to Rabbi Nathan, bearing the learning, but specially scrupulous attention and name of the forty-nine “ Middoth “ or rules, a carefulness. His teacher, the conscientious work mainly treating of the study of Ishmael, anxiously set these things before him, mathematics and geometry, belongs to a much representing the danger which must result later period, and should perhaps be assigned to from any neglect on his part. But Meir, who felt the ninth century. no peculiar scruples, and was vain of his The most distinguished personage at Usha was excellent memory, which on one occasion had Rabbi Meir, who derived his name (Meir, the enabled him to copy from memory the whole enlightener) from the estimate which his Book of Esther, set these prudent counsels contemporaries had formed of his merits. He aside. It was the practice of Jewish copyists to was a man of undoubted talent and originality, use an ink which, in case of any mistake, could and in spite of all his faults deserved to be “ easily be obliterated. On the other hand, Meir, easily chief “ in the Sanhedrin. A native of Asia confident of his accuracy, used an indelible ink Minor, he shared in the versatility and lightness prepared from sulphate of copper. His which constituted the marked characteristics of manuscripts, indeed, were not free from errors, its inhabitants. Legend traces his origin to the but he was always ready to apply some novel Emperor Nero, in whose death the Orientals and striking interpretation to any passage were so loath to believe. His quickness early where a mistake was found. distinguished him amongst the students who We cannot wonder that Meir's talents had early crowded the classrooms of Rabbins Ishmael, procured him ordination from Akiba, of whom Akiba, and Elisa ben Abuja. If he principally he was a favorite pupil. His ingenuity led him to admired Akiba, whom he seems to have chosen develop Akiba's method even beyond its for his theological model, he was by mental intended limits. “While his cleverness dazzled, affinity specially drawn towards Elisa, with or at least for the moment staggered, the sages whom he remained on terms of intimacy even as to the opinions which he defended, his

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conclusions were frequently too artificial to developing it fully, cast Jewish theological obtain the lasting approval of his colleagues. thinking into that peculiar mould which Owing to this, and to his strained relations with substituted for depth and earnestness a showy the Nasi, Rabbi Meir's reputation was never so attractiveness and a superficial ingenuity. great among his contemporaries as it It will scarcely be wondered that, in the subsequently became after his death. His peculiar state of the Synagogue, Meir attracted peculiar method, rightly designated as the around him numerous and devoted students. If Dialectics of the Talmud, had been originated his talents were brilliant, and his method such by Akiba, it was developed by himself, and, in as to flatter the vanity of the Jewish sophists, he the hands of his successors, became the knew also how to relieve the dullness of peculiar characteristic of later Rabbinical theological teaching by interspersing it with teaching. His pupils carried it afterwards to Haggadic stories, sallies, puns, and especially such excess, that even the Synagogue felt with fables. He was particularly famed for constrained to interpose, and at length ordered aptness in the latter species of composition, and their exclusion from the college, as their object is said, for example, to have introduced no less seemed rather to dispute than to elicit truth. than 300 fables on subjects connected with the It was, in fact, not unlike the Haggadah, only habits of the fox.- The most lasting merit of applied to the oral as the former had been to Rabbi Meir was his continuation of the labors of the written Law. The quick mind of Meir would Akiba in the arrangement of the Halakhah. This discover points which might be capable of he carried a stage further, by dividing, advocacy, not only in one view of a question, according to their contents, the traditions but also in its direct contrary. He would bring which had hitherto been only strung together them forward, and, without hesitation, defend according to their number. In this respect the the “pro and the contra of a subject till the Patriarch's son Jehudah was much indebted to astonished hearer became bewildered, his tuition. uncertain where or whether the truth lay The domestic history of Meir is in many anywhere, and what, after all, were the Rabbi's respects touching, as describing first the mutual real sentiments. His own contemporaries were attachment, and then the dangerous trifling, of unable to say whether these sophistic which a man of Meir's character was capable. It arguments were to be taken seriously. has already been stated that our Rabbi was Where more sober-minded men would have felt married to Beruria, so famed for her talents and no difficulty, Meir could, with an air of sincerity, Rabbinical lore, as, in the opinion of raise a host of difficulties, answer, again retort, contemporaries, to occupy a high place and so on till the mind became giddy, and at last amongst the sages of the time. It is said that her the sense of personal conviction and duty was sister had, after the martyrdom of their parents, in danger of disappearing before an unlimited been carried to Rome for the purpose of public exercise of logical ingenuity. With Meir no prostitution, and that Providence had there theological principle was treated as settled. He watched over her honour. When the would anew investigate every question, and persecutions ceased, Beruria found no rest till with marvelous ease rattle over all that could Meir went to Rome to rescue his sister-in-law be said for and against it, till nothing was left from infamy. Before entering on the dangerous but to choose between what seemed the more undertaking, he resolved to try whether her rational of two views, or deciding in accordance principles had remained unshaken. Disguising with the preponderance of conflicting himself as a Roman, he approached her, and, authorities. It would, indeed, be unfair to lay having satisfactorily ascertained her the blame of this peculiar method wholly on steadfastness, he bribed the attendants and Meir. It was inherent in Talmudism, and it had procured her escape, though in the attempt originated with his predecessors; but probably himself escaped capture only by disguise and it was he more than any other who, by feigning to eat forbidden meat.

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Beruria throughout proved herself not only an [According to some authorities, it was on attached but a devoted wife. She had shared his account of this painful occurrence that Rabbi trials when during the persecutions Meir had Meir withdrew for a time to Babylon.] fled from Palestine. On his return she cheered We have already alluded to the relation and encouraged him, and by her conduct between Meir and the other sages. He seemed softened the afflictions with which he was specially attached to Elisa the Apostate, with visited in providence. For example, while on a whom he always remained on intimate terms. certain Sabbath the Rabbi was engaged in the Their minds seem to have been very similarly college, his two sons had suddenly taken ill and constituted, and doubtless their studies formed died. To spare her husband some hours of grief, a strong bond of union. His contemporaries, and especially not to commute the festivities of who ascribed their intercourse rather to Meir's the Sabbath into a season of mourning, the laxity than to high-toned principle, objected to mother carefully repressed her own feelings this intimacy; but the sage accounted for it from and concealed the sad tidings. The Sabbath had a desire on his part to profit by Elisa's been spent as usually, and its holy exercises and Talmudical learning, which, strangely enough, stillness were ended with the evening, when the latter seems to have cultivated even after Beruria asked her husband whether it were not his apostasy, thus showing that these studies duty readily and cheerfully to restore to its might easily constitute a mental rather than a owner any property, however pleasant, which religious discipline. Our Rabbi was wont to say had been entrusted for safe keeping. that he had found an excellent pomegranate, When the astonished Rabbi answered the and that after using what was good he could strange inquiry in the affirmative, his weeping throw away the rind. However, the forbearance wife took him by the hand and led him to the of the two seems to have been mutual. bed on which the lifeless remains of their two Thus it is related that on a certain Sabbath they children were stretched, reminding him that He had gone together for a little while Meir on foot, whose these two children rightly were, had and Elisa on horseback discussing theological taken back what for a time He had entrusted to questions. In the eagerness of the engagement, their keeping.- At a later time a tragic account Meir had almost forgotten the day of rest, and was given of Beruria's death. It is said that she walked beyond the usual mark which indicated had resented the harsh judgment passed upon the boundaries of a Sabbath-day's journey; but women by a former Rabbi. To convince her of Elisa stopped to remind him of it. Astonished at the truth of the saying, Meir agreed with one of this, Meir seized the opportunity to invite his his pupils that the latter should attempt her friend to return into the bosom of the honour. Accustomed by her Rabbinical Synagogue, a proposition to which the latter discussions to treat of subjects and to converse refused to accede, as repentance could not be with the other sex in a manner which would granted to one who had so wantonly abused the have been deemed improper in other Hebrew gifts granted him. Again, when Acher lay on his females, it is said that Beruria yielded to the deathbed, his faithful pupil hastened to his side, fascinations of her seducer. But when the guilty and renewed, this time effectually, his appointment was to take place, instead of her solicitations on this subject. Legend has it that expected lover the outraged husband himself Meir spread his cloak over the grave of Acher : a appeared. Shame and vexation so preyed upon cloud of smoke rose from it, and Meir turned the mind of the unhappy woman, that she away with the somewhat blasphemous committed suicide; and it was felt necessary in application of Ruth 3:13, “Tarry this night (of future to restrict women from Rabbinical time), and it shall be in the morning (of studies, which might throw them into immortality) that He the All-merciful will unbecoming if not dangerous circumstances. deliver and ransom thee; but if He be unwilling, then I will redeem thee.”

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Besides cultivating intercourse with the most Rabbi Meir's teaching, in so far as practice was noted theologians of his own nation, Meir was concerned, went much in the direction of also on friendly and even intimate terms with accommodating the Law to the necessities of heathen sages, whose scientific inquiries were life, and hence of making its yoke lighter, or at neither foreign nor distasteful to his mind. least distributing its burden more equably. This Perhaps his friend Elisa may have called his tendency is, ..of course, closely connected with attention to such subjects. Meir not only his general aim and views; but although lenient admitted that heathens, if virtuous, might have where others were concerned, he himself part in the world to come, grounding this refused to take advantage of such provisions. concession on the fact that the Scriptures did Thus, when on one occasion he had given not limit eternal life to the Israelite, but to the permission to prepare on the Sabbath a mixture man who observed the commandments of the of oil and wine for sick or delicate persons, Lord, but placed the heathen who engaged in himself refused to make use of this concession, the study of the Law, from the peculiar lest, as he said, selfish motives should be difficulties which he had to overcome, on the thought to have influenced him in granting the same footing of merit with a high priest in permission. Israel. Although Meir's method was, after his decease, [Amongst the heathen philosophers of that and in its full development, disowned by the time, none was so intimately known in Jewish Synagogue, it was too much in agreement with circles as Oenomaus of , the Cynic. He the spirit of traditionalism not to have added was celebrated as a writer, his most famous greatly to his fame and influence as a teacher; work being a book which he wrote to expose and the reputation in which he was held by his the deceits and tricks of oracles. Among the contemporaries was altogether surpassed by Jews it was said that Balaam and Oenomaus that which he attained in later generations. His were the two great philosophers of ingenuity was extolled in the hyperbolical heathendom by whom God willed to teach His language of the time. wisdom to the nations. Between this To see Rabbi Meir disputing in the college, was philosopher and Rabbi Meir a close friendship like seeing “ great mountains torn up from their existed, and on the death of Oenomaus' parents, base, and rubbed against each other to dust.” Meir visited his friend to console him.] His pupils would have it that “ even to touch the The most noted, if not the most sophistical, staff of this modern Elijah would impart some amongst Meir's numerous pupils was wisdom.” Meir had frequently changed his Symmachos ben Joseph. He had attended Meir's residence. After his accession to power he had lectures, and thoroughly imbibed his method. It lived mostly at Tiberias and Ardiscus. But his is said that this dialectician, on one occasion, continual disagreements with the Nasi induced undertook by forty-nine arguments to prove him at last to leave Palestine for Asia Minor, that the touch of a certain dead reptile could where he died, bequeathing to his countrymen not defile a person. It was opprobriously said of the following proud and characteristic message Symmachos by his contemporaries, that his : “ Tell the children of the Holy Land that their ancestors could not have heard the Law on Messiah has died in a strange country.” Mount Sinai; and after his teacher's death According to his expressed wish, the tabernacle Symmachos was excluded from the school, of his unquiet spirit found its last resting-place together with most of his fellow-pupils. by the seashore, where his grave was washed [This Symmachos must not be confused with by the waves, and looked into wide, storm- the Ebionite Symmachos, who is known as the tossed ocean. author of a Greek version of the Scriptures. The A very different personage from the clever, pupil of Meir may have been acquainted with vain, and versatile Meir was one of his Greek, but he is never spoken of as a translator contemporaries, Simon ben Jochai, in cold of the Bible.] rationality, exclusiveness, and pride, a genuine

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Jewish Stoic. His father had been an adherent of feelings; and to protect the farmer from the Romans; but Simon's religious and political exaction or calumny. Again, having, according views led him to an opposite extreme, and to his system, ascertained that the only traces became the source of political troubles, to of true worship were to be found amongst which we shall refer in the sequel. All his Israel, he unhesitatingly avowed the most characteristics were peculiarities, and all his intolerant principles. He consigned all other peculiarities were so marked as to become nations to future destruction, and declared noticeable, and to leave an impression upon his even the most pious among the heathen to be period and nation. Not easily excited, his worthy of death. emotions were, when roused, of the deepest Similarly, he inferred from the statement which character. He was preeminently a man of forbade all connection with the seven conviction, who would unshrinkingly carry his Canaanitish nations, the exclusiveness of principles, without compromise, to their utmost Judaism, and in application of this principle consequences, however repugnant such interdicted all close intercourse with heathens. consequences might in themselves appear. The same inexorable logic he carried into every There is indeed a fallacy which persons of his principle of his conduct. Thus even his disposition are apt to overlook. Every action contempt of the unlearned was that of should not only be the consequence of a logical conviction and of principle. Similar views deduction from certain absolute principles, but induced him to assert more fully the rights of in itself, and without reference to its ultimate Rabbinism. He was the first amongst the sages principle, be capable of standing the test of to claim support, not from manual labor, but moral investigation. “Where logic alone is the from his profession as a theologian, for he prompter, it so happens that, as it sometimes urged that it was impossible for a Rabbi to may be falsely applied, a man may, with the devote his whole time to the study of the Law if best intentions and the most conscientious he had to earn his own living. convictions, act erroneously, if not wrongfully, It is scarcely matter of wonder that a stern, while in general a cold heartlessness will unbending spirit like that of Simon should have characterize such rationality. Such was the case gathered numerous students in Upper Galilee with Simon. (where he resided), who were attached almost It need scarcely be said that in his study of the to idolatry, and devoted almost to servility, to Scriptures he repudiated not only the principles their master. His sternness was not, as so often of Meir, but even their much more moderate is the case, the counterfeit for true merit, or the original, those of Akiba. Even the canons of offspring of narrow-minded bigotry; it was the Ishmael, although he approved of them, were result of calm conviction, although purely not the guide of his investigations. Unlike Akiba, rational and unfeeling, almost to heartlessness. he did not endeavour to investigate the hidden With him the rationalistic school, which meaning of Scripture in order to elaborate and attained its high point in Ishmael, was fully to apply it, nor did he, with Ishmael, read the developed, just as Meir carried the allegorizing Bible like any ordinary book, but busied himself tendencies of Akiba to and almost beyond their to find out its rational principles, the grounds utmost limits. upon which its injunctions were based. Henceforth the more calm and trustworthy of One or two instances of this will exhibit this the Rabbins followed more and more in this novel tendency in the Synagogue. Taking, for direction. To Simon the drawing of logical example, the injunction not to cut down the conclusions from rational principles was more harvest along the corners of fields, Simon based attractive than the mere learning of traditional it on the following four reasons, which, Halakhah. He used to assert that the study according to his system, were so many general which bore the special name of Talmud was scriptural principles : To protect the interests more meritorious than the study of the of the poor; to save their time; to spare their Mishnah, or of the Scriptures themselves. At a

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later period Simon was regarded as a are worthy of his position. Unlike his proud celebrated mystic; and in the Middle Ages colleagues, he acknowledged merit wherever tradition ascribed to him the authorship of the he found it, and distinguished it in proportion great text-book of the Kabbalah, the “Sohar.” as it was rare in the circumstances. Thus he [But, as we have seen, the real tendency of his would have instituted mourning for slaves who mind was practical and rational; only the deserved it by their character and worth. He set slightest traces of mysticism can be found in a high value on learning, especially on the study any of his sayings.] of the Law in the Holy Land; yet he declared that it was an idle pursuit to learn without Similar in his exegetical principles, but different teaching others. Careless of honors which in his application of them, was Rabbi Joses ben conferred responsibility, and of ease which was Halephta. Although by trade a tanner, he was due to a neglect of duty or an impropriety of ardently attached to learned pursuits. Calmly conduct, he would admonish his pupils rather rational in all he said and did, there was a to seek the duty of collecting for than of certain grandeur about this sage, which, as it distributing to the poor; rather to go beyond did not take the direction of Simon's sternness, than to fall short in the way of duty; rather to but the opposite, that of mildness and liberality, suffer than to inflict injury. made him an object of attachment rather than of admiration. While he himself towered far Joses' claims to scientific distinction in the above those to whom he endeavoured to Synagogue were twofold : he was both a condescend, he desired to lighten the burden of theologian and a historian. the Law, and to introduce such changes as [His thorough mastery of the traditional might make the profession of Judaism more ordinances gave rise to the almost proverbial easy. Like Simon, he sought to apprehend the saying : “The knowledge of the Law is with rational principles which underlie Judaism; but him.” ] if we may infer from his conduct, he seems to A remarkable historical work which has been have considered these principles alone preserved, and is possessed of lasting interest, necessary, and to have dispensed with the is commonly ascribed to Joses, Annals or logical deductions which his colleague would Chronicle of the World. In thirty chapters it draw from them. It will be evident that these professes to give the up to the two theologians, starting with the same time of the author, or rather to the termination fundamental views, would arrive at almost of the last Jewish war under Bar Cochba. But opposite conclusions. manifestly the later portions of the work have While Simon's logic was too wide, that of Joses been tampered with by subsequent editors, and was too narrow in its application. Hence, if the all notices of the events subsequent to the former fell into the dangerous error of return of Israel from Babylon are of the excessive sternness, the latter committed scantiest character. sometimes mistakes arising from an excessive [Since Joses is nine times appealed to in this laxity; a tendency which induced him to lighten work as an authority, he should, perhaps, be the ordinances relating to vows, to advocate the regarded rather as the author of the main temporary suspension of certain laws, and sources of this book than of the book itself, sometimes to act contrary even to his own unless, indeed, the passages are later pronounced principles. Still there was a quiet insertions.] but attractive dignity about our Rabbi. Having The omissions at the close of the work are in never acted precipitately, or taught what was part compensated by another historical work extravagant or ultra-strict, he was not only which bears the same title, but in confident in the correctness of his principles, contradistinction to the older is designated the but could, although in the pride of Rabbinism, smaller history. It seems to have been written boast that he had never been obliged to retract at a later period, and with the totally different anything. For the most part, indeed, his maxims

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purpose of advocating the claims of the such an excess did he carry this determination, Babylonian Jews, and the descent of the that he was content to possess only one upper “Princes of the Captivity” from the family of garment, which he and his wife would wear David. Up to the fifth century of our era no alternately. On one occasion, it is said, he was reliance can be placed upon the list of princes unable to appear at a public fast, because his given in this work. It is striking how the wife had gone with their one robe to the historical information becomes more accurate market. On account of his peculiar rhetorical as the period of the author's lifetime is talent, which secured for him a distinguished approached; and how, in almost the same place amongst his colleagues, he was called “the proportion, the tendency to garnish his orator.” His claims to the title “ pious “ rested narrative with miraculous stories increases. on a scrupulous observance of religious duties, The closing passages of the “Suta” are probably and on the perfect mastery which he had a later addition, and date from the eleventh attained over his feelings. The latter was such century, the body of that work from the eighth that the tidings of the death of his son could not or ninth. Rabbi Joses, the reputed author of the interrupt him when engaged in a discussion. To original history, left five sons, all of whom Juda is ascribed a large part of a commentary became more or less celebrated in the on the Book of Leviticus which bears the name Synagogue. of “Sifra.” This brief sketch of the Synagogue would We can only name some of the other sages in scarcely be complete did we not add a notice of the college at Usha. Chanina ben Chachinai had, another Rabbinical authority, distinguished for from love of study, left his young wife and his conscientious punctiliousness, and a type of children. After twelve years' absence, he the old school which had nearly become extinct. returned so changed in appearance that he was Rabbi Juda ben Ilai, who, as the reader will not recognized by his nearest relatives. Eleazar remember, invited his colleagues to join him, ben Jacob was famous as having rehearsed was by trade a cooper. He was not only himself some interesting traditions connected with the industrious, but endeavoured to impress on his temple. Besides, Jochanan of Alexandria, hearers the necessity of engaging in manual Nehemiah, Eleazar ben Shamua, and others, labor, which, so far from degrading, elevated occupied distinguished places in the Sanhedrin. those who were employed in it. In reviewing this period, we become sensible of To enforce his teaching by example, he was a considerable change in the tendency of Jewish wont to lecture to his numerous students theology. Pharisaism, in the sense in which it seated on a kind of cask of his own obtained distinction at the time of our Lord, had manufacture. He had, during the troubles in entirely passed away. The ignorant Pharisee, he Palestine, experienced the benefits of an whose religion consisted primarily in ritual honorable independence, and was anxious that, observances and long prayers, had now become by being masters of some trade, all others only an object of scorn and contempt. should, if needful, enjoy the same advantage. But the allegorical method was also passing That, however, he did not neglect the study of away. In its room the dialectic had appeared. the Law, is evident, even from the designations However, the direction followed by the ablest by which he was known amongst his Rabbis was different, and gradually became contemporaries. He was called “ the prudent,” “ more and more rationalistic. Along with this the orator,” and “ the pious.” The first of these tendency, an attempt was also made to remove titles he earned by his cautious political a number of ordinances, which were felt to be conduct, which procured for him the confidence needless or irksome burdens. At the same time, and favor of the authorities, and by his the theological thinking of Palestine had almost domestic habits. exhausted itself, as its theology had reached its It has already been mentioned that he was most furthest boundaries. If the text of the traditional anxious to remain independent of strangers. To Law were once perfectly arranged, nothing

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further remained to be done by the colleges of At the time when the Savior appeared on earth, Palestine. Thus was the decline of these Palestine had undergone a fourth division and colleges, which could at best experience only a arrangement. The allocation amongst the tribes temporary revival, prepared. The office of Nasi had given place to a monarchy. The latter had in had also changed into the dignity of a temporal turn been divided into the rival kingdoms of prince as the colleges declined and their Judah and Israel. Now, Jew and Gentile had authorities became less capable for their duties. forgotten both tribes and kingdoms, and only Once more did the academies appear to flourish spoke of Galilee, Samaria, Judea, and Peraea. once more did the Rabbins and the people The first of these provinces, Galilee, commonly experience a storm of persecution and then the divided into two districts, Upper and Lower, to colleges of Palestine closed, and its sages were which Jewish authorities added the district scattered into other lands. But before around Tiberias as a third, extended from near describing these events, we invite the reader to the river Leontes, in Syria, to Scythopolis, on follow us through the cities, villages, and homes the Jordan, and from the borders of Tyre to of Judea, there to observe the manners and Mount Carmel. Its western boundary consisted habits, and to inquire into the social, of a narrow strip of land along the seashore, intellectual, moral, and religious state of its and of Phoenicia. Eastward, it extended to the inhabitants. Jordan and the Lake of Gennesaret. Upper Chapter 9 - Social Condition of Palestine Galilee was mountainous, and inhabited in great part by Gentiles (hence the name, Galilee The geographical position of Palestine gave it a of the Gentiles); was more level, political importance greater than that to which and exceedingly fruitful. The people were brave its extent and population would otherwise have and warlike. From their commixture with entitled it. Situated between Syria, Egypt, and Gentiles, they were less addicted to the study of Assyria, and on the highway to Persia, Arabia, Jewish traditions or the observance of and India, it became in turn the object of the ceremonial injunctions, and hence despised by cupidity of its neighbors, and the battle-ground their brethren of the south. This remark applies on which their contests were decided. chiefly to the inhabitants of Upper Galilee. Consequently, except during the reigns of David and Solomon, the inhabitants of Palestine had The prosperity of this province is sufficiently always more or less to act on the defensive. indicated by the large number of its towns, From the circumstances of the people and of which at the commencement of the Jewish war their rulers from the division of the land into are said to have amounted to 240, of which, two rival monarchies and from the uncertain, according to Josephus, the smallest contained shuffling, and short-sighted policy which was not less than 15,000 inhabitants. Although this prosecuted by their kings, it was even found computation is evidently exaggerated, some impossible to defend for any length of time the idea of its populousness may be gathered from boundaries of Palestine. So far from occupying the fact that in the war with the Romans, the position of political importance to which Josephus was able to raise in Galilee alone an their situation, and the possession of so much army of no less than 100,000 men. Galilee seaboard, might have entitled the Hebrews, covered the ancient possessions of the tribes of they gradually became dependent upon, and Issachar, Zebulon, Asher, and Naphtali. Its most finally subject to, their neighbors. After the fertile and beautiful district was that around return from Babylon and the brief period of the Lake of Gennesaret, where, along with the national independence under the Maccabees, products of cooler zones, in certain situations, the scepter entirely and finally departed from those of tropical climates also adorned and Judah, and every attempt to regain it proved enriched the landscape during many months; unsuccessful. and a rich soil was assiduously cultivated by a diligent and enterprising population.

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Samaria, which covered the ancient joined to Judea, but retained its peculiar name. inheritances of Ephraim and the half tribe of The Talmud distinguishes in Judea, as in Galilee, Manasseh, bordered to the north on Galilee, and three districts : the mountains, the plain, and was smaller than either of the other provinces the south. For civil purposes it was divided into of Palestine. It formed nearly a square, as the eleven Toparchies or districts; geographically it western strip of land along the Mediterranean, may be distinguished into Eastern and Western and almost as far as Mount Carmel, was Judea. reckoned part of the province of Judea. The soil The district on the other side of the Jordan, was fertile, and although the watercourses known by the name of Peraea, was divided into were not abundant, frequent showers three smaller portions, varying in size, fertility, compensated for their want. The water of and populousness. This province also was in Samaria was said to be peculiarly sweet. This, part mountainous and in part desert. The together with the quantity of aromatic herbs history of Peraea was not of great importance : which grew in the country, gave the Samaritan within its limits lay the greater part of the agriculturists a more than ordinarily large and Decapolis (or ten cities), so well known to the good supply of milk. The inhabitants, who readers of the New Testament. formed a numerous and prosperous Palestine had more towns and villages than community, lived for the most part at enmity might have been expected, considering the with the Jews ever since the time of the building agricultural pursuits of the majority of its of the second temple. The occasions when inhabitants. At first, towns had chiefly served common hopes or misfortunes joined the two for protection to the agricultural population. classes were rare and of short duration. In But as the wants of the people, so the number general, a mutual distrust and bitterness of cities also increased. Jewish authorities characterized their relations. distinguished between cities or fortified places The Jews accused the Samaritans of being the and common towns, which were reputed large lineal descendants of heathens, of practicing if they could produce ten men whose wealth idolatry, of deceitfulness, etc.; and the relieved them from the necessity of manual Samaritans retorted by such acts of vengeance labor, and small if their number were less. The and malice as opportunity afforded. Commonly defense of cities consisted of thick walls, whose the two parties avoided each other, the Jews gates were often covered with iron, and preferring to take the longer road to Jerusalem strongly barred. Above the gates rose beyond the Jordan to passing through Samaria, watchtowers, and along the walls other works by which the capital might have been reached of defense. Outside the walls ran a ditch, and from Galilee in three days. The opinions as to beyond it a low wall. The streets were in the lawfulness of intercourse with the general narrow, as those of modern Eastern Samaritans differed with circumstances and towns. The shadowy retreat of the gates, with Rabbins. Some went even so far as to forbid the the distant prospect and the busy throng purchase of uncooked animal food from them, around, formed the place of public resort, or the sojourning under the same roof; but where the elders of the city commonly usually a clear distinction was drawn between assembled, and the concerns of the town or the Samaritans and heathens or idolaters. public affairs were discussed. The third province of Palestine was Judea, Sometimes the Rabbins taught in the streets, which extended southwards to the borders of although this practice was soon interdicted in Arabia, and westwards along the seashore for a the spirit of Jewish aristocracy. Our Lord, considerable distance. In every respect the however, seems to have availed Himself of the most important province of the country, it was opportunity of addressing in the streets those in part mountainous, and the neighborhood of who would not otherwise have heard Him. the sea was specially adapted for pasturage. Jerusalem itself was paved with white stones, From the time of the Maccabees, Idumea was and Antioch enjoyed the same convenience

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through the liberality of Herod the Great. From to him; while cemeteries, tanneries, and similar the nature of the soil, most of the other cities, places which might endanger the health or built on high and rocky ground, scarcely prevent the comfort of the citizens, had to be required pavement. The streets and markets removed at least fifty cubits from towns. So had names attached to them, which were careful in this matter were the authorities, that generally derived from the shops, or bazaars in bakers' or dyers' shops, stables, etc., were not them. In Caesarea the sewerage was well tolerated under the dwelling of another person. attended to, and generally nothing that could A year's residence, or the purchase of property, contribute to comfort or ornament was constituted residence, and imposed on the neglected. The supply of water was derived citizen the obligation of contributing to the either from aqueducts, from, wells and common expenditure or city taxation. Of the fountains, or most commonly from cisterns. courts of law in the different towns, we may [A whole treatise of the Mishnah deals with observe that in every city there were civic municipal regulations. Many of these can hardly authorities. have been carried out in practice, but the But in those parts of Palestine in which there account of them shows us at least what was the was a more or less influential Gentile theory of the Rabbins on this subject, and population, the constitution of the towns varied throws light on many details of social life.] considerably. In the strictly Jewish territory all In the towns, watchmen patrolled the streets at civic business was doubtless in the hands of the night. Still, the darkness of the streets at night, local college of elders. The position of these though comparatively little felt where authorities must have been greatly affected by engagements commenced and ended with the the two Jewish revolts; but, even after the total day, rendered it unsafe to go abroad after loss of national independence, the Jews were sunset, especially if the police regulations were for the most part allowed to decide questions of not strictly enforced. In general, these civil law among themselves, while their courts regulations were strict, and provided for all sometimes usurped also criminal jurisdiction. possible emergencies. Larger houses were often The town houses varied in extent and occupied by more than one family, and still splendour with the condition of their more frequently two or more smaller dwellings inhabitants, from the humble cottage to the opened into one common court, a convenience larger dwellings of the patricians. The walls felt indispensable by the Jews. House watchers, were built of bricks, of half-bricks, of dressed like the porters in most continental cities, and undressed stones, and even of white watched over the safety and attended to the marble or large hewn stones. These stones general wants of these houses. To obviate were cemented together with mortar, gypsum, occasion of dispute, neighbors were prevented and even asphalt. Sometimes they were, from opening windows which looked into the besides, riveted with iron or lead, but in such a courts or rooms of others, or shops to which the manner as to be imperceptible. The walls were entrance led through a common court. covered with a kind of whitewash, and palaces Attention was likewise paid to the appearance were painted with delicate colors, such as of the streets, and proprietors were not allowed vermilion, etc. (Jer. 22:14). The woodwork was to build beyond the line, or to make any constructed of sycamore (the most common projection on their houses. Not only were the tree in Palestine), of olive and almond trees, or inhabitants of towns guarded from intrusion or even of cedar, and adorned or inlaid with ivory inconvenience, but sanitary regulations, which or gold. outstrip those of our own cities, protected them Richer dwellings were distinguished by rows of from the carelessness, selfishness, or folly of pillars and other architectural ornaments. The their fellow-citizens. Thus a certain space had houses of the better classes consisted generally to intervene between the dwelling of a of two or more stories, to which a stair (often neighbor and what could occasion annoyance costly) conducted from the outside. From the

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various uses made of the court, which also exceedingly costly. Amongst the articles of served as a kind of ante-chamber to visitors, it luxury, we only notice soft cushions, destined to was felt to be a most important part of the be placed under the head or arms. building. It varied in size with the The different cities of Palestine were connected circumstances of tenants, being sometimes together by roads (denominated field-roads if divided into an outer and inner court; at others, four, and highways if sixteen cubits broad). shared by several tenants. The inner court, Some of these highways were paved, and whence the porter opened to callers on provided with milestones. In general, only the mentioning their names (Acts 12:14; Rev. 3:20), frequented thoroughfares, used for commercial often led into a large and splendid reception- or military purposes, on which toll-money was room, whence other apartments passed to the levied, were well kept. The reader will find the interior of the house. The upper rooms were principal roads traced on the map. One of them not used for common purposes; inner rooms conducted from Ptolemais eastward among the were inhabited chiefly in winter. The hills to Tiberias, and along the Lake of Galilee to apartments were frequently richly decorated, Capernaum, whence, passing over the Jordan, it sometimes painted or covered with pictures. continued to Damascus. On that road sat The reception room and the inner court Matthew at the receipt of custom when our properly formed together but one apartment. Lord called him. Another highway went along The inner court was paved, surrounded by the seashore from Tyre (whence a road passed galleries, and sometimes had fountains and by to Damascus) by baths. Some outer courts of a peculiar Ptolemais, Caesarea, Jamnia, Gaza, etc., to Egypt. construction, and for special purposes, were Travelers to the capital took this way, and then termed Tyrian. The roofs, although flat, were journeyed by , Lydda (Diospolis), and somewhat sloping, to allow the rain water to either by Emmaus (Nicopolis) or by Beth-horon flow into the channels and cisterns, paved with to Jerusalem. stones or earth beaten hard, and surrounded by A third highway passed from Galilee through a protecting balustrade. The roof was used Samaria to the Jewish capital, by way of Jezreel, when great privacy was sought, as in prayer, Samaria, and Sichem. Although short, it was especially when upper rooms were wanting, rarely taken, on account of the hostility of the and in the cool of the evening as the place of Samaritans. At Sichem a road turned north- resort. It was also employed for domestic eastwards to Scythopolis, and again from that purposes, such as drying fruits, etc. place westwards to Caesarea, or eastwards by The floors of the rooms were of gypsum, and Gadara and Capitolias to Damascus. From even of marble; the doors were of stone, as in Jerusalem, a road led by Bethany to Jericho, the Hauran, or more frequently of wood, and where the Jordan was forded, and thence moved on hinges let into sockets above and passed to Gilead. This road was frequently below. They were barred by wooden bolts, taken by Jews who came from Galilee. From which could be withdrawn by check keys from Gilead other roads led southwards. Finally, the outside. The dining apartment was very another highway conducted from the capital by spacious, and often employed for assemblies. Bethlehem to Hebron and southwards, while Instead of glass panes, the windows had the road from Jerusalem by Beth-horon to gratings or lattices. They mostly looked into the Lydda continued as far as Joppa, one of the few streets, and were distinguished as Tyrian seaports of Judea. windows, probably large, and Egyptian, which Such were the roads along which travelers are supposed to have been small, sometimes passed. Their number was at first small, except only two feet square. In the houses of the when large bodies of pilgrims, at the annual wealthy, the window-frames were carved, as in feasts, resorted to the capital. Gradually, as general their furniture, such as tables, couches, commerce increased, more distant journeys chairs, lamps, candlesticks, etc., were were undertaken, and as the Jews spread over

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the face of the known world, their relations provided, for payment, lodging and food for extended, and travelling became more common. strangers. These inns were generally kept and Journeys were performed on foot, upon asses, resorted to by non-Israelites. Jews preferred to or in carriages (Acts 8), of which three kinds pitch their tents, or even to seek hospitality are enumerated. The round carriage (perhaps from Samaritans, rather than trust themselves like our gig), the elongated, like a bed, and the to what often proved lurking places for the ill- cart, chiefly used for the conveyance of goods. disposed. It may be added that, in the larger From the robbers who infested various towns at any rate, there existed for the districts, from the nature of the country, the convenience of the inhabitants numerous bad state of the roads, and the want of proper restaurants and wine shops, where food and inns and public conveyances, travelling was drink could be supplied in great variety. always difficult and dangerous. The Jews early took part in the extensive trade These circumstances exercised a reciprocal of the Phoenicians, and the possession of the influence. Of course, where the roads were bad seaports on the Red Sea gave them at one time or even dangerous, where, in case of need, it the command of the Indian trade. In Roman would have been found difficult to procure times the commerce of Palestine became very shelter for man or beast, and almost impossible extensive. Many of the natural products and to communicate with friends at a distance, few manufactures of the country were exported to would, except in cases of necessity, and then distant lands, where some of them gained a generally in company with others, undertake a high reputation. The foreign wares imported journey. It was otherwise with the travelling were, with the exception of woods and metals, hawker, who, well acquainted with the roads, principally articles of luxury. Fish from Spain, was welcomed in every district as a friend who apples from Crete, cheese from Bithynia; lentils, could communicate news, or at least exchange beans, and gourds from Egypt and Greece; the products of one district for those of another, plates from Babylon, wine from Italy, beer from or for the still more rare articles of luxury Media, household vessels from , baskets imported from abroad. from Egypt, dresses from India, sandals from Those who went up to the feasts, generally in Laodicea, shirts from Cilicia, veils from Arabia, company, and often singing the praises of the such were some of the goods imported from Lord, were, of course, welcomed and abroad. entertained as became their holy errand. At a On the other hand, the Jews exported wheat, oil, later period, all brethren in misfortune would honey, figs, balsam, as well as linen and woolen meet a ready reception; and, as the wants of the goods. Some idea of the diversity of Jewish country made hospitality a more than usually trade may be gathered from the fact that in the sacred duty, so the paucity of travelers would Talmudic literature about ninety different continue its practice longer than might home products or manufactures are mentioned, otherwise have been expected. But generally a and 120 foreign imports; and this cannot be person who was about to undertake a journey regarded as an exhaustive list of the articles of prepared himself as if for a change of residence. commerce in Palestine. He would carry with him his tent, sufficient The currency varied with the circumstances of provisions, in the shape of corn and preserved the people. After the return from Babylon, first fruit, and clothing. Equally great were the Persian, then Syrian coinage was chiefly in use. preparations of those who expected a guest. When Simon the Maccabee attained power, he The host went to meet him at a considerable issued Hebrew coins, which were in turn distance; and again, when he left, escorted and superseded by Grecian and Roman currency. provided him with the necessaries of life. On Amidst this variety, it is more than usually solitary roads, or where villages were thinly difficult to ascertain the exact value of corns. scattered, wayside inns, which, in the Talmud, bear the same name as in the New Testament,

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[According to later Rabbinic tradition, the that nothing but the recognized equivalent of a Sacred Shekel was computed at double the half-shekel could be received at the treasury. ordinary; but this statement is not borne out by Every other kind of coin had therefore to be any extant coins.] changed for half -shekels, and this constituted The smallest coin was the half-quadrans, or one of the principal employments of the regular (Jewish) perutah, equal to about one-sixteenth bankers. For this purpose they opened stalls of a penny. Four quadrans, or eight lepta, made throughout the country between the 15th and an as, or about a halfpenny two and four as the 25th of Adar, the period when also the pieces being also in use. The denarius, or public roads, market-places, and baths were drachm (the penny of the New Testament), was yearly repaired, corresponding to our month of worth about 7|d. The slater, worth 4 drachms, March. On the 25th of Adar business was only was approximately equivalent to a shekel; but transacted within the precincts of the city and the annual temple tribute of a half-shekel was of the temple; and after that date those who had made according to the Tyrian valuation, with refused to pay the impost could be proceeded which the Jewish exactly corresponded. As the against at law, and their goods distrained. The Tyrian drachm or sela was rather lighter than money-changers charged a silver meah, or the Attic drachm, the Jewish half-shekel, about about one-sixth of a denarius (1d.) as discount 1s. 3d. of our money, was a trifle less than the from everyone who procured from them the Greek didrachma. The latter coin had fallen out temple com, The rate of discount was fixed by of use in the first century AD Larger sums of law, perhaps in order to obviate all suspicion of, money were reckoned by minas worth 100, and or temptation to, usury, a sin deemed by the talents worth 6000 drachms. The usual gold Hebrews as amongst the most heinous of civil coin was the Roman aureus, worth 25 denarii, offences. The sums which used to flow into the and the difference between the value of gold temple treasury must have been immense. The and silver varied from 1-10 to 1-15'. whole of the annual contributions to the temple While the smallness of the coins in circulation have been computed at about £75,000. may be taken as in itself an index of the [We are told that on one occasion 800 talents of cheapness of living in the country, their variety Jewish money was deposited at Cos. Flaccus early necessitated a class of merchants, known intercepted 100 pounds of gold at Apamea, and as bankers or money-changers. The readers of 20 pounds more at Laodicea. The largest the New Testament are familiar with both these contributions came to Jerusalem from Babylon facts. They will remember that, if a laborer and the regions beyond the Euphrates. We need received for a day's work in the field or not therefore wonder when we are told that the vineyard a denarius (7|d.), Matt. 20:2, while the triumvir Crassus took from the temple treasure kind Samaritan only paid two dinars (1s. 3d.) worth more than £2,000,000.] for the charge of the sick person in the inn, It need scarcely be stated that the Jews were labor must have brought a high price in designed to be an agricultural people. However, comparison to the expense of provisions. as the agricultural laborer had neither leisure They will also recall the existence and duties of nor opportunity for studying the Law, or the money-changers. These were necessary, not distinguishing himself in the practice of ritual only from the different currencies in use, or to observances, he was held in contempt by the accommodate the merchant and the traveler, Rabbins. It was otherwise with the large but principally to change the various coins in proprietors who let their fields to farmers, which Jewish residents at home, or settlers either for money or for part of the produce, or abroad, paid the statutory half shekel as who employed land-stewards, and also with the temple-tribute. From all parts of the world did small proprietors who resided in the many the contributions of the faithful flow to villages and towns with which Palestine was Jerusalem, which, wherever scattered, they still studded. These enjoyed the privileges which a regarded as their religious home. Custom had it, town residence conferred. In their husbandry

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the Hebrews used simple implements. In all Pipe figs might be had during ten months of the ordinary cases the natural fertility of the soil year; grapes were much cultivated throughout served to the humble farmer in room of the the land. The vines were pruned and dug about, appliances of the modern agriculturist. The and the wine used both before and after plough with which he loosely turned up the dry fermentation. It was always first filtered, and ground was fragile and comparatively for common beverage diluted with water; the inefficient. The harrow was employed both luxurious prepared it with spices. However, before and after committing the seed to the drunkenness was not one of the national sins. ground, and manure was not altogether Among other alcoholic liquors we may mention unknown. one made from barley, saflor, and salt; another In these climates the character of the crop sweet or honey wine; and specially date wine, a chiefly depends on the supply of water, which highly nutritive and agreeable, but very was provided by digging canals, and by a rude intoxicating beverage, made by first squeezing kind of machinery, which conveyed and helped out the juice of dates, and then macerating the to pour the water over the fields. The seed was residue in water. The fructification of the date sown either in October and November, or in palms was artificial, and their culture required January and February. The “early rain” was some care. expected about the middle of October, the Another source of wealth to the agriculturist “latter rain” about the end of March or the was the juice which certain plants and trees beginning of April. Between these periods the yielded, specially the balsam-plant, which grew ground mainly depended upon the copious and in Gilead and in the neighborhood of Jericho. It refreshing dew, which fell nightly. The harvest rose to the height of about five feet, and began in April, the vintage in September. A resembled the vine. The juice, which was considerable diversity of climate, and hence of obtained by small incisions, was preserved in produce, obtained in different parts of the new earthen vessels. At first thin and white, it country. The neighborhood of Jericho was gradually became thick and red. An inferior probably the hottest, and its produce almost kind of balsam was pressed out from the seeds approached that of tropical latitudes. The and young twigs. By a similar process the Jewish law required the agriculturist to take myrrh tree yielded its myrrh, etc. care that in the varieties of grain and fruit there In the gardens, orchards, and even by the should be no mixing of different seeds, or wayside, the more common fruits, such as the engrafting of various kinds. It also provided apple, the pear, the pomegranate, the mulberry, that, besides the regular tithes, one-sixtieth of and the almond, grew in abundance. In high all the produce should be left on the fields, situations, or very sandy soil, the ground was being the portion computed as growing on the cultivated in terraces, which were surrounded borders of fields, and which was to be left for by stone walls. The law carefully protected the poor. Whatever was forgotten, or had agricultural property and pursuits. Watchmen accidentally dropped from the hand of the in regular lodges guarded the ripe fruit, but shearer, who generally used the common hand were not allowed to prevent passers-by from sickle, also belonged to them, and whatever taking so much corn or fruit as was requisite for grew of itself during the Sabbatic year. immediate personal use. The best grain was got The grain was threshed with sticks or flails, or from the neighborhood of Michmash in the trodden out by cattle, not muzzled. Peculiar inheritance of Benjamin, to the north-east of threshing machines, which were dragged over Jerusalem, and from Chorazin and Kephar the sheaves, were also in use. After being Achim in Galilee. The treasurer of the temple threshed and winnowed, the corn was laid up in tested the quality of the flour by thrusting his storehouses. Where the soil was very light, a hand into it; if any adhered, the flour had to be kind of hoe was used instead of the plough. again sifted. Palestine was peculiarly rich in all kinds of fruit.

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The inheritance of the produced stabling, and kept there till the spring months. the greatest quantity, and Tekoa, two hours On the western side of Jordan the plains of south of Bethlehem, the finest quality of oil. Sharon afforded the best fodder. The uses to Next to it was that of Regab on the eastern bank which oxen were put were manifold. of Jordan, almost in a line with Shechem. There Besides serving for sacrifices and for food, they were three kinds, and of each kind three were employed in plowing, for carriage, and in qualities of oil, according as it was extracted threshing, etc. Instead of the whip, a pointed from the first ripe olives, from those which stick or goad (sometimes armed with iron) was grew about the middle of the tree, or from used. The milk of cows, goats, sheep, and those which were indiscriminately gathered camels was either used sweet or allowed to and allowed to lie till they were nearly putrid, sour. Butter and cheese were articles in and prepared either by mere pressure of the common use. The cattle were fed on grass and hand or under boards and stones, or by herbs, and in winter on dried grass and macerating machines. The best wine came from chopped straw mixed with other ingredients, Kerochim, situated perhaps in the mountainous and a small quantity of salt. The wool of sheep country of Judea, and from Hetolim, probably was either immediately spun in the family of north of Gilgal. The next best came from Beth- the farmer, or sold to the merchant. The dung Eimah and from Beth-Laban, also situated in was generally dried and used for fuel. Horses the mountainous district. Kephar Signah in the and mules were mostly imported from abroad. valley, perhaps a village to the north of Joppa, It has already been stated that, besides the furnished also an excellent vintage. capital, numerous cities had sprung up A large proportion of a farmer's wealth throughout the land. South of Jerusalem, which consisted in his herds and flocks. While, from was called “the navel of the land,” and supposed the character of the soil, certain kinds of cattle to lie exactly in the middle of it, lay Bene Berak, were more generally reared in some districts, a town to the north-east of Ashdod, where others, such as unclean animals, were entirely Akiba had often taught. Travelling southwards interdicted. Fowls were not allowed to be kept we reach Beth Gubrin, or Eleutheropolis, in Jerusalem, or in general by priests, on plentifully watered by the dew from heaven, account of certain laws connected with and east of it Beth Netufah, famed for its oil. purification. On the same ground they were Gaza lay near the sea, with its port at a distance generally kept at a distance from towns. The of twenty stades. It had once been a very dog was a despised animal, “only to be kept on flourishing city, and was still reputed as a chain.” possessing one of the three finest market- Small cattle were reared chiefly in Syria, and on places in the land. Its fair was much resorted to. those extensive plains or steppes which A number of small towns studded the country constituted a great part of what were termed all round as far south as Osa and Kephar the “ wildernesses “ of Palestine, such as the Darom. Ashkelon, a city which was never neighborhood of Engedi, of Tekoa, of subject either to Jannaeus or Herod, was mostly Beersheba, of Jericho, of Gibeon, of Bethsaida, inhabited by heathens, who had a splendid etc. Although these districts were not temple there, but also by some wealthy, pious, cultivated, they afforded excellent pasturage to and influential Jews. Amongst the natural the large flocks which browsed there all products of that neighborhood, corn and summer, being at night sheltered in the folds. onions, and, amongst its manufactures, large Watch-towers, occupied by armed men, wooden handles for wells, and packing-straps, protected them from the predatory incursions were noted. There was an annual fair at the of hostile neighbors; and large cisterns or wells, Terebinth near Hebron, where Hadrian caused which became filled in the rainy season, so many captured Jews to be sold into slavery; supplied them with water. In the beginning of but the most famous market was at Botnah November the flocks were driven to their across the Jordan.

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Jabne had a strongly Jewish population. In the of the excellence and sweetness of its fruits, the vicinity of the latter place many little towns entrance of paradise, and compared with seem to have sprung up. Lydda was the scene of Damascus, had celebrated linen manufactories. much that is interesting in Jewish history. The Its inhabitants were partly Jews, partly plain of Sharon extended along the sea-coast heathens. from Carmel to Lydda. Bricks made from the Galilee was fully as populous, if not more so, earth found in this neighborhood would not than Judea. , Nazareth was a station of priests. stand wind and rain; hence on the Day of Usha and Shafram, towns in the neighborhood, Atonement the high priest was wont to pray for are familiar to the reader; so are Cabul, the inhabitants of that district, that their houses Magdala, and Sichin, which are said to have might not become their graves. It was also been destroyed, through the moral corruption reputed for the excellence of its vintage. Kephar of the inhabitants, in the former Jewish war. Loddim, which was sometimes reckoned Tiberias was fast growing into importance. The outside of Palestine, lay probably on the coast. inhabitants of Sepphoris were noted as having Emmaus, about twenty miles from Jerusalem, been opposed to the national cause. Capernaum had once a celebrated cattle market. The priests had a Christian congregation. Kephar Chanina who lived here were less esteemed; but there was the border city between Upper and Lower were two families in the town who used to Galilee, beyond which no sycamores grew. supply flute-players for the temple. Arbel was known for its linen; Beth-meron and Traveling eastwards we reach Jericho, situated other cities for their oil. Caesarea Philippi, and in a broad plain shut in by hills, and fruitful the cities of the Decapolis, situated on both amid a desert neighborhood. Its riches, and the sides of the Jordan, are familiar to readers of costly produce of its balsam, procured for it the the New Testament. title of the royal district and paradise of balsam; Amongst the seaports we reckon Acco, or but its inhabitants incurred for three reasons Ptolemais, a city partly Jewish and partly the censure of the doctors of the Law. Not far heathen; and Joppa, celebrated for its harbors, from Jericho lay Naarath, whose inhabitants its markets, its baths, etc. Between these two were in constant dispute with those of Jericho. ports a brisk coasting trade was carried on; nor The Talmud records that the stones deposited was the passage from the one to the other by Joshua were still visible in that reckoned properly a sea voyage. The finest neighborhood. Gophnith was celebrated for its harbor, and that which commanded the foreign vines; Grimso was known as the home of Rabbi trade, was that of the rich and splendid Nahum, and Ono as maintaining the same Caesarea. It was, however, mostly resorted to relation to Lydda as Naarath to Jericho. Bethel by non-Israelites. At that period the rigging out is well known, as also Beth-horon, with its of ships was much more costly than it is at narrow defile, where the legions of Cestius present. Distant sea voyages were undertaken were routed. The range of mountains which in large ships, from the masts and decks of stretches from Idumea to Samaria sustained an which, as in our days, the monotonous song of important part in the last war. sailors at work might be heard. In the different On the boundaries of Samaria lay Bethar, not to ports harbor-dues were commonly levied. be confused with Bar Cochba's stronghold, and Such of the towns people as were not in Antipatris, which was reckoned one of the independent circumstances, earned their extreme points of Judea, and supposed to have livelihood generally by some trade. It was been the place where Alexander the Great had deemed the duty of parents to have their been met by Simon the Just. Caesarea has also children instructed in some light and healthy been formerly mentioned. At a later period it occupation. Most of the Jewish sages supported became renowned by the learning of the themselves by such means. Only a few crafts Rabbins who resided and taught in it. were despised, either on account of their Scythopolis, or Beth Shean, termed, on account supposed tendency to harden, or as affording

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indications of, or assistance to luxury; amongst and was to begin with the appearance of the them were those of weavers, tanners, new moon. If the latter was intimated to the perfumers, surgeons, and barbers. In general, Sanhedrin by credible witnesses on the 30th the rule seems to have been, that the worldly day of a month, the preceding month was profession should be such as not to unfit for the declared to have consisted of only twenty-nine study of the Law, being only intended to days, otherwise of thirty days, and the day procure the means necessary for carrying on following was always reckoned the beginning of this, the great business of life. the new month. In order to test the accuracy of The ordinary wants of a household, in the way the witnesses, some Rabbins attempted the of cookery and dress, were generally supplied construction of lunar representations and by the labors of its inmates. Hebrew women tables. But as, on account of the inclemency of knew well how to spin, to weave, and to work the weather, the first appearance of the new curiously with the needle. They were also moon might not be observed for many months famed for their cookery, specially in pastry, of together, it was ruled that a year should neither which various kinds are enumerated and have less than four, nor more than eight, full described in Jewish writings. However, the help months (each of thirty days). In the Old of the regular baker was often required, that of Testament the months are simply distinguished the weaver, the pastry-cook, the perfumer, or by numerals, as the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.; but hairdresser was considered a disgraceful names also occur connected with the indication of foreign luxury. Amongst the agricultural pursuits carried on, such as the craftsmen, we find artificers in wood and all month of Abib, or of corn-ears (the 1st), Exo. kinds of metal, the precious metals being fused 13:4, 23:15; Deut. 16:1; the month of Ziv, or of with lead or some of the alkalis, tentmakers, splendor, of flowering (the 2nd), 1 Kings 6:1; masons, tanners, tailors, shoemakers, jewelers, the month of Bui, or of rain (the 8th), 1 Kings coachbuilders, etc., who busily and successfully 6:38; and the month of Ethanim, or of the plied their trades, although with tools much flowing rivers (the 7 th), 1 Kings 8:2. After the inferior to those now in use. deportation to Babylon fresh names were attached to the various months. The potters and glass-workers produced flat and deep plates, cups, spoons, tumblers (holes [These are proved by the cuneiform in which were covered with pitch or tin), inscriptions to be of Assyrian-Babylonian bottles, and smelling-bottles, which were filled origin.] with scented oil. Some, as tailors and copy- The Jewish year was computed in a twofold writers, would go about to procure work, or do manner, as civil and ecclesiastical. The it in the houses of their customers. Hats, caps, ecclesiastical year began with the vernal, the shirts, napkins, towels, handkerchiefs, veils, and civil with the autumnal equinox. The difference many other articles which we could scarcely between the length of the lunar and the solar have expected to find in Palestine, seem to have year necessitated an adjustment, which, been in common use. The washers were however unscientific, effected its object. properly fullers, who first cleaned the clothes [It had been determined, as early as the second with water, and then took out the stains by century before our era, that the Passover must various chemical agents, such as alum, chalk, always be celebrated after the vernal equinox.] potash, etc. Dyeing and ornamental work of If the calendar had become much disordered, various kinds, whether with the brush, the this would plainly be impossible. Hence, during needle, or in wood, ivory, stucco, and metal, the preceding month (that of Adar), even after were also known and practiced. the Feast of Purim, the authorities might, if The Hebrews arranged their year into lunar necessary, decree the insertion of an additional months, of which twelve, or 354 days, 8 hours, (13th) month between Adar and Nisan, which 48' 38”, constituted one year. The month was designated as Ve-Adar, or Adar Sheni. In consisted of either twenty -nine or thirty days,

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such a leap year Ve-Adar occupied to all intents fifteenth century AD), the Seleucid era the place of Adar. In determining whether the remained in common use, when it finally gave insertion of an intercalary month was required, place to the present mode of reckoning among regard was also had to the state of the crops the Jews, which dates from the creation of the and of the fruit trees. world. To commute the Jewish year into that of [We even hear of an additional month being our common era, we have to add to the latter added on account of the feeble condition of the 3761, always bearing in mind, however, that pigeons and young lambs.] the common or civil Jewish year commences in the month of Tishri, i.e. in autumn. In leap years Adar had always thirty, and Ve- Adar twenty-nine days. Every seventh year was The week was divided into seven days, of a Sabbatical, and every fiftieth a year of Jubilee; which, however, only the seventh the Sabbath but there is no evidence of the observance of had a name assigned to it, the rest being merely the Jubilee after the Exile. noted by numerals. The day was computed from sunset to sunset. Before the Babylonian In the Sabbatical year the ground remained captivity, it was divided into morning, midday, wholly untilled. A Sabbatical could not be a leap evening, and night, but after the residence in year, but the year preceding it usually was such. Babylon the Hebrews adopted the division of Sometimes two, but never three leap years, the day into twelve hours, whose duration succeeded each other. Commonly every third varied with the length of the day. The longest year required the addition of a month. The day consisted of 14 hours and 12 minutes, the mean duration of the Jewish month being 29 shortest of 9 hours 48 minutes, the difference days, 12 hours, 44' 3”, it required, during a between the two being thus more than four period of nineteen years, the insertion of seven hours. On an average the first hour of the day months in order to bring the lunar era in corresponded nearly to our 6 a.m.; the third accordance with the Julian. These insertions are hour (when, according to Matt, 20:3, the now made in the 3rd, 6th, 8th, 11th, 14th, 17th, market-place was full) to our 9 a.m.; the close of and 19th years. Hence, in order to find what the sixth hour to our midday; while at the Jewish year is a leap year, we have only to eleventh the day neared its close. The night was divide its number by 19; if the residue be 0, 3, 6, divided by the Romans into four, by the Jews 8, 11, 14, or 17, it is a leap year. The somewhat into three watches. vague and unsatisfactory arrangements of the Jewish calendar were greatly improved by the Later Jews subdivided the hour into 1080 parts, mathematical labors of various Rabbis, and again each part into 76 moments. As the especially by those of Samuel and Adda, two appearance of the new moon, or the beginning sages of Babylon; and the adoption of the of a month, was of vast importance for fixing nineteen-year cycle is attributed to the the feast days during the month, it was Patriarch Hillel, about the middle of the fourth customary to telegraph it by fire-signals lit century. upon the mountains, and at a later period to intimate it by special messengers.' As these The era adopted in the Old Testament is that modes of communication proved insufficient which was reckoned to commence with the for Jews who lived in distant countries, it was deliverance from Egypt. After their return from ruled that every 30th day should be called the exile the Jews dated their years according to the day of the new moon. If the month had really Seleucid era, which began 312 B.C., or 3450 consisted of twenty-nine days, the day of the from the creation of the world. For a short time new moon represented correctly the beginning after the recognition of the independence of of the new month. If the month consisted of Simon the Maccabee, it became customary to thirty days, it was provided that both the last reckon dates from the year of the liberation of day of the preceding and the first day of the Palestine. However, for a very long period after next month should be designated in Palestine the destruction of Jerusalem (probably till the as the days of the new moon. In connection

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with this arrangement, all the more important Legend had it that demons would sit upon any feasts, as the first and last days of the Passover, waste bread which was not swept away after the Feast of Pentecost, New Year's Day, and the the meal. The conversation at table was to be first and last days of the Feast of Tabernacles, sparing, and upon edifying subjects. When a were ordered to be doubled, so that on one day feast was given, slaves were sent to invite the at least they should be kept simultaneously in guests, and generally a master of ceremonies all places. appointed to take charge of all the It was the general practice to rise with the sun. arrangements. At table they were seated The first duty of the Hebrews was to perform according to their rank. Music, dancing, and the prescribed devotions. After that, in towns other amusements engaged the time of the probably between nine and ten o'clock (Acts party often to a very late or early hour. The 2:15), a breakfast was taken, consisting of laws of Jewish etiquette, and female decorum, bread and fruit, and sometimes of fish or meat did not allow ladies, who, on ordinary (John 21:9) with wine. Dinner was commonly occasions, dined with the gentlemen, to appear served towards evening, though before dark, at promiscuous feasts; but at more homely but sometimes in the middle of the day. It was entertainments the duty of attending to the preceded by careful lustrations, and the guests devolved upon them. pronouncing of separate blessings over the The most agreeable, as the most thoroughly different kinds of fruit provided. The dinner Jewish domestic feasts, were betrothals, parties of the rich, and feasts, were generally marriages, the weaning of children, etc. held in the afternoon or evening. The guests sat Although, in general, the Jews were very round a low table. At a later period, the rich moderate, the bounds of temperance were on adopted the practice of reclining on couches, festive occasions sometimes sadly transgressed which generally afforded accommodation for even by celebrated Rabbins. It need scarcely be three persons. remarked that the ancient Hebrews dispensed As at present in many Eastern countries, it was with knives and forks, and served themselves, customary to begin the meal with something or were served, with the hand, out of plates, on pickled, perhaps to whet the appetite. Besides which the meat, previously cut in pieces, had the principal dishes, side dishes were served. been placed. The ordinary fare consisted of fish, meat, The position assigned by the Hebrews to the vegetables, farinaceous food, and fruits. The female sex has been frequently misunderstood. wine used during dinner was drunk diluted, From the permission of polygamy, from its two or three parts of water being added. The supposed general practice, and from isolated poor dined on vegetables. After the meal, expressions by some Rabbins, it has been prayers were again offered, and then the hastily inferred to have been low. To arrive at apartment was swept and perfumed. It was correct views on this subject, we ought to deemed unwholesome to go in the morning compare the position of the Hebrew female, not fasting about one's ordinary business. The rules only with the elevated place which Christianity, about the divers washings, and the prayers in acknowledgment of her real vocation, has which had to be offered, were exceedingly assigned to her, but chiefly with that which she minute; the principle in this kindred matter then occupied, and even at the present time being, that to derive advantage from anything holds, among other Eastern nations. in the world without returning thanks, was to The readers of the New Testament cannot but rob from the Lord. feel that the relations there indicated proceed The observances at table were very punctilious. upon the assumption that monogamy was the Moderation was recommended, and special rule, and polygamy the exception. The care bestowed on the use of bread, which was permission of polygamy, and the comparative neither to be wasted nor spoiled. Even the facility of obtaining a divorce, may seem to crumbs were to be carefully gathered up. militate against the fundamental idea of the

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marriage relation. But against these drawbacks marriage, the bride could sue for any very we have to put the two indubitable facts, that considerable increase of the statutory sum. generally men were only united in wedlock to On the marriage day, the bridegroom, with his one wife, and that Jewish females occupied not friends, went to bring home his espoused wife, only a comparatively but an absolutely high who was accompanied by her companions. position. The law throughout recognized and Festivities, lasting for some days, inaugurated protected the rights of women, and discouraged the happy event. Maidens were generally the practice of polygamy. An impartial reader married on the fourth day of the week cannot rise from the perusal, not of a few (Wednesday), to allow three free days to isolated passages, but of the sections of the prepare for the marriage, and to enable the Mishnah bearing upon this subject, without bridegroom without delay to bring any being impressed with this conviction. complaint as to the past chastity of his bride According to the Rabbins, to the age of twelve before the tribunals, which met every years females were reckoned minors (boys to Thursday. Widows were generally married on thirteen years and one day), during which the fifth day of the week. At their marriage, period they were absolutely in the power of maidens wore garlands of myrtles, or a peculiar their father, who might betroth or give them in kind of veil covering the eyes; sometimes their marriage, and who derived the benefit of what hair hung loosely down. It was a common they might earn by their personal exertions. practice to distribute among the company dried Marriage was preceded by a betrothal, which, in seeds, and, in some parts of the country, to the province of Judea, was celebrated by a feast. carry before the newly -married couple a pair The conditions of the marriage were then very of fowls, probably to indicate a wish for their precisely fixed, the dowry brought by the wife, fruitfulness. and the sum of money to be paid to her in case Legally speaking, marriage was concluded by of divorce or of widowhood, settled. Only a the handing of the money, by a written contract, bona fide breach of these arrangements was or by cohabitation; and it was again dissolved deemed a valid ground for dissolving the bond by a divorce, or by the death of either party. thus formed. While the law, no doubt, afforded considerable From the moment of this formal betrothal the facilities for obtaining a divorce, it also couple were looked upon as married, and the protected the rights of women, and generally relation could only be dissolved by a regular gave a preference to their testimony in cases of divorce. A betrothal might be entered into by dispute. On the legitimate grounds of divorce, the parties personally, or by delegates; but in the two theological schools differed materially. order to be valid it was necessary for the The Shammaites restricted them to the bridegroom to hand to the bride, either in commission of an iniquitous action by the wife money or otherwise, the value of at least a (probably adultery); the Hillelites going to an perutah. From the period of the betrothal, opposite extreme, and playing upon the original twelve months were allowed to either party (if of the text (Deut. 24:1) quoted by Shammai, the bride was a maid, and thirty days if a inferred that a divorce was warranted even widow) to prepare for the marriage. In cases of when the wife had only spoiled her husband's longer delay, the bridegroom was bound to dinner. maintain his betrothed. Rabbi Akiba endeavoured, in the same manner, If the bride was divorced before marriage, she to prove that a man might lawfully dismiss his received the sum settled at the betrothal, wife if he found another more attractive. which, in the case of a maid, was by statute not Passing over such exceptional extravagances, it less than 200, and in that of a widow 100 was held lawful to dismiss a wife without dinars, but might be augmented to any extent paying her the legally-secured portion if she according to previous agreement. But . it is transgressed the law of Moses and of the Jews, doubtful whether, in the case of divorce before which was applied not only to sin, but to acts of

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impropriety, such as going about with loose The whole of the personal property of, or the hair, spinning in the street, familiarly talking income derived by, the wife belonged to her with men, ill-treating her husband's parents in husband. On the other hand, he was bound to his presence, and brawling, “speaking with her make over to her one-half more than her husband so loudly, that her neighbors could dowry, if it consisted of ready money, and one- hear her voice in the adjoining houses”; a fifth less, if it consisted in any other property. general bad reputation in the place, or the Besides, the bridegroom was to allow his wife discovery of damaging circumstances which one-tenth of her dowry for pin money. If a had been concealed before marriage. On the father gave away his daughter without making other hand, the wife could insist on being any distinct statement about her dowry, he was divorced from her husband if he was a leper, if bound to allow her, at least, fifty sus; if it had he was affected with polyps (cancer), or if his expressly been provided that the bride was to trade obliged him to perform either dirty or receive no dowry, it was delicately enjoined disagreeable manipulations, as in the case of that the bridegroom should furnish her, before tanners and copper smelters. the marriage, with the necessary outfit. Even an However, the sages generally limited this orphan, who was given away by her natural concession to the first-mentioned disease. To guardians, the parochial authorities, was to discourage a plurality of wives, it was enjoined receive, from the common funds, at least, fifty that, in her claims, the first married wife should sus as dowry. always take precedence of the second, the A husband could not oblige his wife to leave the second of the third, etc. The ordinances with Holy Land or the city of Jerusalem, or to reference to divorces by absent husbands were, exchange a country for a town .residence, and as all legislation on this subject, very vice versa; or a good for a bad house, and vice punctilious. versa. A widow might insist on being The law specified the mutual duties and rights. maintained in her husband's house, or, if the The husband was bound to love and cherish his surviving relations and she herself were young, wife, comfortably to support her, to redeem her in her father's house. If she had lived in her if she had been sold into slavery, and to bury father's house, she was at all times at liberty to her. On these occasions, the poorest Israelite claim her legal portion; but if she had spent was bound to provide, at least, two mourning twenty-five years with the heirs of her late fifes and one mourning woman. On the other husband, her money was forfeited, as it was hand, the wife was “to grind the meal, to bake, considered that during that period she must to wash, to cook, to suckle her children, to make have received from the heirs for her her husband's bed, and to work in wool.” These maintenance a sum equal to that to which she regulations were modified if she was wealthy. was legally entitled. “If she had brought with her one slave, she was The period of suckling is variously stated. The not required to grind the meal, to bake, or to Mishnah fixes it at two years, or, at least, wash; if two slaves, she was also free from eighteen months. The education of daughters cooking and suckling the children; if three was almost entirely confided to their mother, slaves, she was not required to make the bed, or and even in that of sons she sustained an to work in wool; if four slaves (it is added), she important part. Besides their peculiar domestic might sit in her easy-chair.” However, this duties, daughters were to be taught the written, indulgence was limited, and, under all but not the oral, law, as such studies might lead circumstances, the wife expected, at least, to to undue familiarity with the other sex. As work in wool. If, by a rash vow, a husband had mothers should admonish their sons to apply forsworn himself not to allow his wife to work, themselves to study, so wives were to he was bound immediately to divorce her, as it encourage their husbands to the same. was thought that idleness induced insanity. Ordinarily, every male child was circumcised on the eighth day, even though it fell on the

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Sabbath, the duties attendant on circumcision rivalry, parents were interdicted from sending superseding even the sanctity of the day of rest. their children to schools in other towns. On certain defined occasions it was delayed two The number of children committed to one or three days; when the child was weakly, or if individual was not to exceed twenty-five; for two of its brothers had died in consequence of any greater number (short of fifty) an assistant the operation, it was deferred to the restoration was to be provided. The teacher was to of health, or till a more mature age promised endeavour to secure the confidence, the immunity from danger. It was performed in a respect, and the affection, both of parents and manner somewhat different from that children. The latter he was to treat rather with customary amongst other Eastern nations. As kindness than with rigor. Beating, if necessary, the ceremony was of the greatest importance, with a strap, never with a rod, was to be the strict attention to the prescribed rules was principal means of correction; but a teacher necessary, if the ordinance was to be valid. The could not be deposed merely upon complaints only difference in the mode of it, which obtains of too great severity. The alphabet was taught at present, lies in the substitution of better by drawing the letters on a board till the instruments for those formerly in use. Any children remembered them. In reading, well- Israelite in case of necessity, even a woman corrected books were to be used, and the child might perform the operation, although was to point to the words as he spelt them. In surgeons were latterly employed. At teaching the Bible, the schoolmaster was to circumcision the child obtained its name. begin with the Book of Leviticus, and after the Every parent had personally to instruct his sons Pentateuch to take up the Prophets, and then up to the sixth year of their age. After that they the Hagiographa. might be sent to the public elementary schools. In the case of more advanced pupils, the day The study of the Bible was begun when the was divided into three portions, one of which child was five years old. If no progress was was set apart for the study of the Bible, and the made during a period of three or five years' other two for the Mishnah and the Talmud. The instruction, little hope was entertained of Mishnah was begun at ten years of age, the future eminence. Wealthy Jews probably Talmud at fifteen. At thirteen, a young man employed private tutors, who were often became adult; at eighteen, it was deemed his slaves. The institution of elementary schools duty to enter into wedlock. The study of foreign was ascribed to the high priest Joshua ben languages was not a branch of education, and, , who fell by the hands of the Zealots indeed, since the war of Quietus it had been during the siege of Jerusalem. He is said to have declared unlawful. Gymnastic exercises were established a school in every province and in also interdicted, as leading to dangerous every town. contact and assimilation with heathens. A Jewish legend states that at its destruction, The number of hours during which junior Jerusalem possessed no fewer than 480 classes were to be kept in school was limited. schools, each consisting of three classes. This As the close air of the schoolroom might prove account is evidently exaggerated; and, indeed, detrimental during the heat of the day, schools another authority ascribes the fall of the city to were closed between ten o'clock a.m. and three the neglect of the education of the young. The p.m. For similar reasons, school hours were schoolmaster was generally a regular officer of limited to four hours a day during the period the Synagogue, paid from the treasury of that from the I7th Tammuz to the 9th Ab, and the synagogue to which he was attached, and teacher forbidden to chastise his pupils during within the precincts of which the children these months. usually met. He was allowed in certain cases to [Many of these regulations date probably from take fees from his pupils, but he was not on that the beginning of the fourth century.] account to show undue favor to the children of the rich. To discourage an unwholesome

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The schoolmaster was to make the lesson as the merit attaching to such studies, and the fact plain as possible, and not to lose patience if it that students and Rabbins carried on their was not immediately understood. Want of various trades, the classes were much more knowledge or of method were sufficient causes fully attended than, judging according to for removing a teacher, but experience was modern notions, we might have anticipated. always deemed a better qualification than mere Students were encouraged to put questions, acquirements. It was one of the principal duties and even to urge objections, provided they of an instructor of youth to impress upon their were stated respectfully, and for the purpose of minds and hearts the lessons of morality and gaining information. Some teachers chastity. The latter virtue was peculiarly endeavoured to make their lectures attractive esteemed by the Hebrews; and the teacher, who by varying them with riddles, fables, allegories, was always a married man, was required and even witticisms. Besides the colleges of carefully to avoid anything calculated to call up Palestine and of Babylon, there were similar disagreeable or indelicate associations. institutions in some foreign cities inhabited by The office of teacher was very highly esteemed, Jews, as, for example, in Rome. The respect and the pupil expected to show him greater shown by the pupils to the Rabbins, amounting respect, and to entertain for him a warmer almost to idolatry, and the extravagant claims attachment, than for his own father. On the put forth by them, and often supported by a other hand, the teacher was, both by word and perversion of Scripture passages, almost pass example, to incite his pupils to everything good credence. Any man might become an expounder and noble. In tuition, care was also to be of Haggadah, but a regular teacher required bestowed on the choice of elegant language. ordination, which was bestowed by three The inhabitants of Judea excelled in this ordained persons, or, in later times, by one respect. To acquire fluency, pupils were to read Rabbi with two -assessors. aloud, and certain mnemonic rules were The religious cast of Jewish social life became devised to facilitate the committing to memory. apparent in the general mildness of their laws, Of the higher schools, or colleges, we have and in an urbanity equally distant from the already spoken. They gained a peculiar verbosity of modern Orientals and the cool importance when the Jewish Sanhedrin was stiffness of Occidentals. With the various modes shorn of its executive power, and its of salutation between superiors and inferiors, discussions turned on purely religious or between equals, every Bible reader is questions. Although the mutual jealousy sufficiently familiar. The common mode of it between the Jews of Palestine and of Babylon was, “ Peace to you,” or “ Good luck to you,” the would induce us to receive with caution the latter phrase being addressed especially to opinions of rival teachers as to the state of laboring men. The fanaticism of pharisaical learning in their respective countries, we can Jews manifested itself also in their refusal to readily conceive that the character of the purely exchange the ordinary civilities of life with theological teaching of Babylon developed heathens or Samaritans. much more rapidly and smoothly than it did in [On the other hand, it was generally maintained Palestine. Other sciences besides theology that greetings should always be exchanged with were, however, cultivated in Babylon, and in the heathen for the sake of peace, and that a these the Eastern Jews seem at an early period Jew might wish them good success in their considerably to have outstripped their brethren work, even in the Sabbatical year.] in Judea. The place of honour was always on the right Celebrated theologians attracted pupils from hand, and strangers were dismissed with a great distances, and although the number of blessing. The same urbanity characterized all students who are stated to have attended the the different social relations. Friendship, lectures of certain sages is certainly fabulous, faithfulness, affection, and devotedness are no reasonable doubt can obtain that, owing to eminent traits in Jewish life. No crime was more

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reprobated than a breach of the fifth themselves with their own money , as they and commandment. Children were bound to all theirs were considered the absolute provide for the wants, even for the comforts, of property of their masters, which was not the their parents; if necessary, to wait upon, and case with Hebrew slaves. It was deemed even to beg for them. On the other hand, the meritorious to have one's heathen slaves parental tie was peculiarly strong. Parents are circumcised. If they refused to submit to this, represented as fondly watching over their they were to be sold as speedily as possible. children, and children as requiting their care by Opinions were divided about the duty and readily bearing with their foibles, and even with expediency of manumitting foreign slaves, the the trials arising from the caprices of old age majority entertaining views unfavorable to and infirmity. Crimes such as the murder of them. Their treatment was in general very mild, parents or of children were happily unknown. being considered rather as members of the No doubt the above virtues are in great family than as strangers. Any act of cruelty at measure traceable to the sanctity of the once set the slave free. We hear of Egyptian marriage relation, and the absence, or at least slaves sold for as much as one talent, but in the the great rarity, of prostitution, which in turn, Talmud 100 denarii, or about £3, seems to be specially in times so dissolute as those to which regarded as a common price for a slave we refer, were due to the leavening influence of Besides the common duties of the household, the Old Testament, notwithstanding its various slaves had to do all the menial work, such as corruptions by tradition. dressing and undressing their masters, tying, From the peculiar political relations of loosing, and carrying their shoes, anointing Palestine, slavery, in a modified form, was them, turning the hand-mill,' etc. common from the earliest times. However, the It is well known that in early times the precious safety and rights of the slave were amply metals were weighed; hence the names of protected, and he was kindly treated. It is weights and of coins are identical. As the plainly impossible to draw from the modified current value of coins afterwards varied, it is slavery of Palestine a warrant for the difficult to ascertain the real value, either of the antichristian practice which so long disgraced different pieces of money or of the weights. The Christian countries. In Palestine, where the land lowest weight was the Gera, of which twenty was so equally divided amongst the inhabitants, formed a shekel; but in later times there was and hired labor so rare, slavery was almost considerable divergence of opinion as to the necessary. Besides, Judaism found slavery as a original value of a shekel. When the Greek social institution intimately connected with the currency became common in Palestine, the gera habits and war-rights of the ancient world. To was identified with the Greek obol (about 11 have isolated the Jews from this practice would grains), and a shekel was therefore equivalent have been almost impossible; but Judaism to three Attic drachms. This was just the weight busied itself to mitigate, and, as much as of the Tyrian coin of nearly 224 grains. possible, to abolish it. Accordingly, when Simon the Maccabee Besides slaves, day-laborers were also received the right of coinage, he adopted the occasionally, though not regularly, employed. sela as his standard. The average weight of the Hebrew slaves were acquired by purchase or by silver shekels of Simon has been found to be contract. Jewish female slaves were exceedingly about 220 grains. Subsequently the Attic rare. All slaves of foreign origin were drachm was reduced, so that it weighed only designated as “Canaanites.” They might be one-fourth of the Jewish shekel. acquired by purchase, by letter of sale, or by It is equally difficult exactly to fix the capacity right of war, and again obtained their liberty by of measures. Leaving vague expressions, such redemption or by letter of manumission. They as a handful, a mouthful, the size of a druggist's were not set free on the Sabbatical or the spoon, or of an olive, etc., we find the following Jubilee year, nor were they allowed to redeem definite measures : In fluids, the log was the

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smallest measurement, twelve logs were a hin, A bargain was not considered closed until both six hins a bath, and ten baths a homer or cor. parties had taken possession of their respective Dry substances were measured as follows : The properties; but after one party had received the homer contained 10 ephahs, or 30 seahs (3 money it was deemed dishonorable and sinful seahs to an ephah), or 100 omers(10 omers to for the other to draw back. It was declared an ephah), or 180 cabs (6 cabs to a seah). Now downright imposition, no matter what the state we learn from the Talmud that there were three of the market, to charge 20 per cent, of profit on standards of measurement in use. The smallest any article. In such cases the purchaser had the was the so-called “wilderness” measure, which right of returning the article, or of claiming the is explained to be the same as the “Italian.” The balance of the money, provided he applied for it Jerusalem measure was one-fifth larger; and after an interval sufficient to show his purchase that of Sepphoris, which was probably used in to another merchant, or to a relative. Similarly Galilee, again one-fifth larger than that of the rights of the merchant were protected. The Jerusalem. The size of a log in the common or money-changer was allowed to charge a fixed “wilderness” measure is fixed by the Rabbins at discount for light money, or to return it within a six eggs. certain period if below the weight at which he had taken it. A merchant might not be pressed [This quantity has been calculated to amount to to name the lowest price of an article which the about .079 of a gallon, or two-thirds of a Roman questioner had no serious intention of sextarius. The seah, accordingly, was equal to a purchasing; nor might he, by way of inducing modius, or nearly a quarter of a bushel, while him to lower his prices, be reminded of any the bath or ephah contained about 51 gallons. former overcharge. In the Sepphoris measure, on the other hand, the log was nearly equal to a sextarius. Different qualities of goods might not be mixed, even though the articles added were equal or We add the measurement of lengths and superior in value to those originally exposed for distances. The former were computed by sale. For the protection of the retailer and of the finger-breadths; hand-breadths ( = four finger- public, the agriculturist was interdicted from breadths); spans ( = twelve finger-breadths); selling wine diluted with water to the dealers in cubits, reaching from the elbow to the tip of the any of the cities of Palestine where such was third finger ( = two spans, or six hand- not in general use. Such are some of the breadths), and rods ( = six cubits). The Roman ordinances by which the scrupulosity of cubit, which was in common use, amounted to Rabbinism sought to elevate trade and to about 17 inches. protect all parties. One of the theologians went Distances were generally reckoned according to so far as to declare it improper for merchants to Roman miles, which were 1000 geometrical distribute little presents amongst the children paces, or 142 yards less than the English statute in the various villages through which they mile. Eight Greek stadia, or furlongs, passed, by way of gaining them, and thereby, as constituted a Roman mile, and thirty stadia a he thought improperly, attracting customers. Persian or Syrian parasang. He also deemed it wrong to lower the It will scarcely appear strange that in a country customary price of articles. However, his where commerce was not the chief occupation colleagues allowed the latter, but united in of the people, and where the virtues inculcated reprobating, as a species of deceit, the practice in the Bible were extended and applied by of endeavoring to give a better appearance to Rabbinical punctiliousness to every possible any article which was to be exposed for sale. circumstance, the laws regulating trade should Purchases of corn could not be concluded until have been exceedingly strict and minute, and the market price had been fixed. Greater that to such an extent as even to prescribe the precautions, if possible, were adopted against time when the merchant was required to the very appearance of taking interest or usury. cleanse his weights and scales.

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The latter term was apparently equivalent to of non-payment to sell them; but wearing every kind of speculation. apparel, bedding, the ploughshare, and any So delicate were the provisions for guarding the articles requisite in the preparation of food, interests and sparing the feelings of debtors, were excepted, and were to be restored that creditors were expressly interdicted from whenever required for use. Similarly, under any using anything belonging to the debtor without circumstances, pledges which belonged to a paying for it, from sending him on an errand, or widow could neither be taken nor sold. In no even accepting a present from a party who had case could the creditor claim a pledge till he solicited an advance. So punctilious were the had obtained permission from a court of law. Rabbins, that they would have a woman who Tradesmen or laborers were bound to perform borrowed a loaf from her neighbor immediately their contracts, and all complaints about having fix its value at the time, lest a sudden rise in been taken advantage of were to be left for flour should make the loaf returned of more after-adjudication.' But while on these and value than that borrowed. When a house or similar points the law which protected field was rented, it was deemed lawful to Israelites was exceedingly strict and minute, it charge a somewhat higher rental where must be allowed that the interests of Gentiles prepayment was not made; but such increase were not always so well watched over. The was interdicted when a field was purchased. It Rabbins seem frequently to have considered was declared of the nature of an improper that what applied to the chosen race could not speculation to promise a merchant one-half of regulate intercourse with those whom they the profits on any sales which he effected, or to contemplated with feelings similar to those advance him money, and allow one-half of the entertained by strict Mohammedans towards profits on the speculations which had been all “ infidels.” undertaken with it. In either case the merchant Intercourse with parties at a distance was kept was exposed to undue temptations; by law he up by letters, which were either conveyed by was only entitled to a commission in payment travelers or dispatched by special letter- of the services he had performed, and as carriers.- These letters were sealed with red compensation for his time and trouble. clay, or with a kind of sealing-wax. The art of When Jewish commerce became more writing seems to have been extensively known extensive, creditors were in the habit of getting in Palestine, even during the reign of David. regular documents drawn out at the expense of Unlettered Hebrews employed writers or the debtor, and signed before witnesses. For scribes, denominated in the Mishnah “Liblar”. any part-payment the creditor granted a Their reed or pen was called “kolemos” (the separate discharge. In all dubious cases the law Greek calamos). At a later period the duties of decided in favor of the debtor. To prevent any the Liblar were chiefly connected with drawing mistake, the sum lent was written at the top as out contracts, sales, marriage settlements, etc., well as in the body of the document, and minute in short, different kinds of legal documents in directions were given about the signatures of civil and juridical cases. Some appear to have witnesses. A third party was not considered to been in possession of particular secrets have become security for the borrower if he connected with the mechanical part of their had only come forward after the loan had profession, which they kept as a sort of patent actually been contracted. (although with general disapprobation), just as It is well known that in reference to taking others possessed similar secrets in the interest or pledges, and in dealing with preparation of perfumes and of the shewbread. insolvent creditors, the mildness of the Hebrew A single letter or word affixed to an article law is almost unparalleled, compared not only indicated that it was set apart for the sanctuary, with that of ancient, but even of modern or was part of the tithes. The writing materials nations. Under certain restrictions, it was, in use were pens or reeds, ink of different indeed, lawful to take pledges, and in the event colors, and paper or parchment. Among the

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various kinds of ink we may mention a In Galilee it approached more to the Syrian, and sympathetic ink, prepared from the bark of the the gutturals were indistinctly pronounced. Of ash; another chiefly made up of vitriol, and course, the more learned the speaker, the more specially noted for its . indelibility; and a pure was his dialect. The ancient Hebrew, powder made of lamp black, mixed with oil or however, was always retained for sacred honey, and dried, which was dissolved when purposes and extensively studied. Although the required for use. A kind of paper was much in study of foreign languages, more probably of use, as well as writing tables, rougli or their literature, was interdicted, yet, from the unprepared leather, and parchment, or necessity of their circumstances, the Greek, and prepared leather. Sometimes tables of wax or of soon afterwards the Latin, were in common use wood, and pointed pens, were employed. We in Palestine. As the knowledge of many things even read of writing upon the leaves of olive had been acquired from these foreigners, many trees, the horn of a cow, or the hand of a slave. Greek and Latin words with Hebrew Among the various alphabets handed down to terminations became current, and found their us, without doubt what is known as “ the way into the Talmud. However, the Synagogue Phoenician “ is the most ancient. By calligraphic was liberal towards unlettered Hebrews, and improvements it first became what is now recognized the use of Greek not only in legal designated as the Samaritan alphabet. documents, such as letters of divorce, although drawn up in Palestine, but even allowed to [The transition to the square character, which Israelites who had settled in foreign countries first appears in Aramaic inscriptions, seems to the use of foreign languages in their prayers. have been completed in Palestine shortly before the Christian era, but the old alphabet Jewish law fully protected both persons and was retained on all Hebrew coins.-] property. Where property was even accidentally injured, the party who had The Rabbins ascribe the alteration by which our occasioned it was held responsible, if every modern square Hebrew letters have arisen, to precaution had not been used, or distinct the period of Ezra. What are now known as the intimation of the danger given. If a person had vowel-points and diacritical signs, date from a been hurt, damages might be claimed for actual comparatively late period, perhaps the sixth or injury (calculated by a valuation of the party seventh century after Christ. The custom of both before and after the hurt), for pain representing long vowels in Hebrew by means (calculated by an estimate of what the injured of the letters vclu and yod had been gradually party would have been willing to pay rather introduced, but it was not in regular use at the than suffer), for medical expenses, for loss of time when the Septuagint version was made. time, and for the affront (the latter in cases of Legend had it that there were seventy nations, intentional injury). and as many languages in the world, amongst A Hebrew slave possessed in this respect the which, of course, Hebrew was the only one same rights as a free man, only that, if the injury which deserved or ought to be studied. But in had been inflicted by his master, he could not, course of time, and specially after the of course, claim compensation for loss of time. , the “ sacred language “ Even foreign slaves might sue for damages, underwent considerable modifications. although not on the ground of affront. Damages Although the Hebrews at the time of their could not be claimed from a married woman or return had not forgotten their former peculiar from a slave, as neither could, in law, possess dialect, it gradually became transformed into any property of their own. But they might be the Palestinian or West Aramean dialect, which, sued for at any later period when the offending at the time of our Savior, and afterwards, party had either been divorced or manumitted. constituted the spoken and written language of The damages for a blow with the fist were fixed Palestine. It was spoken in greatest purity in at 100 sus or denarii; at 200 for a box on the Judea. face, or 400 if given with the back of the hand,

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and the excuse of provocation was not held Besides these statutory contributions, the valid. opinion generally entertained of the peculiar If mildness and kindness characterized the merits of private charity led to such profusion, social intercourse of the Hebrews, another that it had at last to be limited to giving away virtue, that of charity, was still more inculcated one-fifth of one's property. However, poor and prized. Passion for gain or lust of wealth relatives might receive part of the legal was not one of the national sins, till centuries of contributions destined for the poor generally. the most relentless persecution had made the The vagrant poor were to get food and lodging, possession of riches their only means of and on Sabbaths not less than three meals, so as influence or hope of safety. The stated annual to feel at least the material joy of that day. contributions for religious and charitable Equally liberal was the law in determining who purposes were very considerable. Beside the were proper recipients of charity. Given as a customary sacrifices, the first-fruits of all fields religious contribution, and as to brethren, the and cattle and the heave-offerings belonged to law had rather to encourage than discourage the priests, from whom the had applicants for relief. likewise to be redeemed. There were three degrees of parochial relief, The amount of the heave-offering was generally according as the recipient obtained a share of computed at one-fortieth, one-fiftieth, or at the harvest only, or also of the money and of least at one-sixtieth of the whole produce. the victuals collected for the poor. Any person Besides, a tithe of everything was contributed who possessed less than 200 sus was a pauper, for sacred purposes. A second tithe was levied, and hence had a claim upon part of the harvest; but not devoted to the priests. Heads of families nor was he obliged to sell his house or furniture were expected to bring these second tithes or in order to make up the sum fixed as the their full value with them to Jerusalem (to the statutory limit of charity. annual feasts), where the learned or the poor Persons engaged in trade or business were very were to be entertained with them during the properly excepted from a rule which was only festivities, which made the capital a grand meant to apply to women, or aged and infirm religious banqueting-house, and all Israel a persons. Any party who had not sufficient to joyful religious brotherhood. Every third and purchase food for fourteen meals, was to apply sixth year a third tithe was collected for the to the authorities for money; while, if sufficient poor, and distributed, not at Jerusalem, but for two meals was not in the house, the pauper among those who lived in the neighborhood of received a share of the victuals which were the farmer or landholder. The laws connected daily collected for the poor. with the Sabbatical year are well known. To seek assistance where it was not needed, Besides these religious imposts, a half-shekel was looked upon as a sin, exposing to divine was annually contributed to the treasury, all judgments. All moneys for the poor were these imposts being paid by every Israelite in collected by two, and distributed by three Palestine and Syria, and probably for the most parochial officers. Relief to the brethren was part also by the Jews of the Dispersion. not to be doled out grudgingly, nor were the It was enjoined to show kindness to all who indigent treated with contempt or indifference. were employed. The farm-servant was allowed On the contrary, as will by and by appear, they to partake of the fruits of the ground, and the were treated with the greatest delicacy and day-laborer, besides his hire, shared in the deference. What they received had either been meals of the family. During the harvest, at first offered to the Lord, and was in turn given morning, noon, and evening, the poor them by their heavenly Father, or they partook assembled to receive their gifts. At other times of it together with the rich donors (often at of the year, officers specially appointed for the their table), and as members of the same family. purpose went about every day to collect The wealthy landholder was a spiritual chief, victuals, and on Fridays money for the poor.

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and the poor of the district members of a holy If we bear in mind that the customs were family, for which he was the divinely appointed farmed, as a mercantile speculation, by lessees steward. Beggars, properly speaking, with the who employed publicans, while the latter, in exception of such as were afflicted with turn, sought to profit as much as possible by the diseases or infirmities, were unknown in unpopular occupation in which they were Palestine, and to a great extent are still engaged, it will be understood how a taxation, unknown amongst the Jews. oppressive in itself, became most odious and The civil taxes varied considerably with the grinding. True, the law gave a right of appeal circumstances of the country. Under Persian against improper exactions, but it will readily domination, road money, duty on provisions, be understood that such appeals were always and a property and income-tax were paid, difficult and expensive, and rarely led to besides the exactions to which a conquered satisfactory results. As the agriculturist passed province would always be subject. Under to town or market, the hated publican sat by Egyptian rule, the taxes of Palestine, including the wayside to examine every conveyance, Phoenicia and Coele-Syria, were farmed for often to violate the secrecy of letters, to eight thousand talents.- Under Syrian demand or to furnish a receipt for payment of government the taxation was exceedingly dues. vexatious, including a tax on salt, the crown- Every ass or beast of burden that carried the money (the “aurum coronarium”), and an rich produce of the land towards Ptolemais or impost of a third of all that was sown, and of a Caesarea was stopped, each package opened half of the fruits of trees; head-money or poll- and tumbled about, and new and vexatious tax, some tax on cattle, and custom duties, were exactions hampered every branch of industry. also levied. When the Romans first interfered in No wonder, then, that the publicans were hated the affairs of Judea, they did not at once levy the and despised, nor even admitted to bear usual taxes; but the descendants of Antipater witness in Jewish courts, and in general treated derived a large income from crown lands {Ant. like heathens or harlots. It was not even xiv. 10. 6); from a tax upon land and its produce allowed to receive charity from them.- They (xv. 9. 1); from a house-tax (xix. 6. 3); from were unworthy of this privilege, nor could they export duties (xiv. 10. 22); and from a market- have given what too often had been unjustly tax upon everything that was bought or sold acquired. However, there were honorable (xvii. 8. 4, xviii. 4. 3). The last-mentioned tax exceptions, amongst them Zacchaeus, who is was specially galling. From all these sources the mentioned in the Gospel. income of Herod the Great is estimated to have Under these circumstances, the separation amounted to more than a thousand talents, or between Jews and Gentiles became daily £240,000. With the death of Herod the last greater. Since the Exile, and especially from the shadow of Jewish independence passed away. time of the Maccabees, there had been a strong Each “free-born Jew” had now to pay to his separatist party among the Jews; still for the heathen master property-tax, poll-tax, and most part strangers were treated with a specially custom and duties, levied by the kindness and justice which Israelites did not publicans on the different highways and in the meet with in return. Many of the foreign seaport towns. This amounted to large sums, settlers in Palestine became proselytes, of chiefly derived from balsam and other valuable whom two classes are mentioned. Those of the exports. A superior excise officer (chief of the first class, termed in the Talmud “ resident publicans) was located in Jericho, which was strangers “ or “ proselytes,” were only the centre of the balsam district. The tax on all naturalized aliens, bound to obey the seven articles bought and sold was continued till 36 Noachic ordinances (as they were termed), AD, when it was abolished by Vitellius, and, which interdicted blasphemy, idolatry, murder, after the destruction of the temple, the incest, robbery, resistance of the magistrates, customary half -shekel had to be paid to Rome. the eating of blood, all of which were necessary

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for the protection of the State and of the in Palestine, and the leaders of fashion established religion. Proselytes of imported from abroad articles of luxury, the use Righteousness were, besides, converts to of which a former generation would have Judaism, and admitted by circumcision, repudiated. The Talmud enumerates eighteen baptism, and a sacrifice. Some authorities articles, which might form parts of an elegant suppose, although on insufficient grounds, that toilet. Commonly it consisted of one or, in the baptism was only introduced after sacrifices case of rich persons and travelers, two under had become impossible. garments, which reached to the ankles, and [This classification, however, was little more were kept close to the body by a girdle. than a theory of the Rabbins. The real The upper robe, which was variously arranged distinction was between foreigners who according to taste or fashion, was also used by adopted monotheism and the principal Jewish the poor at night for a covering. This was a observances, and proselytes in the narrower square garment, with borders or fringes of blue sense of the term, who became essentially or white attached to the four corners. Of course Jews.] the shape and material varied with the rank The foreigner admitted into the Synagogue was and manners of the wearer. Amongst the finest considered to have left his country, family, and were the white, the embroidered, and the friends, to whom he was now so completely a purple garments. On particular occasions, as in stranger, that, theoretically, he might even have mourning at court or in travelling, a different married his heathen sister or mother. By his style of clothing was adopted. entrance into the Synagogue he became a new At a later period, travelling-cloaks with hoods man, and in every respect equal to a native attached to them were worn. The head-dress Israelite. Although later Jewish writers have consisted of a pointed cap or of a kind of professed carelessness as to proselytism, a turban. The dresses of females were profession which reflects credit neither on distinguished by their shape, the fineness of Judaism nor on their own religious convictions, their texture, and their ornaments. In the latter extraordinary zeal was at times displayed by class we may include the nets which they wore the Synagogue to gain proselytes. But the later over their hair and their frontlets. Of the veils, converts to Judaism were mostly of an inferior which were laid aside in the house, and while caste, who had joined the Synagogue either as going about the usual avocations, there were slaves of Jews, or in order to marry into Jewish various kinds. The Arabian veil hung down families. It is to such proselytes that the from the head and covered the face, but left the contemptuous expressions used by later eyes free; the veil-dress was a kind of cloak or Rabbins, who designate them as “ the leprosy of mantilla thrown over the whole person and Israel,” must apply. Pious, or rather bigoted covering the head; the Egyptian veil, like that ritualists, dreaded their influx as likely to bring still used in the East, covered the breast, neck, in a set of unlearned persons not zealous for the chin, and face, leaving only the eyes free. Jewish rites, while the proud sages despised them for ladies wore not only sandals, which consisted their origin and their ignorance of Rabbinical merely of soles strapped to the foot, but also lore. more or less costly slippers, sometimes In some respects the etiquette of the Hebrews embroidered and studded with gems. Thus, led to a more simple, in others to a more both in veils and shoes, necessity gave place to complicated ceremonial, than that of modern luxury. nations. If the articles of dress in use were less Still more manifest was the love of splendour, subject to the alterations of fashion, the rules of which, indeed, is one of the natural good society and the climate necessitated a characteristics of Orientals, in the ornaments larger number of them than with us. At a later worn by both sexes. Gentlemen generally wore period, contact with foreigners led to a a seal either on the ring-finger or suspended conformity with their manners, once unknown round the neck, which, together with the staff,

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were almost in universal use. The barbarous so as gracefully to hang over the mouth, practice of shaving had not as yet banished the without, however, interfering with the salute of natural ornament of man, and the fashionable the privileged friend. Two kinds of necklaces Jews carefully trimmed, anointed, and were worn, the one closely fitting, the other perfumed their beards. loose and like a chain, frequently consisting of The hair was considered another of the chief stones and pearls strung together, which points of beauty, and a bald person was held depended over the chest, and even to the girdle. unfit to discharge the priestly functions. Young Fashionable ladies wore two or three such people and females wore their hair long, but in chains, to which smelling-bottles, perfumeries, men such would have been regarded as a token and even small heathenish ornaments, as of effeminacy. Peasant girls tied their hair in a crescents, suns, snakes, etc., were fastened. simple knot, but the rich patrician ladies were From the frontlet, or the head ornament, which wont to curl and plait it, and to adorn its tresses was frequently in the shape of a snail, gold with gold ornaments and pearls. Indeed, hair- pendants descended. plaiting and curling was a special, although not The bracelets, sometimes worn even by a respectable business. Some dandies had their gentlemen, were fastened above the wrist, and hair dressed, and the Talmud mentions both were made of ivory, gold, or of precious stones hairpins and combs. A lady's hair was anointed, strung together. The girdle worn by ladies was perfumed, and sprinkled either with gold-dust, fastened lower and more loosely than that of or dyed so as to appear reddish, this color being gentlemen, who wore it round the loins. It was the favorite in climates where it is rare. Even frequently made of very costly fabric, and false hair seems to have been used. adorned with precious stones. The rings round In general, anointing was usually combined the ankles were generally so wrought, as in with washing, as tending to comfort and walking to make a noise like the tinkling of little refreshment. The hair, the beard, the clothes, bells. Besides, ladies wore gold or diamond pins the forehead and face, even the garlands worn in their clothes, rings on their fingers, and, at feasts, were anointed. Ointments were when needful, even false teeth in their mouths. prepared of oil and home or foreign perfumes, However luxurious in their dress, the Hebrews and, if very costly, preserved in alabaster flasks. were much more simple in their domestic Perfumers, however, were generally despised, arrangements than the neighboring nations. even amongst heathen nations. Some Jewesses The places on which they rested at night varied used also cosmetics. They painted their cheeks, with the rank and circumstances of their and especially blackened their eyelids with a owners, from the stone pillow and the covering mixture of antimony and oil, which at the same of the upper garment, or the more or less time acted as a preventive against inflammation simple couch, to beds, the posts of which were of the eyes, a disease common in the East, Of hung with gay and costly fabrics. The middle the other ornaments worn by ladies, we may classes, no doubt, used low couches, similar to mention gold head-dresses, nose-rings, finger- the modern divans of the East, which served as rings, necklaces, bracelets, and ankle-rings. sofa by day and as bed by night. Girls had also their ears bored, a thread or Baths, partly for refreshment, partly as means small piece of wood being kept in the hole till of preserving or restoring health, and partly for the wound was healed, when either a plain ring Levitical purifications, were very common. The or a drop or pendant was inserted. laws with reference to purification were Besides their head-dresses and gold ornaments, punctilious in determining where, when, and frontlets and ear-rings, Hebrew ladies also how lustrations were to be performed. Some wore nose-rings, which the law ordered to be were in the habit of daily resorting to these put aside on the Sabbath. In the East these rings plunge-baths. In general, the houses of the are now either fastened in one of the nostrils, better classes had bathing-rooms, or else a or in the septum between the nares, and made bathing apparatus attached to the court. Public

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baths in and near towns were provided for the originated the idea of effacing the peculiar poor, in which a kind of bran seems to have bodily mark of Judaism. been used for removing impurities. The first verses of the first Psalm were held to Palestine possessed several mineral springs apply equally to the amusements of the theatre which were used internally and as baths, but or amphitheatre, to frequenting the ring, and to their use was generally restricted to invalids. witnessing the performances of jugglers. It was During the summer season a retreat was indeed well known that such indulgences would sought in the cooler parts of the country, operate detrimentally upon the piety and especially in the neighborhood of the Lake of morality of the people. Under the rule of the Gennesaret, where the wealthy and the noble Herodians, theatres and amphitheatres were had their villas. The most famed mineral baths indeed reared in various cities of Palestine, in were those of Tiberias or Emmaus, of Gadara, imitation and in honour of the Romans. But as and of Callirrhoe. Tiberias lay at a distance of the games there celebrated were essentially 200 stadia from Scythopolis, and about twenty foreign, they were discountenanced and even English miles from Nazareth. Close beside it, at interdicted by the Rabbins. With equal zeal did the village of Emmaus, are hot springs, which the Rabbins warn against all contamination contain sulphur and salts of soda and of iron. with idolatry. About fifteen miles from Tiberias, and at no Anything that could directly or indirectly be great distance from the south-east corner of the connected with idolatry, such as heathen Lake of Gennesaret, lay Gadara, the modern ornaments, etc., might not be lawfully used by a Omkeis, situated upon the mountains, at the Hebrew, who was in no way to compromise foot of which hot sulfurous streams flowed himself with countenancing anti-Jewish towards the Jordan. The waters of Gadara were practices. To throw down a stone in honour of specially resorted to by lepers, and famous Mercury, or to touch those which had so been even outside of Palestine. Callirrhoe lay on the thrown down, to enter into business relations east of the Dead Sea. with heathens three days before or after their The Hebrews presented also a favorable feasts, to make purchases in shops decorated contrast in the simplicity of their amusements with garlands in honour of idols, even to when compared with the barbarous sports of celebrate the first of January (the new year), or heathen nations. While in the streets and any other calends (first of the month), the markets children engaged in amusements with saturnalia, the birth or the coronation day of a which we are familiar, young persons exercised heathen emperor, was strictly interdicted. themselves in athletic games, by lifting, Sometimes these views took the direction of swinging, and throwing great weights. Games of intolerance and persecution. Thus it was not chance, such as dice, and a kind of racing, not lawful to assist at the birth of, or to suckle, a with horses, but with doves, are mentioned, but heathen infant. always in terms of unqualified disapprobation. Sad experience daily corroborated the Biblical The chase was not resorted to as an testimony of the character of heathenism, and amusement, and snares were laid for game and although the manifestations of Jewish fowls simply in order to get possession of them. abhorrence were sometimes wrong, we can Public popular amusements were unknown till scarcely wonder at the repugnance of the the period of Syrian domination and Jewish Synagogue. decadence. With the exception of religious Before closing this account of the state of festivals, all such amusements were contrary to society amongst the Hebrews, it may be well to the Jewish idea of proper individual and family present the popular ideas on various subjects, life. The exercises of the gymnasium only led to as these are scattered over the pages of the close intercourse with Gentiles, and Talmud. Although at the risk of going back upon engendered a dangerous familiarity with our record, or of anticipating to some extent heathen practices, which ultimately even

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what is to follow, they will afford a more dropsy; groundless hatred, jaundice; pride, faithful portraiture of the popular mind than poverty; calumny, diseases of the respiratory any other description could have done. organs, etc. Some sins, as blasphemy, a denial of The Divine word, which was the framework of the truth of Scripture, and especially of the Jewish society, admitted, in popular opinion, a resurrection, entailed not only temporal, but variety of interpretations. “Every line and eternal destruction. stroke in the Bible is of vast importance,” was Broken vows entail the loss of one's wife; the fruitful principle of this view, to which a nonpayment of tithes causes famine (Mal. great part of traditionalism owed its origin. It 3:10); robbery brings locusts (Amos 4:1,9); was held that the oral law had been received by mal-administration of justice leads to war, Moses from God, and communicated first to pestilence, etc. (Jer. 33:23,24). As these Aaron, then to his sons, and finally to the elders calamities fall on the whole nation, every of Israel. In point of fact, these studies were person ought, as far as possible, to prevent his preferred to the Bible. The Talmud (in neighbor from sinning, or at least reprove him. application of Isa. 3:1) compares the Halakhah Neglect of this duty (to which Lev. 19:17 to bread, and the Haggadah to water. referred) brought punishment even on the A Midrash explains Deut. 32:13, 14, righteous (Ezek. 9:6). However, a reproof respectively of the Pentateuch, and of the other should be administered delicately and in portions of Scripture; of the Mishnah, of the private. Rabbi Tarphon thought that in his age Talmud, of the various exegetical rules, of the none was worthy to reprove; for, to the Halakhah and of the Haggadah, an admonition, “Remove the mote from thine eye,” interpretation which, however extravagant, it might be replied, “Remove first the beam out sufficiently indicates the state of feeling. As the of thine own eye”; whilst Rabbi Akiba doubted law of God, both written and oral, was the if any would be found willing to listen to source of happiness and delight, so from lust reproof. It was deemed an unfavorable sign if and ambition all wretchedness flowed. Thus, the inhabitants of a place loved a Rabbi, as while Korah, Dathan, and Abiram suffered in indicating unfaithfulness on his part. consequence of their envy, lust, and ambition, True riches were not to be sought in the Aaron received as reward of opposite virtues, possession of wealth, but in contentment with the honour of wearing the breast-plate and the one's estate. A different spirit could only lead to . Satisfied with little, the theft, which was more culpable even than pious ought not to take care for the morrow, robbery, as manifesting a greater fear of man not knowing what a day may bring forth, and than of God; hence theft and not robbery was thus to imitate the Rabbins, who labored with mentioned in the eighth commandment. Upon their hands in order to acquire the means for the same principle the use of false measures those studies which are the grand end of life. and weights was considered a greater sin than Hillel, the rich Eleazar ben Charsom, and the theft. Robbery, however, was the iniquity which Patriarch Joseph, were instanced to show that filled up the measure of the antediluvian world neither poverty, riches, nor temptation should (Gen. vi. 13). prevent from engaging in such occupations. In point of principle, the robbery of a penny In general, it was thought that punishments and was as culpable as that of a life; and forced rewards stood in exact correspondence with sales, damaging one's neighbor, or the keeping man's actions. Thus, Samson was blinded for back of wages, were of the same stamp. letting his eyes stray, Absalom's vanity led to Comparatively speaking, it was more culpable his being hung by the hair; while, on the other to rob an individual than even to abstract from hand, as Miriam had waited on Moses when he that which had been dedicated for the temple.- lay in the ark of bulrushes, so Israel waited for Usury was a heinous offence, entailing poverty her seven days in the wilderness during her here and wretchedness hereafter. So carefully leprosy. Similarly, unchastity would induce was it to be avoided, that a debtor was not even

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to bow to his creditor, unless he had formerly his brethren. All honors came from God, who been in the habit of so doing. But a penitent bestowed them not only on an individual, but usurer was to be encouraged; the parties on his latest posterity (Job xxxvi. 7), who are wronged were to forgive him as God forgave only deprived of them if they become proud. them, and not to press the offending brother for That pride might not be fostered, parochial restitution.-- Bribery was compared to the offices should only be conferred with the small hook by which large fishes were caught. express sanction of the congregation (Ex. Judges were warned against the bribery of 35:30), and administered with meekness. To flattery, and even the offer of a gift to him this virtue Deut. 30:12 referred, while the incapacitated a judge from deciding in a cause. expression, “The commandment is not in Every appearance of covetousness was to be heaven,” indicated that observance of the law avoided. An article should not be purchased was not with the proud. God only establishes below its fair value, and parties were man in the way which he himself chooses, and interdicted from buying anything at less than the sinner is ultimately left like Balaam; while five-sixths of its real value, or selling it at more he that seeks the Lord is assisted, protected, than one-sixth above its value. and sanctified from on high. Gluttony and wine-bibbing (Prov. 23:20, etc.), It was thought comparatively easy to observe which “ made red here and pale hereafter,” the law which only consisted in loving one's entailed sorrow and led to sin. On the other neighbor as one's self. Thus Hillel the Great had hand, chastity was one of the principal virtues. summed up Judaism in the one command, Do All needless conversation with females, looking not that to thy neighbor which would be at them, at their hair, dress, etc., was improper. displeasing to thyself.” According to the not inapt mode of speaking at Circumstances could not palliate any of these the time, it was said that to preserve chastity in three sins, idolatry, incest, and murder. All the midst of temptations conferred merit equal other transgressions of positive injunctions to that of a 'poor man who restored what he were thought to be expiated by penitence; had found, or of a rich man who gave his tithes those of negative commandments, by penitence in secret. Assiduous study of the Law was and the Day of Atonement; those of which the recommended as the most likely help to this breach entailed the threat of being cut off,” by virtue. All the curses (in Deut. 27:15 ff.) applied penitence, the Day of Atonement, and to adultery. Self-confidence was here specially sufferings; while only death could set free from out of place. the guilt of sins connected with a profanation of Legend had it that the fall of David was due to the Divine name. Trifling offences, if committed this cause. It was said that he had presumed to by sages, may bring dishonor upon the name of expostulate with God because He was not called the Lord. The command, “ To love the Lord our the God of David as well as of Abraham, Isaac, God,” was generally interpreted as referring to and Jacob. The folly of his challenge to be the duty of making His name beloved. An submitted to a trial similar to theirs was shown excessive anxiety on this subject, however, in his fall (Ps. 26:2). Indeed, every person had a induced a relaxation of rigor when sins were good and an evil inclination; the latter, at first committed in secret. slender like a thread, became by and by strong The tongue, which God had given only to praise as a cart-rope.' In 2 Sam. 12:4 this evil Him, had become a dangerous member, a inclination was represented as first a pilgrim, circumstance which even its position within the then a guest, and, finally, a lord. To overcome twofold walls of cheeks and teeth''' indicated. this evil concupiscence was equal in merit to Every word of God, whether embodied in the offering all the sacrifices prescribed by the law. written or the oral law, was to be implicitly Ambition was another dangerous enemy, which believed and carefully studied. Legend had it had brought Joseph into an earlier grave than that when Moses ascended into heaven he found God making strokes at the letters of the

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law. “ Is it not customary in thy city to salute?”, themselves were guilty, while regular gossips asked the Lord. “Lord of the world,” replied spake evil of every person. Secrets were always Moses, “ may the servant salute his master?” to be respected. Calumny was not even “Then thou shouldst at least assist Me,” rejoined excusable in a student or sage, such as Doeg the the Lord. These were the strokes from which Edomite, the calumniator of David, supposed to Rabbi Akiba and his successors elicited the have been very learned, to whom Psalm 53:1,5 Halakhah. Even apparently incredible were thought to apply. The party who had statements of Rabbins, such as that God would formed a habit of this kind was in danger of in the last days make the gates of Jerusalem of being cut off from the people of God. jewels, each thirty cubits square, that women The Talmud speaks also of “the dust of would conceive and bear in one day, etc., were calumny,” or conduct which leads to calumny. to be implicitly believed. The danger of this sin, which stands next to On the other hand, all untruth, even by way of murder, incest, and idolatry, may be gathered joke, was to be avoided, except when spoken from the fate of the spies whom Moses sent into “for the sake of peace,” when it was not only Palestine. God generally punished it with lawful, but even duty. Thus, an ugly and leprosy, as in the case of Moses' sister. Those disagreeable bride might be praised before her who listen to calumny are equally guilty (Exo. intended as being beautiful, clever, pious, etc. 22:31; 23:1), as fingers and earlaps are Falsehood, for the sake of gain, was like provided to enable us to shut our ears against idolatry. Promises were to be inviolable, and all backbiters. oaths were to be made in the sense in which Jeroboam had been admitted to parity with the others were likely to understand them. kings of Judah (Hos. 1:1), because he had not As vows, however rashly made, were strictly listened to calumnies about Amos (Amos binding, all vowing was disapproved. The term 7:10,11), while the kingdom of David was Amen indicated either an oath, an assent, or a divided in consequence of this sin (2 Sam. confirmation. Flattery was one of the greatest 19:29). It was, of course, more heinous if and most dangerous sins. To punish a want of committed against the sages, who ought to be faithfulness, God, in answer to the praised by every person. expostulations of justice, recalled the merciful Light or indecent conversation led to various passing by of His people in Ezek. 9:4, and trials (Isa. 9:17), as, for example, the loss of ordered the work of destruction to begin at His children while they were still young. Even the saints (ver. 6). most trivial conversation will form subject of To deceive even a heathen by word or deed was inquiry in the day of judgment (Amos 4:13). strictly forbidden. So far was scrupulosity here Delicacy and kindliness were amongst the most carried, that it was held to be wrong to invite to sacred duties.. To affront another was almost dinner, or to offer a present, where it was equal to the sin of murdering him. It was one of known that it would not be accepted. One the three sins: adultery, using hard words to witness could only give private information our neighbor, and offending him which entailed against a person, and even then incurred a the punishment of hell, and which in such cases danger similar to that of Joseph, who had will never cease. accused his brethren both of having eaten flesh An eminent example of delicacy was Tamar, cut out of living animals, of having reproached who, not to put her father-in-law to shame, only the sons of Bilhah and of Zilpah, and also of sent him his staff and ring. In general, having sinned with the heathen maids of the talkativeness was a sign of low breeding. As all country. For these denunciations he himself conversation was either wholly detrimental, or afterwards suffered analogous punishments. partly useful and partly detrimental, or neither It was thought that people generally accused useful nor detrimental, or wholly useful, three- their neighbors of the faults of which they fourths of all common talk ought to be wholly

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dispensed with, “When two persons quarrel, walking with his eyes closed; the Pharisee with one of them at least is of low origin,” was a the drooping head, as if he were not to see what common and not untrue saying. Besides actual was going on in the world; the Pharisee who ill-usage, all hatred, cursing, revenge, and sounded his own merits; the Pharisee from a bearing of grudges were interdicted. desire for future rewards; and the Pharisee It was declared to be better to suffer from fear of future punishments. persecution than to persecute. Excessive The possession of children being looked upon merriment also might lead to sin, and even on as one of the most desirable blessings, it was joyous occasions mirth should be tempered; considered that matrimony without issue hence, when at a marriage one of the sages was should be dissolved; but male descendants asked to sing, he complied only by reminding were the great object of desire. It was said that the company of death; while another Rabbi, on the Bible had employed different expressions a similar occasion, purposely broke a splendid (1 Kings 11:21) to intimate the death of David vase. Especially when going to prayer or to and that of Joab, because the one left sons and study, all talk and laughter should be avoided. the other not. Unmitigated indulgence towards These exercises required a composed and children could only have evil consequences, as happy frame of spirit. On feast days half the in the case of Ishmael, who, in his fifteenth year, time was to be spent in study, and the other half had brought an idol into Abraham's house, so in prayer and amusements. that Sarah had to insist on the removal of so God hath in His law given Israel 613 dangerous a companion to Isaac. On the other commandments (365 commandments, hand, learning was to be encouraged, not only according to the number of days in a solar year, on its own account, but as conferring merit on and 248 forbids, according to the number of the those who had taken part in the upbringing of a members of the body) in order to make them sage. Neither trouble nor sacrifices were spared happy. These laws David had reduced to eleven to attain the desired result. The duties of (Psalm 15), Isaiah to six (Isa. 33:15), Micah to children towards their parents were of no less three (Mic. 6:8), again Isaiah to two (Isa. 56:1), importance than those towards God, provided and Amos and Habakkuk each to one (Amos obedience involved no sin; hence the fifth 5:4; Hab. 2:4). The different ordinances had not commandment was placed on the first table, always a reason attached to them, as such which detailed the duties towards God. specifications might have led even good men to During the first year after a parent's death, the break them, under the impression that the children were to pray, “Let all the punishments grounds of the law did not apply to them. From due to him come upon me.” Afterwards the such views Solomon had neglected two deceased should be spoken of as “ of blessed warnings in Deut. 17:16,17. memory.” Even heathens received reward for If only the letter of the law were obeyed, the this virtue. Any injury should be borne by motives were of smaller importance, as children with patience and meekness, and continued practice would at last lead to proper every respect shown to parents. A Rabbi motives.' A pietism intended merely to gain the distinguished himself by serving every morning esteem of men was despicable. In this respect as footstool to his aged mother; another is the revulsion of feeling from the overweening mentioned as having agreed successively to her estimate attached in the days of the Savior, to various extravagant demands. the utter contempt of the Pharisees manifested Marriages were supposed to be arranged in at a later period, is remarkable. The Talmud heaven; and forty days before the birth of a caricatures seven kinds of Pharisees : the child it was there announced to whom he or she Pharisee “like the inhabitants of Sychem,” for was to be wedded. The marriage relation filthy lucre; the Pharisee who walked slowly by should be entered between eighteen and way of looking grave; the Pharisee who twenty; but these ties did not prevent the knocked his head against the wall through zealous student from prosecuting his studies.

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The policy of second marriages was considered reception of pilgrims, and that, while partaking doubtful. An unmarried person was without of the refreshment set before them, he had any good (Gen. 2:18), without joy (Deut. 14:26), taught them to call upon the Lord. Strangers without blessing (Ezek. 44:30), without were to be kindly received and provided with protection (Jer. 31:22), without peace (Job all necessaries, both while under the roof of 5:24), and could not properly be called a man their host and when departing. Next to (Gen. 5:2). hospitality was charity, a virtue incumbent In the choice of a wife regard should be paid to even on those who themselves were the her family, as daughters generally imitated recipients of it. The relief of the poor conferred their fathers, and sons their maternal uncles. rewards in this life and in that which is to come. The most prized connection was that with the Thus when Rabbi Akiba had spent four family of a sage, or at least with that of a ruler thousand pieces of gold belonging to Rabbi of a synagogue, of the president of a poor's Tarphon, which he had taken on pretence of board, or of a teacher of youth. Connection with buying a piece of ground for him, for behalf of the unlettered could only be allowed if the the poor, he replied to his expostulations by wealth so acquired were to be devoted to assist reminding him of Ps. 112;9. In illustration of the sage in his studies. It was observed that God this duty, it was said that, as the proprietor who formed women neither out of the head, lest she let his fields to farmers expected at least part of should become proud; nor out of the eye, lest the produce, so God also expected a return from she should lust; nor out of the ear, lest she us, whom He for a time had entrusted with should be curious; nor out of the mouth, lest what properly belonged to Him. In giving she should be talkative; nor out of the heart, charity, relatives were, of course, to be first least she should be jealous; nor out of the hand, remembered. Poor persons were to be assisted lest she should be covetous; nor out of the foot, according to their former stations. Hence Hillel lest she should gad about : but out of the rib, once provided a horse for a pauper, while which was always covered. Improper marriages another Rabbi, under similar circumstances, from lust, for beauty, or for money were sent fowls and old wine. strongly condemned, and described as leading To provide for orphans, and especially for to wretchedness. orphan girls, was an important duty, which The husband is bound not only to honour and even in this life often met with deserved love, but to treat his wife with courtesy: her reward. Thus Eleazar of Bartotha, who was so tears call down Divine vengeance. In general, he liberal that the parochial officers used to avoid is to spend less than his means warrant for him, as he distributed beyond his means, had food, up to his means for his own clothing, and given away the whole of his daughter's portion, beyond that limit for that of his wife and except one measure of wheat, when his barn children. As woman is formed from a rib, and was again miraculously filled. Great delicacy man from the ground, man seeks a wife, and not should characterize every act of charity, lest the vice versa; he only seeks what he has lost. This feelings of the recipients be wounded. Money also explains why man is more easily reconciled should be lent to those who would not accept of than woman; he is made of soft earth, and she it otherwise, and even untruths might be of hard bone. A woman should abstain from all resorted to in order to overcome the scruples of appearance of evil, immodesty or impropriety; the poor. A duty of greater importance than she should always meet her husband cheerfully, even the bestowal of charity, was that of the cleanly, and kindly, receive his friends with redemption of captive Jews. politeness and affability, and be obedient and To visit the sick was to imitate the Lord, who respectful. had Himself visited Abraham and buried Moses. Hospitality was a duty much prized amongst This duty was the more obligatory as each the Hebrews. It was thought that Abraham had visitor was supposed to carry away a small part planted the tamarisk at Beersheba for the of the disease. Thus Akiba personally tended a

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neglected sage, and thereby contributed to his In Galilee the mourners were accustomed to recovery. It was thought the Divine Majesty walk before the bier, announcing the good rested at the head of the sickbed. A kindred deeds of the departed; in Judea they followed it. duty was to bury the dead, to accompany them A roll of the Law was also carried before the to their last resting-place, and, if they had not bier or laid upon the coffin, to indicate that the left male issue, to act as mourner. So sacred was departed had obeyed its behests, and that study this as to take precedence of all the other had been his chief occupation. commandments. It should be performed in a As Joseph had fulfilled the last offices to the manner respectful to the dead, the more so as patriarch Jacob, his bones were allowed to the body retained consciousness until it had accompany the ark into the Land of Promise. become wholly putrid. The Haggadists related that Joseph's coffin had Some added that the bodies of sages crumbled been lowered by the superstitious Egyptians to dust only one hour before God again raised into the Nile, to ensure its yearly overflow, but them. Death, which set free from the ills of life, that at the command •of Moses the coffin had was not to be dreaded as a calamity. All the risen of its own accord. While the regular acquaintances of the deceased were to take part funeral orations for sages were sometimes in the mourning, especially if he had been a delivered in the synagogues, the lecture-rooms sage, whose loss was felt by his whole remained closed for some days, and orations generation. Funeral orations were commonly were delivered at the grave. delivered by some Rabbi, who dilated on the To die without having become very emaciated, good qualities of the departed, who was without weeping, or looking to heaven or into supposed to listen to the oration, and to notice the room (not to the wall), on a Friday (not its effects upon the hearers. Examples of such Saturday), immediately after the Day of addresses, or at least an abstract of them, are Atonement (not before it), were all deemed left us. The following may be taken as a favorable indications. After death every person specimen, probably, of the peroration : “The was supposed to be welcomed by three palm-trees bend their tops for the departure of divisions of angels. Mourners were to be the godly; for he was like one of them. Let us comforted, not by pointing out the necessity of mourn for him both by day and by night, even submitting, but by referring to the fact that all as his days and his nights were solely devoted the Lord's dealings were for good, and that too to study.” much sorrow could only entail upon the At the funeral of R. Chanan, who, on the day of mourner other trials. Mourners were not to be his decease, became a father for the first time, it first accosted by their visitors, who were to sit was said, “The day of joy became one of sorrow. in silence, from time to time making such Delight and grief went hand in hand. Sighing Haggadic applications of Scripture as seemed came in the season of his joy, and he departed suitable. on the day of receiving the favor for which he The Torah, or Divine Law, had existed before had longed.” creation, and had served as the plan and model It was thought that certain portents upon which God had framed His world. Seven accompanied the death of eminent sages. things (the last five only ideally) existed before Legend had it, that on one occasion the gates of the world, the Torah, the throne of God, a city shed tears; that on another blood flowed penitence, paradise, hell, the temple, and the from the pipes of a city, or that the stars name of the Messiah. As the world was only became visible in the daytime; that trees were created for the sake of the Torah, it was, of rooted up, red-hot stones fell from heaven, the course, the most important object, and Israel, as statues in the streets broke in pieces, thorns its recipients, the noblest and most favored of grew upon date-trees, the walls on opposite nations. The most suitable time for study was banks of a river bent over and met, etc. the night, specially in its last watch. It was thought that David, whose harp was placed

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against his bed towards the north, so that the of the angel of death. When David knew that his north wind at midnight might wake its sounds, last day had come, he continued studying rose at that time, and, having first played sweet without interruption. At last the angel of death melodies, betook himself to the study of the succeeded in diverting his attention by rustling Torah, and that his subjects followed his among the trees of the garden, and then seized example. the happy moment to remove the pious sage. A reward was promised to those wives who Study was not to be neglected for the sake of encouraged their husbands in such occupations. prayer, as the latter was an application for For the sake of study, it was duty even to leave things temporal, while the former was directed one's family, to expose one's self to privations, towards things eternal. difficulties, and even disease, for all which the The unlettered, who by the produce of their Lord would compensate in the world to come. labor assisted the sages, would reap an eternal Worldly callings were, however, not to be reward. Every honour was to be shown to neglected, lest students should be cast upon the sages. They were to be chosen for the highest charity of others; and if only all the spare time congregational posts, their cause was to be first was dedicated to the Law, it was considered as heard in court, they were free from parochial if the whole time had been set apart for that burdens, and had a claim upon the services of purpose. A person might indeed, by worldly their fellow-citizens. Study delivered also from motives, be induced to enter on sacred studies; future punishments; and if a sage could not but if a sage used his acquirements “as a crown enter into joy, he was at least in no danger of wherewith to shine, or as a spade wherewith to the pangs of hell. Thus, when Acher died, the dig,” he not only lost his reward in the world to ministering angels declared him, on account of come, but injured his happiness on earth. his learning, free from punishment.' In the Accordingly, when on one occasion the other world, the pious and an ignorant person disclosure of his name had saved Rabbi could not be pious had mansions assigned to Tarphon from imminent death, he mourned them varying with the amount of their merit. that he had made use of his reputation for such God would crown them with refulgent crowns, a purpose. and prepare for them a splendid feast. “The The study of the Law was of greater importance spirit returning to Him who has given it,” than the preservation of a man, than the should return pure and without spot to mingle building of the temple, than the honoring of again with the eternal source from which it had parents, and conferred greater honour than at first issued. Looking upon this life as a even the mitre of the high priest. There were preparation for the future, Rabbi Jochanan ben three crowns, that of study, that of the Saccai compared it to the preparation for a priesthood, and that of worldly dominion, of royal banquet. The wise made haste and waited which the first was the most glorious. It was at the entrance of the palace for the summons duty to converse about theological subjects, and to appear, while fools, deeming the time far off, disputation was of the greatest importance. As delayed and continued at their usual occupation with theological subjects procured avocations. Suddenly the summons would be freedom from disease, so the neglect or heard, when those who were dressed for the forgetting of what had been acquired involved feast would sit down, while the rest would have various evil consequences. Hence, also, the to look on, a prey to hunger and want. merit of training pupils, and the corresponding All this, however, only referred to Messianic sin of shutting up knowledge. times, beyond which no prophet's eye had ever As the Torah was eternal as the tree of life, so pierced. Some pious persons obtained even in Israel also were never to be destroyed, and this world a glimpse of the eternal rewards. their days to be like those of the tree of life. Thus it had been ascertained that Rabbi Chija, Various illustrations of the value of learning whose peculiar merit lay in having improved were given. It could even deliver from the grasp the education of the young, stood highest in

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heaven, and was so well acquainted with it, which they had been subject on earth, which, that, unlike its other inhabitants, he was able to however, the hand of the Lord would find his way without the guidance of angels. His immediately remove. In proof, 1 Sam. 28:14 glory was so great that, when a beholder, was quoted. On the same principle of essential despite the warning of Elijah, looked at him, he identity in the risen saints, it was even thought lost his sight, which, at the intercession of Chija, that the departed would reappear in the same was again granted him during the daytime, to dress which they had worn on earth. enable him to continue his studies. Another of As God had created the world only in order to the sages had prevailed on Eliezer, Abraham's be known and reverenced, it was inferred that servant, to announce his visit to the patriarch, the fear of the Lord was the fundamental who reposed in the lap of Sarah. requirement. Without this fear, even a sage was It was, however, found impossible to bear a only like a person who had got the keys of all sight of Adam, but his heels were declared to the apartments in the house, but not that of the have resembled two suns. All the beauty of house itself. In the prosecution of studies a earth combined appeared like the face of an ape certain amount of caution was requisite. Only when compared with that of Sarah. The same very few, and these under the guidance of a comparison applied to the respective beauty of pious and experienced teacher, were to be Sarah and of Eve, and again to that of Eve and initiated in the mysteries of the “ Chariot “ Adam. Sometimes the spirits of the departed (Ezek. 1); and even then every such student acquired knowledge of what was to befall men, was to be at least forty years of age. The same and information of it might be gathered by age was requisite to warrant an attempt at overhearing their conversations, or by direct settling questions concerning the ritual. The communications from them. study of Scripture without the assistance of the The Lord reserved to Himself three wondrous traditional commentaries was wholly works : To open the womb of the barren, to interdicted to youth. send the latter rain, and to raise the dead. Repentance removed guilt, and converted sins Disbelief in the latter doctrine excluded from all committed willingly into “sins of ignorance.” It share in future bliss. The arguments in favor of even elevated the penitent to a higher position a resurrection were either derived from than that occupied by continued piety. Reuben Scripture, as from passages in which an action returned to look for Joseph in the pit into which of the departed is in the original mentioned in his brethren had cast him, after he had spent the future, and not in the past tense, as, “ Then the interval at home in the exercise of shall Moses and the children of Israel sing,” etc.; repentance, having fasted in sackcloth and or from direct statements of the prophets. ashes; hence the prophet Hosea had sprung But the argument upon which most reliance from the tribe of Reuben. In the same sense, the was placed, and which, in the mouth of Rabbi passage in Job 33;23,24, was accommodated to Gamaliel, was supposed to have silenced the penitence; and it was argued that the Sadducees, was from such unfulfilled promises intercession of one angel, thus propitiated, as Deut. 1:8, 9:9, wherein the Lord had would silence the accusations of a thousand promised to give the patriarchs the land of adversaries. Open confession was required in Canaan, a line of argument, it will be observed, the case of public offences. To pardon injuries which bears some resemblance to that adopted procured the pardon of sins, because it by our Lord Himself. indicated a humble mind; hence efforts, some say three times, should be made to bring about It was also argued by analogy, that if the Lord a reconciliation with our enemies. quickened the seed of corn buried in the ground. He would in due time deal similarly If the person offended had departed this life, a with His people. It was held that men would confession of the wrong should be made at his rise with the same infirmities and diseases to grave in the presence of ten persons. In illustration of the value of self-humiliation,

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Ahab's delayed punishment was mentioned, opinion was that on the Feast of the Passover and it was said that Cain “went out from the (the 15th of Nisan) the Lord settled about the presence of the Lord” with a joyful heart, the harvest for the ensuing year; on the Feast of half of his punishment having been remitted Pentecost, about the produce of fruit; on New upon making a confession of his crime. Year's Day (the 1st of Tishri), about the fate of Likewise Pharaoh, when almost perishing in the men; and on the Feast of Tabernacles, about the Red Sea, had made the profession (Ex. 15:11), quantity of rain during the year. The judgment “Who is like unto thee, Lord, among the gods?” of the New Year's Day commenced immediately and was hence preserved and sent to Nineveh, after the Jewish Sanhedrin had settled that the where he became king, in confirmation of Exo. new moon of Tishri had actually appeared. 9:16, “For this cause have I raised thee up, for Then the fate of Israel was first sealed, to show in thee My power; and that My name afterwards that of the other nations. may be declared throughout the earth.” Hence, In Tishri the world had been created; in that when Jonah arrived in that city, Pharaoh and month Abraham and Jacob were born and died, the inhabitants of Nineveh were ready to having thus lived out their full years. Others humble themselves before the Lord. held that these events took place in Nisan, but it Fasting was an essential element in was agreed that the 1st of Tishri was a humiliation; but in course of time, as the anti- memorable day. Sarah, Rachel, and Hannah had pharisaical tendency, to which we have alluded, been visited on that day; and on it Joseph and was developed, it became more rare, until at the children of Israel were respectively last it was almost wholly relegated amongst the delivered from their trials in Egypt. In the exercises prescribed to penitent sinners, while month of Nisan, Isaac had been born, and Israel sages were warned against its frequent led out of Egypt; the future deliverance of the practice. It was, however, in use as an expiation world was to take place in the same month. for sins, and as “ a feast of sadness “ on the To return, on the 1st of Tishri, three books were anniversary of national calamities. When any opened in heaven, in which respectively the public calamity, as famine or pestilence, deeds of perfect saints, of perfect sinners, and threatened the land, an extraordinary fast was doubtful cases were chronicled. Immediate proclaimed. Then the ark containing the roll of judgment was then passed for the year on the the Law was carried to the street and ashes put two first-named classes, while the final upon it, the head of the Synagogue and all the sentence of the third was delayed till the Day of sages fasted in sackcloth and ashes, whilst one Atonement. During that interval, penance and of their number, in an oration suited to the penitence might be of special avail. Hence the occasion, called to repentance. ten days between New Year's Day and the Day Then an old man, the father of a family, recited of Atonement should be well improved. The the daily prayers, with special intercessions and Day of Atonement, which was the anniversary selections from the Psalms. Many stories were of the second gift of the tables of the Law, was told of the power of famous Rabbins to obtain the most solemn in the year. All sins committed rain in answer to their prayers. To absent one's during the past year and repented of, were self from such solemnities involved exclusion forgiven on that day. from the consolation of Israel. As penitence Sufferings were sent partly to remind man of produced such mighty effects, and the door to it his sins, partly to invite to repentance, and to was open to all, none need despair. It was even expiate guilt. They were also meant to try the suggested that Israel had made the golden calf, godly. Under all circumstances they should be and that David had sinned with Bathsheba, meekly borne. Rabbi Jehudia suffered from merely in order to show that return to God was illness for twelve years because he refused open to every sinner. protection to a calf which had sought it at his Some Rabbins held that the Lord judged men feet. For a corresponding act of kindness, he every day and every hour; but the general was afterwards restored. It was remarked that,

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during the whole time of Rabbi Eleazar's Nebuchadnezzar was sent to bring back the sufferings, every person had attained a good old letter, but he had only gone four steps when the age, and that the rain had never been withheld messenger, who had been stopped by Gabriel, during Jehudia's illness, such was the value of returned. It was also said that when Nebuzar- the sufferings of the pious sages, for whose sake Adan entered the temple, he saw the blood of alone God had created the world. the murdered prophet Zacharias continually The humiliation of pious Hezekiah, and of boiling. To propitiate the manes of the Israel, had led to the destruction of the vast departed, he successively killed the members of host of Sennacherib, which had marched ten the Sanhedrin and the noblest Jews. But by and days' journey in one day in order to surprise by he became conscious of the magnitude of his Jerusalem. It was laid low in one night; it is own guilt, who had slaughtered so many Jews, variously asserted by the hand of the Lord, by and immediately became a proselyte. Had not His finger, by the sword, or by the breath of the ministering angels expostulated, some of Gabriel; by terror occasioned on hearing the Nebuchadnezzar's posterity would have clapping of his hands, or the song of the living become ornaments of the religion which their creatures in heaven. The Haggadists related ancestor sought to destroy. curious stories about this deliverance, and Wherever Israel's lot was cast, if they were only about Sennacherib and Nebuchadnezzar. It was faithful to their God, they would be protected asserted that of all the host only five escaped, against their enemies; while, on the other hand, Nebuzar-Adan, Nebuchadnezzar, and their sin would quickly find them out. Thus, Sennacherib, with his two sons. when the spies sent by Moses into the land on In order to disguise himself, and so to escape the 29th of Sivan, returned after forty days' the vengeance of the princes whose relatives absence on the 8th of Ab with their false report, had fallen, Sennacherib cut off his hair and Israel wept all night to the 9th of Ab; beard. But when on the water a terrible storm accordingly that day became ever afterwards a overtook the party, the sight of a floating board fatal day in their history. If the sins which led to then reminded Sennacherib of the ark of Noah, the destruction of the first temple were fearful, on whose God he now called, vowing, if they had at least been acknowledged. Hence the delivered, to sacrifice one of his sons. The lad first captivity was limited to seventy years; but overheard his father, and accordingly resolved as the sins which induced the ruin of the second on the death of his parent (2 Kings 19:37). temple are not mentioned, so Israel's captivity Nebuchadnezzar obtained the throne for having also is indefinite. However, the Lord, it was walked four steps for the glory of the God of thought, had been very reluctant to destroy the Israel. When godless Ahaz died, the day was temple, and comforted the patriarch Abraham, shortened by ten hours to prevent any who interceded for his children, by the promise mourning for him, while ten hours had been (Jer. 11:16) that Israel was to be “ a green olive added to the day of Hezekiah's restoration to tree, fair and of goodly fruit.” From Isa. 33:7 it health. Wondering at this marvelous was inferred that even the angels wept over the prolongation of a day. King Merodach-Baladau, desolation of the sanctuary; and from Isa. 42:1 who had been informed of its occasion, sent to 4, that the Lord Himself had ever since congratulate Hezekiah in a letter, which mourned, and only engaged in teaching commenced, “ Peace to King Hezekiah, peace to children who had died in infancy (Isa. 28:9). the city of Jerusalem, and peace to the great But dark as any former period may have been God,” etc. to Israel, the darkest was yet to come, in the The king's secretary, Nebuchadnezzar, had days which are to precede the advent of the been absent when the letter was written and Messiah. Then there would be a famine of the dispatched, but afterwards successfully Word; for three successive years wretchedness remonstrated with his master because the would follow wretchedness, and at last truth name of the Lord had not been put foremost. and righteousness would perish from the earth;

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the daughter would rise against her mother, the four cups, to eat two eggs, etc., was deemed son against his father, and infidelity would unlucky. Some persons could exercise occupy the thrones of the world and spread supernatural powers, which were to be again amongst its nations. It was thought that Rome counteracted by magical formulas. It was would fall and be raised, then fall again to rise deemed unlucky to pass between dogs, no more. Then would Messiah come. But in between date-trees, pigs, serpents, and women, those days the very coffins in Palestine would or to eat under the shadow of a tree, especially be dug up to serve for mangers to the horses of of a date-tree. Evil spirits dwelt amongst caper the Persian army, and the palm-trees would not bushes, but as these spirits were blind, it was be sufficient for posts to the horses of the comparatively easy to eschew them. Medes. Other spirits frequented waste places and The period of Messiah's coming may be ruined houses. To comb one's hair without hastened by Israel's return unto the Lord, having first dried it, to drink the drops from a according to the Scripture statement, “To-day, if bucket, and to put on shoes without having ye will hear My voice.” After the troubles of the properly dried the feet; to cut the nails or the latter day, God will recall His banished; earth hair, or to be bled without washing after it, will be renovated, many of the heathen be were supposed dangerous. However, evil spirits converted, and Israel be at peace with God. On which did mischief might be cited before the the morning of the day of Israel's deliverance, Jewish tribunals, and forced to give God will prepare a great feast for all the pious compensation. It was thought dangerous to go departed, and after it the cup will be offered to into an empty lecture-room, because the angel Abraham to pronounce over it the customary of death kept his armory there. blessing. But Abraham will return it, as having In outward demeanor the sages were to be begotten wicked Ishmael, so will Isaac on distinguished from the common people. They account of Esau, Jacob on account of his were neither to go forth perfumed, nor with marriage with two sisters, Moses on account of patched shoes, nor alone at night; they were not his sin, and Joshua as not having left a male to talk with women in the street, nor to appear descendant; but David will take it and say, “I late in a lecture-room, nor to hold intercourse will take the cup of salvation, and call upon the with ignorant people. They were to be cleanly name of the Lord.” and neatly attired, and to walk slowly and A number of vague superstitions were afloat modestly, avoiding, however, the mock pietism amongst the people. Thus superstitious views which had at one time constituted the were entertained about the influence of distinguishing mark of spiritual superiority. A outward things upon the mind. Thus, that to eat sage was allowed full discretion when to speak of that which mice had touched, or of the heart the truth and when to tell a lie. He was in every of an ox, or too many olives; to drink of that respect to conduct himself in a manner which had been left from the ablution of the becoming his dignity, and to be treated by hands; or to wash the feet with the one foot others accordingly. crossing the other; or to place the garments To yield to passion, or to indulge in anger, under the head at night, was thought to impair deprived a sage of his wisdom (as in the cases the memory. On the other hand, to eat wheaten of Moses and Elisha), and involved grievous bread, soft-boiled eggs without salt, to drink punishments. It was on this ground that David's pure oil, well-spiced wine, water left from that elder brother Eliab, who had been angry with which had been destined for kneading dough; David, was deprived of the throne, which or to dip one's finger first in water, then in salt, otherwise he and not David would have tended to strengthen the memory. occupied. For the sake of peace, Gentile paupers Again, the number two was under the special were to be allowed to share with the Jews in the rule of Ashmedai the prince of spirits, and charities of the harvest season; and in order to consequently highly dangerous. To drink two or promote mutual goodwill, it was right to inform

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the recipient of a gift of the name of the donor. Poetry and Music Examples of the exercise of charity are very The religious tendency which gave to Jewish numerous among the Jewish sages. Another social life its peculiar aspect, exercised a virtue of great merit was humility, which marked influence upon the progress of conciliated the favor of God and men. However, literature and art in Palestine. a little pride was not only allowable, but even [It was impossible to resist the continuous necessary in a Rabbi. advance of Greek culture; and in order to In the full and faithful picture of Jewish life preserve their national religion and character, which we have attempted to present, amidst the Rabbins were compelled to raise artificial much punctiliousness and externality, many barriers between themselves and their Gentile, things truly good, noble, and great will have neighbors. The principal means to the desired been observed. In truth, the spirit of the Old end was the multiplication of legal regulations Testament had pervaded the nation, and cast and restrictions, which formed a constant Jewish social life in its mould. What was hindrance to free intercourse with the heathen. spiritual in that economy what referred to Even familiarity with the writings of the great things unseen and eternal had become poets and thinkers of antiquity was regarded bedimmed. But what was external and all the with suspicion, and literature and art were left relations between man and man were to develop themselves on purely national lines. preserved. Only that here also the externality of But the same religious earnestness which Rabbinism confined the life-blood till it almost despised the attractions of Hellenistic learning, stood still. The impulse of the heart of Judaism were unfavorable to a real interest in literature was feeble, its arteries had almost become and culture for their own sakes. Zeal for ossified. The blood improperly propelled, religion was the primary motive for the returned sluggishly through the social system Palestinian writers of our period, and we find to its fountainhead. Still it circulated. What a that nearly all the literary productions which contrast is that presented by the social state survive are made to serve some moral or and the virtues of the Hebrew race, and the religious purpose.] dissoluteness and moral disorganization of all Unfortunately our materials are more scanty other nations at the time ! than could have been wished. In the pages of It will also have been noticed that often the the Talmud we can only look for incidental views and even the words of the Rabbins notices, which require to be connected, closely approach those enunciated in the pages arranged, and interpreted. Yet sufficient may be of the New Testament. The reverent and careful gathered to form a tolerably correct notion of student of history will not hastily infer from the intellectual life of the period over which our this that either party had borrowed from the record extends. other. He will rather conclude that both had It is remarkable that Palestine has never drawn from the same source, and gathered up produced any distinguished painters or the gems of Divine truth with which the Jewish sculptors. Whether the genius of the Old commonwealth was even in its most Testament was averse to the development of degenerate times so richly studded. Only we arts, which might so readily be engaged in the must be allowed to add that the one polished service of idolatry or of lust, or whether the and presented them in their proper setting as a prejudices of the Rabbins operated against all crown of glory, while the others buried them attempts at representation, certain it is, that not amidst a mass of rubbish, from which only the only at that period, but even to our own days, search of the antiquarian, or the restlessness of painting and sculpture have not been cultivated spiritual traffic in merit, could rescue them. amongst the Jews. The dwellings of the rich Chapter 10 – Progress of Arts and Sciences were indeed decorated with works of art, but among the Hebrews their introduction was one of those foreign innovations which indicated an assimilation

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with heathen manners and modes of thinking. It makes a great noise.” “Do not throw a stone was otherwise with those arts which more into the well from which you have drunk.” especially are the exponents of thought and “With the measure with which a man metes feeling. Poetry and music have always been shall others mete to him.” “In three ways you favorite engagements with Israel; and from the may learn to know a man, at the cup, in money period of biblical times to our own days, Jews transactions, and when he is angry.” “Let the have distinguished themselves by a depth and lord of the vineyard come and root up his originality peculiarly their own, and peculiarly thorns.” “Everyone who humbleth himself is expressive of their national mental exalted by God, and he that exalteth himself is characteristics. Even when the dry logic and the humbled.” “To make an elephant go through the theological wrangling of the schools seemed to eye of a needle.” have absorbed the intellectual efforts of the Of the regular collections of proverbs and nation, the poetic sentiments found an sententious sayings, we mention the work of utterance in their songs of praise, in their Jesus ben Sirach, a treatise in the Mishnah, prayers, and in the unfettered compositions of entitled “ The Sayings of the Fathers,” and the the Haggadists. sayings of Rabbi Nathan. The “ Wisdom of Jesus The poetry of popular common sense is the son of Sirach” (about 190 B.C.) is a embodied in the peculiar proverbs current in a collection of proverbial sayings, originally country. Every nation has more or less of these, written in Hebrew, but soon translated into indicating both the aspects of common life and Aramean, and so largely interpolated that the popular mode of viewing them. Sometimes Jewish authorities distinguished between the these proverbs are more scientifically good and the worthless in the Babylonian elaborated into similes, collections, sententious collection. In its Greek translation (made by the sayings or maxims, parallels, and fables. The grandson of Ben Sira) the work is still extant at latter form the point of transition into more least in part amongst the Old Testament regular poetry. An abstraction from common Apocrypha. One of the most interesting life, clad in poetic and concise language, such is passages in it is the hymn, probably the writer's the proverb. Of these the Hebrews, who united own composition, which he represents as being dry humor, the faculty of viewing and sung at the close of the Day of Atonement, after presenting things as they are, with readiness of the high priest's blessing had been pronounced expression, possessed a large number. Some of (ch. 1. 22-24). them are similar to Arabic proverbs, others “Now, therefore, bless ye the God of all. Who occur in the New Testament. We mention a few alone doeth wondrous works everywhere; Who on which the reader may make his own exalteth our days from the womb, And deals comments : “Sell your goods as long as the dust with us according to His mercy. He grants is on your feet.” “People say to a wasp : We joyfulness of heart. neither want your honey nor your sting.” “Have And that peace may be in Israel in our days for you poured out water, add to it meal.” “All kinds ever ! That He would confirm His mercy to us, of wood give no peculiar sound in burning, And deliver us in His own time.” except thorns, which in crackling say : We also are wood.” “Even if a peasant becomes a king he From their antiquity and contents, the proverbs will carry the basket on his back.” “A handful of Ben Sira are amongst the most precious does not satisfy a lion, and a hole cannot be relics handed down to us. The Talmud contains filled up with the earth dug out of it.” “The fox frequent quotations from them, which do not does not die in his lair.” “If you have not made generally agree exactly with those in our Greek preparation on the eve of the Sabbath, on what version; it also states that certain Rabbis will you dine during the Sabbath? “ “Physician, interdicted the use of the work, but this heal thyself.” “A cure without fee is generally prohibition does not seem ever to have been worth no fee.” “A little coin in an empty bottle really observed. The “alphabet of Ben Sira” is a

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small production of much less interest, and of a Each one deserves to perish later date. Who study does not cherish; Besides the proverb in the stricter sense, the That man shall surely fade Mashal, or proverbial poetry, included all Who with his crown does trade. sententious sayings, parables, and fables. If the symbol was given without the morale, it was a It has already been indicated that both “Chidda,” or riddle; if the morale only, it was a proverbs and maxims were frequently maxim; if introduced or followed by an introduced by the sages into their lectures by imaginary narrative, it was either a fable or a way of illustration, and to enliven the Haggadic tale. The Talmudists tried to connect monotony of logical abstraction. Specially their Meshalim with scriptural expressions or telling were the parables and fables, which texts. Sometimes a definite number of subjects Haggadists intertwined with their comments. were grouped under a common attribute. Thus it was said that when Noah came to plant “Three persons the Lord blessed be His name ! his vineyard, Satan joined him, and asked, loves : him who gives not place to anger, who “What are you planting?” He replied, “A avoids intoxication, and who does not persist in vineyard.” “ For what purpose? “ rejoined Satan. his own will.” “Three persons He hates : him “Its fruits,” answered the patriarch, “are sweet, who utters one thing with his mouth, and whether used fresh or dried, and wine is made another in his heart; him who, being able to do from them, which rejoices the heart” (Ps. so, forbears to testify in favor of his neighbor; 104:15). “Then shall we two work at it and him who, perceiving something improper together,” observed the enemy. Noah in his friend, is the only one to bear testimony consented; but the wily deceiver now brought a of it.” “Three things are bad in abundance, but lamb, a lion, a pig, and a monkey, successively good in moderation : leaven, salt, and killed them, and caused the vineyard to be obstinacy.” saturated with their blood. At other times the sentences are more And now before a man commences to drink, he antithetic, as “The more flesh, the more worms; is simple like a lamb; when he has drunk in The more riches, the more care; The more measure, he becomes like a lion, and says, “ wives, the more witchcraft,” etc, Who is like me in all the world? “ If he continues to drink, he becomes like a pig, wallowing in all In other proverbs, by a series of comparative manner of filth; and ultimately like an ape, gradations, a climax was ultimately reached, as jumping about, garrulous, full of uncleanness, “ It is beautiful that one be learned, it is doubly and not knowing what he does. We can only beautiful if he be learned and of good descent; select one or two of the smaller fables by way of but if of good descent and unlearned, let the fire illustration. “A cock and an owl awaited the devour him.” Sometimes the point of the Mashal dawn in company. Said the cock, The light is of lay in punning upon the words, or in antithetic use to me, but what can it profit thee?” lines in rhymes, as “The tail of the serpent had reproved the head TO A SKULL FLOATING ON THE WATER. because it always took precedence. Let me Because thou madest float, have it for once,' demanded the tail. The wish They made thee float was no sooner uttered than granted. But, alas ! In turn who made thee float the new guide successively precipitated the serpent into the water, into the fire, and into Shall also float. “ or thorns. Whence all these accidents, but because “ Each one who seeks a name the head took its direction from the tail? So, as Shall only lose his fame; long as the small take their direction from the Who adds not to his lore great, God grants them their desires; whenever Shall lose it more and more; this process is reversed, they fall backwards.”

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“When the iron was created, the trees all so as to embrace all who shared the same trembled. ' Why tremble? ' asked the iron : ' let hopes, and unmingled joy characterized the no wood from you join itself to me, and none of intercourse. On occasions like these the hymn you will suffer any damage.” found its proper place, and few as these relics Rabbi Meir was peculiarly distinguished for his of temple times are, they sufficiently indicate apt fables. As amongst the contemporary the relation to which we have referred. We will theologians were two Indian proselytes, his not expect them to breathe a purely devotional three hundred fables about the fox may have spirit. They are rather the social songs of a been somewhat akin to similar Indian happy brotherhood congregated on festive compositions. We hear also of the proverbs of occasions. Eleazar and of Rabbi bar Mare, and of One of the happiest seasons was the Feast of Palestinian proverbs and songs quoted by Rab Tabernacles, which occurred five days after the Dune. In the Meshalic class of compositions we Day of Atonement, and lasted uninterruptedly may also rank some of the Old Testament for a full week, and was followed by an eighth- Apocrypha, and a work entitled “The Book of day of special solemnity, which, indeed, was Secrets,” or “…of the Pious,” apparently often regarded as a separate festival. On this containing the sayings of R. Isa ben Jehuda, of occasion, which equally commemorated Israel's which only a few fragments are preserved. The stay in the wilderness, and the goodness of the “Aboth” of Rabbi Nathan is followed in the Lord in granting year by year of the fruits of the ordinary editions of the Babylonian Talmud by land, which had newly been ingathered, the three small treatises, of which the first contains people lived in booths, constructed generally of rules for ordinary conduct; the second, ethics branches of fruit-trees, from many of which for sages; and the third, a laudation of peace. their rich clusters still depended. The Passing from the didactic to lyrical poetry, the worshippers, lately purified from sin, kept this Shir, song, claims our special attention. Of the as a feast of thanksgiving. Arrayed in festive profane or secular song hardly any fragments garments, carrying in one hand a citron, and in remain, but various allusions in Jewish the other the “Lulabh,” or palm-branch, literature prove that at weddings and other intertwined with willows and myrtle, the occasions the song formed part of the worshippers appeared daily in the temple. entertainment; but if the common Shir was less Every morning, before the customary sacrifice, known amongst the Hebrews, the sacred song a priest drew from the pool of Siloam water or hymn had, under the guidance of scriptural into a golden pitcher, capable of containing example, early attained a place of eminence. three logs. Amidst the sound of trumpets he Not only the hymn of praise, but many portions entered the temple through the water-gate, and of the regular prayers of the synagogue breathe poured the water into one of the two silver the spirit of the purest, truest, and most bowls by the side of the altar of burnt-offering. elevated poetry. The songs of praise in general Into the other bowl, at the same time, another use in the synagogue were those poetic priest poured the wine of the drink-offering, portions of Scripture which have always which, like the water, flowed into a receptacle formed the groundwork of this exercise to the under the altar, destined to receive drink- Church. But the Hebrew festivals were festivals offerings. Louder than the sound of the Levites' in the truest sense. instruments was the voice of praise, or the call Not confined to certain ceremonies in the for mercy and deliverance. In the evening of the temple or synagogue, the day or week was first day a religious feast was celebrated. After spent in festive enjoyment and festive the evening sacrifice, announced by the communication with God and Israel. Each customary nine blasts from the trumpets of the individual or family confined not its religious priests, the people congregated in the court of enjoyments to the hours of worship, or even to the women, the men below, the women upon the narrow circle of the family. It was enlarged balconies all around. Immense golden

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candelabra, each with four branches, gave their meters first appear in the poetry of the tenth light; and on four ladders, one beside each century.] branch to feed the flame, youthful priests were From the Shir we naturally pass to the placed. The glare of that light shed its Tephillah or prayer. Properly, prayer was brightness over the city beneath, and every considered the spontaneous effusion of the court in Jerusalem was lit up by the flame in the soul, called forth by a sense of immediate wants temple. or experienced blessings. The measures taken, The worthiest and most pious (called “ the men perhaps soon after the time of Ezra, for the of deed “) danced before the people, and swung celebration, of public worship throughout the and threw up the torches in their hands. The land, and the regulation of the temple-service, music of the harp, of the cymbal, and of the were the first steps towards a liturgy, which at psaltery, of flutes and of trumpets, resounded first consisted probably in traditionally from the courts of the sanctuary. On the fifteen preserved prayers of sages and leaders of steps which led to the court of the women, congregational devotions (the “ Sheliach,” stood Levites, who, with their instruments, “angelos,” or messenger of the congregation). accompanied those hymns. They were afterwards committed to writing, Such are some of the interesting relics of and gradually became the nucleus of the temple-days and temple-usages which have present Jewish prayer-book. In this liturgy been preserved. It is scarcely necessary to state about fifty fragments belonging to the that, as in Scripture, so in early Jewish poetry, Talmudical period are incorporated. neither definite and continued meter, nor The oldest, which certainly date from before regular and premeditated rhyme, must be the Christian era, comprise the confessions of sought. As it was composed for song, a certain the high priest on the Day of Atonement, the meter no doubt must have been observed, but it arrangement of the “ Shema,” its three was rather that of thought, the unfettered, accompanying prayers, and six of what are immediate outpouring of the soul, than the called the eighteen eulogies. The high-priestly measured step to which we have been confessions on the great fast were successively accustomed. for himself, for his household, for the priests, [It is true that Josephus and some of the Fathers and for the people. Turning towards the most assert that the poetry of the Old Testament is holy place, and laying his hands on the bullock written in meters similar to those employed by which stood between the altar and the porch of the poets of Greece and Rome. But we cannot the temple, he pronounced the first, which in accept their testimony without reservation; and substance is similar to all others. “Alas, O in some cases, at any rate, it seems clear that Jehovah ! I have committed iniquity, I have the writer was thinking merely of general transgressed, I have sinned before Thee, I and resemblances, and did not intend his words to my house. Alas, Jehovah ! atone for the be understood too literally. Nor have the iniquities, the transgressions and the sins attempts of various modern scholars, to find in which I have committed and sinned before the Psalms and in some old post-biblical poetry Thee, I and my house, as it is written in the law a fully developed metrical system, been of Moses Thy servant : For on that day will he hitherto regarded as successful. No doubt in the atone for you to make you clean, from all your Hebrew fragments of Ben Sira we find several transgressions shall ye before Jehovah be examples of couplets where the lines end in cleansed.” rhymes or contain an equal number of syllables. Again, after he had tied a strip of red wool A similar transition to the use of rhyme and round the head of the scape-goat, and another meter is found in Pseudo-Sirach and many round the neck of the goat to be sacrificed, he Rabbinic proverbs. Yet the Talmud does not turned the former towards the east gate, contain a single metrical poem, and regular whence it was to be led forth, and laid his hands upon the head of the bullock, confessing the

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sins of the sons of Aaron. Legend had it that the The only really fixed form of daily prayer was a voice of confession was heard even as far as collection of passages constituting a kind of Jericho. In response there rose the praises of confession of faith (termed the “Shema” from the people, who, when the high priest the first word occurring in it), which every pronounced the ineffable name of Jehovah, fell Israelite was to repeat morning and evening. It on their faces and exclaimed, “ Blessed be the consisted of Deut. 6:4-9; 11:13-21; Num. 15:37- name of the glory of His kingdom for ever and 41, and was in the morning preceded by two ever.” Though pronounced ten times on that and succeeded by one, and in the evening both solemn day, yet the voice of praise and the preceded and succeeded by two prayers, which, sound of priests' instruments concealed the although considerably enlarged, are still in use. mysterious name from priest and layman. We quote them, omitting all later additions as Then the high priest slew the bullock, caught its probably in use at the time of our Lord. blood in a vase, and caused it to be stirred by an Before the Shema morn and evening' attendant. Having put fire into a golden censer, “ Blessed art Thou, Lord, King of the world. and incense into a spoon, he rapidly advanced Who formest the light and Greatest to the Ark of the Covenant, placing the censer darkness. Who makest peace and createst between its staves, and put the incense on the everything; Who in mercy givest light to the coals. A second and a third time he entered with earth and to those who dwell upon it, and in the blood of the bullock, and then with that of Thy goodness renewest day by day, and the goat, and sprinkled the Ark once above and continually, the works of creation. Blessed seven times below. In the same manner he be the Lord our God for the glory of His sprinkled the curtain, and then, mingling the handiworks, and for the light-giving lights blood of the sacrifices, the Golden Altar and its which He hath made for His praise. Selah ! horns. He then confessed over the scape-goat Blessed be the Lord, Who hath formed the the sins of the people. lights!” At the close of the service he prayed, “May it Subjecting the second prayer to the same please Thee, Lord our God, and the God of our criticism, we read it : fathers, that neither this day nor during this “ With great love hast Thou loved us, Lord year any captivity come upon us; yet if captivity our God, and with much overflowing pity befall us this day or this year, let it be to a place hast Thou pitied us. Our Father and our where the Law is cultivated. May it please Thee, King, for the sake of our fathers who trusted Lord our God, and the God of our fathers, that in Thee, and Thou taughtest them the no want come upon us either this day or this statutes of life, have mercy upon us, and year; but if want visit us this day or this year, let enlighten our eyes in Thy Law; cause our it be due to the liberality of our charitable hearts to cleave to Thy commandments; deeds. May it please Thee, Lord our God, and unite our hearts to love and fear Thy name, the God of our fathers, that this year may and we shall not be put to shame, world become a year of cheapness, of fullness, of without end. For Thou art a God who intercourse, and of trade, a year with preparest salvation, and us hast Thou abundance of rain, of sunshine and of dew; one chosen from amongst all nations and in which Thy people Israel shall not require tongues, and hast in truth brought us near assistance one from another. And listen not to to Thy great name, Selah, in order that we the prayers of those who go forth on a journey. in love may praise Thee and Thy unity. And as to Thy people Israel, may no enemy Blessed be the Lord who in love chose His exalt himself against them. May it please Thee, people Israel.” Then follows the “ Shema “ : “ Lord our God, and the God of our fathers, that Hear, Israel, the Lord thy God is one Lord,” the houses of the men of Sharon may not etc. The morning prayers concluded with become their graves.” the following portions of the prayer now in

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use : “ True it is that Thou art Jehovah our hallelujahs are spoken of the larger embracing God and the God of our fathers, our King Ps. 113 to 118. On the Feast of Tabernacles, and the King of our fathers, our Savior and priests and people sang Ps. 118:25, while the the Savior of our fathers, our Creator, the priests marched round the altar of burnt- Rock of our salvation, our Help and our offering. There is a tradition that, in times of Deliverer. Thy name is from everlasting, public calamity, the Levites, standing at their and there is no God besides Thee. A new oratories, to which every morning the herald song did they that were delivered sing to summoned them, the priests and the people Thy name by the seashore, together did all used to plead daily from Ps. 44:23; and it is said praise and own Thee King, and say, Jehovah that John Hyrcanus abolished this custom, shall reign world without end ! Blessed be saying, “ Doth God sleep? He that keepeth Israel the Lord Who saveth Israel.” shall neither slumber nor sleep “ (Ps. 121:4). An addition, dating from the second century, The collection of Psalms designated as the inserts before the words “A new song,” etc., a Great Hallel is variously supposed to commence particular record of God's past dealings. with Ps, 118, with Ps. 120, or even 135., and to The additional prayer for the evening is as end with Ps. 136. Were this the place for it, we follows : might, from an analysis of the prayers of that period, gather interesting information as to the “Lord our God ! cause us to lie down in theological views and spiritual tendencies of peace, and raise us up again to life, our King the Synagogue. However solemn, and often ! spread over us the tabernacle (covering) sublime, their conceptions of the Divine of Thy peace; strengthen us before Thee in greatness, goodness, and power, and strong the Thy good counsel, and deliver us for Thy expressions of the confidence and submission name's sake. Be Thou for protection round of the chosen people, they are throughout about us; keep far from us the enemy, the characterized by a certain deficiency of a sense pestilence, the sword, famine, and affliction. of spiritual wants. Part of the ritual, still in use, Keep Satan from before and from behind us, for Sabbaths, fast-days, the new years, and Day and hide us in the shadow of Thy wings, for of Atonement, the feasts of Esther, and of the Thou art a God Who keepest and deliverest temple-dedication, date from, and previous to, us; and Thou, God, art a gracious and the first centuries of our era. However, the merciful King. Keep Thou our going out and Synagogue had not at that period adopted any our coming in, for life and for peace, from regular prayer-book. henceforth and for ever!” Besides the ordinary devotions, which seem to Although these prayers were sometimes have taken place three times a day, and after lengthened or shortened, they were, at a very the destruction of the temple as far as possible early period, in general use amongst the to have been substituted for the sacrifices, Hebrews. Among the other forms of prayer then another class of devotional exercises was in use, we reckon portions of the grace at meat, general, and apparently became much sooner various thanksgivings, supplications, and liturgical than the proper Tephillah, we mean confessions. For a long time, however, the the blessings, eulogies, or “ berachas.” Besides Psalms of David continued the only regular generally concluding other prayers, they were prayer, as well as hymn-book. This inspired used before partaking of food or drink, in collection was arranged into certain divisions prospect of danger, etc. As every beracha adapted to various festivities, of which contained a recognition of the Lord, it was indications are even found in the LXX. and the reckoned a merit to pronounce every day a writings of Philo. Thus the 23rd, the 47th, the large number of them. These eulogies became 93rd, the 92nd, and the 91st are expressly set sooner liturgical than congregational prayers, down for five days of the week, and the 28th for as the wants of a congregation are much more the last day of the Feast of Tabernacles; two apparent, and there is always sufficient cause

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for entreaty and thanksgiving, even where the Hallelujah!) From generation to generation will mind is not alive to deeper spiritual necessities. we declare Thy greatness, and for ever and ever Certain expressions, as “ Blessed be the Lord we will sanctify Thy holiness; and Thy praise, our God, and the God of our fathers,” “ the Lord, our God, shall not pass from our lips, world the great, the mighty, the terrible,” from without end, for Thou, Lord, art a great and everlasting to everlasting,” the latter said to be holy King; blessed be the Lord, the great and a testimony against Sadduceeism / recur holy One.” frequently in these eulogies. The most IV. “Thou grantest knowledge to man, and remarkable collection of them are the Eighteen teachest him understanding. (Thou hast Berachas, which were to be repeated every day, granted to us the knowledge of Thy law, and at least in part or summary. They were as hast taught us to do the statutes of Thy good follows : pleasure. Thou, Lord our God, makest a The Eighteen Berachas separation between the holy and the profane, I. “Blessed be the Lord our God and the God of between light and darkness, between Israel and our fathers, the God of Abraham, the God of the nations, between the seventh day and the Isaac, and the God of Jacob, the Lord, the great, six work-days. Our Father, our King, cause the the mighty, and the terrible One; the eternal days that are before us to begin in peace to us, God, Who showeth mercy and kindness, to deliver from all sin, and clear from all iniquity, Whom belongeth everything. Who and uphold us in Thy fear.) Grant us from remembereth the piety of our fathers, and in Thyself knowledge, understanding, and love for His own name's sake sendeth a wisdom; blessed be the Lord Who granteth Redeemer to their children's children, King, knowledge.” Helper, Deliverer, and Shield ! Blessed be the V. “Bring us back again, our Father ! to Thy law; Lord, Abraham's Shield !” bring us near, our King ! to Thy service; and II. “Thou, Lord, art mighty to all eternity, Thou cause us to return with a perfect repentance raisest the dead. Thou art mighty to save. In before Thy face; blessed be the Lord Who kindness He satisfieth the living, in great pity taketh pleasure in repentance.” He raiseth the dead; He upholdeth those that VI. “Forgive us, our Father, for we have sinned; fall; He healeth the sick, and setteth free them pardon us, our King, for we have transgressed, that are bound; He will manifest His for Thou pardonest and forgivest; blessed be faithfulness to those who sleep in the dust. Who the gracious Lord Who multiplieth forgiveness.” is like the Lord of might, and who is like Thee, VII. “Behold our misery, and plead our cause, Thou King, Who killest and makest alive, and and redeem us quickly for Thy name's sake, for causest salvation to spring forth? Faithful art Thou art a strong Redeemer; blessed be the Thou to restore life to the dead; blessed be the Lord, the Redeemer of Israel.” Lord Who restoreth life to the dead.” VIII. “Heal us, Lord, and we shall be healed; III. “Holy art Thou, and Thy name is holy, and save us, and we shall be saved, for Thou art our Thy saints shall praise Thee every day, Selah ! praise. And grant us a perfect remedy for all our Blessed be the Lord, the Holy God ! (We will ills, for Thou, Lord and King, art a physician, sanctify Thy name in the world as those do who faithful and merciful; blessed be the Lord Who sanctify it in the heights of heaven, as it is healeth the sick amongst His people Israel.” written by Thy prophets, ' And they called one IX. “ Bless to us, Lord, this year, and all kinds of to another. Holy, holy, holy is the Lord of hosts ! produce in it, for good; grant a blessing upon the whole earth is full of His glory.' Together do the land; satisfy us by Thy goodness, and bless they sing praise ! blessed be the glory of the our years even as the good years; blessed be the Lord from His habitation. And in Thy holy word Lord Who blesseth the years.” it is written, ' The Lord shall reign for ever; Thy X. “Blow Thy great trumpet to announce our God, Zion, from generation to generation,' liberty, and lift up the standard to gather our

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banished; yea, gather us together from the four well-pleasing for ever. Cause our eyes to see it, corners of the earth; blessed be the Lord Who when Thou in mercy returnest to Zion; blessed gathereth the outcasts of His people Israel.” be the Lord Who bringeth again His Shechinah XI. “Restore our sages as at first, and our to Zion.” counselors as at the beginning; remove from us XVII. “We bow down before Thee, because sorrow and sighing, and reign Thou alone, Lord, Thou art Jehovah our God, and the God of our over us in mercy and in pity, and justify us in fathers for ever and ever. The Rock of our lives, the judgment; blessed be the Lord the King, the Shield of our salvation art Thou, from Who loveth righteousness and judgment.” generation to generation. We will bless Thee, XII. “And let there be no hope for the heretics, and show forth Thy praises for these our lives, and let all workers of wickedness perish as in a which are in Thy hand, and for our souls, which moment; and let all of them speedily be cut off, we commit to Thee, and for Thy wondrous and lay them low speedily, in our days; blessed works, which we witness every day; for Thy be the Lord Who breaketh down the enemies, marvelous doings and Thy mercies at all times, and layeth low the wicked.” evening, morning, and noon. Gracious God ! because Thy mercies are without bounds; “Let Thy tender mercies, Lord our God, abound merciful Lord ! because Thy kindnesses are to the pious, to the elders of Thy people, the never done, we trust in Thee to all eternity. For house of Israel, to the remnant of their scribes, all these things shall Thy name, our King, be to the proselytes of righteousness, and to us, blessed and exalted for ever, world without and grant a good reward to all who in truth end; and all living shall praise Thee, Selah, and trust in Thy name. Let our portion be with them shall in truth bless Thy name, O Lord, our for ever, and we shall not be put to shame, for Salvation and our Help, Selah. Blessed be the we trust in Thee; blessed be the Lord, the Lord, Thy name is 'The Merciful,' and to praise Support and the Hope of the pious.” Thee is comely.” XIII. “And return in pity to Jerusalem Thy city, XVIII. “bestow on Thy people Israel great peace and dwell in the midst of it, as Thou hast for ever. For Thou art King and Lord of all spoken, and build it speedily, even in our days, peace; and it is good in Thine eyes to bless Thy with an everlasting building, and establish people Israel at all times and at every hour with speedily in the midst of it the throne of David; Thy peace. Blessed art Thou, Jehovah, Who blessed be the Lord Who buildeth Jerusalem.” blessest Thy people Israel with peace.” XIV. “Speedily cause Thou the branch of David, It will be observed that affection and trust in Thy servant, to shoot forth and exalt his horn the Lord and His word, longing for the coming by Thy salvation, for in Thy salvation do we of a Deliverer, confidence in their privileges as trust all the day; blessed be the Lord Who Hebrews, and a desire after and respect for causeth the horn of salvation to shoot forth.” knowledge of the Law, constitute the chief XV. “Hear our voice, O Lord our God, and spare burden of these prayers. The first three and the us, and show mercy upon us, and accept in last three eulogies are probably the earliest. mercy and in grace our prayer, for Thou art a Between them private prayers were inserted on God Who hearest prayer and supplication. Let various occasions, according to the felt wants of us not return empty, O our King, from before individuals or of the times. Eulogies IV., V., VI., Thy face, for Thou, Lord, in mercy hearest the VIII., IX., XV. stand next in the order of prayers of Thy people Israel; blessed be the composition; VII. dates probably from a period Lord Who heareth prayer.” of national calamity, – perhaps the time of XVI. “Be gracious, Lord our God, to Thy people Pompey. Eulogies X., XI., XII., XIII., XIV. were Israel, and to their prayers, and restore the composed about the time of the final service to the halls of Thy house, and accept the dissolution of the Jewish commonwealth, when men of Israel in grace, and their prayers in love, certain changes were also introduced in Eulogy and let the services of Thy people Israel be XVI., such as the addition, “ Restore the service

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to the halls of Thy house.” The prayer against which alone preserves from destruction, as the Minim, beginning, “And let there be no revealed in ancient writings, he says of God hope,” etc., was composed by Samuel the Less, “One and self-existent! Though all be formed by and prefixed to Eulogy XII. The sect of the Him, And He pervades all, yet none of mortals Essenes, described by Josephus, but apparently ever Beholds His face; the soul alone perceives not mentioned in Jewish writings, had peculiar Him. The source of good, He sends no ill to hymns and prayers suited to their mystical mortal men. Though favor follow Him, and with tendencies. We shall refer to these when it also strife. And war and pestilence, and treating of the peculiar doctrines of Jewish weeping sorrow, too. Beside Him is no other mysticism; suffice it meantime to say, that the God. If thou on earth Him first discern, 'tis easy rising sun found them each morning finishing all the rest to learn. His mighty hand, His their old traditional prayers with their faces goings, as they shine. Reveal, my son, the towards the east. mighty Being there divine. Himself I cannot see; There is much in the poetry of the East that has for mist enshrouds from me, And tenfold been derived from the periphrastic translations covering envelopes Him from men. The God of the Bible (the Targumim), Haggadic who rules mortals none has ever beheld. Save commentaries, and current legends. The one alone of yore, who sprung from Chaldee Talmud has sometimes poetical descriptions, of race.” which the following is a specimen : “If anyone Then follows a sublime description of this God should wish to form an idea of Rabbi Jochanan's as revealed to the inspired seer. We quote the beauty, let him take a silver cup as it comes following line to show the Hebrew cast of its glowing from the mould, and fill it with the theology purple seeds of the pomegranate, then encircle “And in Himself He has beginning, middle, end.” its brim with a garland of purple roses, and Various readings of this fragment are extant, place it between light and shadow. The rays showing that whoever may have been the which it emits are but faint emblems of the author of this bold forgery, it had at least been beauty of R Jochanan.” recast by later editors. Among confessedly Even before the translation of the Bible into Jewish compositions, we reckon also a tragedy Greek, portions of Scripture history were by a Jewish Alexandrian poet, entitled “ The known to heathens. The LXX. gave a new Exodus from Egypt,” of which the theology, the impulse to the Judaizing tendency of poetry, and versification are all second-rate; philosophers, and again stimulated Jewish and a poem bearing the name of Phocylides (in philosophers to bring their peculiar system 230 hexameters), which, having successively more into harmony with current opinions. been described as the production of a heathen, Judaism, as represented by Philo, however and of a Christian, is now generally assigned to distasteful to the bigoted idolater and hateful to Jewish authorship. a suspicious and zealous people, would present Although some Alexandrian Jews distinguished many attractions to Grecian philosophers. themselves by Talmudical lore, their theological Two chapters of the thirteenth Book of the tendencies generally took a different direction. work of Eusebius are devoted to extracts from They were rather mystical and rationalistic the works of Aristobulus, the Jewish peripatetic, than traditional. The religious intercourse and of Clement, one of the Christian Fathers, between Egypt and Palestine was not confined professedly containing extracts from ancient to the transmission of sums of money to the heathen poets corroborative of Jewish temple. In spite of the existence of the rival doctrines. Many of these are doubtlessly Jewish temple at Heliopolis, the Alexandrians, like interpolations. One specimen will suffice. After other Jews, were accustomed to make an introduction of nine verses, in which to Jerusalem. The best-known Orpheus is represented as calling on all to representative of Alexandrian Jewish literature forsake former errors, and to enter on the road

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was Philo Judaeus. In comparing the the Greek songs which flowed from the mouth imaginative poetry of antiquity with that of of Acher, even before his avowed apostasy. inspiration, he finds in the former meter, Music and poetry were at first almost rhyme, and songs, which merely delighted the inseparably united. The poet generally sang his ear; in the latter, the Divine poetry of God's productions, or accompanied them on an works, while all nature constituted a hymn of instrument. This arrangement accounts in part eternal truth, harmoniously executed. In Divine for the simplicity in the forms of both arts, and poetry truth takes the place of myths, and the for the absence of artificial arrangements in harmony of nature that of meter and rhyme. In both. Music, poetry, and dancing were resorted another passage he somewhat similarly to under very different circumstances. contrasts the myths of the ancients with the Whenever the soul was full, it poured forth its types and allegories of the Bible. Still it may be feelings in the language of poetry, and in mentioned, as an instance of the essential harmonious accents. At feasts, marches, in difference between the Judaism of Philo and triumphal entries, and even on mournful that of the Rabbins, that the former never occasions, but specially in the services of the scrupled to attend heathenish theatrical sanctuary, music and poetry were prominent representations, the Circensian games, and features. athletic contests, and records with approbation The melodies were very simple, and, as such passages which, to say the least, are essentially strains generally are, expressive and touching. Grecian. They embodied, or carried home the poetic The facts to which we have already called thought, and were not separate from it. The attention, that extra-Palestinian Jews used in production of one mind and heart, the melody their prayers the languages to which they were modulated with the feelings of the poet, it accustomed, is in itself a proof that a regular harmonized with the hymn, and accompanied liturgy was unknown at that time. Even the it. Notes were not known, and, of course, Shema seems to have been recited in Greek. Of compositions unwritten; nor was there any the prayers of the Egyptian Jews, only two artificial harmony, although the arrangement of thanksgivings uttered on their delivery from the voices must early have led to a natural the cruel governor Flaccus are preserved. These harmony. Ordinarily, the performance compositions are, however, rather those of consisted of a simple, sweet melody, sung in Philo than of the Egyptian Jews, and unison, and often supported by instrumental accordingly contain the un-Jewish address to music, which also filled up the intervals the Deity, “Father of mortals and of immortals.” between the stanzas. Different divisions of time The Therapeutae, an Egyptian Jewish sect must necessarily have been observed. Thus we called into existence by a tendency akin to that find, that on the Feast of the New Year, which which produced monasticism, resembled in was preeminently designated as “The Feast of many of their principles and practices that of Blowing the Horn,” the different sounds the Essenes in Palestine. In their devotions they emitted were regulated by time. A tekiah was a used hymns and prayers of a mystical blast of thrice the duration of a teruah, while an character, but all have unfortunately been lost. interval of one-third the duration of a teruah is To the above brief sketch of strictly Jewish also mentioned. poetry, we may add that, notwithstanding the In the temple, an elevated place was occupied disapprobation of the more exclusive Rabbins, a by those Levites who sang the praises of the certain acquaintance with classical literature Lord. Their number amounted at least to seems to have been common even in Palestine. twelve, but might be indefinitely increased. This is implied by the interdict which was laid Beneath them stood the young Levites, whose on the study of Greek after the war of Quietus. voices were agreeably to harmonize with those In the Mishnah there is possibly a reference to of the adult performers. Daily, as the priest bent the Homeric writings and elsewhere we hear of over the altar to pour out the drink-offering, an

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official gave the signal, and the song of praise rotatory, semi-rotatory, or saltatory motions, commenced with the sound of cymbals. arranged according to the fancy of the moment, The Levites then took up the hymn. At every or pantomimically representing any event. In paragraph they stopped, the trumpets sounded, either case the steps were accompanied with and the people fell in adoration on the ground. music by the dancer, or by an orchestra. The Psalms were sung in the following order in Scientific Knowledge the temple. On the first day of the week the It would be idle and ungrateful to enter on the 24th Psalm was recited; on the second, the 48 various erroneous opinions current amongst th; on the third, the 82nd; on the fourth, the the Jews on scientific subjects. In as far as the 94th; on the fifth, the 81st; on the sixth, the natural sciences were based on speculation, 93rd; and on the seventh or Sabbath, the 92nd and not simply a record of observed facts, and Psalm, which was ascribed to Adam, and of deductions from them, they could only lead supposed to refer to the happiness of the to unfounded and often extravagant results. eternal Sabbath. The classical student knows that philosophical The instruments in use amongst the Hebrews investigation among the heathens frequently have been arranged as stringed, wind, and fell far short of truth. The study of the exact instruments of percussion. Those most sciences was more cultivated in Babylon than in common were the cymbal, the flute or pipe, Palestine, and Chaldean and Persian elements with its mouthpiece of reed to sound softer, the found their way amongst the Rabbins. trumpet (of silver or brass), and the horn (bent The speculative parts of many sciences were or straight), the lyre and the harp; some add to often theosophical and mystical. Various these a kind of organ. In a flute-solo one speculations were propounded as to the size of performer concluded the piece, in order to the earth and its place in the universe, and the make the melody more soft. For the same different ways in which first the centre and purpose not more than one pair of cymbals then the sides of it were formed; while in one were sounded in the temple, nor less than two passage the earth surrounded by the sea is trumpets and nine lyres. The performers are by compared to a ball in a dish. The thickness of some supposed to have been subordinate the crust of the earth was computed by some at priests; by others, members of the noble 1000 cubits. The idea of pure creation out of families of Emmaus, Phegorim, and Zipparja; nothing, in opposition to formation or others suppose that they were Levites. At the emanation, was by no means so general and time of Ezra women sang in the temple (Ezra firm an article of faith as might be supposed. 2:65), but at a later period all public singing of females was deemed improper, and indeed The geographical allusions in the writings of confined to wandering foreign prostitutes. the Jews are of interest as throwing light on the Popular opinion on the subject is indicated in extent of their knowledge, and on the countries the following expression : “If men sing and visited by them. The dispersed of Israel were women respond, it is indecent; if women sing doubtless to be found in the greatest numbers and men respond, it is like fire amongst in the seats of the Captivity in Babylon, but we stubble.” The dance, as the expression of the have already spoken of the importance of the highest stage of mental excitement, when all the Jewish settlements in Egypt and in Asia Minor. members of the body sympathized with the Moreover, from an early period, the stream of emotions, was generally connected either with Hebrew emigration flowed westwards, and religious or idolatrous festivities. In the first before the second century of our era most of class we also reckon the dances which the countries along the Mediterranean seem to welcomed the heroes of the nation, or took have been known to and visited by the Jews. place at public festivals; in the second class, the [The Septuagint speaks of Carthage for Tarshish dancing festivities which intercourse with other {Isaiah 23:1), and of Miletus (Ezek. 27:18). In nations introduced. The dance consisted of the Talmud many of the provinces of Asia

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Minor are mentioned, including Cilicia, Phrygia, contains the stars, the other that which Lydia, Cappadocia, and probably Galatia.] contains the whole universe. The twelve There are allusions to the islands of Rodos constellations of the Zodiac were in the ninth (Rhodes) and of Kipris (Cyprus). Of places in orbit of stars. These constellations are Africa, naturally Mizraim (Egypt) and enumerated and partly described. Alexandria occur. Further, we read of The Milky Way was called “the fiery stream,” or “Cartigna” for Carthage, of “Berberia” or “the heavenly path,” and the tail of the Scorpion “Mortania” for Mauritania, and of Africa for the was described as lying to the west of it. It was Roman province of that name. The last-named asserted that if a comet passed beyond Orion, it country is regarded as a distant and little- would destroy the world. The heat of Orion and known part of the earth. the cold of the Pleiades maintain the In Europe we read of “Athuna” for Athens, of equilibrium of proper temperature, and if the “the great city of Rome,” of “Perandisin” for tail of the Scorpion were not close to the Milky Brundisium, of “Grecian Italy” for the southern Way, “ no creature could endure the bite of the portion of the Italian peninsula, and of Scorpion.” It was suggested, that at the time of “Aspamia” for Spain. It is somewhat uncertain the flood, God had taken two stars from the whether by “Galia” we should understand Gaul Pleiades, and when the waters were to subside, or Galatia, but the name was probably applied two from the opposite constellation. Rabbi to both countries. Samuel was popularly called the “ Moon-gazer,” and said to be as well acquainted with the [Certainly the former is meant in a passage motion of the stars as with the streets of which speaks of ships trading between Galia Nahardea. and Spain. ] The details connected with the equalization of Mathematics, geometry, and astronomy were the calendar and the changes of the seasons are looked upon as the peculiar study of the Jews, very elaborate, and exhibit both original to which such passages as Deut. 4:5, 6, were investigation and acquaintance with the studies applied. These were considered as a natural of Gentile philosophers. A cycle of nineteen sequel to sacred study, and even formed part of years was adopted in the fourth century AU, theological lore. To ignorance in these respects, and the change of seasons (Tekupha) and the Isa. 5:12 was applied, and it was said, “Woe to appearance of the new moon (Moled) were men who see, but know not what they see; who exactly calculated. Between one Tekupha and stand, but know not on what they stand.” Such another 91 days 7| hours intervened. studies were supposed to lead the student to a more perfect knowledge of the Creator. Nor According to Jewish calculations, the world was were the attainments of the Hebrews created in Moled Tishri, in the year of the Julian inconsiderable. period 953, being Monday, 5 hours and 204 Chlakim {i.e. under the meridian of Jerusalem), The Talmud recounts the planets by name, as or Monday the 7th October, 5 hours 204 Cochab (the star) for Mercury; Nogah Chlakim; and, according to our division of (splendour) for Venus; Maadim (red) for Mars; hours, on the 6th October, at 11 minutes past Zedek (righteousness) for Jupiter; Sabbatai 11 o'clock of the year 3761 B.c. Tradition also (Sabbath star) for Saturn. records the existence of works on the structure [Other names for some of the planets are also of the world, on the sun and moon, the stars, found. The periods of their revolutions are the seasons and the causes of their changes, the roughly given. Jupiter is said to complete its laws of nature, etc. Nor is it impossible that the course in 12 years, Saturn in 30 years, Venus in following quotation may indicate some 10 months, Mars in 18 months.] acquaintanceship with the principles of Besides the seven circles of the planets, other electricity. “To lay iron between newly-hatched two were enumerated, of which one is called chickens is superstitious (literally, according to that of the stars, being the sphere which

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heathen ways); to do so on account of thunder requisite for the preservation of health was and lightning is lawful.” 'purity of air, and the sanitary police [To the magnet, under the name of eben regulations were very strict. From its slio'ebeth (attracting stone), we find more than geographical position, the climate of Palestine one allusion. It is said that by this means Gehazi was very salubrious; and it is almost more than caused the golden calves of Jeroboam to ascend a figure of speech when the Talmud maintained into the air, and the crown of the Ammonite that the very air of Palestine made its king was held suspended over the head of inhabitants wise. The Hebrews recommended a David. ] moderate temperature, and looked upon the cooling north wind as restoring its balance. The In Egypt, where medicine and surgery were not hot southerly or easterly winds were deemed only known, but where every physician exceedingly dangerous, and during their confined himself to the treatment of only one prevalence no surgical operation was ordinarily species of disease, these sciences must have performed. reached a considerably more advanced stage than in Israel. Among the Jews, partly from the The divers washings, however useless in a circumstances of the nation, and partly from religious point of view, were important as ignorance, surgical manipulations, outward sanitary regulations. Besides the use of baths in applications, and assistance at child-birth, were private dwellings or public establishments, at first the principal departments of medical bathing in rivers, the use of warm or of lore. But gradually the study of medicine medicated baths either in the mineral waters of became enlarged, and at the time of our Lord Tiberias, etc., or in warmed oil and vapor baths, physicians seem to have resided not only in were recommended. In the latter it was the larger towns, but even in the country. Certain practice to inhale vapor (though this was diseases (specially those of the abdominal supposed to be detrimental for the teeth), to viscera) are described as peculiar to students, drink hot water, and to have the body rubbed and a special physician was employed for the with ointments and perfumeries. Immediately priests who served in the temple, and whose after the vapor bath, cold water was poured constant exposure must have rendered them over the whole body, and a mixture of wine, oil, peculiarly liable to various distempers. and water rubbed on. Cleanliness was felt to be of such importance, that parties on a journey, in The frequency of sacrifices and the laws the wilderness, or in the country, were pitied, concerning clean animals, etc., must have early as being far from bathing establishments. led to an acquaintanceship with anatomy. In Students whose garments were filthy deserved common opinion, there were 248 bones in the to die, nor were they to settle in any place body, of which 30 belonged to each foot and where either police or bathing establishments hand (120 in all), 10 to each ankle, 2 to each leg, were defective. 5 to each knee, 1 to each thigh, 3 to each haunch, 2 to each forearm, 2 to each elbow, 1 to After every meal some exercise, was deemed each arm, 4 to the shoulder, 11 ribs on each requisite to promote digestion, but excessive side, 18 bones to the spine, 9 to the skull, 8 to exercise was thought dangerous. Equally the neck, 6 to the breast, and 5 to the various noxious were all violent emotions. “Even one outlets of the body. Much attention seems to sigh destroys half the body,” while “anxiety, the have been paid to the art of preserving life and discomforts of travelling, and sin, consume all health. the strength of man.” '' The night is destined for sleep; and if a person vows that he is not to As purely physical means of prolonging life, sleep for three consecutive days (and nights), long-protracted sitting at table, attention to he is to be punished with stripes (for perjury), regularity of secretions, and proper diet and to be immediately sent to bed.” Sleep early wheaten bread to youths, and oil to the aged, in the morning was refreshing, but to remain together with wine are recommended. The first too long in bed, or to sleep during the day for

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more than 60 breaths, was unwholesome. To operations, the most frequent, important, and sleep on the ground was unsafe. Particular most accurately described is that of attention was also paid to diet. Milk and honey, circumcision. The help of art for obstetric the latter specially for children and old people, purposes was early called in. Midwives are wheaten bread, meat boiled, roasted, or fried, mentioned in the oldest Hebrew records. and of vegetables, lentils, beans, and onions, Inability to suckle on the part of the infant was constituted the chief articles of food. Hunger or thought to be due to chill, and was to be thirst were to be the immediate indications for remedied by the application of heat. seeking supply; and at every meal a proper Of the obstetrical operations, we may mention quantity of fluids was to be used. To eat early in the gastrotomia or side-operation, and the the morning imparted strength, and dinner was Caesarean, the latter only practiced when the to be taken with daylight. Between supper and mother was dying, the partition of the infant, bedtime three or four hours were to intervene. and in certain cases the introduction of a tube. Proper attention to mastication was conducive Blood-letting, practiced in Greece at a much to health, nor should eating be continued to earlier period, was frequently resorted to in the satiety. Particular directions were given as to first centuries, not only in actual disease, but by the diet of pregnant women and suckling way of prevention. Up to the fiftieth year, mothers. Directions for the treatment of new- venesection was recommended once a month; born infants occur already in Ezek. 16:4. after that period, gradually, more rarely. To The Talmud distinguishes between touch the wound, to expose oneself to cold, to indisposition and dangerous diseases, and go about, to bathe, or to commit an error in diet allows that the latter may be attended to even after the operation, was deemed dangerous. on Sabbaths. The proximate causes of diseases Blood-letting was also resorted to under certain were noxious winds or insufficient wind; astrological combinations. The operation was, deficiency of heat; hence moderate fever was according to circumstances, performed on the deemed to contribute to the healing process; upper or the lower part of the body, either by and the state of the bile, which was thought to scarificators (in a manner analogous to our induce eighty-three different kinds of disease. A cupping), by opening a vein, or as arteriotomy disease commenced with different premonitory by a lancet.' One surgeon devised a special symptoms, such as a rash, yawning, pains, etc., mantle to wear during the visits of female and if terminating favorably, passed through patients. An unskillful surgeon was amenable to different stages to convalescence. The crisis of justice; a skilful one bore the designation of the disease was anxiously watched for on Doctor. certain days, and appeared by sneezing, Students of the Law and divines were not perspiration, abdominal secretions, sleep, or expected to pay any fee, and the poor were dreams. rather to be assisted than hardly dealt with by Certain hours brought relief to the patients. pious medical advisers. A variety of surgical They felt most easy during the three first hours operations are referred to in the Talmud, and in of the day, and most uneasy during the three cases of amputation the deficiency was, if last hours. Summer was more favorable for possible, supplied by artificial limbs. In effecting cures than winter. Changes of diet fractures of bones, splints of wood or metal might entail disease, and one ailment led to plates were employed. The excision of tumors another. Thus croup began in the abdomen and and cancerous swellings was practiced; and, in terminated in the throat. As some of the Alexandria, the excision of the ovaries in cows ailments which seem to have been common and swine, which were to be sold into other among the Hebrews, we may mention fevers, countries, seems to have been resorted to.- inflammations, diseases of the heart, malignant Dislocations were treated by cold-water ulcers, dyspepsia, dysentery, poisons bandages; other wounds by the application of introduced by bites, and gout. Of surgical vinegar and wine,' or by surgeons' lint, soft

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cotton, etc. Operations are recorded for meat, liver, etc., were interdicted; others, as reducing a dislocation of the neck and for spinach, honey, the stomach and the lungs of healing a swelling in the throat of a child. geese, etc., were recommended to The remedies employed in the cure of disease convalescents. Along with much that is absurd, were either sympathetic and supernatural, or some of the remedies prescribed in the Talmud scientific. Supernatural influences were often indicate that experience and extensive brought into requisition, and people born observation had characterized the medical under the same constellation were supposed to practice of the Hebrews. stand in “ rapport “ with each other. But above Jewish Law these superstitions the offspring of a false Following the analogy of the law of Scotland, we philosophy, and of un-acquaintance with the may arrange the code of the Hebrews into laws of nature towered a firm confidence in a Statutory or Written (meaning by this the law special overruling providence, preventing the of Moses) and Customary or Unwritten law consequences which might otherwise have (referring to the traditional law of the resulted. Mishnah). It is with the latter exclusively that The Essenes and other mystical sects we have at present to do. All jurisdiction was performed cures, partly by the application of either civil, criminal, or ecclesiastical, according herbs and roots, and partly by supernatural as questions of private right, public morality, or means. Amulets, consisting of small pieces of religious duty were to be decided. It requires, parchment, on which verses of Scripture or however, to be borne in mind, that by the mystical formulas were inscribed, were worn as peculiar constitution of the Jewish courts, and preventives, and deemed probate if they had by the institutions of the country, a complete performed three cures, or been executed by an separation between these different branches adept. In their scientific treatment the Hebrews could not be effected. Besides the above, a placed more confidence in dietetic and number of police, sanitary, and public preventive than in remedial agency. However, regulations were also enacted by the Rabbins, as in Europe some centuries ago, the rarity, the which we shall notice as occasion offers. costliness, and the oddity of a remedy often The Jewish law acknowledged rights in every invested it, in the opinion of the people and of individual, and, with few exceptions, placed all doctors, with extraordinary powers. on a footing of equality. We have already The next step in the progress of the science was referred to some of the rights of women, and the adoption of very composite formulas. As a shall only supplement our statements. Though general rule, however, minerals were not much a mother could not claim equal respect, she was resorted to, and, whether consciously or on the same footing towards her children as the unconsciously, the principle seems to have father, and biblical examples of her influence been acted upon that nature provided remedies will readily occur. All the forbids of the law for the diseases peculiar to a district, in the applied equally to both sexes, but all those products of that district. It was a principle, that commands whose execution was confined to too much drugging was hurtful. Mineral waters certain definite periods (for example, the day- and purgatives were, unless absolutely time, etc.), were only binding on males. Legal requisite, only to be used in spring. Among exceptions to the validity of marriages entailed them the juice of the date-palm, derived by the disqualification of the offspring. In all incision into the tree; Babylonian beer; an ordinary circumstances the child inherited the Egyptian decoction, prepared from equal rank of the father. If the mothers had been portions of barley, saflor, and common salt; ' incapable of contracting marriage, as in the case mechanical means; and what was known as the of female slaves, -the children ranked with the trometon egg, or one prepared in a very mother. Thus the family of a bastard might peculiar manner, were in common use. Certain become legitimate, if the bastard (father) articles of diet, as hard-boiled eggs, roasted married a slave (mother). Their children were

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then not bastards, but slaves, and, being proprietor only after a lapse of two years from emancipated, might become legitimate citizens, their disposal. Houses in open (not walled) and intermarry with Israelites. towns, or in villages, or in fields etc. enclosed Of the different relations of foreigners to Jews within town walls, or built on the city wall we have already spoken. They were either itself, were considered as fields, and returned in passing or resident strangers, or naturalized the jubilee to the original proprietors. Houses denizens. An uncircumcised person was in walled or in un-walled towns might be allowed to offer sacrifices and tithes (of course redeemed by the original proprietor within a according to the Jewish ritual), but not to year after their sale; but after the lapse of a full partake in the Passover, or to marry a Jewess. year, houses in walled towns remained the Jews were allowed to marry the daughters of perpetual property of the purchaser. heathens, except those of the seven Canaanitish To our former remarks on servitude, we add, nations, and of the Amalekites. The that only one of two grounds could exist for the grandchildren of Egyptians and Edomites, who servitude of a Hebrew, namely, theft, when, in had settled in Palestine, might enter the order to discharge the legal pecuniary congregation. The law with reference to the punishment, the authorities might order the Moabites and Ammonites, as well as to the sale of the culprit; or poverty inducing a Jew to seven nations and the Amalekites, was, sell himself. His servitude lasted till the jubilee however, repealed by the Rabbins in favor of or till the death of his master, or he might proselytes, and the sons of all foreigners obtain freedom by paying the amount for which resident in Palestine, and all proselytes, were he was sold, after deduction of the value of his allowed to enter into the congregation. Any services. Hebrew maids obtained freedom in intercourse with heathens which might either the seventh year; nor could they have their ears further their idolatry, or issue to the bored. If a Hebrew sold his daughter, the law disadvantage of the Jewish nation, was assumed that it was for the purpose of interdicted. marriage, and forbade her sale by her master. We can hardly suppose that foreigners resident As she could only be sold during her minority, in Palestine troubled themselves much about she attained freedom whenever the marks of Jewish regulations; but, according to the theory puberty appeared. A heathen slave might of the Rabbins, they were obliged to observe obtain his liberty by redemption, manumission, the seven Noachic Commandments which we or in consequence of ill-usage. have formerly specified. Finally, it is noticeable, If a slave was sold to a heathen, or beyond the that the Mishnah confines the term bastards to boundaries of Palestine, he obtained by the those begotten in incest, to cases where very act his legal freedom, and, if fugitive, could marriage had been legally impossible, and to not be reclaimed. Heathen slaves, however, did the children of harlots. not share all the privileges of Jewish servants. Every householder shared in all the public Thus, for example, they could not retain burdens, such as the keeping up of roads, baths, possession of anything found by them. If the city walls, gates, etc. Any party who transferred slave of a heathen became a proselyte through a public road from one part of his property to baptism, he received his freedom when sold to another, forfeited his right to both, All a Jew. The daughters of such proselytes enjoyed obstructions were to be removed from streets the same rights as other Hebrew women, and, if and roads, and, where they had been the their mother had been a Jewess, might even be occasion of damage, the person to whom it was married to priests. If a man left his fortune to traced was liable for compensation. All his slave, he attained with it his liberty also. property consisting of fields was restored in the Regular letters of manumission were given, in jubilee, but the party restoring could claim which the essential words were “ from this time something for improvements made. Within that forth be free,” or be “ thine own master.” These period fields could be redeemed by the original letters, if once written, even though not

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delivered or dispatched, could not again be In cases of separation (not divorce) he was annulled. Hired servants, if engaged by the day, bound to assign her a proper aliment. In cases could claim their wages at night if during the of dispute, the law protected chiefly the night, on the following day. But while the law interests of wives. One witness, even though respected the rights of the employed, it also incapable of giving testimony in other cases, carefully protected the employer. was sufficient to attest the death of the Properly speaking, marriage was considered a husband, i.e., if no suspicion of collusion purely civil contract, but it was customary to existed; but a period of three months was to wed the bride in presence of witnesses, and elapse between a first and second marriage. with the pronunciation of certain blessings, or Before receiving her dowry, the wife had to to wed her “ according to the law of Moses and swear that she had not previously got any of Israel.” A bride descended from the family of portion. We need not detail the laws regulating Aaron had a double dowry (400 dinars) marriage with the wife of a deceased brother, assigned to her. If a young girl had been as even the Mishnah recommends that it should married while a minor, she was allowed to not be performed. An Israelite was prevented repudiate her husband on attaining her from marrying within the prescribed degrees of majority; if the marriage had taken place consanguinity, and priests from uniting without her consent, it was necessarily void. In themselves with harlots, with divorced or all other cases, from the moment the marriage- profane persons, i.e., the offspring of marriages contract had been signed the union could only forbidden to priests. be separated by formal divorce. If sufficient To prevent interdicted marriages, every priest funds were on hand, a bride could insist on was to inquire into the family of his bride (up to having a portion assigned to her conformable to four degrees, if she descended from the family her station in life. A second daughter could of Aaron in other circumstances, to five claim a portion equal to that of her elder sister. degrees), except when the bride's father was a A mistaken opinion as to the circumstances of priest in active service, or a member of the the bride, unless she had willfully deceived her Sanhedrin. The daughters of proselytes, intended, formed no valid ground for divorce. If provided that one of their parents had been an the lady's property had been entered into the Israelite, and of the daughters of degraded marriage contract, the bridegroom was bound priests, might be married by priests. In a city to assign to his wife the full value of her taken by an enemy, the priests had to divorce portion, and one-half more, or, if it consisted in their wives, unless special testimony could be jewelry, etc., one-fifth less than their value. In borne to their chastity. such cases the property belonged to the Although divorce was lawful, the various husband, either simply for use the wife regulations to be observed must, in practice, retaining her right of disposal or absolutely, the have considerably limited it, and its practice husband being, however, answerable for any was generally reprobated. Besides, it was loss. If a wife inherited property, the husband always first sought to bring about a enjoyed only the use of it, but a wife could not reconciliation. If a wife had transgressed “the dispose of any property without the consent of law of Moses” (in her duties as wife), “or that of her husband. If the husband's rights were Israel ” (by immodesty or forwardness, etc.), attainted by any vow of his wife, he was at and in other exceptional cases, she had no claim liberty to absolve her from such obligations. on her dowry. A letter of divorce had to be The duties of both parties, and their mutual signed by witnesses, and expressly stated that rights, have already been detailed. N. N. was now regularly divorced, and free to We add, that the claims of the wife upon her marry any other. In prospect of a distant dowry, and those of children, did not require to journey, or of death, the mere order of the be expressly mentioned in the marriage- husband to draw up a letter of divorce was contract. The husband was the heir of his wife. deemed sufficient, except when he had specially

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been solicited to do so. Letters of divorce might the part of the recipient was requisite to be transmitted by messengers, provided they complete the transaction. If a patient recovered, had been delivered by both parties in the he could recall the donation, provided he had presence of witnesses. The messenger was not not, by retaining part of his original property, allowed to marry the divorced party. Where the indicated that he had at the time anticipated doubtful fame of a woman was the ground of recovery. The claims of the widow have already separation, she could never be taken back been referred to. The duty of burying a widow again. devolved upon her legal heirs.' A widow could The mutual rights and duties of parents and only claim payment of her dowry from what children have been already referred to. While was actually left at the time of her husband's the sons were in measure independent, the decease. Daughters had to be maintained by father could dispose of his daughters during their brothers, even though this would have their minority, either by marrying or by selling thrown the latter upon public charity. Where them. However, the disposal of a daughter was the father had not chosen tutors or curators, deemed improper, except in cases of urgent such were appointed by the authorities. The necessity. Although the father was bound to wife was not heir to her husband, nor a mother have his son circumcised, redeemed, educated, to her children. The husband might formally trained to a trade, and even taught to swim, renounce his right to his wife's property, some maintained that he was under no legal whereupon she was at liberty during her obligation to maintain his daughters. lifetime to dispose of it. The first-born son inherited a double portion of A farmer was obliged to keep the ground in the property actually left by the father (not by good order, and to make all customary the mother), and on hand at the time of his improvements. If a crop was destroyed by decease. Sons and their descendants, though locusts, fire, or any public calamity, the damage these descendants were females, were was borne by the landlord. Leases were considered the sole heirs, when even the right generally for seven years, but flax might only be of primogeniture extended to the daughters of sown or wood cut during the first year, as the the deceased eldest son in preference to their former exhausted the ground, and the latter father's brothers. Failing direct heirs, the took long time to grow. If any person let his property passed to the father of the deceased, house to another in winter without fixing a and then to his brothers or sisters, and so on term, he could not dispossess the occupant upwards. Bastards, or the offspring of illicit between the Feast of Tabernacles and that of connections, with the exception of the children the Passover (the end of autumn and the end of of heathen or slave mothers, were not excluded spring). In summer, thirty days' notice of from sharing in the inheritance. Crimes of any removal had to be given, and, to the occupants kind did not disqualify from the above rights. of shops or of town-houses, a full twelvemonth. The occupants of manufactories and large The Rabbinical law makes provision for works had to receive three years' notice. The disposal by testament. It distinguished between proprietor was bound to execute any repairs the disposition of persons in good health and of which required a tradesman. those in prospect of death. The latter might either leave or dispose of their property, if such The law distinguished between movable and disposal did not run contrary to the law of immovable property. The latter afforded Moses. Only an inheritance could never go security to creditors even where such had not wholly beyond the circle of the rightful heirs, formally been stated; the former did not. Claims nor could any of them be excluded by name, upon movable property could only be though they might be tacitly passed by. substantiated if such property had actually been delivered, else neither the fact of payment If a person in good health gifted away any nor the statement of witnesses could make the portion of his property, actual possession on transaction legal. Immovable property was

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acquired by payment, document, or actual workmen, of part proprietors, farmers who possession. In cases of exchange of one article shared in the fruits of the ground, of curators, for another, actual possession by one of the or in questions between husband and wife or parties was sufficient.' A deaf and dumb person father and son, If a property was too small for might conclude a bargain by signs, and if a division, or such division was inconvenient, transaction had been concluded, no after- neither party could insist on it unless prepared agreement could annul it. to purchase the whole. The drawing up of documents for various Where flats belonged to different parties, the purposes presupposed such minute proprietor of the upper storey could, if the acquaintance with the forms of law, the house fell, insist on the rebuilding of the lower, smallest neglect of which destroyed their or take possession of the ground. A wall had to validity, that professional writers, were soon be removed at least four cubits from the required. windows of a neighbor, and if broad enough to It was customary for them to keep the formulas allow a person to stand upon it, required to be requisite for divorces and other legal built either four cubits higher or lower than transactions written out and ready for such windows. Where a neighbor's wall was in immediate use. Documents were either plain or danger of being injured by any operation, a folded. In plain documents the contents were distance of three spans was to intervene, and recorded consecutively, and the signatures of the wall to be protected. It was not allowed to two witnesses followed at the end. In folded cultivate in a field what might injure the crop or documents a fold succeeded after every few property of a neighbor as to cultivate mustard if lines, and was always attested by three a neighbor owned beehives. witnesses. Any informality, or the absence of Trees had to be removed four cubits from the proper signatures of witnesses, rendered the property of a neighbor, and the branches, if document invalid. they overhung the wall, might be cut off. If two A letter of divorce might be drawn up in the gardens, of which the one was higher than the absence of the wife, and her receipt for the other, bounded, the declivity belonged in part dowry in the husband's absence an to both, so that the proprietor of the higher acknowledgment of debt in the absence of the ground claimed so much as he could reach from creditor, and a letter of purchase in that of the his property with his hand, while all the rest buyer. Documents concerning marriage, farms, went with the lower ground. arbitration, or judicial findings, could only be Sequestration of an insolvent required legal written with the consent of both parties, and permission. A curious legal provision, strongly the latter were valid even if drawn up by non- indicative of the altered times and views, was Jewish authorities. made by the Rabbins to prevent the cessation of Property professedly bought or received, monetary obligations in the Sabbatical year. It consisting of houses, fountains, baths, slaves, was not only declared lawful to accept payment fields, and anything else from which continual during that year (if proffered), but such conduct profit might be derived, was indisputable if the on the part of the debtor was declared original proprietor had not, during three years, meritorious. It was also enacted that debts objected to the validity of the rights of the contracted upon pledges, or secured by written holder of the property. The holder of the documents deposited in court, or containing an property was not bound after that term to express reservation of the right of reclaiming produce documents to prove his right of tenure, on the part of the creditor, technically termed provided he had, during that period, given the Prosbol, did not come within the range of the original proprietor sufficient intimation of his Sabbatical remission. claims. But the burden of proof might rest on The Prosbol was introduced by Hillel as a the defender in the case of tradesmen or means of restoring public credit. If a debtor

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died, the claims of heirs took precedence of banker, but not a private party, was allowed to those of the creditors, and the claims of the use money entrusted to him. The proprietor or widow upon her dowry were those of a keeper was answerable for damage caused by creditor. Various provisions were made for the his cattle, if the party injured had not exposed protection of either party from fraud. himself; but where such injury could not have Acknowledgments of debt did not require to been foreseen, only half the actual damage contain the name of the lender, and were could be claimed, and that only from the value payable to any party who possessed the of the injuring animal. document. If a dying person declared in general If a flock had been properly secured, the terms, that one amongst many outstanding proprietor was not answerable for its breaking loans had been repaid to him, all obligations to loose and causing damage. If a fire originated him became thereby invalid (on account of the from the spark of an anvil, the party causing it doubt), but if more than one had been incurred was answerable. The master was not by one creditor, only the largest was held to be answerable for any damage caused by his discharged. In cases of part repayment a special slaves. An article found in a public place, if receipt was granted. If a party wholly denied a possessing any value, and characteristic marks debt, he could not be constrained to swear, as by which it might be recognized, was publicly the law assumed his innocence, and the burden described during three festive occasions, and of proof rested with the pursuer. It was for seven days after the third of these feasts. otherwise when the defender admitted part of But letters of divorce, of manumission, the debt. Notices of orders, etc., in a merchant's testaments, conveyances, and receipts, were books, were admitted as partial proofs. not to be returned, as probably they had been The Jewish law arranged all occasions of purposely thrown aside. damage under four classes, as those by cattle, The criminal law of the Hebrews contrasts by pits, by grazing, and by fire. If a person dug a favorably, not only with that of heathen, but pit ten span deep, he was responsible for also of many professedly Christian nations. deterioration or loss of any animal which had Much stress was laid by the Rabbins on the fallen into it; otherwise, only for the former, removal of ulterior consequences from the Anything left or spilt on the street which criminal, so that the punishment was occasioned damage, involved responsibility. transformed from a harsh reprobation and The person last engaged with an object causing haughty exclusion into a kind and parental damage, was held responsible, and the amount correction. The death of the criminal or the computed by competent judges. If any object infliction of forty stripes, which in law took the had been lost, or received damage, while in the place of the biblical threat of “ being cut off”,” temporary possession of a stranger, the law was supposed to atone for the crime of the made several distinctions. penitent criminal, and to remove the crime, If a party had been entrusted with an article, he both in this world and in that which is to come. could not be sued for damages; if he had The crime ceased with the punishment. Hence borrowed it, he was obliged to pay damages; if the attempt to induce the culprit to confess, the it had passed out of the proprietor's hands in solemn and mournful conduct of the judges, the way of business, the temporary owner, who and the beautiful practice, on the part of the had remained within the conditions of the relatives of a felon, to wait on the judges and contract, was only responsible if it had been witnesses, in order to show that they harbored stolen or lost. A party was allowed a certain no ill-feeling towards them. Another equally percentage for waste, if the article entrusted peculiar provision of the law was that by which had been wheat (2 per cent.), barley (5 per no person could be executed or receive forty cent.), or flax (10 per cent.). A vessel must not stripes, unless the witnesses to the deed had be needlessly removed, nor any money warned the criminal, and he had persevered in entrusted diminish through negligence. A his sin.' The punishments awarded by the

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Jewish law were upon the life, body, and Spare diet was also used when a murderer property of the criminal. Incarceration was not escaped capital sentence through non- a Jewish mode of punishment. observance of any legal form. The law of Moses is explicit in the mention of The different degrees of ecclesiastical censure those crimes to which the punishment of death were called Neziphah or reproof, which lasted was to be awarded, but the Rabbinical statutes only for seven days, Niddui or Shammatha, limited its execution in various ways. In fact, denoting a temporary excommunication, and every legal device was employed to avoid this Cherem or bann, that is, permanent exclusion unpleasant necessity, and it was expressly from the congregation. The punishments stated that the court which inflicted capital executed on the body of the criminal consisted punishment more frequently than once in in the infliction of stripes, the largest number seven, or, according to some, in seventy years, being forty, or in practice thirty-nine, from a was cruel. Rabbins Tarphon and Akiba declared dread of inflicting one in excess, it being always they would never have consented to such a first ascertained that the culprit was able to sentence. bear his sentence. The Jewish law recognized four modes of The instrument used was a scourge of leathern execution. The party to be stoned was cast by thongs. The hands of the criminal, who was in one of the witnesses from a height, after which an inclined position, were tied to a pillar, and (if he was not dead) a second witness threw the two-thirds of the stripes inflicted on the first stone at him. If this punishment had been shoulders, the rest on the chest. During the inflicted for blasphemy or idolatry, the body infliction, Deut. 28:58, 59; 29:9, and at the close was hung up till even. There were different Ps. 78:38, were read to the criminal. Later places of interment destined for criminals, and Jewish writers recount 207 cases in which forty their relatives were not to mourn for them. stripes were to be inflicted. The fines Burning was generally executed by pouring prescribed in the law of Moses were so far boiling lead into the criminal. modified by the Mishnah, that no actual fine (only simple restitution) was required when Decapitation was performed with the sword. the criminal confessed his fault of his own Strangulation was the ordinary punishment, accord. However, under no circumstances was and executed with a cord wrapped in a cloth, an individual incriminated by any statement of and drawn together by two persons. his own, nor could such be used against him. From the punishment threatened in John 8:5 As a general principle, severe punishments we gather that the adulteress there accused had were only inflicted where amendment, not been actually married, but was only a bride. restitution, etc., was in the nature of the thing When the criminal was led to the place of impossible. The Rabbins recount thirty -four execution, which always took place on the day breaches of forbids and two of commands of his condemnation, a herald going before him which expose to the threat of “ being cut off,” a called upon all who might be able to say punishment in their opinion more severe than anything in his favor to appear before the that of sudden death by the hand of God. judges, and the criminal was allowed to urge Corporal punishments were inflicted by the anything in his own behalf. When near to the officers of the various synagogues. In place of punishment, he was admonished to exceptional cases, the law warranted those confess and repent. On Sabbaths or feast-days, present at the perpetration of a crime to and on the days of preparation, capital offences execute summary vengeance. In general, the could not be tried. If the punishment of forty Jewish law assumed the innocence of every stripes had been twice inflicted, the criminal party till actual and intentional guilt had been was on a third occasion confined into a narrow established, nor, while declaring the rendering prison, and fed first upon very spare diet, then of testimony meritorious, did it oblige any on barley bread, until “his bowels gushed out.” person to lay information.

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The most fearful crime was that of blasphemy, slaves, thirty shekels, whatever might be the which was only then supposed to have been real value of the slave. If a murder was committed if the ineffable name of Jehovah had committed, and the perpetrator unknown, a been used. That name had originally been deputation, consisting of five members of the generally known, and was, in certain defined Sanhedrin, performed, along with the elders of circumstances, still pronounced. In cases of the township nearest to the place of murder, accusations of blasphemy all present were certain prescribed solemnities, after which the removed, and the judges asked the worthiest latter were declared free of the blame of official amongst the witnesses to repeat what they had negligence. In cases of suicide the body heard; the others simply assented. The judges remained un-interred till even. Persons guilty then rent their garments in token of mourning, of men-stealing were strangled, if the party and the convicted party was stoned. stolen had actually been brought within the The Mosaic law, which ordered the domain of the accused. extermination of a city whose inhabitants had In cases of theft the punishment was become idolaters, was limited by the Rabbins to restitution, with the addition of double or five- instances in which the majority of the fold the value of the article stolen. In order to inhabitants had been seduced by parties constitute theft, the article must have actually belonging to the same town and tribe. Direct been lifted up or removed from the boundaries acts of idolatry, witchcraft, or having a familiar of the owner. Thus a thief who killed and then spirit, were punished by stoning; intentional sold an animal on the property of its rightful profanation of the Sabbath deserved stoning; owner was only bound to make restitution. Nor the breach of other ritual ordinances, forty did the law of compensation apply to the theft stripes. A false prophet, i.e., one who of slaves, documents, immovable property, or prophesied without having received a divine things dedicated.' A thief who voluntarily message, or who delivered what had been sent confessed, under whatever circumstances, was by another prophet, or spoken in the name of a only bound to make restitution. If perjury had strange god, was to be strangled. been committed to conceal the theft, when the The Rabbins also distinguished between casual article stolen was restored, it must be and unintentional homicide; manslaughter, accompanied by an addition of one-fifth of its where there had been an intention to hurt but value, and handed to the proprietor in person, not to destroy; and murder, which implied and that however trifling the article or distant premeditation and the infliction of blows or his place of residence, so that his forgiveness wounds in themselves mortal, and from which might be obtained. escape would have been impossible. Only in the Tradesmen, as tailors, carpenters, etc., were last-mentioned case was the murderer interdicted from retaining any of the material executed. During the investigation every party entrusted to them. To prevent temptation, it accused had a right to go for safety to one of the was also forbidden to buy wool, milk, or young cities of refuge, under the escort of two animals from a shepherd; fruits or trees from a Rabbins. If death issued in consequence of a hired gardener, etc. If the thief had not the quarrel and fight, the murderer was executed if means of paying the legal fine, he might be sold, the blow given was in itself sufficient to induce but not beyond the bounds of Palestine. immediate death. Any person about to commit Females could not be sold. murder, unnatural crimes, or to violate a bride, The witnesses who intentionally bore false might lawfully be killed. witness were ordinarily visited with the Where fatal injury had been sustained from an punishment which would have been awarded animal, the animal was stoned; and the to the accused party. In exceptional cases this proprietor, if previously warned of its was converted into a fine or the infliction of dangerous character, had to pay the computed forty stripes. Where the charge was capital, and value of the party killed, and, in the case of sentence had actually been pronounced, the

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witnesses were liable to death. The various traces of the ill usage had been left, by crimes connected with oaths were arranged strangulation. Insubordination to magistrates into inconsiderate, needless, and criminal was severely punished, and, if committed by a swearing the latter when a party either denied judge who had taught or acted against the his knowledge of, or refused to mention a decision of the Supreme College, he was to be favorable circumstance and perjury; all of executed in Jerusalem, and at the time of one of which were more or less severely punished. In the feasts. all these cases a simple “ Amen,” in answer to The office of judge was generally filled by the adjuration, was deemed an oath. learned and doctors of the Law. It had no Rabbinical ordinances, as in all other crimes so immediate or necessary connection with the in respect of adultery also, tended to lighten the office of teaching, and probably in small towns law of Moses. The evidence of two witnesses th& judges were often men who had been was requisite to establish the crime. If a woman chosen through the confidence of their fellow- had married again, after having received false citizens, but who had never attained the tidings of her husband's death, both her first position of a regularly ordained Rabbi. and second husband had to divorce her with Nevertheless, from the nature of the case, the the loss of her dowry, and the offspring of her ablest teachers were generally selected as second marriage Was deemed illegitimate. judges. Rabbi Jochanan ben Saccai abolished the [After the fall of the Jewish State the influence practice of administering the waters of of the Rabbins greatly increased; and though jealousy, on account, as he said, of the there was no external power to enforce their frequency of adultery.' This mode of detection, authority, it became more than ever the custom which was supposed not to act immediately to appeal to their decision in matters of when the woman's merits partly atoned for her dispute.] guilt, could only be used after the husband had, in the presence of two witnesses, admonished The law distinguished three classes of judges, his wife to abstain from intercourse with a according to the size and importance of the suspected party. One witness, even a slave or a place in which they resided. The lowest court maid, was sufficient evidence in cases of actual was that of three, or possibly seven judges,' the adultery after admonition, when a woman next that of the Sanhedrin of twenty-three, and might be divorced with the loss of her dowry, the highest that of seventy-one, or the Great except when the witness against her was a near Sanhedrin. The judges of the highest court were female relative of her husband. In cases of regularly ordained by the imposition of hands. seduction a threefold, in rape a fourfold fine This solemnity was performed by an ordained had to be paid. While the seducer was free, the Rabbi, in the presence of at least two others. father of the damsel might in the latter case The number of judges in the various colleges of insist also on marriage, which could not again justice was uneven, in case of diversity of be dissolved. opinion. The strict biblical law concerning criminal In a capital conviction, which could only be resistance to parents was almost rendered passed by a Sanhedrin, a majority of at least nugatory by Rabbinical additions. Thus the two was requisite, and sentence was only parents were to be perfectly agreed in their pronounced after a night spent in solemn accusation; neither of them was to be decrepit, deliberation had passed. In cases of dubiety blind, deaf, lame, etc. The son must once before assessors might be chosen. Besides these have been judicially punished by stripes, and colleges of regular judges, parties might choose have reached the age of puberty; finally, the law three judges or arbiters to decide in cases of could only be applied during a period of about dispute. In Jerusalem, besides the Great three months. Cursing parents whether living Sanhedrin, there are said to have been two or dead was punished by stoning; striking, if other of twenty-three. The power of

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appealing to higher courts lay with the judges, if incapable of bearing witness. Witnesses were they were not sure of their sentence, or in adjured by the parties at the bar; they were pecuniary matters with the accusing party. The strictly examined concerning the time, place, judges were not in receipt of any regular salary, and circumstances of the crime, and the but were compensated for any loss of time. slightest disagreement between them annulled Any communication with the parties, or the whole testimony. If the judges did not favoritism, disqualified a judge from understand the language of any of the pronouncing sentence. The candidates for the witnesses, they were not allowed to engage the senatorial office were required to be of good services of an interpreter, and, if dubious report, learned, grave, not engaged in any concerning their veracity, the case had to be degrading or sinful occupation, to be married heard again before another court. and to have children, not to be either too young The law distinguished three kinds of oaths or too old. Even the high-priest was subject to which might be exacted from the parties at the the jurisdiction of the Sanhedrin, but kings bar, that according to Biblical, according to were neither members of the Sanhedrin nor Mishnic, and according to Gemaric ordinance. subject to its authority. The regular times for The first was made by a party suspected of meetings of the local courts were the second unfaithfulness, by a defendant who had and the fifth days of the week, but it is not admitted a claim in part, and by one against known whether this was also the case with the whom only one witness had testified. The supreme Sanhedrin at Jerusalem second was made by the pursuer in a cause The ordinary hours for the sitting of the court where other sufficient proof was wanting. The were from after the morning sacrifice till the third form of oath was introduced at a later time of the meal. The judges were not allowed period for all other disputed cases, and for to communicate to parties on which side they testing witnesses. had voted. Finally, a legal provision denominated “Miggo,” Perfectly distinct from ordination to the office in consideration of, declared that a favorable of judge was that to the office of Rabbi or presumption attended the party who admitted teacher, or, as it was expressed, for “loosing and a fact, which, if fraud had been intended, might binding.” Sages set apart for one office were have been concealed by him. indeed generally supposed to be qualified for We have already hinted that the priests the other also, but in theory and in practice a themselves attended to the duties of temple distinction was made between the two. The police, and decided in all purely priestly Rabbi set apart “ to loose or bind “ might questions. Any further details on this subject authoritatively declare what was binding on the would necessarily lead us to an extended sketch conscience and what not, and in Talmudical of a former period. We therefore close this writings the phrase continually recurs by which account of the state of the Hebrew nation by a a teacher or a school is said to loose or to hind, brief exposition of their Theology, with its i.e., to declare something obligatory or non- kindred sciences. obligatory a license or ordination which was It has already been hinted more than once that afterwards conferred by the Savior upon all His the law laid down in the Mishnah frequently disciples, acting under the guidance of His Holy represents the theories and speculations of the Spirit. Jewish doctors of the second century, and not In all criminal, and even in most civil cases, the the actual practice of any given period. Several testimony of at least two witnesses was of their regulations deal accordingly with requisite. Parties interested, enemies, men or obsolete customs, and have little regard to the women related to parties, minors, slaves, actual circumstances of the time. The truth of heathens, robbers, felons, usurers, gamblers, this statement may be illustrated by sundry and publicans, as well as idiots, etc., were passages in the above sketch of the traditional

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law, as, for example, the principles laid down rigid adherence to the letter, and the attempt to respecting the nations of Canaan and the apply it to all conceivable relations, introduced Noachic Commandments, the jubilee, the cities the principles of traditionalism. At first of refuge, the king, and the penalty of death. propounded with a desire to apply the text of When Judea became a Roman province, the the Law in agreement with the wants of the power of life and death was taken away from times, and in accordance with the wisdom of the Jewish courts. the Fathers, this principle rapidly developed. Gradually men sought not so much to elicit Chapter 11 – Theological Science and from the text, as to introduce into it, the Religious Belief in Palestine principles of their peculiar schools or the Interpretation of Scripture decrees of the Synagogue. If any person conversant only with the inspired It is a point of great importance in the study of writings were to transport his preconceived Judaism generally, and of traditionalism in ideas into the relations which existed at the particular, to bear in mind that the outward time of the Savior’s advent, and to expect that observances, and not the doctrines of the Bible, the Synagogue had any system of doctrines formed the subject of authoritative teaching. regularly elaborated into a confession of faith, Every separate traditional legal ordinance was an examination into the actual state of matters termed a “ Halakhah.” The Halakhahs, or would soon convince him of his mistake. Only traditional ordinances, in their scientific on two dogmatic points, directly connected arrangement, constituted the Mishnah, or with the Bible, were the Rabbins agreed, the Deuterosis (traditional or Second Law), of being and unity of God, and the claims of the which the Talmud or Gemara was the Scriptures to implicit belief and obedience. On commentary, the explanation, illustration, and almost every other article of faith, and on many application. But as traditionalism itself was of the duties incumbent on members of the understood to be not so much an addition to, as Synagogue, we have nothing but the isolated a periphrastic comment on the Bible, it was and often discordant opinions of the sages. It is, early felt necessary to connect the Halakhah therefore, comparatively easy for friends and with the text of Scripture. The latter was to enemies of the Synagogue to find in these remain the basis of all teaching in the various statements proofs of what either Synagogue, from which the Mishnah was to be approaches to gospel teaching, or of what not evolved, or with which it was at least to be only contradicts it, but is opposed to sound organically connected. At the same time reason, right feeling, and the acknowledged traditionalism, which, either in its principles or codes of morality. All such inferences are in its ordinances, was traced through the equally unsatisfactory. Fathers to God, was declared inspired, or rather It must be borne in mind that the statements of of Divine authority, and, as the infallible and individual Rabbins are not the deliberate authoritative explanation of the requirements verdicts of the Synagogue; that they were not of Scripture, was in some sense superior to uttered as the result of professed investigations them, and at all events required more careful of the subjects on which they treat; and are study, and demanded more implicit obedience. hence at most to be taken as indications of the Hence, while we repudiate not only the prevalence of certain tendencies amongst the conclusion, but also the spirit of certain Rabbins, and of the currency of certain religious enemies of the Jews, such as Eisenraenger, ideas amongst the people. Wagenseil, and their successors, we cannot In its general aspect Judaism was a vast system wholly admit the bearing of the reasoning even of rationalism, in which the only settled thing of some friends of the Jews, such as Macaulay was the letter of the Law, the text of the and Oxlee. Commandments. The meaning and application It may at first appear strange that the outward of the latter formed subject of inquiry. This ordinances of the Bible should have exclusively

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formed the subject of teaching in the bound to decide accordingly. He studied the Synagogue; but, leaving out of consideration the Bible, consulted the opinions of the Rabbins, fact that they frequently formed the and had theological discussions with His angels. distinguishing mark which separated the Jews [However, the Rabbins did make practical from the heathen around them, these distinctions between their own ordinances and ordinances, and the books from which they the plain and express injunctions of Scripture. were derived, occupied in the mind of the Transgression of the former usually involved Hebrews a peculiar position. Although all less serious consequences to the offender, and Scripture was divinely inspired, the Jews it was acknowledged to be a graver offence if a distinguished three kinds, or at least degrees, of teacher of the Law supported an erroneous heavenly teaching. doctrine by Scripture, than if he merely Only to Moses (in the law) had God spoken face appealed to tradition.] to face. The Prophets were indeed under the It certainly seems unaccountable that, with this direction of the Spirit of God, but their adherence to the ordinances of the Pentateuch, inspiration was different in kind from that of the Synagogue could have ever reconciled itself Moses. In fact, great teachers and to the abrogation of sacrifices. But it requires to commentators were to some extent subjects of be borne in mind that this was not only a stern a similar inspiration. The third kind of Divine necessity, but that, in the course of its complete direction, applying specially to traditionalism, development, traditionalism had by that time was the “ Bath-Kol,” “daughter voice,” perhaps reached the pole opposite to literalism, that of the echo of the voice which Moses had heard, to pure rationalism. which we have already referred. To connect the Halakhah with the text of If the law (the Pentateuch) was thus separated Scripture, was the first and principal task of from all other portions of Scripture, as inspired Jewish theologians. That problem once solved, in its letters, sounds, and signs, so that not a traditionalism rested on a secure basis. Hillel stroke, particle, or preposition in it could the Great, Nahum of Gimso, Nechuniah, Ishmael possibly be in vain, or without special meaning, ben Elisa, but specially Akiba, had attempted to nor a figure or rhetorical illustration be found accomplish this. Unlike the Haggadist, whose in it, a somewhat similar view was taken of the teaching had no absolute authority in doctrine ritual observances contained in it. These were or practice, and who, therefore, might be neither symbolic nor temporary, but allowed more loosely to import his lessons into, constituted the substance of religion, were in to intertwine them with, or to lean them upon themselves right, and of eternal obligation. This Scripture, the connection between the confusion of the moral with the ceremonial law, Halakhah and the Bible had to be established on which ran through all Judaism, and made it all clear and definite exegetical principles, which ceremonial, led to startling and even in turn gave rise to the “ Middoth,” or exegetical blasphemous inferences. As legal observances canons of these Rabbins, which are the were eternal, and in themselves right and condensed formulae of their exegetical binding, not only had Abraham, Abimelech, and methods. even Adam himself practiced them, but they A Halakhah might be derived from Scripture in were the law of heaven itself. various ways. It was first sought directly to Bound by these legal determinations, God, who, gather it from a plain and natural interpretation according to the notion of the Rabbins, even of a text, it being, however, understood that for wore the phylacteries, had, against His this purpose it was not necessary to consult a inclination, felt obliged to take the scepter from text in its connection, but that any portion of a Judah. The court of heaven was turned into a verse torn out of its natural context was Synagogue, and it was thought that God Himself sufficient to establish a Halakhah. could not improve upon the dicta of the Rabbins, which were eternal truth, but felt

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In the absence of a simple scriptural proofs attached to one and the same passage of logical inductions or deductions were Scripture. Nevertheless the Haggadah remained attempted. If such were impossible, a only the personal saying of the individual superfluous letter, word, or particle, or teacher, whose authority depended upon his something unusual in the mode of expression, learning and reputation, or on the distinguished was laid hold of, or a transposition, omission, or names which he could quote in his support. change of letters attempted, in all which, [The only checks upon the individual fancy however, “ wont and custom “ formed a chief were a kind of exegetical tradition, and the element of determination. When all these necessity of making the exegesis agree on the means failed, Scripture was used as a point whole with accepted Jewish ideas.] d'appui, as a mere means of support to the The means used by the Haggadist for eliciting Halakhah. the meaning of the text were, simple study of In the Haggadah, which was the second branch the expressions, of any hint which the text of Jewish theology, a sage was not fettered by afforded, investigation of the contents of the legal determinations. It allowed an unlimited passage, or an attempt at directly ascertaining display of Talmudical ingenuity and wit, and its mysterious import. These various methods hence gradually swallowed up other studies. are together termed Pardes, a word formed by Like the Halakhah, the Haggadah took the Bible the contraction of the initial letters into one for its foundation, and presented word. commentaries, translations, paraphrases, [The party of the Sadducees, which had been legends, moral sayings, philosophical views, supported by the influence of the priestly sermons, etc., in connection with it. Here also nobles, disappeared from history at the fall of the Pentateuch was held to be pre-eminently Jerusalem. There was, therefore, now no party Divine. As Philo claimed inspiration for the to offer real resistance to the tendency of the LXX., so the Talmud for some of the Targums, or Rabbins, for the differences among the Schools periphrastic versions. related only to minor points, and not to the The theological predilections of the Haggadists, general principles of interpretation.] in fact, varied from the most material and often The student of Scripture was enjoined to begin coarse literalism to a spiritualism, which is his studies with prayer, to prosecute them with sometimes wholly ideal, at others introduces zeal, and to pay due attention to the guidance of the abstractions of heathen philosophy. As the properly authorized teachers.' Frequently the Haggadah was intended to explain and apply Haggadah introduced foreign ideas and subjects the hidden meaning of the text, two tendencies into the sacred text, by way of illustrating the became manifest in it. It was either attempted Scriptures, or of independently establishing the to explain sometimes to play upon merely the points elicited from the text. Proverbs, fables, words of a passage, or else to elicit the secrets and witticisms were brought forward as not of its letter but of its contents, in short, the exegetical auxiliaries, and the scientific notions doctrines and spiritual facts which the text of the times were freely referred to. Thus it was either indicated, or to which it alluded. The said that the attraction of the magnet had been former of these tendencies we may distinguish taken advantage of by Gehazi, in order to make as the Talmudic, the latter as the Gnostic the idolatrous calves ascend, so as to lead Israel Haggadah. Both were identical in their to adore them; or that the firmament was fundamental idea, and both spiritualized and formed by mingling together fire and water. ultimately discarded the text of Scripture. It Any historical references were generally needs no demonstration that the Gnostic grossly erroneous and absurd. Thus it was Haggadah was in reality such only in form. asserted that Romulus had reigned over the Necessarily, it was the fundamental principle of whole world, that Alexander had made an every Haggadic mode of interpretation that a expedition to Carthage, etc. Even with respect number of diverse comments might lawfully be

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to Palestine curious legends were current, such Even the order and shape of the letters as that at one time it had been 400 miles themselves gave rise to Haggadic sayings. square, that since the Exile it had shrunk like a Ordinarily, the exact meaning of words was deer's skin, etc. Even heathen myths were determined by sometimes valuable traditions; introduced, and mixed up with biblical but if necessary, an unusual application of a histories. Thus, when Esau embraced Jacob, the term was devised. Words were separated into neck of the latter became marble; and in the two, or explained by other and similarly Midrashim we meet with several stories which sounding words. Sometimes they were traced are evidently derived from well-known to cognate languages, or their meaning elicited classical legends. from parallel passages. Similarly the slightest We meet also with other heathen notions. Some hint was eagerly watched, and the proper Haggadists spoke, like Platonists, of original vowel-points (the Hebrew being written only ideas, prototypes, etc.; others observed and with the consonants) or the connection set interpreted numbers, like the Pythagoreans. At aside. The first letter of the alphabet was the same time all these views were professedly exchanged for the last, the second for the one derived from Scripture, and for this purpose before the last, etc., or the twenty-two letters figurative expressions were explained literally, divided into two parts, and the first and vim versa. By such quotations the exact interchanged with the twelfth, the second with powers of fire were, for example, described, the the thirteenth, etc. nature and progress of the wind defined, Still more arbitrary methods were “gematria,” geographical names explained, the number of by which the numerical value of the letters was worlds fixed at 18,000, etc. Sometimes the reins ascertained, and the text interpreted were given to imagination, and the appearance, accordingly; and “notarikon,” by which every etc., of a leviathan described; at others, with letter of a word was made the initial letter of a voluptuousness and even obscenity, passages of new word. Everything good and high was Scripture were distorted, and particulars always connected with God, the name “Jehovah” elicited vastly different from those meant by indicating His grace that of “ Elohim “ His the inspired penman. Historical allusions were justice. The repetition of a name, a promise, or a frequently enlarged and spiritualized, and blessing was viewed as an omen for good. allegorical interpretations introduced. Thus in Upon principles like these, thirty-two exegetical the Targum the Song of Solomon becomes an rules for the Haggadah were propounded by allegory of Jehovah's dealings with Israel. Joses ha-Gelili. Without enumerating them, we Still, as the Halakhah had its seven and its may say in general, that besides the substance thirteen Middoth, so even the Haggadah of the thirteen Halachic Middoth, they referred proceeded on defined principles. Certain to gematria, notarikon, transposition and peculiarities of the Hebrew language admitted exchange of letters, division of words, different interpretations. Thus, as the second explanation of particles, rearrangement of person masculine of the future sounds like the sentences, inferences from the context, or from third feminine, the one was exchanged for the the subjects treated in it, general applications of other; and the command to Noah to make the similes employed and of statements made in a ark was interpreted that the ark made itself. particular passage, reference of things to more The letter which indicates comparison was suitable subjects, selection of most suitable made to intimate apparent but not real things, application of numbers, etc. similarity, as when Israel is compared to In order to remove difficulties, the text had Sodom, etc. Where any distinct purpose was to often to be supplemented, and dialogues be served, the rules of grammar and between biblical persons, as between Nadab construction were directly violated. Again, with and Abihu, between Joshua and Achan, between no other purpose than that of giving a striking Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, and even the or clever comment, letters were changed. riddles which she propounded to him, were

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introduced. In fact, everything that could Methuselah,- God waited the seven days of possibly be twisted into a difficulty was made mourning before sending the flood. Abraham subject of lengthened discussion, sometimes at Rabbinically examined the knife before the expense of common decency. Anything proceeding to immolate Isaac. On the other marvelous in the text became legendary in the hand, because Jacob rent his garments, every commentary. Thus, the haunch-bone of Og was mourner was bound to do the same; because three miles in extent, and afforded room for Job's friends sat on the ground, others must do hunting deer; Samson reduced two mountains likewise in similar circumstances. Long before to powder by rubbing them against each other; the Law was given on Sinai, choice spirits had gems fell from heaven along with the manna, prosecuted its study. Shem and Eber had an etc. Again, ingenious reasons were assigned for academy, in which Jacob studied up to his certain statements, or an exact analogy was fourteenth year. Elisha, Manasseh, and David traced between man's conduct and the Divine were engaged with particular branches of the government. Halakhah, some of them not very edifying. At all times the biblical favorites of the It was in this way that Boaz ascertained that he Haggadists were magnified, while their might wed a Moabitess. Jonathan, the opponents were vilified in the same ratio. Thus grandchild of Moses, had, by a Moses was so beautiful, that all the husbands misunderstanding of a Halakhah, been induced were jealous of him. He was perfect; his face to become priest to Micah's idol; but, being was like the sun, his stature ten cubits, etc. better informed by the sages, he gave it up. Aaron's sin is excused. Reuben had not really When David was fleeing before Absalom, he committed incest, but only obliged his father to was uncertain whether he should not worship live with Leah, by depriving him of Bilhah. idols, in order to induce others to suppose his David did not commit actual adultery with misfortunes a consequence of his apostasy. Bath-Sheba, as all soldiers had to divorce their Hainan disputed with Mordecai about the rights wives, etc. of master and slave; David with Saul about the On the other hand, Laban had only embraced law of marriage; and their different views are Jacob in order to feel about his person whether manifest in their conduct towards Michal. he had brought any treasures with him. Esau The Haggadic statements about the Canon of had made only a pretext of disinterestedness Scripture add little to our knowledge. It was with Jacob, etc. Upon the same ground many said that Moses wrote the Pentateuch, the book stories were invented. Remarkable results were of Balaam (perhaps his Prophecies) and Job; obtained by the combination of divers passages Joshua, the work that bears his name, and the and events. Thus, when Jacob kissed Rachel, last eight verses of Deuteronomy; Samuel, the and wept, it was because he foresaw that they corresponding books, Judges and Ruth; David, would not rest in the same grave. When at the direction of the “ ten elders,” Adam, Potiphar's wife set her eyes upon Joseph, it was Melchisedek, Abraham, Moses, Haman, because she foresaw that Ephraim and Jeduthun, Asaph, and the three sons of Korah, Manasseh were to descend from her, for the book of Psalms; Jeremiah wrote his Asenath, Joseph's wife, was her daughter. Prophecies, Lamentations, and Kings; King Leah's eyes were weak from weeping, because Hezekiah and his college wrote the Prophecies she thought that, being the elder, she was of Isaiah, Proverbs, the Song, and Ecclesiastes; destined to be the wife of Esau, etc. In the same and the men of the Great Synagogue the way the different portions of Scripture were Prophecies of Ezekiel, of the Twelve Minor combined, and all religious ordinances were Prophets, and the books of Daniel and Esther; shown to be implicit in the Ten Ezra wrote his book and the genealogies of Commandments. Chronicles down to his own time, that work Again, Halachic laws were applied to biblical being completed by Nehemiah. The last verses times and events. Thus, after the death of of Joshua were written by Eleazar and

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Phinehas, the last chapters of Samuel by Gad verse 33); it shall behold strange gods (Ps. and Nathan. 81:9), for wine is the occasion of idolatry; as it The discourse or sermon also belonged to the is said (Isa. 28”7), “ They also have erred Haggadic productions. Its object was mainly through wine, and through strong drink are out practical : it expounded some difficult of the way.” When did they err? when they said Halakhah, or enforced some important duty. It (Ex. 32:8), “ These be thy gods, Israel “; but on frequently contained witticisms, parables, etc., that occasion the people ate and drank and rose in order to keep up the attention. Such up to play; it was therefore through wine that discourses were delivered on solemn or festive they thus erred. Thine heart shall utter occasions. We have elsewhere given specimens perverse things; wine is the occasion of of fragments of funeral orations, and now idolatry, incest, and murder, for wine makes a present one on the duty of sobriety from Lev. man to transgress (Hab. 2:5). A word there 10:9 : “Do not drink wine or strong drink.” used is also applied to the proud (Prov. 21:24); “Why is wine interdicted? Because those who and the same term, “ proud,” is in other drink it have wounds, sorrow, and shame; for passages applied to idolaters, incestuous the Holy Spirit says (Prov. 23;29, etc.),” Who persons, and murderers. Beware, therefore, of hath woe,” etc. The meaning of these verses is wine; if you drink too much of it, you see the as follows : Who hath woe and sorrow? he that world like a bark (verses 34, 35). You are made is contentious. To whom does this point but to to lie down in it, they beat you and you feel it him who has wounds and redness of eyes, who not, and yet you say, “ When I shall awake I will tarries at the wine? Look not upon the wine, for seek it again.” Woe to those who drink wine, blood comes at last (in our version, it is red). says the Lord (Isa. 5:11). Join them not, beware Blood looks bright, but it contains mischief. Do of wine (in Hebrew the letters of the word not think that wine is as fair within as it is “wine” are equal to seventy), lest the seventy without, for the toper looks into the cup, but the elders see you, for the drunkard was brought giver into the purse (a play upon the word “ cup before the Sanhedrin (Deut. 21:18, etc.). “ in the original, and a slight change in its Wine is called Chomer in Aramaic, the translation). He that looks into his neighbor's numerical value of which is 248, which is cup to seek wine for himself, covers himself exactly the number of bones in the body. For with filth and then goes to law (again a play wine penetrates into every member, weakens upon the words of the original); he sells all his the body, and robs us of consciousness. Where gear, remains without children or garments, wine goes in the secret goes out, for the and with an empty house; he walks in plains (a numerical value of the words “wine” and play upon the word in verse 31,” aright “), he “secret” are the same. A drunkard does not sets himself loose and into the ways of sin. He retain his reason, hence the Lord issued the talks openly with strange women, utters bold command of the text, which is a perpetual law. speeches, uses bad words, and loses all sense of But the Lord tells Israel that wine is only in this decency (verse 33). world a sign of the curse. In that which is to He is confused, and does not know what he come He is to change the wine into new wine does or what he thinks. At the last it biteth like (which does not intoxicate), and “ the a serpent (verse 32), i.e. the lust of the wine mountains shall drop down new wine, and the bites in that manner, for the bite of an adder hills shall flow with milk, and a fountain shall also is not felt at once, but when you reach your come forth out of the house of the Lord “ (Joel home the wound will fester. It as certainly bites 3:18). However absurd it may appear, the as a serpent; and as the earth was cursed on above is rather a favorable specimen of a account of the serpent, so Canaan on account of Haggadic sermon. Of the manner of delivery by wine (Gen. 9:25), Canaan, one of the sons of means of an Emora or Methurgeman, we have Noah, hence the third part of the world. Thine already spoken in another place. eye shall behold strangers (“strange women,”

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The various versions of, and commentaries on, Amongst the historical Hagadoth, including the Old Testament are objects of equal interest some of Greek origin, we may mention the to the scholar and the Bible student, as not only additions to the Books of Esther and Daniel expressing the views of the writers and their found in the LXX., a great part of the Second and contemporaries, but often embodying valuable Third Books of the Maccabees, Judith, Tobit, traditions of former centuries. It is interesting and the letter of Aristeas about the Seventy and important to know how certain passages of interpreters. Of very ancient date, and indeed the Bible were rendered and explained at, older than the Mishnah, is the oldest part of the before, or immediately after the coming of our Haggadah for the Passover, still in use among Lord. Happily our materials are here not scarce, the Jews. Megillath Taanith, a kind of almanac and we present them in abstract and in their recording memorable events which befell the historical order. nation, dates from the first and second At first, traditions were simply handed down centuries. from Rabbi to Rabbi. Akiba was the first to Next in order we have the historical work make a collection of the different Halachoth, but which gives the history of the Jews to the reign the authoritative arrangement of the oral law, of Alexander the Great, and dates from the which is termed Mishnah, was the work of the second century; and to the same century Nasi, Jehuda the Holy, about 190 after Christ. It belongs a Boraitha known as the thirty-two consists of six separate treatises. Partly older Middoth of Rabbi Eleazar. than that collection are the following [In the third century begin collections of Midrashim or Commentaries: (1) Sifra, or “ legends and stories no longer preserved in their Torath Kohanim “ (the law of the priests), a original form, but often alluded to in the Midrash on Leviticus; (2) Sifre, or “ Vishalchu,” Talmud. Of several of these there still remain on Numbers and Deuteronomy; (3) Mechilta, on later editions from the post-Talmudic age, e.g. part of Exodus. Some fragments are also still the Book of Antiochus, the Seder Olam Suta, preserved of a second or smaller Sifre on which records the succession of Babylonian- Numbers. All these contain later additions, but Exile princes, the Midrash Ele Eskrali relating to belong in the main to the third century. the Ten Martyrs, and the Midrash Yajisu and Next in order came the Boraithas or additional the Chronicle of Moses dealing with biblical Halakhahs, not contained in the Mishnah, and times.] the , or additions to the Mishnah. These The long Haggadic expositions of different parts also date, for the most part, from the period of the Bible are all apparently later than the ending 243 after Christ. We then arrive at the Talmud. Probably the oldest are “Bereshith . The Jerusalem Talmud was finished Kabba” on Genesis, and the Midrash on before the end of the fourth century, the Lamentations. In the course of five or six Babylonian about a century and a half later. centuries these were gradually enlarged into a Both are commentaries upon the Mishnah. The commentary on the whole of the Pentateuch Jerusalem Talmud, of which only a part has and the other five books prescribed to be read been handed down, comments on the first four in the synagogues, and the whole collection is treatises of the Mishnah; the Babylonian, on the known as “ Midrash Kabba.” first section of the first, and the greater part of Jelamdenu or Tanchuma, the oldest continuous the following four Mishnic treatises. Of treatise Midrash on the Pentateuch, belongs to the same six, one section only is commented upon in period, while the Pirke di Rabbi Eleazar is either Talmud. The Babylonian is about four perhaps somewhat earlier. times as large as the Jerusalem Talmud, and fills 2947 folio pages, being about ten or eleven The attempt to make the Scriptures popularly times the size of the Mishnah. Both enjoy accessible, would probably first lead to supreme authority to this day. versions, then to periphrastic and more general commentaries. The Targum frequently

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occupied a kind of intermediate position Kings, the renderings of the LXX are especially between the translation and the paraphrase. Of important. translations, strictly so termed, the oldest and Some characteristics of the Greek version may best known is the Greek or Septuagint version here be noticed. It bears evident marks of its of the Old Testament. The fables so long and origin in Egypt in its use of Egyptian words and firmly believed about the Seventy sages references, and equally evident traces of its summoned for that purpose to Alexandria by Jewish composition. By the side of slavish and Ptolemy Philadelphus (283-247 BC), their false literalism there is great liberty, if not inspiration, etc., may now be dismissed as no license, in handling the original; gross mistakes longer possessing credence. Although not occur, along with happy renderings of very within the sphere of our present history, we difficult passages, suggesting the aid of some may simply state that this version was made by able scholars. Distinct Jewish elements are different authors, and on the behalf of extra- undeniably there, which can only be explained Palestinian Jews. The version of the Pentateuch by reference to Jewish tradition; although they to which alone the Aristeas legend relates, are much fewer than some critics have dates no doubt from the third century before supposed. our era; while the work of translating the References to the Halakhah cannot perhaps be remaining books of the Old Testament was traced with certainty in more than six or eight probably completed in the course of the next passages. Allusions to the Haggadah are century. probably more frequent. Thus, the Greek of The character of the translation varies greatly Josh. 13:22 has been explained by the in the different books. The version of the Haggadah, that Balaam had by magic flown into Pentateuch, with the exception of a few poetical the air, but that had thrown him to chapters, is quite the best; on the other hand, the ground and killed him in the fall. Again, the many parts of the Minor Prophets are entirely reading in 1 Sam. 28:14 depends perhaps upon unintelligible. the legend that apparitions of ghosts were Leaving out of view the mistakes, additions, or generally in an inverted posture of body, while emendations by copyists, it is quite clear that that of Samuel had come up in the ordinary or the Hebrew text used by the translators straight position. differed widely from that which we now Considerable Haggadic additions also occur. possess. The variations affect in some cases Thus, we have in Prov. 6:8, praise of the whole paragraphs, and in the Book of Jeremiah diligence of the ant; in Josh. 24:30, a Haggadic we have virtually another recension. story about the knives with which Joshua Important variations are to be found also in the circumcised the Jews, in imitation of a similar last chapters of Exodus, in 1 Samuel and 1 Palestinian Haggadah about Moses; an addition Kings, and in Job, while to the Books of Esther to Hag. 2:9, etc. Sometimes verses were left out, and Daniel the LXX. makes large additions, to or even whole passages transposed. Passing which we have already alluded. When over grammatical and other blunders, differences of reading occur, in the great contractions, amplifications, and attempts at majority of cases the Jews have preserved the circumlocution, we notice that sometimes purer text. words are translated in one, and left Nevertheless there are many passages in which untranslated in another place, as the word it is clear that the Massoretic text is corrupt; “plain” rendered “west” in Josh. 11:16, and and in these cases the LXX., which carries us “Araba” in 12:8; or, “the children of Solomon's back to a period considerably before the servants,” in Ezra 2:55, while in verse 58 we Hebrew text had received its present form, read “the children of Abdeselma,” etc. often gives us very valuable assistance. In the Sometimes prepositions are treated as if they Books of Samuel, of Ezekiel, and in parts of formed part of the appellative, while evident

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traces of the familiarity of the translators with told that Rabbi Gamaliel expressed his strong Aramaic are found in Ps. 60:10, etc. disapprobation of the Targum on Job; but the The Samaritan version is of much less interest. Mishnah, rather more than a century later, In a large number of passages, which are mostly seems to imply that written Targums were then unimportant, its readings agree with the LXX. not uncommon. against the Hebrew, pointing to the numerous The most important Targum is that which is small changes which the Massoretic text has still preserved as the Targum Onkelos. Of undergone since these versions were made. On Akylas, the pupil of Akiba, we have already the whole, however, the Greek version bears a spoken; and if anything were required to much greater affinity to the Hebrew than to the establish his identity with Onkelos, it is found in Samaritan. this, that almost the same statements are made The Syriac version, or the Peshitto, dates from about Akylas in the Jerusalem Talmud and the the second century AD, and is probably the Midrashim, as in the Babylonian and work of Jewish Christians. about Onkelos. Certainly the Aramaic of Onkelos is not a translation of the Greek of [The translation does not come all from the Aquila, for the two versions frequently differ in same hand, and the treatment of the text varies rendering and in spirit. considerably in different books. Thus, while Job is literal, in the Books of Chronicles we have [Probably the statement that Onkelos was the almost as many paraphrases and additions as in author of an Aramaic Targum is simply due to a a Targum. The Psalms show the influence of the confusion, for the corresponding passage in the Septuagint, the Pentateuch that of Jewish Jerusalem Talmud relates to the Greek exegesis.] translation of Aquila.] If Greek versions of the Bible, and specially of There can be but little doubt that the Targum the Pentateuch, were at an early period felt Onkelos was written in Palestine, probably requisite for liturgical purposes, the Jews, who about the end of the second century; but it has spoke mostly the Aramaic language, must have passed through a later revision in Babylon. On also been provided with Targums in that the other hand, it doubtless preserves many tongue. At one time the translations were not traditional renderings of a much earlier date; written, for fear of usurping the authority of and since it contains many indications of being Scripture. At any rate, in the public reading of an abridgment of a more periphrastic the Bible, the interpreter gave his rendering translation, it would seem that our existing orally; and verse by verse in the Pentateuch, Targum is the result of a learned revision and and every three verses in the Prophets, were reduction of the oral Targum which had long given first in Hebrew, then in the known dialect. been traditional in Palestine. The rendering was not to be too literal, nor The dialect is a late variety of Palestinian were additions to be made to the text; but, as Aramaic, similar to the biblical “ Chaldee,” but confessedly certain passages were omitted and the language is colored with Babylonian idioms. others paraphrased, we can readily conceive The first characteristic of this version is that it that the general tendency of these prelections is a translation, and not a paraphrase; indeed, it was in favor of traditionalism. Various is often so literal as to reproduce the difficulties circumstances, perhaps among them political of the original. Sometimes, however, we have a troubles, combined to break down the comment, and the text of the original is then prejudice against written Targums. Jewish often altered. It frequently differs from the writings refer to one on Job, apparently dating Halakhah, and only rarely, in poetical passages, from the first century of our era; and it is not does it introduce the fanciful renderings of the improbable that the earliest written Targums Haggadah. The Messiah appears as a personage, were made on books which were not publicly and passages such as Gen. 19:10, Num. 24:17, read and interpreted in the synagogues. We are are applied to him. Passages which contain

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indelicate allusions (as was supposed) or historical events which bring it down at least to anthropomorphisms, are omitted or modified. the beginning of the seventh century. In particular, a reference to the Memra or Word [On the other hand, it still lies before us in an is generally introduced, where the original unabridged shape, and seems in this respect to attributes bodily affections to God, or be earlier, and to retain more of its original represents Him as entering into direct relations character, than the two Babylonian Targums. with men. The Jerusalem Targum, which only exists in a An equally important version was that on the fragmentary form, is closely allied to the Prophets, attributed to Jonathan ben Uzziel, the Pseudo-Jonathan, and like it represents the pupil of Hillel, and supposed to be derived from Palestinian tradition; but it is difficult to traditions of the Prophets Haggai, Zechariah, determine the relations of the two to one and Malachi. It is much less literal than Onkelos, another. It is, in the first place, uncertain and in the matter of unfulfilled prophecy often whether the Jerushalmi was ever a continuous quite Haggadic. Traditional elements and translation; and if from the first nothing more legends have found their way into it, questions than a collection of detached glosses, it is occurring in the text are answered, difficulties disputed whether it supplemented, or was solved, etc. Anthropomorphisms, or anything supplemented by the complete Pseudo- that might be used against Judaism, are omitted Jonathan.] or modified, and the miraculous is garnished. The difference between the Palestinian Jonathan's views of inspiration were somewhat Targums and that of Onkelos lies in this, that peculiar, and the sons of the prophets were while the latter generally translates and converted into Talmudical students. occasionally interprets, the former generally [This Targum is usually supposed to quote from interpret, and only occasionally translate. The Onkelos, but the similarities may be due to the Targum Pseudo-Jonathan is a Haggadic dependence of both on ancient traditional commentary. Thus, the words of various texts renderings. Like the Targum on the Law, this are compared to elicit a peculiar meaning. For also is doubtless a later recension of old oral example. Num. 20:11, compared with Ps. paraphrases, but it has preserved much more of 105:41, is made to prove that on the first stroke the old traditions than Onkelos.] the rock sent forth a stream of blood. The text is The language shows that it has undergone a generally expounded, enlarged, or modified, later revision in Babylon. Targums of various and brought into agreement with the prevailing dates exist on all the Hagiographa except Ezra theology. Miraculous additions occur, and Nehemiah, but none of them are earlier difficulties are attempted to be removed, and than the seventh century. Of these, the works apparent discrepancies reconciled. Dialogues on Psalms, Proverbs, and Job are mainly are also introduced as between God and man translations, but the versions of the five into Gen. 3, and there is a decided want of Megilloth, or books read in the synagogue (the artistic taste about its clumsy attempts at Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Esther, and simplicity. The interpretation is often poor and Ecclesiastes), partake rather of the nature of without regard to grammar, meaning, or paraphrases and commentaries. chronology. Very different from the translations of Onkelos Legends are introduced, and the general and Jonathan are the Targum Jonathan (falsely characteristics of the Haggadah are well so called) on the Pentateuch, and the Jerusalem exemplified in this Targum. We refer not only Targum, containing fragments upon the same to the many superstitious ideas and views portion of Scripture. The Targum Jonathan on broached, but to the curious views of heaven the Pentateuch, which probably owes its name and hell, the strange attempts at excusing to a mere error, is in its present form of quite a Haggadic favorites, and incriminating others, late date, and indeed contains notices of etc. The Law naturally is interpreted in the sense of the Halakhah. Historical facts are

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altered and improved upon, and in general it character, but the other two are sufficiently presents a by no means favorable specimen of extravagant. Everything is here Jewish; Jewish traditionalism. On the other hand, sometimes the bounds of modesty are passed, amongst the mass of rubbish there are also and Haman is especially made the subject of all exegetical gems. kinds of witticism. The “ second “ Targum, The Palestinian tradition is also found in the which is more modern, goes even further than Targums to the five Megilloth, but these no the first. It contains a great many digressions, longer exist in their original form. All have been such as a comparison of the throne of largely expanded, and are now even more Ahasuerus with that of Solomon, an account of plainly Haggadic than Targum Pseudo- the visit of the Queen of Sheba, etc. Fragments Jonathan. Stories are invented, such as that the of Targums to some portions of the Prophets Angel Gabriel stuck a tail to Queen Vashti's are also preserved, and it would scarcely be a forehead, that she was asked to appear naked, bold conjecture to suggest that at one time a and much more of low ribaldry and complete Palestine Targum existed on all the licentiousness. The letters are resolved into books of the Bible. their numerical value, words are torn out of the Another view of the same subject might be context, letters transposed, words differently presented by a critical investigation of the pointed, etc. Images are resolved, and the various apocryphal books, but these are young roes are Moses and Aaron, the breasts generally accessible, and any criticism would are the two Messiahs (the son of David and the necessitate too long digressions. In connection son of Joseph); gross anachronisms occur, such with this, it is interesting to study the views of as that the Jews had called in the Romans to Bible history as embodied in Josephus' deliver them from Nebuchadnezzar, but that, Antiquities of the Jews. He quotes Berosus, instead of this, Titus and Vespasian had taken Hecataius, and Micolaus in support of the Jerusalem for themselves, etc. history of Abraham (i, 7. 2); other heathen The Song of Solomon appears as an allegory, writers in confirmation of the Flood (i. 3. 6); a representing the relation between God and great number of authorities for the longevity of Israel, and is made to embrace the story of the the first inhabitants of the world; the Tyrian Exodus, the giving of the Law, the Apostasy, the Chronicles and Dius for the fact that Hiram had building of the Temple, the miracles of the propounded riddles to Solomon (8:5. 3), etc. He Prophets, the destruction of the Temple by also makes additions to the text. Thus, Lamech Nebuchadnezzar, the rebuilding of the had seventy-seven children by Zillah and Adah Sanctuary, and the wars of the Maccabees. It (i. 2. 2); Adam predicted the destruction of the also contains a good many legends about world by fire, and again by water, and the paradise, the fable about rolling after death children of Seth engraved this on two pillars; under ground, etc. The Targum on the Book of Abraham conversed with the wise men in Ruth is much less extravagant, and contains Egypt, and introduced them to the study of more of historical relations, such as about the mathematics and astronomy (i. 8. 2); the various seasons of famine, etc. Allegories occur, practices of the Sodomites (i. 11. 1), the war of as that the six measures which Ruth got were Moses with the Ethiopians, his cleverness, and six heroes sprung from her, a defense of marriage (ii. 10), etc., are described. We find monogamy is made, etc. also a number of deviations from the text. Thus, David brings 600 heads of the Philistines to Of similar character are the expositions of Saul (vi. 10. 2). Other things are omitted, or Ecclesiastes and Lamentations. Historical historically rearranged, and speeches and events are assigned as the occasion of letters are attributed to biblical personages, the particular portions of these books, and the chronology is fixed, etc. But, on the whole, the former Targum is conceived in a spirit Antiquities are the work of a Jewish apologist favorable to Rome. The Book of Esther has rather than of a Rabbi. Some very un-Jewish three Targums, of which one is of a literalistic

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theological views appear {e.g. vi. 11. 8; viii. 4. speculations are “ the Hidden Things,” or “ the 2). The work on the opinions of his countrymen Secrets of the Law.” about God, and on their laws, to which Josephus There were two subjects about which the refers at the close of his Antiquities, was Jewish imagination especially busied itself, the probably never written. history of the Creation, and the “Merkabah,” or Mysticism and Philo the Divine apparition to Ezekiel. Both touch the An interesting and important branch of Jewish question of God's original connection with His theology was that concerned with the mystical creatures, and that of His continued intercourse views of the Synagogue. The same tendency with them. They treat of the mystery of nature appeared amongst the Jews both in Palestine and of Providence, especially of Revelation; and and in Egypt, although in each case it was the question how the Infinite God can have any modified by the foreign elements with which it connection or intercourse with finite creatures was brought into contact. Mysticism marks is attempted to be answered. The greatest usually a period of transition. dread was felt of any reckless or irreverent treatment of such themes, and the same In Palestine it represented the reaction of the feelings which placed careful restrictions upon spirit against the letter, the attempt of minds the oral teaching or discussion of these wearied with the formalism and legal subjects, would also prevent any attempt being questionings of the Rabbins to penetrate more made to write down an exposition of the deeply into the knowledge of the Divine. In mysteries. Egypt its rise was due to somewhat different causes. Amid the decline of Greek philosophy, There is, in fact, no trace of a literature on the and the extinction of free political life, Jewish subject till after the completion of the Talmud. ideas exercised a powerful influence upon the The oldest Cabbalistic text-book which has thinkers of Alexandria. come down to us, the Sepher Jezirah, or the Book of Creation, is not earlier than the ninth At the same time, the Jew, separated from his century; and the principles here propounded own country, gave up much of his former receive their fullest and most remarkable exclusiveness, and along with this much of the development in the book “Sohar” (splendour), a definiteness of his national creed, and readily work of the thirteenth century. Doubtless the embraced the Hellenistic culture, in the midst of groundwork of the system is very old, reaching which he lived. From this combination of Greek back probably to a period before the Christian and Jewish thought there was developed a era; and it is the presence of these ancient system of dreamy mysticism, which exalted elements which so long supported the belief in contemplation above active life. In Egypt, the early origin of the two books just named. Jewish mysticism reached its highest development in the writings of Philo Judaeus. In It is difficult to say how far back it is possible to Palestine the system evolved more slowly; and trace with certainty the Jewish mysticism. Even while abundant traces of it are found in the in Sirach (Ecclus. 49:8), it is the special praise of Talmud, it only reached its culminating point in Ezekiel that he saw the chariot of the Cherubim; the Kabbalah of the Middle Ages. and there is much of a mystical character in the Book of Enoch and other apocryphal writings. This name was not used to denote a system of When we come to the Mishnah, we find the theosophical speculation till after the Talmudic existence of a body of esoteric doctrine already age. In the Mishnah, the earliest Midrashim, and presupposed. It is laid down that “ no one ought the Talmud, the Kabbalah (from Qihhel, to hand to expound the history of Creation (Gen. 1) with down) denotes the whole body of Jewish two, or the Chariot (Ezek. 1) with one, unless he tradition. The name is even applied to the be a scholar who has knowledge of his own.” prophetic writings of the Old Testament, and Further allusions to these mysterious doctrines the Hagiographa, in contradistinction to the occur in the Talmud, but any rash investigation Pentateuch. The older names for mystic of them was discouraged, as is shown by the

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story of the Four Sages in the enclosed Garden, are afterwards derived. In the “ Sepher Jezirah,” of which we have' already spoken. these Divine realities (the substance) are The term Sephirah is never found here in its represented by the ten numerals, and their later technical sense, nor have we more than form by the twenty-two letters which hints of the characteristic Cabbalistic doctrine constitute the Hebrew alphabet, language being of emanation. Nevertheless the Un things viewed as the medium of connection between created on the first day, and still more the ten the spiritual and the material; as the form in things by which the world was created (viz. which the spiritual appears. At the same time, wisdom, understanding, knowledge, strength, number and language indicate also the rebuke, might, righteousness, mercy, judgment, arrangement and the mode of creation, and, in and compassion),- remind us of the ten general, its boundaries. Sephiroth of the Kabbalah. Names of God “By thirty-two wonderful paths,” so begins the “ consisting of twelve and of forty-two letters are Sepher Jezirah,” “ the Eternal, the Lord of Hosts, spoken of,” and there are speculations on the the God 'Of Israel, the living God, the King of the import of the letters of the sacred World, the merciful and gracious God, the Tetragrammaton similar to those which play glorious One, He that inhabits eternity, Whose such an important part in later mystical name is high and holy, has created the world.” writings. The Metatron as an intermediary But these ten numerals are in reality the ten subsistence occurs even in the Talmud; in the Sefiroth, or Divine emanations, arranged in Targums we find also the Memra and the triads, each triad consisting of two opposites Shechinah. The existence of a belief in the pre- (flowing or emanating from a superior triad existence of souls and of the plurality of worlds until the Divine Unity is reached), and being can readily be proved from . reconciled in a middle point of connection. Some of the Midrashim discuss the question of These ten Sefiroth, in the above arrangement, primeval matter. The Targums of the sixth and recur everywhere, and the sacred number Ten seventh centuries in their rendering of the 1st is that of perfection. Each of these Sefiroth chapter of Genesis, and still more in their flows from its predecessor, and in this manner angelology, illustrate the further development the Divine gradually evolves. This emanation of of Jewish thought. Yet even here we are the ten Sefiroth then constitutes the substance separated by a considerable interval from the of the world; we may add, it constitutes elaborate system of the mediaeval mystics. everything else. In God, in the world, in man, It is unnecessary to discuss here the theology of everywhere we meet these ten Sefiroth, at the the “Sohar,” owing to its very late date; but we head of which is God manifest, or the Memra may perhaps be permitted to give a brief sketch {Logos, the Word). of the doctrine of the earlier work, although If the ten Sefiroth give the substance, the even this really lies outside our period.] twenty-two letters are the form of creation and The “Sepher Jezirah” is properly a monologue of revelation. “By giving them form and shape, on the part of Abraham, in which, by the and by interchanging them, God has made the contemplation of all that is around him, he soul of everything that has been made, or shall ultimately arrives at the conviction of the Unity be made.” of God. “Upon those letters also has the Holy One, We distinguish the substance and the form of Whose name be praised, founded His holy and creation; that which is, and the mode in which it glorious name.” These letters are next is. We have already indicated that the original subdivided, and their application in all the of all that exists is Divine. departments of nature is shown. In the unit creation, the triad world, time, and man are 1st, We have God; 2nd, God manifest, or the found. Above all these is the Lord. Such is a very Divine entering into form; 3rd, That Divine in brief outline of the rational exposition of the its form, from which in turn all original realities creation, attempted by the “Sepher Jezirah.”

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The theology of Philo occupies the other Though the writings of Philo are the oldest extreme in the chain of Jewish mysticism. Alike connected production breathing the spirit the result and the exponent of the peculiar peculiar to the Alexandrian school, he was by Alexandrian direction, it influenced the no means the first to originate it. He himself theological thinking of the Church, and the appeals to predecessors in these inquiries, and speculations of the academy. besides the kindred extracts from previous The development of Greek philosophy having writers, preserved, for example, in Eusebius ended in eclecticism or skepticism, it was now even in the Old Testament version of the so- ready to be modified by the admission of called Seventy interpreters some indications of Oriental ideas. But in Alexandria no influence a similar theology may probably be traced. was more powerful than that exerted by the Philo, an Alexandrian Jew, by birth connected presence of a large body of thinkers belonging with the most influential of his countrymen in to the Jewish faith, chief among whom was Egypt, where his brother held the important Philo. office of Alabarch, was a man of profound erudition, thoroughly acquainted with Grecian To gain universal acknowledgment for his literature and philosophy, but specially of deep creed, and to elevate its mysteries to the moral earnestness. highest pinnacle, by showing that what of truth there was in Platonism was derived from Often had he retired to the wilderness to lead in Judaism, such was the object of Philo. solitude and abstinence a more spiritual life; but as often did the felt plague of his heart The Jews of Egypt passed, in general, through a convince him “that it was not change of place peculiar training. However firmly they clung to that brought either evil or good.” Above all, he their national faith, the more cultured amongst was devotedly a Jew. He had visited the Holy them could not fail to be strongly attracted by City, to offer, after the fashion of extra- Greek thought and speculation. At the same Palestinian Jews, prayers and sacrifices; but time, they found that their nation and their there is nothing in his own writings to confirm religion were continually being made the the statement of Jerome that he was of priestly objects of bitter attack by the Greek literati of descent. Alexandria. It was therefore necessary for them to learn how best they might reconcile heathen Notwithstanding the scorn which the bigotry of philosophy with the Jewish creed, and defend some of his co-religionists brought upon his the latter from the charges brought against it. creed, he was not ashamed publicly to avow his To retain the truths of Platonism in Judaism, to connection with them. The persecution which vindicate them for and to elicit them from the the envious Egyptians sought to raise against Old Testament, such was the first task of the the Jews on the occasion of the mad attempt of Alexandrian Jewish apologist. But if the very the Emperor Caius to enforce the universal symbols and letter, the husk of that religion, adoration of his statue, led to the dispatch of an already placed the Jew on a footing of equality embassy to Rome, of which Philo was the most with, or even elevated him above the Platonic prominent member. He has described the ill- philosopher, what a distinguished position was success of that mission in a treatise which occupied by the Jewish theosophist, whose throws some light upon the state of the Roman ecstasy equaled in kind, though not perhaps in court at that period. degree, the inspiration of the prophets ! Hence [Many of Philo's writings have evidently been the study of philology, logic, poetry, rhetoric, lost, but we still possess the greater part of and heathen philosophy was highly to be them, and several fresh fragments have been commended, but they served only to prepare discovered and published within the present for the Divine philosophy of Judaism. They century. Yet in spite of the abundance of were only the porch before the entrance. Such, material, and the fullness with which this it appears, were the fundamental views celebrated philosopher expounds his doctrines, entertained by Philo. it is difficult to give a connected account of his

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system. Many of his views he has merely It were impossible, it is ridiculous, to interpret worked out in the course of an elaborate series literally many scriptural statements, which, so of commentaries on portions of the Pentateuch; understood, are contrary to reason, and would while the different elements on which his degrade Judaism below the level of heathen system was based were too heterogeneous to philosophy. In explaining the supposed be combined into a consistent whole.] allegories of Scripture, the Greek text of the As to his general views of Scripture, it may be LXX. is rigidly adhered to by Philo, though sufficient to indicate that he clings with tenacity traces of a respectable acquaintance with the to the letter, in the version of the LXX., and that Hebrew occur. A good deal was, of course, to be in perfect consistency with his allegorical mode left to the exegetical tact of each interpreter, of interpretation, by which not only individual but the following seem to have been some of passages bear a profound and mystical the principles of Alexandrian exegetics : meaning, but Scripture, as a whole, becomes 1. The terms in the text may be expanded, and one connected allegory. In such a system, its statements applied to any or all topics to clinging to the letter, to which generally the which the same expressions might peculiar interpretation strictly attaches itself, figuratively be applied. Thus the word “ was necessary. Where philosophical interests place “ might, besides its proper meaning, do not demand its rejection, the ordinary apply to the Logos, and even to God, Who historical interpretation is, however, retained, contains and fills all. and forms the basis of the mystical. The 2. The idea conveyed in the text may be doctrinal views of Philo may briefly be educed from the words by showing a characterized as a mixture of Platonism and similar etymological derivation, and hence Jewish mysticism. In point of 'practice, he an affinity between the words and the idea. advises conformity to the Jewish ritual 3. Everything not absolutely requisite in the observances, although mainly, it would seem, text was supposed to point to some special on the ground of avoiding scandal. Moral and hidden meaning. perfection is sought in asceticism, in opposition to the Platonic view of this subject, although the 4. Attention was to be given to the exegetical fundamental principles concerning matter are traditions of the Fathers. the same in both systems. 5. Above all, the commentator may, by [However, Philo sometimes applies to matter reaching the ecstatic state of the inspired language borrowed from the Stoic school.] writer, sympathize with and gain an immediate view of the same truth. 6. Like most Jewish theologians, Philo places the Several differing interpretations may all authority of Moses above that of the other convey portions of truth, inspired writers, who are considered rather as his interpreters and followers than as his The theology of Philo is determined by the equals. But even in Moses we have to dualistic standpoint which he adopts; for he distinguish what he attained by philosophical continually dwells upon the antithesis between acquirement from that which he received from God and the world, the Infinite and the Finite, God, either in ecstasy (a state more or less and emphasizes the absolute transcendence of attainable by all initiated), in answer to his God. Philo affirms that the Divine nature is in inquiries, or by direct communications. The itself without quality, and indefinable. All his results of all these are laid down in the definitions on this subject are only negative, Scriptures. But all deeper spiritual truths showing that neither thought nor language can appear there veiled; the letter conveying approach Him. “ He is more indivisible than comparatively low and carnal views in order to indivisibility; “ “ more good than goodness; condescend to the gross and carnal notions of more beautiful than beauty,” etc.; in short, “ He the vulgar, so as to bring at least some truth to is more simple than a monad, or than unity them. itself.”

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Three inferences are drawn from the absence of The forms of matter alone exhibit design, and all quality in God and His separation from all: are the workmanship of God, Who is the 1. That He is free. Architect rather than the Creator, the Demiurges, though also the Father of this 2. That He is inaccessible to feelings of every world. To complete this part of our sketch, the kind, or apathetic. world was produced by the Divine life pouring 3. That He is perfectly happy, rejoicing in itself forth into and pervading matter, in as far Himself. as matter was capable of receiving it, and that Apathy, freedom, and happiness are thus in a peculiar manner. “When God was about to combined, affording a distant view of the origin form the world, He proceeded, like other of Asceticism. Such a God can never be known architects, to form a plan, an invisible, purely by mortals, they can only recognize that He is, intelligible world; of which the visible is the and that which is by Him. But as God is in all exact counterpart. These ideas, or the and pervading all. His rational creatures may, individual Logoi, are again all combined into by virtue of this Divine power in them, rise to the one Logos, who contains and comprises in Him in ecstatic moments when the fetters of himself that incorporeal world. matter are for a time cast aside. No particular The Logos formed the world in a twofold name ought to be given to the Deity, “ He Who manner, by separating the chaotic mass of the is,” “ that which exists,” “ He Who exists in four elements, and dividing them into truth,” are His only lawful designations. Names antagonists until the simplest forms were may, however, be given to that inferior Being, “ reached; and by binding them again together the Logos,” God manifest, which stands in into a higher unity. By the Logos the continued contact with the world as its Creator, and to the connection between God and the world is also individual Logoi, the attributes, or rather the kept up; for, on the one hand, he is the soul of active intermediaries of the Deity, which in the world, the living and moving force within it; their totality constitute the Logos. All those and on the other, he is the Great High Priest, passages in Scripture which attribute who makes intercession for the world to God. In affections, etc., to God, are only these respects the Logos is the Mediator, the anthropomorphisms, and must be explained connecting link between God and the world, the allegorically. interpreter of our spirits and of God, the name In his Cosmology, Philo approaches to Plato of God, the vicar of God, the image of God, etc. In more closely than to the Kabbalah. This world a certain sense he may even be spoken of as is to him the gate to the invisible, the first step God, though, in contrast to the Most High, he is of the heavenly ladder. The order and only the second God. adaptation of the world point to a heavenly The Logos is made to say : “I stand in the Architect, while the fact that everything that middle between God and you,” being neither exists is dependent on higher powers, and un-begotten as God nor begotten as us, but the subject to change, sufficiently indicates their middle between these extremes. created origin. However, such proofs for the The relationships existing between God, the being of a God are second in rank when Logos, the potencies, and the world, are compared with the evidence which “ the truly described by Philo in different passages, which pious and holy “ obtains by rising, “ without any cannot be entirely reconciled. Generally he external help,” to an immediate contemplation speaks of two supreme powers, which are of the Divine.- But we have to distinguish combined by the Divine Logos, while the latter between the form and the matter of this world. is regarded as the instrument of Creation/ The latter is inert, irrational, and continuous, “After the only true God there are two supreme and must be viewed as a principle coeternal and primary potencies, goodness and power, with God, entirely different from, and therefore and everything has been made by goodness, not produced by Him. and is governed by power. Between them and

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connecting them is the Logos.” “ The author of sketch, expressions have been used which point this world is God, by Whom it is made; the to a personal being; nevertheless we find the matter of the world, the four elements from Logos spoken of as the totality of the Divine which it has been prepared; the instrument is powers, or reckoned as one of them. the Logos of God, by whom it has been built, [The Logos is for Philo the power of God, the and the final cause the goodness of the active Divine intelligence; it is the idea, which Demiurges.” contains all other ideas, the supra-sensible In another passage the potencies are six, world.] symbolized by the six Levitical cities of refuge, In one place it is identified with the wisdom of and they include, beside the Divine Logos, the God; yet elsewhere it becomes the first-born creative, the ruling, the atoning, and the son of God, born of wisdom, the spouse of the legislative potencies. This enumeration is, Most High. however, really unimportant; other potencies [The Logos is, in fact, both impersonal and besides these are mentioned; their number is personal, a property of God and a distinct unlimited, for they are indeed the infinite subsistence. This double character becomes powers of an infinite God. Philo's system possible, because in Philo's conception of required some intermediary beings or powers, personality there is an indistinctness which is whereby his transcendent and absolutely to be found also in other thinkers of antiquity, perfect God could be brought into relation with and the Logos accordingly serves at the same the world and with matter. Two philosophical time to unite and to separate the finite world theories supplied him with what he required, and the infinite God.] the Platonic doctrine of ideas, and the Stoic doctrine of active causes. These he accordingly In Philo's Anthropology we may notice combined, so that his potencies are not only especially the distinction which he draws in the archetypal models, but also productive causes. immaterial part of man, between sensibility and reason. The former of these was connected with [But, in part, his system is derived from popular the body, and would die with it. The reasoning notions, for the Jewish teaching about angels part in man was not produced, as all other and the heathen belief in demons or demi-gods creatures in the world,, by the Divine potencies, also suggested a pattern for the intermediary but is, like the other high intelligences, of whom beings and messengers of God. And if we ask it is one, a direct emanation of the Deity, and whether Philo conceived of the potencies as the very image of the Logos. In fact, man stands personal or impersonal beings, the only on the dividing line between mortal and possible answer is that he did not clearly immortal beings, so that he is the microcosm of distinguish between the two. Many passages which the world is the macrocosm. seem to show that they are separate hypostases, but this view cannot be brought Hence, in his production, the Divine potencies into harmony with other equally definite co-operated with God, as it is written, “ Let us statements. It is said, for example, that the make man.” Beside our earth the whole powers or types exist only in the Divine universe is peopled. The air is specially the thought. Indeed, it is this very inconsistency, of dwelling-place of a higher class of beings, some which Philo himself does not seem to be aware, of whom had descended on earth, and by which enables them to fulfill the part assigned uniting with the material elements there, to them in his system. In so far as they are originated the human race. These air-spirits (or identical with God, they establish a connection angels) constitute the Spirit of God. There are between God and the world : in so far as they no evil spirits or devils, as all sin is connected are distinct from Him, they allow the Godhead with and inherent in matter, and depends upon to remain free from all contact with matter.] the power of sense. Evil angels are only the disembodied souls of evil men. The body as the The same difficulty meets us again with regard seat and cause of moral evil is the prison of the to the Logos. In the earlier portion of this

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soul, and virtue consists in victory over the succumbs, because his piety is uncultivated, material. When conquering it, the soul, the air- and his mind untrained. spirit in us, rises by virtue of its nature to an In another series of allegories we have the ecstatic communion with the Divine. If such processes described whereby the soul rises have been our life, the liberated spirit rises at from sin and sense to devotion to reason. The death to an immediate contemplation of God. A desired end might be attained by learning, by twofold bond connects during our present state discipline, or by a good natural disposition. In the spirit with matter, that of necessity and that each case there is a lower and a higher stage of of pleasure. The former cannot be loosened, but advance, the former typified by Enos, Enoch, the latter, in itself the closest and most and Noah, the latter by Abraham, Jacob, and dangerous, has to be broken. Love of pleasure is Isaac. Enos represents hope fixed on God; and the source of all sin, and to its removal the Abraham is study, which, leaving the land of energies of man must be directed. sensuousness, passes through the cycle of In his ethical disquisitions, Philo has an secular learning, and rises to Divine philosophy. opportunity of fully developing his peculiar Enoch (repentance) is translated from the method of Scripture interpretation. The history world of sin; Jacob is the type of a soul of the Old Testament, as a whole, is struggling against things of sense, often nearly transformed into an allegory. Adam is pure failing in the conflict, but conquering at last by reason unconnected with sense, but which, in the help of God. Noah is rest or righteousness; order either to act or to be happy in this world, he was only perfect in Ms generation, in the required to assume a form similar to it, or a ordinary virtues; but Isaac symbolizes the free body. It was not good for Adam to be alone, and unfolding of the innate spiritual life. God gave him (pure reason) a companion, Asceticism consists in abstinence from worldly namely, sensibility. But they were both naked, or material pleasures, and patient endurance of i.e., not properly connected. An end was put to all sufferings. However, asceticism does not this state of matters by the serpent, or pleasure. imply abstinence from the necessaries of life, or The union thus brought about constitutes the the self -infliction of pain for the mortification fall of pure reason, which, however, implies not of the flesh. Its full practice in entire sin, but imperfection and liability to moral evil. renunciation of the world, and retirement to Hence also the child, though fallen, is not the wilderness, is only recommended to those corrupt during the first seven years of its life, of mature age and at the close of a practical life, its soul then being a “ tabula rasa.” in which the principles of asceticism have been It is only when reason is steadily rejected, and studied, defended, and partially exemplified. the soul seeks after and loves the sensual, that We conclude this brief sketch by giving Philo's the dominion of sin is established. The beasts replies to some questions on which the reader brought before Adam, and over which he was to may desire information. Trials and difficulties, reign, are the passions. From the connection the necessary consequences of our connection between Adam and Eve (reason and sensibility) with matter, are in this respect indeed requisite sprang, as first child, pride and presumption, or for the moral education of the ascetic, but Cain. For after the union of mind with the absolutely speaking they are hindrances, and senses, the mind at first considered everything even Philo looks forward to a period when such as its own, and from this arrogance, or Cain, impediments will no longer intervene between spring all human ills. The names of the progeny the soul and God. The privileges of the Israelites of Cain are therefore expounded as allegorically do not consist in their original choice by God, expressing the various ills of the soul. On the but in possessing an ancestry which, by gradual contrary, Abel was natural and untrained piety, development, attained in Moses to full the younger son, because it succeeds the communion with God. Their sufferings were tempest of firstborn youthful passion. Cain and due to sin, and were intended as a warning to Abel enter into contest, in which Abel all men.

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But a brighter day is yet to dawn upon Israel. The neighborhood of Alexandria, not far from Their common return to piety will fill the Lake Mareotis, was the chief resort of these nations amongst whom they are dispersed with recluses. Their houses were of the most simple awe; they will be dismissed from the lands of description, so as only to afford shelter from their captivity, and return to Palestine, under heat or cold. Meat and drink were only touched the guidance of a Divine superhuman after sunset, as the glorious light of day was not appearance, visible only to themselves. An era to witness any bodily indulgence. Sometimes of universal holiness, peace, and prosperity will their fasts were protracted for three or even six then ensue. Passion will give place to virtue, days. On the Sabbath, together with peculiar wild beasts will lose their destructive character, attention to spiritual wants, those of the body war will cease, or at least its commencement were also cared for. However, the luxuries of and termination will be almost simultaneous. that day consisted only of bread and salt, or The harvests will be so plentiful that none will hyssop and water. Their garments also were of require to collect stores, and the supply of each the simplest kind. It is scarce necessary to add will be abundant. A numerous family, long life, that they lived in celibacy, longing only for the exemption from disease, in a word, everything marriage of the soul with God. requisite for happiness and comfort will be In each of their dwellings was a little sanctuary, provided. called “Semneion,” or “ Monasterion,” in which The Messianic king also appears in Philo's ideal everyone spent the day in meditation, study of future, in the person of a man who shall go the Law, or of the sayings of the saints, and in forth to war and subdue great nations spiritual songs. Twice daily they prayed. When This belief in a personal Messiah, which stands the sun made his appearance, they entreated in no connection with the doctrine of the Logos, for a happy day, i.e. one in which their minds only shows how fully Philo shared the popular might be filled with heavenly light. When the expectation of his countrymen. sun set, they prayed that the soul, set free from the encumbrance of everything sensual, might Mysticism was represented in Egypt by the sect be able to rise to the contemplation of truth. of the Therapeutae, in Palestine by that of the The Law was interpreted according to the rules Essenes. The difference between them, of an allegorical exegesis, the letter of Scripture according to Philo, was that the Therapeutae being deemed but a symbol. led a contemplative, the Essenes an active life. It is not ours to advert in this place to the The Therapeutae professed to possess the peculiarities of climate and natural disposition writings of the founders of their sect, which favorable to the development of asceticism and served them as models for meditation and the monachism, the embodiment of the spirit of composition of hymns. Every seventh day they bondage, which even in nature seems to delight met. They sat according to age and dignity, with only in solitude and awe. Egypt, the home of hands turned inwards, the right between the Christian asceticism, produced also a set of breast and chin, the left resting on the side. The Jewish monks. The Therapeutae were men and oldest and best initiated then delivered a women who, for ascetic purposes, left their discourse, in which, not in studied or friends and dwellings, and, having persuasive language, but simply and gravely, he disencumbered themselves of every worldly referred to some of the mysteries of Scripture. care, by giving their substance to their relatives, All listened in silence, indicating their assent retired to desert places, where they lived in only by a motion of the head or eyes. communities, each individual inhabiting a In this common sanctuary, women and men sat solitary dwelling, yet, for the purposes of apart, being separated by a low breast-wall of mutual protection, within easy reach of each three or four cubits height. Specially solemn other. was the seventh Sabbath, when they commemorated the passage of the Red Sea, which was perhaps regarded as a symbol of the

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passage from the world to asceticism. One of which were probably those of Parseeism or their officers arranged the worshippers, who Pythagoreanism.] appeared in white raiment. After prayer they Gradually the party attained the peculiar reclined on beds of papyrus round a table (the organization described by Josephus, when it eldest occupying the places of honor), the men consisted of four grades, distinguished by at the right, and the women at the left side of degrees of ceremonial purity, by the room. The junior members served, all acquaintanceship with mystical theology, and slavery being repudiated as the iniquitous by varied occupation, from the tilling of the consequence of injustice and avarice, in ground through the practice of medicine consequence of which the stronger lorded it upwards to the working of miracles. The over the weaker. The viands were those for members of the four classes, amounting in all to ordinary Sabbaths. about four thousand, kept distinct from each A member then delivered a discourse on some other, avoiding even the touch of a member of scriptural subject, amidst profound silence, the inferior grades. They lived in the various only interrupted by the inquiries of the hearers. cities of Palestine, but their chief settlements Looks and nods indicated that the audience were near the Dead Sea. They welcomed as understood the argument; serenity of brethren all strangers belonging to their order. countenance, or a slight turn of the face, They despised riches and pleasures, held applause; a shake of the head, or a sign with the disparaging views of marriage, but we are not finger, expressed doubt. At the close all made a expressly told that they were given to ascetic joyful noise; then one of the members sang a practices. They threw all their means into a hymn, composed by himself or by one of their common fund, administered by special officers own poets; others followed, the rest joining in of their own. A novitiate of one year was chorus. After this exercise, the meal was served, requisite to admit the candidate to the first and then the distinctive feast of the evening degree of purity, and a further membership of commenced. Men and women ranged two years before he could be admitted to the themselves in two bands, and, under the common table, or obtain that second degree of leadership of the most experienced, sang purity requisite to allow the brethren to eat hymns, accompanying them with gesticulations with him. Some of the Essenes are said to have and dances. Then the two bands mixed, obtained a knowledge of the future, and “inebriated with Divine love as in the feasts of Josephus relates more than one instance of Bacchus.” Thus the night was spent; when morn their predictions being fulfilled. dawned, they looked to heaven and parted with The Essenes joined in common meals, prayed at mutual good wishes, each to his Semneion. sunrise, repudiated slavery, were under the The Essenes unlimited control of their officers, etc. From Of the rise and origin of the kindred sect of the certain scruples connected with ceremonial Essenes we know hardly anything. We first purity, they abstained from offering sacrifices hear of them in the time of Jonathan Maccabeus, in the Temple, though sending other gifts there. and one Judas, an Essene, is named in the reign Probably they regarded the shedding of blood of (105 BC). as being itself a pollution. Purifications, the [Though there is no satisfactory evidence to study of mysticism, separation from the connect them with the Chasidim, it is not uninitiated, and some peculiar doctrines, for improbable that the sect is the outcome of a example, with reference to predestination, similar tendency towards exclusiveness. Their distinguished them from the other Jews. Their principles and practices are mainly of Jewish discipline seems to have been very strict, and origin, but they show unmistakably that they an oath of secrecy bound the possessors of the have been modified by external influences, mysteries. The sect became extinct some time after the destruction of Jerusalem.

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[Both Neo-Platonism and the Kabbalah present serpent and Eve put sin into the heart of every many strong resemblances to that form of one of her descendants. Happily this evil seed Jewish mysticism which is represented by has, in the case of Israel, been purged by their Philo. All three agree in their abstract presence at Sinai. There also assembled the conception of God, in their theory of souls of the prophets yet unborn, and first intermediary powers or beings whereby God learned what they were afterwards to proclaim. acts in the visible world, in their treatment of Among the prophets, Isaiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel matter as the seat of evil, and consequently in seem to have been the most highly esteemed. their ethical teaching, that it was necessary to The views of the Rabbins concerning the Divine rise superior to the bondage of the senses. But Being are sometimes sublime. His unity is the while Philo subordinated the systematic central truth of the Jewish creed; His freedom treatment of his doctrine to his exposition of from all human limitation and imperfection is the Jewish Scriptures, the Neo-Platonists gained often asserted. He is represented as the Aleph alike in clearness and consistency by their (the first letter, the beginning), the Mem (the adherence to scientific method. It was on purely middle letter, middle), and the Tav (the last philosophical grounds that they sought to letter, the end) of all, Who created everything resolve the original dualism between God and for His own glory; power, wisdom, and matter. Such a dualism the Cabbalists also, from goodness are His prominent characteristics. the standpoint of Jewish monotheism, rejected However, His mercy was not to be isolated from far more decidedly than Philo; this, however, His justice. But whenever the Rabbins descend did not prevent them from forming a definite from general to particular statements, we meet theory of emanation, of which we can find with absurdities and even blasphemies. The nothing more than traces in the Jewish most general representation of the Divine Being philosopher.] is as the chief Rabbi of heaven; the angelic host Jewish Theology being His assessors. In attempting to arrange the doctrinal views of This heavenly Sanhedrin takes the opinion of the Rabbins, we are bewildered by a mass of living sages in cases of dispute. Of the twelve erroneous, blasphemous, and even hours of the day, three are spent by God in contradictory statements. Still, as to withhold study, three in the government of the world (or them would interfere with a proper rather in the exercise of mercy), three in appreciation of the state of the Synagogue, we providing food for the world, and three in now supplement our former remarks. We have playing with Leviathan. But since the already referred to the extravagant preference destruction of Jerusalem, all amusements were for Moses, which the doctrinal predilections for banished from the courts of heaven, and three the letter of the Pentateuch engendered. hours were employed in the instruction of If all Israel were God's favorites, while the those who had died in infancy.'' On every Gentiles were cast off, Moses was worth all subject, except the giving of life, of rain, and the Israel put together. His superior knowledge resurrection of the dead, God deliberated with rendered him but a little lower than the angels; His Sanhedrin. His properties were, according God Himself left the higher heavens and came to Ex. xxxiv. 6, 7, arranged under thirteen to him; the angels, as well as the sun, moon, and particulars.' Some Rabbis, however, reduced stars, sang their hymns to him, and the latter them to eleven, to ten, and even to three. obtained from him permission to enlighten the But besides the extremely anthropomorphic world. In the same manner the Talmud relates conception of God which Jewish writings often how Moses in argumentation silenced the present, we find, especially in the earlier angels, who were jealous of him; and the literature, a very different, nay, almost an passage, Psalm 68:18, is applied to their opposite conception. God is regarded as an ultimate reconciliation. On the other hand, after exalted and almost unapproachable Being, Who the Pall, the carnal intercourse between the

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could have no immediate intercourse with and Midrashim; but a certain distinction must earthly creatures. Jewish theology accordingly be drawn between the earlier and the later introduces Divine representatives or usage. In the Targums the Shechinah is the intermediaries, by means of which God is visible token of God's presence, or more strictly brought into relations with man and the world. of His communion with His people. The Old Of these, the most important is the “ Memra,” “ Testament conception with which it most the Word,” which is often introduced in the nearly corresponds is the visible Glory of the Targums, but never appears in the Talmud or Lord. Indeed, the Shechinah is sometimes the Midrashim. Even in the Old Testament we brought into connection with the Jekara or sometimes find a personification of the Word of Glory: thus we read in Exo. 34:5, “Jehovah God, which goes forth from His mouth and revealed Himself in the clouds of the Glory of accomplishes His will in the world. His Shechinah “; similarly in Exo. 33:22, 23, the Such a passage as Isa. 55:11 will help us to Glory of the Shechinah is spoken of (comp. v. understand the Memra of the Targums, though 18). The full glory of the Lord rests upon the there is one important difference; for we can throne of God in heaven, but a portion of this hardly doubt that the Targums present us with brightness has been manifested on earth. Thus a real hypostasis. When the Old Testament uses the Shechinah dwelt on the Tabernacle (Ex. anthropomorphisms, or attributes bodily parts 25:8), and on the Temple (Hab. 2:20), and or affections to God, the Targums usually withdrew to heaven when the people sinned employ some paraphrase, and often introduce a (Hos. 5:6,15). It can hardly be doubted that the reference to the Memra. This, for example, is Shechinah was originally conceived of as the case where originally mention was made of impersonal; and herein lay the difference the eyes (in. Isa. 1:1-6; Ezek. 7:4), or the mouth between it and the Memra. Men call upon the (in. 1 Kings 8:15, 24), or the voice of God (Gen. Memra {Exo. 34:5), or trust on it (Isa. 26:4; Mic. 3:8; Jer. 44:23). God repents by His Memra (1 3:11); such expressions would never be applied Sam. 15:11,35), swears by His Memra (Ex. to the Shechinah. The Memra chose the land of 32:13; Gen. 22:16; Isa. 45:23), and acts for His Israel to make the Shechinah of God dwell there Memra's sake (Isa. 48:11). A covenant is made {Deut. 12:5,11). between the Memra and man (Gen. 17:7,11; cf. When God reveals Himself on earth by a visible Ex. 31:13). sign, He does so by means of the Shechinah; by Again, according to the Targums, the Memra means of the Memra, when the revelation takes was actively working throughout Israel's the form of a message or a personal activity. history, especially when God revealed Himself. But in the Talmud and the later literature, The Memra acts as the protector of the where, as we said before, the Memra never patriarchs (Gen. 21:22, 26:24), and as the occurs, the term Shechinah is used somewhat Savior of Israel (Isa. 63:8; Jer. 3:23). He leads differently. It still denotes, as before, the visible the people through the wilderness (Num. 10:3- token of God's presence; but it sometimes has a 5; Isa. 63:1-4), accepts their service in the more personal reference. It may not be so Tabernacle (Lev. 9:23; cf. Lev. 26:11), and distinctly hypostatized as the Memra, but it delivers to the Prophets their message (Isa. 6:8; frequently expresses relations of God to the 8:5). In conclusion, we may add that the Memra world, which were indicated by the use of that is distinct from the Messiah, and from the Angel term in the old Targums. Thus, it is by means of of the Lord. The latter expression is generally the Shechinah that God displays His favor to retained in the Targums, and in Isa. 42:1 the men. It withdrew further and further to heaven Memra and the Messiah are mentioned as sin increased in the world, but returned to together. earth in the days of Moses. There is now no place on earth where the Shechinah is not, but God's active presence in the world is also in a special sense, wherever the Law is taught represented by the Shechinah. This term is found in the Targums, and also in the Talmud

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and practiced, the Shechinah brings blessing of whom Ashmedai was chief, appeared usually and protection. in the form of human beings, but might also The dogma about angels and fallen spirits assume other shapes. Besides these there were presents a curious mixture of beliefs. The the Lilin or night-hags, which killed young period of their creation is variously stated; children, and the Ruchin or evil spirits. Devils some of them appear occasionally as were supposed to have three things in common personifications of the affections of the Deity. with angels, and three things with men. Like Daily does God create a vast number of angels, angels, they had wings, flew from one end of the who, after having praised Him, pass away. world to the other, and knew about the future, having heard the Divine decrees. Like men, they There are four classes of angels : the Ofanim or ate and drank, propagated themselves, and wheel-angels, the Seraphim, the Living died.' Creatures who bear the throne of glory, and the ministering angels. The greatest of all is If the eyes of men were opened to perceive the Metatron. Chief among the princes who their number, they would be overwhelmed by stand before the throne, are Michael, Gabriel, fear. On our right there are no less than 10,000, Raphael, and Uriel, and of these Michael, to and on our left 1000 of these evil spirits. If we whom Israel is specially committed, is the wish to convince ourselves of this fact, we have highest. Each angel can only be sent on one only to strew fine ashes before our beds, and errand at a time. Every individual has his we shall in the morning see their foot-prints as protecting angel. But the principal among the those of cocks; and if we wish to see them, we throne-angels, Samael, from a desire to gain are to burn the after-birth of a black cat, this cat dominion over man, had come to Eve as a and its mother having been both pure black and tempter in the form of the serpent, in first-borns, and rub our eyes with the ashes. consequence of which he was banished, and They ruled specially at night, and inhabited became the devil. desolate and ruined or filthy places, and the branches of certain trees. The devil frequently There are, however, two kinds of evil spirits, assumes the appearance of a goat, or dances those who had originally been angels, but between the horns of an ox returning from whom sin had deprived of their high estate, and pasture. He seeks in every possible manner to their progeny by carnal intercourse with men. do harm to men. Of the latter class there are again two subdivisions, the offspring of devils and our Many diseases, such as epilepsy, violent first parents, and those of devils and the headaches, hydrophobia, etc., are caused by daughters of men (Gen. 6). From Gen. 5:3 it was him. But as he may be conjured by incense and attempted to prove that Adam had human formulas, so he may also be exorcised. children only after he was 130 years old. During By powerful formulas evil spirits may even be the previous period Adam and Eve begat each rendered serviceable. Thus, King Solomon built male and female evil spirits. the Temple by such means. Josephus speaks [St. Augustine mentions a Jewish tradition that also of the havoc made by demons, although his the first man had two wives/ and in the later views of their origin differ somewhat from Jewish literature a beautiful woman named those of the Talmud. Samael, who is to be Lilith appears as Adam's first wife. Elsewhere, identified with Satan and the angel of death, Lilith is the queen of female spirits.] stands as the accuser of Israel, opposed to Michael, their advocate. We read also of his Samael himself committed fornication with Eve. gnashing with the teeth, in malicious pleasure It is to be remarked that early Christian heretics at the calamities of men, or in anger when he entertained similar notions. Satan himself acted finds that they are out of his power. in man as the evil concupiscence, the Jezer ha- Ea, to which seven names were given. Devils The Talmud speaks of a multitude of worlds were arranged in various classes. The Shedim, (18,000) which God visits every night. The

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Midrashim also refer to other worlds, which Apocrypha. Each of these heavens was so were created and destroyed before our world, a distant from the other, that the journey from view similar to that held not only by some of one to the other would occupy five hundred the Gnostics, but also by some of the orthodox years (like the years of Abraham, Isaac, and Christian Fathers. To return, the earthly Jacob). Jerusalem was only an image of the heavenly, in As to the comparative proportions of heaven which everything, the temple, the altar, and and hell, we are informed that the garden of Michael, as its minister, are found, only in larger Eden was sixty times as large as the world, and and more glorious proportions. Seven things hell sixty times as large as Eden, of which the were created before the world, and ten on the garden formed a sixtieth part. The joys and first Friday immediately before the darkness torments of heaven and hell are described. which ushered in the rest of the first Sabbath. When the just reach the two ruby gates of The former comprise the Law, repentance, the heaven, they are received by the 600,000 temple, the name of the Messiah, the throne of ministering angels who keep watch there. They glory, the garden of Eden, and hell. Several are then arrayed with eight garments, crowned Jewish writings introduce amongst the with two crowns, and receive eight myrtle creatures of the fifth day the male and female branches. They are next conducted to a place leviathan, immense fishes, happily kept each beside rivers, surrounded by eight hundred alone, as their brood would have destroyed the different kinds of roses and myrtles, and placed whole world; and amongst those of the sixth under a canopy. day, the male and female behemoth, or large Four rivers, one of milk, one of wine, one of oxen, subjected to similar separation, which are balsam, and one of honey, water, and a golden to be killed and prepared for the feast of the vine with thirty shining pearls, adorn this place. Messianic days. During the three watches of the night every We learn also that the belief in the existence of saint is successively transformed into a child, a seven heavens was common amongst the Jews. youth, and an aged man, in order to enjoy the The first heaven, or “Velin” curtain, was drawn pleasures peculiar to every age. Eden has every evening and removed every morning; the 800,000 kinds of trees, and in each corner second, or “Rakia” firmament, was the place 600,000 ministering angels. The tree of life where sun, moon, and stars were fixed; the overshadows the whole garden, and its fruits third, or “Shechakim” clouds, contained the have 500,000 various kinds of taste and smell. millstones necessary for making the manna for Under its branches the sages sit and expound the saints; the fourth, or “Zebul” place, the Law, each of them having two canopies, one contained the heavenly Jerusalem, temple, and formed of the stars, and the other of the sun altar; the fifth, or “Maon” dwelling, contained and moon, and between both a veil woven of the hosts of angels who sing praises during the the cloud of glory. On the other hand, three whole night, the day being assigned to Israel for gates one from the wilderness, the other from the same purpose; the sixth, or “Macon” the sea, the third from Jerusalem lead to the residence, contained the stores of snow, hail, abodes of hell. noxious dews, rains, storms, vapors, etc.; the To hell seven names are given, and the older seventh, or “Araboth,” contained justice, the literature makes no distinction between Sheol judgment of mercy, the treasures of life, of and Gehenna. At a later period we meet with peace, and of blessing, the souls of saints, souls the notion that heaven and hell are adjoining, before they were clothed with bodies, and the and only separated by a wall of the thickness of dew by which God was to raise the dead. one handbreadth. Thus the inhabitants of either There also dwelt the Ofanim, the Seraphim, the place know what is going on in the other. Living Creatures, the ministering angels, the Man consists of body and soul. The body comes throne of glory, the eternal King, the living God. from below, and is formed of earth taken from Similar views are propounded in some of the

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different countries. The soul, on the other hand, Jezer ha-Ea is sometimes spoken of as has been in a pre-existent state, and comes altogether evil, and the prayers of Rabbins for down from above. Before a soul sees the light of the removal of the Jezer ha-Ea, or “ leaven,” ' as the world, an angel shows it the glories of it is sometimes called, were frequent and heaven and the torments of hell. Then the child earnest, as that evil inclination might ultimately is beaten and driven forth into the world, hence ruin the soul, or at least expose it to the fire of the crying of new-born babes. purgatory. But in order that any breach of the The soul at the moment of birth is clean, and law might really become sin, the will must have man should endeavour so to live that he may consented to its commission. restore it to his Maker in its original purity. But If the Jezer ha-Ea is early and energetically the body, which is earthly and the seat of the opposed, it may be kept in subjection. Some Jezer ha-Ea, is relatively unclean. have even completely subdued it. The most In consequence of the fall of Adam, death has efficacious means for this purpose is study of not only passed on all men, as being connected the Law. It was said that the evil inclination was with Adam (their bodies having as it were been implanted in man, in order that he might merit in Adam), but a liability and proneness to sin a reward by overcoming it; for the Talmudists has become natural to man. This Jezer ha-Ea is seem to have held that God was the author of not actual sinfulness, but an inclination to it, or Adam's Jezer ha-Ea, or evil inclination (not of evil tendency. On the other hand, when men his sin), the power and prevalence of which in arrive at years of discretion, at thirteen, a good his posterity, and their sorrows and death, are inclination, Jezer Tob, makes itself felt. A connected with the fall of Adam. struggle then ensues, on the issue of which the On the doctrine of predestination, the Talmud future state depends. seems to have been undecided. No doubt was After death the soul hovers for a long time entertained that at certain fixed periods God round the dead body. Besides the just who pass decreed concerning all events, and even sealed immediately to heaven, and sinners who go to the judgment of men; but repentance could destruction, there is a middle class who are to arrest the impending doom, and even reverse be purified by fire in hell during a period of the heavenly decree. It was a principle almost twelve months. Israelites are not liable to necessary to Judaism, that everything was in perpetual hell-fire, unless the peculiar bodily the power of Heaven except the fear of God, i.e. mark of their descent has been effaced. As we that man alone had the power to produce in have seen, the Talmud appears to assign a himself true piety; that God only assisted and special place in heaven to the souls of children crowned with success all sincere endeavors. At who have died in infancy. the same time, God possessed perfect foreknowledge of man and his actions. Certain [Some Rabbins admitted that pious Gentiles events, such as the begetting of children, the might enter heaven. Thus, Rabbi Jehuda is said duration of life, worldly prosperity, etc., may in to have promised the Emperor Antoninus a part part depend on the constellation under which in the world to come, and Chanina ben we are born,' a view this foreign to Judaism. To Teradion made a similar promise to his make it fit into Talmudical theology, it was executioner.] added that the stars had influence only on The Jezer ha-Ea is in the first place merely a Gentiles. natural impulse, which is necessary for the [It is unnecessary to multiply further details, continuance of the world. Without it no man but it is clear that the problem of freewill and would marry a wife or build a house. It is called predestination had engaged the attention of evil, because its dominion would imply the rule Rabbinic Judaism. To judge from the Talmud, of the body over the soul; and since the Fall, the commonly accepted doctrine was that man's natural impulses, unless controlled by which asserted a belief alike in Divine the Jezer Tob, often lead him into sin. Hence the

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providence and in human freedom and conviction that the Gospel presents a new responsibility.] creation. The moral obligations incumbent upon Israel In prayer, care was taken to turn towards the have already been detailed. Entrance into the Holy Place. Along with prayer, penitence was a kingdom of heaven was made dependent on great means of averting the Divine displeasure. conformity to them. Next to the love of God, an Were all Israel properly to repent but for one affection which implied a readiness to obey His day, the Messiah would at once appear. commandments and to do good, stood love to [Faith, that is, a firm trust in the promises of one's neighbor, which, indeed, both Hillel and God, received like any good work its due Akiba declared to be the highest reward.] commandment, On the other hand, to withhold All Israel, except a few notorious sinners and charity denominated Zedakah, righteousness unbelievers, were supposed to have part in the was a sin similar to idolatry. Humility or world to come. meekness, the study of the Law, obedience to its peculiar tenets, and prayer, procured great [Repentance alone could not atone for the sin of blessings. It was the humility of Moses which apostasy, which must be expiated by the elevated him to so lofty a position. However, in sinner's death. A heathen's penitence availed another passage, this is attributed to his him nothing unless he embraced the Jewish prayerfulness, and his example is quoted to faith, and in theory it was right to refuse to save prove that even good works are less effectual the life of an unbeliever.] than prayer. A proper observance of the Sabbath procured The beneficial effects of the latter were not the pardon of sins. The merits of Jews secured confined to him who prayed, but, in answer to their entrance into heaven, and a share in the his entreaty, diseases were removed or public resurrection of the just, while the good works calamities averted. Thus we are told how the of the impious and of heathens met their son of Rabbi Gamaliel was healed of his reward only in this world. Sufferings were sickness by the prayer of Chanina ben Doza. means of procuring merit and atoning for guilt. Earnestness was deemed by some Rabbins a Chastisements caused the pardon of sins; but if necessary condition of prayer, nor were sent as a dispensation of love, they devotions to be transformed into daily or accompanied or preceded special blessings. formal tasks. To avoid such practices, a Rabbi Under trials, the pious should examine whether recommends a daily variation of the prayers. As they had been guilty of any special sin, and to the duration of prayer, opinions were whether they had sufficiently engaged in the divided, but the usual practice seems to have study of the Law. been in favor of lengthened exercises. If a satisfactory reply could be given to these The praises of God formed the beginning and two questions, the trials should be gladly taken end of the prayer; the expression of personal as marks of God's special favor and gracious wants was inserted in the middle. We have designs. All means of grace were available up to already exhibited specimens of the prayers of death, when the soul appeared before the the synagogue. With the exception of the Judge, who put the good works in one balance, absence of a sense of personal spiritual wants, and the evil in another, and adjudged heaven or the sublime character of these compositions hell according to the preponderance of good or entitles them to a high place. evil. But when the good and evil works exactly counterbalanced one another, it was generally Yet the fact of such resemblance only makes the supposed, though the Rabbins were not quite difference the more striking. As might have unanimous, that God pressed down the one side been expected, much in the Synagogue reminds of the balance or raised the other, so that the us of the Church; it is the difference of spirit merits might preponderate. and tendency which brings home to us the

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Certain acts of kindness might in themselves conduct and occupation. All miseries were prove sufficient to atone for a whole life of sin. indeed to be removed by the advent of the On the whole, there was in this respect a great Messiah, but this happy event was delayed by want of moral earnestness in the Synagogue. some mysterious sin of Israel, which the Some saints were supposed to possess a Rabbins could not name. It was inferred from superfluity of merits, which might be made analogy, that as the world had been created in available to compensate for the deficiencies of six days and the seventh been the Sabbath of others. Thus, amongst others, the celebrated rest, so it would continue for 6000 years, while Simon ben Jochai abrogated to himself the the seventh thousand would become the power of atoning by his righteousness for the Sabbath of the world. Such seems to have been sins of the whole world, from his time to the the opinion pretty generally entertained by all end. Popularly, the merits of the three fathers, sections of the Synagogue, from which it passed Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, and of the four into the early Church. mothers, Sarah, Rebecca, Leah, and Rachel, Opinions varied, whether the Messiah was to were viewed as procuring favor for their appear during the fifth or the seventh descendants. millennium. We need scarcely remind the [It was one of the greatest privileges of a true- reader that at the time of our Lord the born Israelite, that he had a claim upon the expectation of the coming of a great Deliverer treasury of the merits of the patriarchs.' was very general, not only amongst the Jews, Similarly, the son of a good man might feel but also amongst heathen nations. With the more assured that his prayers would be heard, exception of splendour and honour to Israelites because of his father's merits. The sufferings of individually, a universal Jewish empire, and an righteous men might suffice to atone for the ample supply of everything needful or sins of the whole generation in which they agreeable, the fancy of the Rabbins presented to lived.] them little to distinguish the happy Messianic Condemned criminals were, if unwilling to from ordinary times. It must, however, be confess, to be admonished at least to exclaim, “ remembered that a distinction was made May my death be the expiation of my sins.” The between the days of the Messiah and “ the death of the just might be the means of world to come,” which was to follow them. procuring pardon for all Israel. The cessation of In the latter the removal of the Jezer ha-Ea and sacrifices induced the Rabbins to substitute in the cessation of everything carnal or terrestrial their room the study of the Law, which is were placed. The days of the Messiah, on the exalted above every other merit. Confession, other hand, were even to witness the repentance, fasting, and the Day of Atonement, profession of arms. In fact, the wars of Gog and together with personal sufferings and merits, Magog, the final judgment, and the creation of specially the study of the Law and works of new heavens and a new earth, were to kindness, and finally a man's last agony, such intervene between the days of the Messiah and were the means of reconciliation with God to the world to come, which the Synagogue pointed a sinner, whose [Older writers, however, do not distinguish conscience the mere fact of his connection with between the world to come and the Messianic the patriarchs could not satisfy. times.] We close by briefly sketching the traditions of With reference to the person of the expected the Jewish Fathers concerning the Messiah and Deliverer, He was commonly thought of as a His kingdom. On no one subject were opinions ruler of human origin, but specially endowed by more divergent than on this. The circumstances God with supernatural powers; but there was of the nation were such as to damp the hopes of also a widespread belief in His pre-mundane the most sanguine, and to contradict the existence. favorite notions of the Rabbins as to the value of Israel, and the sacredness and merit of their

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He was derived from the tribe of Judah, from return. Those heathens who had not oppressed the family of David, and from the city of Israel, were to come and bring gifts to the Bethlehem. As the time apparently passed on, Messiah, and to become converts to Judaism. and the promised One did not appear, the Another and more intolerant party, however, opinion began to be entertained that Messiah supposed that these proselytes would speedily had indeed already been born, but remained fall away and join the armies of Grog in the last concealed, and would only appear to make an struggle. Rabbins differed as to the duration of end to the fearful calamities which are termed “ the Messianic reign, computing it variously the woes “ or “ the travail “ of the Messiah. In (from analogy) at 40, 70, 90, 365, 400, 1000, the Targum ascribed to Jonathan ben Uzziel it 2000, and even 7000 years. After that period was stated that Messiah was hid on account of the hosts of Gog and Magog were to come up to the sins of the people, and in the days of our battle, but the Messiah would destroy them Lord, some of the Jews declared that “ when with the breath of His mouth. Christ cometh, no man knoweth whence He is” [On the subject of a general resurrection a great (John 7:27). Only constant engagement with variety of belief prevailed. The older view sacred studies and in good works, would asserted only the resurrection of the righteous; procure exemption from the latter-day then there grew up a belief in a general tribulations. The Messiah was to be preceded resurrection to judgment, and as the Messianic by Elias, whose mission is variously stated, as age ceased to be regarded as the consummation the expelling of those who had wrongfully of all things, it was thought that this would take intruded into the Synagogue, the receiving of place at the end of the Messiah's reign.] those who had wrongfully been expelled, or All were to rise to be judged except some even the settling of the controversies of the notorious sinners, who had already in their Rabbins. Meantime Elias was engaged in lifetime received their condemnation. The chronicling the history of the world. heathen, who had been offered the Law on When the Messiah had at last appeared, it was Sinai, but had refused to accept it, would then thought that He would hide Himself for forty- receive their sentence. For some of the ungodly five days, and then appear again. His coming at any rate the punishment of Gehenna was would be the occasion for a last struggle on the regarded as everlasting. After the last judgment part of the world-power of Rome under the the renewal of heaven and earth would leadership of Armilos (the name is probably a inaugurate the period of the world to come, and form of Romulus). in that future world there would be neither This chief enemy of Israel the Messiah Himself darkness nor evil desire. Opinions differed, would slay, and the last of the four great world- however, on the manner of life of the blessed. empires would be destroyed. Then would the According to some, in the future world there is deliverance of Israel be accomplished. Those to be neither eating, nor drinking, nor who were dispersed in all parts of the earth marrying, nor envy, nor hatred, nor strife, but were to be miraculously gathered together and the righteous will sit with crowns on their restored to the Holy Land. The dead Israelites heads, and enjoy the brightness of the were to rise again to share the blessings of the Shechinah. But others held more materialistic Messianic kingdom. It was thought that one views, and spoke of the banquet to be prepared bone in the body was never destroyed, but for the righteous from the flesh of Leviathan. served as the basis for the new man, who in his In one passage of the Talmud, and frequently in grave-clothes would roll underground till he later writings, we meet with a second Messiah, reached Palestine. the son of Joseph, who is, however, always The question of the return of the ten tribes was regarded as subordinate to the Son of David. disputed. Rabbi Akiba declared that they would His work is to fight against the powers of the never come back, but the majority of opinions ungodly; and, after he is slain in the conflict, the seems to have been favorable to a belief in their

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Messiah, the Son of David, appears to triumph adopted by Ezra and Nehemiah for public over his enemies, and to reign in glory. religious instruction doubtless encouraged [This late view is probably unconnected with their establishment in Palestine; and during the the belief in the sufferings of the Son of David, times of the. Maccabees they seem to have to which some Jewish writings allude.] existed throughout the country, and amongst the Jews scattered abroad. The officers It was commonly supposed that the deliverance employed in the synagogue were the ruler or by the Messiah would take place in Nisan, the president, to whom was entrusted the month of the Exodus, and this idea soon found superintendence of Divine service; the elders, its way into the Church. who, in a purely Jewish locality, would be also The purely religious assemblies of the Jews the elders of the community; and the servant or were held in the synagogues. According to a attendant. Everything connected with the Rabbinic injunction, these buildings were to be public worship and the membership of the reared on the highest point in the town; but it synagogue was under the management of the cannot be shown that in Palestine this was ever president and elders. carried out. In fact, the synagogues were The beadle or servant generally inflicted the frequently built outside the towns, and punishment of stripes on refractory members. preference seems to have been given to sites Sometimes the beadle or Chazzan was also near to rivers or to the seashore, so that water employed as teacher of the youngest class of might be at hand for the various purifications. children. To these officials we may add those [It is, moreover, very difficult to say wherein lay who collected for and distributed relief to the the difference between a synagogue and a poor. The Messenger, or delegate of the proseucha; for while a distinction between the congregation, whose duty it was to lead the two is implied in Acts 16;13, Philo certainly devotions, was not a permanent official; but any uses the latter term to denote the regular member of the congregation might be called synagogues.] upon by the ruler of the synagogue to perform In Palestine there was probably at least one this function. The interior of the synagogue was synagogue in every town, and even in the larger simple. A Rabbinic ordinance prescribes that villages. Large towns would contain several the entrance should be toward the east, but synagogues, according to the number of the nearly all the ruined synagogues of Galilee have inhabitants. In Jerusalem, where with their entrances on the south. At the opposite characteristic exaggeration the Talmud asserts end was a kind of ark containing copies of the that there were 480 synagogues,' we know that Law. There was a special place for the leader of the different nationalities, and indeed the the devotions, and a raised platform for those different trades, had their own places of members of the congregation who were invited worship. An assembly for public service had to to read aloud a portion of the Law, or to consist of ten men at the least, and a large town expound it. The latter duty was discharged by was defined as one in which there were ten the Rabbins, or any other notable person, with men whose business did not prevent them from the consent and under the direction of the attending the synagogues even on week-days. elders. [At a later time it became customary to pay a Though the synagogues were open daily, a small fee to ten men, whose duty it was to prolonged and more solemn service was attend daily at the public services; but it is not celebrated on Mondays and Thursdays, as well clear that this custom had been introduced in as on Sabbaths and feast days. Every Monday the Talmudic period.] and Thursday three persons were called to the The origin of the synagogues is involved in platform to read in the Law, on feast days five, some difficulties. Their want must have been and on Sabbaths seven. Besides the portions of felt by the exiles in Babylon, who were shut out the Law, selections from the Prophets were also from the Temple and its services. The measures read. The origin of this practice is unknown, but

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it dates from before the Christian era. The Antoninus Pius. We are not informed of the choice of the passage was probably left to the occasion of this fresh rising, nor of its reader himself; certainly in the time of the prospects; nor do we know whether it took Mishnah the cycle of lessons for feast days had place before or after the removal of the not been definitely settled. obnoxious edicts which followed the unhappy The reading of the Law was accompanied by a termination of the war under Bar-Cochba. version into the known dialects, to which the Possibly it was connected with the disturbances origin of the Targums may be traced. In course in Parthia and Armenia, which broke out at the of time various feasts were added to the end of the reign of Antoninus. That the hopes of calendar, and restrictions and rules defined the some of the Jews were turned towards Parthia, biblical festivals. Thus thirty -nine occupations we may probably infer from the expectation, were specified as illegal on the Sabbath; various which even the cautious Juda ben Ilai cherished, practices, such as the solemn blessing that the Roman Empire would one day fall by pronounced over the cup on the evening which the hands of the Persians or Parthians. But ushered in the Sabbath, etc., were enjoined. The Simon ben Jochai seems to have been less solemnities observed on the various feasts sanguine, for he exclaimed, “ When thou seest a were, as closely as possible, imitations of the Parthian horse tied to an Israelite gravestone, services of the Temple, but there were then canst thou believe in the coming of the inevitably many divergences from the stately Messiah.” ritual which had there been practiced. The In any case the rebellion could not have been practice of wearing coverings with fringes upon widespread, as the forces at the disposal of the their corners, phylacteries, containing passages Roman governor in Judea were sufficient of Scripture, on the forehead and left arm, and speedily to suppress it. of affixing them on the door-posts, all in fancied [Some vague recollections of these fresh observance of the law of Moses, are known to troubles have been preserved in Jewish the readers of the New Testament. The writings. The Nasi, Simon ben Gamaliel, phylacteries were generally put on only during complained of the suffering and oppression morning prayer, and were not worn on which he continually witnessed. “ Our Sabbaths or on feast days. We hear, however, of forefathers,” he would say, “ only scented Rabbins who, from scrupulous piety or from troubles from afar, we have long suffered from love of ostentation, wore their phylacteries at them; we have much more right than our other than the stated times. forefathers to be impatient. If we wished to In the synagogue, the spiritual aristocracy inscribe our troubles and temporary relief on a occupied the foremost seats. Men and women scroll, we should not find room enough.”] were separated from each other, and, except One consequence of the recent revolt would the responses of the people, nothing seem to have been the loss of jurisdiction in interrupted the public devotions. The five civil and pecuniary matters, which the Jewish books of Moses were read through once in courts or Jewish judges had still retained. three, or, as others suppose, in three and a half Simon ben Jochai, indeed, is said to have years. The present arrangement, by which the rejoiced in this limitation of power, as it set him Pentateuch is divided into fifty-four sections free from a difficult and painful duty, for which (read through once every year), originated he declared himself unfit. But another account amongst the Babylonian Jews. shows that this Rabbi bore in reality no friendly Chapter 12 – The Patriarchate under the Last feelings to the Roman Government. Pagan Emperors On a certain occasion, so the story runs, during a public discussion of Jewish sages, Rabbi Juda, The attempts at shaking off the foreign yoke known as a friend of the Romans, took an made during the reign of Hadrian, were, in part opportunity of extolling their power and at least, renewed in the time of his successor,

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activity, calling attention to the market-places, Simon composed the “Sohar” during that period bridges, and public baths which they had of retirement. constructed in the various towns of Palestine, The privations to which Simon had been This was the signal of a more public expression exposed, had shattered his health, and he of their feelings. Rabbi Joses silently listened to repaired to the warm baths of Tiberias, which praises which he could not reciprocate, and proved instrumental in restoring him. In which he dared not contradict. Not so Simon gratitude, he removed a reproach which had ben Jochai, He broke forth in an indignant hitherto prevented many Jews from residing at rebuke, which showed his deep hatred and Tiberias. Built 120 years previous to this period contempt for the oppressors of his people, A by Herod Antipas, on a site which had been a proselyte present reported the episode, and cemetery, Tiberias was, notwithstanding its while Juda was rewarded, Joses was banished advantages of situation and climate, eschewed to his native city Sepphoris, and Simon by the pious, as residence on a cemetery condemned to death. Flight alone prevented the entailed Levitical impurity. Simon undertook to execution of this sentence, Rabbi Simon and his mark those parts of the town which had been son hid themselves in a cave near Gadara, built over graves, and so to separate them from where they subsisted for thirteen years upon pure quarters. For this purpose he put a certain fruits, nor was their retreat known even to their kind of bean into the ground. The places where nearest relatives. At last, one day, on leaving his they failed to take root were marked as graves, cave, Simon noticed a bird suddenly escaping the rest of the town was declared clean. from the net of the fowler. Rabbi Simon Tradition has adorned this also with wonders. remembered that, if even a bird could not be The jealous inhabitants of the neighboring town caught without Divine permission, he might of Magdala endeavoured to ridicule the with still greater confidence anticipate the decision of Simon. But the sudden demise of extension of the same care to himself. Dinkai, their leading sage, in consequence (it Accordingly he left his retreat, and soon learned was said) of his opposition, silenced all further that his persecutors were dead or gone, and objections, and Tiberias was henceforth not that he might return to his colleagues and only Levitically pure, but soon became the friends. centre of Jewish life and the residence of the Later tradition adorned this story with Sanhedrin. But the political troubles of the time miraculous additions. Miraculously did those and the compulsory retirement of the leading trees which afforded sustenance to Simon and men in the Sanhedrin at Usha apparently put an his son spring up miraculously a fountain was end to that assembly. Most of the doctors seem opened for them. Meanwhile the two had spent to have retired to the neighboring town of their whole time in the study of the Law, sitting Shefaram but no trace has been left of their naked in the sand to preserve their garments activity. for the stated seasons of prayer. At last, after Antoninus Pius was succeeded on the throne by twelve years, Elijah had appeared to intimate to Marcus Aurelius and Pius Verus in 161. The them the death of the emperor, upon which first-named of these rulers endeavoured to they left their cave. But the worldliness with combine the philosophical principles and the which, on their return, they were brought into simplicity of a Stoic philosopher with the contact, so filled them with indignation, that dignity of a ruler of the Roman world. No one they killed many by their look, and at the acquainted with the history of that emperor can command of a voice from heaven, they returned doubt his deep moral earnestness, which most for another year to the cave. At the end of it, the favorably distinguished his reign from that of occurrence of the escape of the bird, together the majority of those who had worn the purple. with a voice from heaven explaining it, induced He was at the same time devoted to the “ them again to come forth. It was also said that ancient religion,” and embodied in acts of persecution the contempt or hatred which he

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felt for those who, in this respect, would not or son, Rabbi Jehuda, by far the most distinguished could not share his views. War broke out of that race since Hillel the Great. From the almost immediately on several of the frontiers, celebrity for sanctity and learning which that but only in the East was the danger sufficiently patriarch obtained, he is generally designated threatening to require the presence of a Roman simply as Jehuda-ha-Nasi (the Prince, far emperor. Aurelius committed the campaign excellence), and as Jehuda the Holy. “Whether against the Parthians to Verus, in the vain hope his lore and influence, or else his authorship of that the prospects of military glory might rouse the Mishnah, or the fact that he was the most the energies of that imperial debauchee. But truly distinguished Jewish Patriarch of Verus contented himself with entrusting the Palestine, procured for him these distinctions, conduct of this war to some of his generals, certain it is that few, if any, are placed by while he spent his time at Antioch in unbridled tradition on a higher eminence. Divesting his self-indulgence, until peace was restored in history of the fabulous, we have enough left to 166. During the progress of the war, the Roman distinguish the characteristics of this celebrated generals captured Nisibis, Ctesiphon, and other personage. Born about the year 136, as cities where there was a large Jewish tradition has it, on the very day on which Rabbi population. Doubtless the Jews took part in the Akiba died a martyr's death, he attracted resistance to the Roman arms, but we are attention at an early age, and excited the hopes nowhere told that their brethren in Palestine of the college by the ingenuity of his questions, suffered on this account. A Jewish legend, and the diligence with which he applied himself however, which hardly seems to apply to the to study. Accordingly he occupied, at a time of Hadrian, relates that edicts were once comparatively tender age, the foremost bench issued prohibiting circumcision, and certain amongst the students, indicating (as we have other Jewish rites. Under these circumstances, seen) that he stood nearest in knowledge and it is said, a Jew, in the disguise of a Roman, claims to the regularly ordained teachers. procured admission into the Roman Councils, in Like other distinguished Rabbins, he profited order to induce that assembly to rescind these by the instructions of various teachers decrees, on pretence that their tendency was representing different theological tendencies. only advantageous to the Jews. But the device The most celebrated of these were the famous was discovered. A Jewish deputation was then Simon ben Jochai, Eleazar ben Shamua, the dispatched to Rome to entreat toleration from most popular lecturer of his day, and Jacob ben the emperor. The members of that embassy Karshai, the Rabbi whose assistance rendered were Simon ben Jochai, and, at his special the plans of Nathan and Meir against the late request, the youthful Eleazar, the son of Joses. It Patriarch Simon nugatory. Jehuda inherited, to was with doubt and hesitation, and only after a remarkable extent, the two qualities of his distinct promises of moderation on the part of predecessors, acuteness and ambition. The vast Simon, that Eleazar agreed to accompany him. riches which his family had accumulated, and The embassy attained its object, and its success the learning and originality which far surpassed was ascribed to the miraculous cure of the the attainments of his father Simon, enabled emperor's daughter by Simon, who had cast out him to carry out the hierarchical designs of the an evil spirit which had possessed her. latter, which had now almost become the [Whatever be the real value of this story, traditional policy of the family of Hillel. Eleazar's visit to Rome seems to be historical.] In spite of the vast wealth which he had He could afterwards assert that he had seen in inherited, Rabbi Jehuda lived very simply, and Rome those spoils from the Temple which Titus devoted to the support of theological students a had carried to the capital. Uncertain though the large part of his revenues. His stables, it was exact succession of these events be, it seems said, contained more cattle than the Persian that the Patriarch Simon closed his career treasury could have purchased, an exaggeration about the year 165. He was succeeded by his which at least affords an insight into the fame

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which he enjoyed. The Patriarch kept a sort of and God-fearing man; and it was asserted that “ court, of which his students and dependents from the days of Moses to Rabbi we have not were the officers. All divines were there found in one man such a union of possession of maintained at the expense of the Patriarch; and authority and knowledge of the Law.” Yet it when, at a later period, a famine in the land must be admitted that the Nasi often deprived many of the means of existence, he manifested an irritable and imperious ministered to the wants of all who applied to disposition; he seemed unable or unwilling to him. But even in the exercise of this charity he distinguish personal, intentional enmity from manifested his peculiar disposition. At first it opposition on principle, or even from was ruled that none ignorant of the Law (no unintentional slights. Perhaps his bodily uneducated person) should be admitted to weakness may have contributed to sour his enjoy its benefits; at another time the daughters temper. Yet rarely did anyone venture to of the apostate Acher were excluded, and only express publicly his dissatisfaction with one so admitted in consideration of their father's influential, so popular, so learned, and, let us learning. But these restrictions soon gave way add, so determined as Rabbi Jehuda. to a more liberal policy. In fact, Jehuda scarcely The fame of the Patriarch's teaching attracted required to resort to such means for the students from all quarters. Rabbi Jehuda establishment of his authority. However, the stimulated their ambition and rewarded their most decisive step towards obtaining the diligence. In Sepphoris, strangers, Jews from supreme dignity was the regulation which he Babylon, filled the highest ranks, and outshone enforced, according to which the right of the native theologians. We refer only at present ordination was exclusively reserved to the to Rabbi bar Ghana, and to Abba Areka, to Patriarch. Rabbins Chanina, Achija, Samuel, and other The Sanhedrin had formerly exercised that Babylonians, of whom more in another place. authority, but even the supreme college now [Incidentally we obtain an interesting account required for it the Nasi's sanction. Generally, to of the qualifications required for a Jewish extend his sway, it was also enacted that none teacher. The community of Simonias, a village but regularly ordained teachers were in future to the south of Sepphoris, requested the to pronounce on any religious question, a rule Patriarch to send them a man who could deliver which, as will easily be inferred, excluded all public discourses, decide questions of law, but those who possessed the Patriarch's superintend the synagogue, draw up legal confidence from places of influence or documents, instruct the youth, and attend to all authority. The residence of Rabbi Jehuda and of the higher interests of the community.] the Sanhedrin was at first Beth-Shearim, and To enforce his rule, the Patriarch was in the afterwards Sepphoris. The latter place was habit of administering spiritual and even chosen for its salubrious air, which, together temporal punishments upon offenders, and that with the appliances of art, restored the without consulting the Sanhedrin. A few Patriarch from a disease of thirteen years' instances will show the absoluteness of his standing. administration. His friend and favorite, Rabbi A brief account must be given of the character Chija or Achija, was distinguished by the and teaching of this remarkable man. Kind, Patriarch as “ the man of his counsel.” In benevolent, and a devoted patron of Jewish familiar conversations Jehuda had extolled to learning, he strove in every way to set forth the him his own high position, and added, as one of Divine claims of Judaism. He warned his the claims of the patriarchate, that the family of hearers against neglecting even the minor Hillel had, in the maternal line, sprung from precepts of the Law, and bade them remember David. At the same time, he owned the superior that they were ever in the presence of an all- claims of the Babylonian Jewish Prince of the seeing eye. By a later generation he was Captivity, who claimed descent from David in regarded as an eminent example of a humble the male line. When the Babylonian Prince died,

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and his body was brought to be buried in offending party. Thus, at a banquet, the Palestine, Achija, by way of a practical joke Patriarch, noticing the silence of Chija's sons, upon the Patriarch, tried to excite his fears by Juda and Chiskia, had freely plied them with announcing the approaching arrival of the wine. The youths, whose tongues were now Babylonian Prince. The Patriarch changed color loosened, declared, among other things, that at the announcement, and when he found that the Messiah would not come till the Achija had only meant playfully to call up his patriarchates of Palestine and Babylon had fears, he punished the jest by banishing him ceased. from his presence for thirty days. Another [In these words they doubtless gave expression Babylonian sage, Chanina, ventured to take to a widespread discontent, which had been exception to Jehudia’s pronunciation of a word, aroused by the Nasi's inconsiderate and and appealed to a Babylonian authority. The arbitrary conduct.] angry Patriarch punished the contradiction by a Happily the father of the youths overheard the refusal to ordain Chanina, an injustice which conversation, and, pleading the effects of wine Jehuda himself felt so keenly, that, on his on his children, appeased the wrath of the Nasi. deathbed, he commissioned his son and Jealousy for the honour of his family induced successor to bestow the Rabbinical office, in the him never to mention Rabbi Meir's name even first place, on the long-neglected Chanina. when quoting his opinions. The representations Another sage was suspended for venturing to of the Patriarch's son produced only a slight propound sophistical questions. concession in favor of the departed teacher. Fear of taking the Patriarch by unawares, and One of the Nasi's favorites was Bar Kappara, of so bringing him into contempt, restrained Chija Babylonian extraction, and equally from asking unexpected and irrelevant distinguished for learning, readiness, and questions. Chija had reproved his nephew, Abba poetical talent. He was, as far as we know, the Areka, for neglecting this; but his own only poet of his time, and he possessed a keen submission did not protect him from the satirical humor, which was restrained by no imperious hierarch. On one occasion he had respect for persons, and sometimes discoursed in the street upon Rabbinical degenerated into mere punning and coarse subjects, with his learned nephew, contrary to allusions. Rabbi was sometimes amused by, and the Patriarch's injunction, who perhaps at others afraid of, his uncontrollable desire for dreaded that such disquisitions might give rise punning. A marriage-feast was always a season to persecutions. For this offence he was of merry-making, where amusement was even banished for thirty days. At another time, the deemed a religious duty. Bar Kappara promised Patriarch and Chija observed, on their walk, a the Patriarch's daughter, that at her brother's scrupulous Rabbinist, who, to preserve the marriage he would keep the company in rights of the proprietor, walked with continual merriment, and even make the Nasi considerable difficulty along the edge of a field. dance. Rabbi Jehuda, dreading his friend's In accordance with the commonly received law, humor, resolved, by way of security, not to the Patriarch and his friend were pursuing their invite him to the wedding. Bar Kappara way, making a footpath within the field. The pretended to be so deeply offended at this appearance of greater punctiliousness than his slight, and took the liberty of expressing his own seemed to Jehuda an affectation of dignity, feelings so strongly, that the Patriarch at last for which he would have severely punished the yielded, and invited him, on condition that he unhappy divine, had not Chija's intercession was for once to control his tongue, promising, averted his anger. in return for his moderation, a present of In general, however, the Patriarch, though soon wheat. But the temptation was too great for Bar angry, was easily reconciled where his dignity Kappara. He appeared at the marriage carrying was not endangered, or where a sufficient an immense hamper, and demanding from the apology satisfied him of the humility of the Patriarch the wheat which he had lent him. An

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explanation ensued, and the shouts of laughter, silencing their objections by an appeal to his in which the Nasi himself joined, encouraged supreme authority. Bar Kappara to continue. He proceeded to ask Another practical difficulty was felt in riddling questions on passages of Scripture, and observing the sabbatical year, as the many refused to reveal the answers (so the story taxes and foreign impositions rendered the runs) till his host had been induced to dance. cessation of agricultural labor, etc., almost Finally, he plied the company with so many impossible. Accordingly, the Patriarch seriously indelicate jokes, that the Patriarch's daughter, meditated the total abolition of this institution. and her husband, Bar Elasa, felt at last But before taking this important step, he constrained to withdraw from the assembly. wished to secure the support of E. Pinchas ben Bar Elasa had been chosen by the Patriarch as Jair, the son-in-law of Simon ben Jochai, a his son-in-law, only for his wealth, with which, zealous upholder of the letter of the law, and a as is too frequently the case, he combined a model of austere piety, whose reputation for considerable amount of pretension and an sanctity might, in case of opposition, easily have equal measure of ignorance. On a festive roused the superstitious multitude. occasion, when all the assembled Rabbins But Rabbi Pinchas proved inexorable, and when emulated each other in propounding ingenious he saw mules in the Patriarch's court, he left or learned questions, the mischievous Bar abruptly, horrified at the fact that the head of Kappara suggested a witty enigma to Bar Elasa, the Jewish community should keep animals the which he had himself composed.! In his possession of which was interdicted in the law. simplicity, poor Bar Elasa propounded it as his own; but the mischievous smile, which Bar But the most lasting and important measure of Kappara could not suppress, betrayed its real the Patriarch was the collection of the Mishnah. author, who, in punishment, was for ever Jehuda adopted as the basis of his collection the excluded from obtaining Rabbinical ordination. labors of Akiba and Meir, With the aid of his most learned colleagues, he investigated the [The real meaning of the riddle has never been most correct form of many Halachoth; he was discovered, but it probably contained covert not ashamed to ask the meaning of words and satirical allusions to some member of the phrases with which he was unfamiliar, and in Patriarch's family or household.] later years he undertook a revision and The patriarchate of Rabbi Jehuda was marked correction of the whole work. The Babylonian by important internal modifications and Jews adopted the second; Rabban Simon, outward changes, but specially by the Jehudia’s son and successor, the first edition of termination of a work at which many Rabbins the Patriarch's Mishnah. had formerly labored, namely, the collection of The view, which has often been maintained, the traditions into one work, and their that the Mishnah was not committed to writing arrangement into the Mishnah or Deuterosis, till after the fourth century, is apparently not which forms the text of which, as already warranted by the facts. The opinions expressed stated, the Jerusalem and the Babylonian by Rabbins Jochanan bar Napacha and Jehuda Gemara are the authorized Commentaries. The ben Nachmani, two teachers of the third changes within the Synagogue which the century, against writing down the oral law, do Patriarch inaugurated, were all in the way of not seem to have been rules generally lightening the burden which, in the altered recognized. On the contrary, many passages of circumstances of the nation, was yearly the Talmud imply the existence of books becoming more grievous and intolerable. Thus, containing both Haggadic and Halachic he relieved some cities from the payment of traditions, and it is very probable that written tithes, by declaring them beyond the collections of Mishnahs were compiled even boundaries of Palestine, an ordinance so before the time of Rabbi. Nor did the Mishnah distasteful to many of the Patriarch's relatives reach its final form during his lifetime. Not only and colleagues, that he only succeeded in

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did some of his disciples, as Chija, Ushaja, and subsisted between Rabbi Jehuda the Holy, and a Bar Kappara collect Mishnahs, but in the Roman emperor Antoninus. present Mishnah passages are found which are There are reasons for identifying this emperor as late as the third century. with Marcus Aurelius, but it is difficult to The text is in the later style of Hebrew, largely supply these traditions with a definite historical intermixed with Aramean, and even Greek and background, or to be certain which emperor is Latin words in Hebraized forms. Without really intended. entering on an analysis of its contents, we In the first place, we must reject the theory that notice that it embodies not only the legally the traditions relate to Rabbi Jehudia, who, it sanctioned traditions on all theological and has been suggested, may have had friendly juridico-theological questions, but also the intercourse with Alexander Severus. Not only leading objections urged against each Halakhah. are friends of the Rabbi sometimes introduced, E. Jehuda was an excellent scholar, who whom we know to have been contemporaries cultivated the Hebrew language to such an of Jehuda I, but the oldest stories of Rabbi and extent, that, after his death, even a female slave the emperor are found in Mechilta, where in his family was consulted as to the peculiar Jehuda ii. is never mentioned. In different meaning attached by her master to certain Rabbinic writings we read of Antoninus the Hebrew words. He wished that the Syrian elder, Aseverus the son of Antoninus, dialect should fall into desuetude, so that the Antoninus the son of Aseverus, and Antoninus Jews in Palestine might either speak Hebrew or the younger, the grandson of Antoninus the Greek. elder. If we are really to distinguish these As far as the external relations of the Jews were different persons, we may with some concerned, the presidency of Jehuda seems to probability identify the first with M. Aurelius, have fallen in a fairly tranquil though hardly a and the next with Septimius Severus, who prosperous period. Palestine shared in the sought to establish his connection with the troubles which followed the death of family of the Antonines. Commodus, but there was no other serious war. The two last titles may then both be understood It is true that the people were oppressed by of Antoninus Caracalla, the son of Severus. It is taxation; in particular, the “ aurum chiefly with Antoninus (the elder) that the Nasi coronarium,” the crown-money, was at one is brought in contact, and some reasons for time exacted, and we are told that this proved applying to the virtuous Aurelius the stories of so heavy an impost that the inhabitants of the Nasi's imperial friend are to be found in the Tiberias fled by common consent, and for a deference shown him by Rabbi, in his care for time left the Rabbins sole inhabitants of the justice and philosophical inquiry, and in the city. But as it is by no means certain that character assigned to him of a pious heathen if Palestine suffered more from this tax than not a proselyte, to whom Rabbi even promised other provinces, it can scarcely be construed a part in the world to come. It is true that the into an act of special persecution. Marcus saying of Aurelius, already referred to, implies Aurelius indeed does not appear to have shown no partiality for the Jews, nor should we have any decided preference for the Jews. On his visit supposed that the proud Stoic, with his to Palestine, after the unsuccessful rebellion of thoroughly Greek training, and his regard for Avidius Cassius, he once found himself the old Roman state religion, would be drawn surrounded by a clamorous crowd of Jews, and towards a Jewish Patriarch. Yet, while the the imperial philosopher is reported to have Jewish traditions in their present form contain exclaimed that he had at last found a people much that is exaggerated and obviously more contemptible even than the Marcomanni, unhistorical, there remains the possibility that Quadi, or Sarmati. But, against such Jehuda and Aurelius met, while the latter was expressions, we have the frequent mention in travelling southwards through Palestine in 175. Jewish literature of a friendship which It is noticeable that one of the oldest traditions

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speaks of an interview when the emperor was Rome, Severus had first avenged the death of on his way to Alexandria; another makes Rabbi Pertinax upon his murderers, and dispersed the allude to the emperor's attention to justice, Janissaries of antiquity, the Praetorians or without stating that the two had actually met. imperial bodyguard. Pescennius Niger, who had The latter stories may well have been built up meantime wholly surrendered himself to on a very slight foundation of fact; or else it is sensual pleasures, was defeated in three battles possible to suppose that the distinguished and killed, although his adherents maintained Roman friend of Rabbi Jehuda was not really an an obstinate resistance in some parts of the emperor at all. East. Marcus Aurelius was succeeded by his To the Palestinians, including perhaps the Jews, infamous son, Commodus, who reigned from Pescennius Niger was bitterly hostile. When 180 to 192. Weak, but not originally devoid of they appealed to him for an alleviation of their good qualities, the new prince soon burdens, he exclaimed, “ You wish to hold your surrendered himself to vicious pleasures. A landed property free of taxes? Would that I conspiracy which took place three years after were able to tax the very air you breathe.” In his accession, roused his suspicion, and induced spite of this reply, Niger had found adherents in him to surround himself with creatures of his Palestine, and Severus after his rival's death own, who served as instruments of his cruelty showed in various ways his resentment of the and lust. It would be almost impossible to opposition of that country to his government. describe the course of folly and cruelty through [The punishments fell chiefly on Samaria, and which Commodus passed, and which finally Neapolis was deprived of its civil rights. It was terminated in his assassination. The not long, however, before Severus remitted the conspirators chose Pertinax, apparently a man penalties which he had imposed, and some of worth and energy, to succeed him. His very years later he conferred fresh privileges on virtues and rigor were, in the eyes of the various cities of Palestine. What part the Jews corrupt Romans, so many faults, and the bribe took in the civil war is uncertain. Eusebius with which he sought to purchase the fidelity of speaks of a Samaritan and Jewish war; and after the imperial bodyguard proved ineffectual. He the Parthian campaign] was killed after a reign of only eighty-seven the Senate voted to Bassianus, the son of days. Severus, a Jewish triumph, in honour of his The purple was so attractive, that the father-in- father's success in Syria. Perhaps this was to law of Pertinax, not warned by his fate, made an celebrate the defeat of a robber chief, Claudius offer for it to the imperial guard, who promised by name, who had overrun Judea and Syria. the empire to the highest bidder. Ultimately During the war the rebel captain had the Julianus, a wealthy old senator, mounted the boldness to ride into the Roman camp, and to throne, on condition of paying to each soldier in embrace the emperor; he escaped before he the bodyguard a sum equivalent to about £200. could be captured. But the empire revolted against this barter. The The Emperor Septimius Severus was of African three divisions of the Roman army, that in extraction, and favorably disposed towards Pannonia under Septimius Severus, that in Christians, to the medical skill of one of whose Britain under CI. Albinus, and that in Syria number he owed his life. He was suspicious under Pescennius Niger, proclaimed their towards strangers, but unreasonably indulgent respective generals emperors. Sept. Severus towards his two sons, Bassianus and Geta, the proved the most energetic and successful of the offspring of his beautiful and learned but three. Having secured his rear by adopting profligate wife Julia. Bassianus, who from a Albinus as his colleague, he rapidly advanced to strange dress which he introduced, was also give battle to Pescennius Niger. Meanwhile the denominated Caracalla, had in early childhood time-serving Senate ordered Julianus to be a playmate who had become a convert to decapitated (June 2, 193). On his entrance into

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Judaism, but this incident proves nothing as to penalties, forbade conversion either to Judaism his later attitude toward the Jews. Tertullian or Christianity. As the Synagogue was protected asserts, perhaps on insufficient grounds, that as in the enjoyment of its freedom of worship, this a child Caracalla was surrounded by Christian edict could only check the spread of Judaism, attendants. but entailed no further annoyance upon its [Judea remained disturbed for some time after professors. It was otherwise with Christians, the recent political troubles.] whose creed and worship were contrary to law, and over whom, in some provinces, a storm of Marauding bands of Jewish adventurers persecution now burst. The only fresh burden traversed the country, ready to act as which Severus imposed upon the inhabitants of plunderers, patriots, or insurgents, as Palestine was an order to pay on the seventh or circumstances or the necessity of the case sabbatical, as on other years, the tribute (in might indicate. The Roman troops had to track kind), a regulation which obliged the Rabbins to these guerillas to their mountain fastnesses and repeal, or at least to suspend the Mosaic law, hiding-places, in which they were assisted by which, during that year, enjoined a rest for the the experience of some Jews, notably of two ground. Up to this period the Jews had been celebrated Rabbins, Eleazar the son of the exempt from such tribute in sabbatical years, famous Simon ben Jochai, and Ishmael the son by virtue of a special privilege first granted to of Joses. However necessary for the common them by Julius Caesar. good, yet such direct countenancing of the Romans, especially by celebrated theologians, Severus was succeeded in 211 by his two sons, excited the general indignation of their who during his lifetime had been his colleagues. countrymen. I Caracalla had once before attempted his father's life, and now aimed at that of his n fact, tradition has it that Eleazar afterwards brother. Geta was murdered in the arms of his bitterly repented of his sin against his brethren, mother. It is said that no less than 20,000 and that Simon's son had inflicted on himself individuals, who either actually were or were the severest castigations by way of atoning for suspected to have been his adherents, shared his sin. None the less his fame for mystical and his fate. Caracalla combined the folly with the Rabbinical lore and sanctity were such, that the cruelty and debauchery of former emperors. inhabitants of the town of Acbara (to the south The Alexandrians, who had probably irritated of ), where he died, would not allow his him by their raillery and their tumults, had to body to be committed to the ground, in the bear his vengeance. A large popular assemblage expectation of immunity from the incursions of was surrounded by the soldiers and put to the wild beasts while his body was amongst them. sword, and the town for some days given up to The citizens of the neighboring town of Biria pillage. During a campaign against the were obliged secretly to carry it away in order Parthians, Caracalla was murdered near to lay his remains by those of his parent in Carrhae, in the year 217. Meron. The Nasi, Jehuda the Holy, sought in vain the hand of Eleazar's widow, who Macrinus, the chief of the conspirators and one disdainfully reminded him “ that it was not of the prefects of the guard, succeeded him. But lawful to profane to the use of the vulgar a he soon disgusted the soldiers by his incapacity vessel which had at one time been destined for and severity. Besides, they began to suspect the holy purposes.” part which he had borne in the assassination of Caracalla, who had been a favorite with them. Severus showed himself at first tolerant both The maternal aunt of Caracalla, Masesa, who towards Jews and Christians, and during his lived in the neighborhood, availed herself of reign humane magistrates extended in some this disposition of the troops. She had two provinces to the followers of Christ the daughters, Sosemias, whose son was called protection of the law against the populace. But Bassianus, like his uncle Caracalla, and Mamsea, in 202 an edict appeared, which, under severe whose son was called Alexianus. Masesa and

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her daughters spread the rumor that Bassianus proved only of short duration. During a journey was in reality the son of Caracalla. What their through Samaria, Rabbi Meir had found cause persuasions did not effect, their gold and the to interdict the use of their wine. Rabbi Eleazar beauty and priestly dignity of Bassianus ben Simon pointed out blunders, accidental or secured. The young prince acted as Syrian high- intentional, in their copy of the Pentateuch. priest of the sun, from which office he Rabbi Eleazar ben Joses disputed with their afterwards obtained the name of Heliogabalus. Rabbins about the doctrine of a future Macrinus was murdered in 218, and resurrection; and finally Rabbi Ishmael ben Heliogabalus succeeded to the empire. Joses discovered, or at any rate reproached Heliogabalus surpassed even his uncle in folly them with, their idolatrous veneration for and debauchery. Spoiled by the indulgence of Mount Gerizim, a statement which would have his mother, and accustomed to the abominable cost him his life had he not left Sichem abruptly. excesses connected with the Syrian worship of Accordingly, the Patriarch Jehuda I declared the sun, that prince seemed anxious to show that the Samaritans were to be treated as the world what amount of folly and knavery heathens. A short time previously they had would be tolerated in an Roman emperor. He been styled “ proselytes of truth,” their walked about on gold dust, indulged in the conversion to Judaism (as far as it went) was wildest excesses, associated with the lowest of now traced to the fear of wild beasts, and they the populace : in a word, ran mad in riot. His were designated “ proselytes of lions,” in mother formed a female senate which adjudged allusion to 2 Kings 17:25, etc.' The candor of on matters of etiquette. In reality women some Rabbins constrained them, indeed, to conducted all the affairs of the State. Happily acknowledge that the Samaritans were more Heliogabalus' cousin, Alexianus, had been punctual and strict in such observances as they differently educated. He was now brought kept than the Jews. forward, first as the colleague of his cousin, and At an early period a considerable number of when dissensions arose between them, Samaritans seem to have inhabited Alexandria. Heliogabalus and his mother were killed, and [Without entering more particularly into their Alexianus Herodian, or Alexander Severus history, it is worth noticing that a Samaritan proclaimed sole emperor in 222. The community existed in Rome in the fifth century, administration of this excellent emperor, and and frequent reference is made to the his equally distinguished mother, forms one of Samaritans in the later imperial legislation.] the brightest episodes in Roman history. We In the war between Pescennius Niger and only add that, as Heliogabalus intended to make Severus, they appear to have taken part with the worship of the sun that of the Roman the former, and were punished for their Empire, he tolerated and protected in the resistance by the loss of many of their meantime that of the Jews and of the Christians. privileges. The Samaritans retorted the If the above short sketch has informed the intolerance of the Jews in every possible reader of the outward relations of the manner. Amongst other things, they Synagogue to the Roman power during the endeavoured to deceive the Jews at a distance patriarchate of Rabbi Jehuda I, it remaineth yet as to the appearances of the new moon, by to indicate its internal relations with reference lighting the usual watch-fires at improper to Samaritans and Christians. From reasons times. This induced the Patriarch to abolish this which are not accurately ascertained, the mode of telegraphing the commencement of the relations between the Jews and Samaritans had month, and special messengers were from that become much more friendly after the time dispatched to intimate the event to those termination of the rebellion under Bar Cochba. at a distance. Various other unimportant Indeed, the intercourse became so cordial that alterations were also introduced in the mode of it almost seemed as if the two parties would verifying the appearance of the new moon. recognize each other as brethren. But the truce

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The same intolerance which characterized the mob, condemned him to the stake. Jews and conduct of the Jews towards the Samaritans pagans hastened to bring from the workshops may also be traced in their relations to the and baths wood for the funeral pile. Before the Church. Although the Jews were still a despised fire was lighted, he prayed : “ Lord, Almighty and homeless race, the privileges accorded God, Father of Thy beloved Son Jesus Christ, them by the Roman emperors remained not through Whom we have received knowledge of without their practical effects. They could Thyself; the God of angels and of the whole therefore venture to gratify their enmity creation; of the human race, and of the saints against the Church by exciting the prejudices of who live in Thy presence; I praise Thee that the heathen against the followers of Christ. Thou hast judged me worthy, this day and this Several circumstances combined to convince hour, to take part among the number of Thy the Christians of the growing and implacable witnesses in the cup of Thy Christ.” The hatred of the Jews. But the most notable act of multitude did not even allow the Church the persecution was that in which the Jews of privilege of collecting the remains of their Smyrna took a leading part, and which ended pastor and spiritual father. Such occurrences with the martyrdom of the venerable Poly carp, must have embittered the feelings of Christians. the Bishop of Smyrna, in 155. This trial of the However, although conversions to Christianity Church's faith took place under the reign of were not so frequent as at first, the Gospel still Antoninus Pius, and during the administration continued to gain adherents from amongst the of a Roman governor who was by no means Jews. personally hostile to the Christians. Thus an instance is recorded when a Jew, The record of the particulars of this fiery ordeal travelling in company with Christians through belongs to a different department of history. So the desert, felt so earnest a desire after much only shall we state : that a persecution admission into the Church, that in the absence having from some unknown cause broken out of water he was baptized with sand. A against the Christians, the fury of the populace celebrated teacher of the Church at that time, was at last directed against the venerable Hegesippus, was of Jewish descent, and had Polycarp, who had been a disciple of the originally belonged to the Jewish faith. There Apostle John. Polycarp yielded so far to the seem, however, to be no good grounds for entreaties of his friends as to withdraw to a supposing that he belonged to a Judaizing party villa in the neighborhood of Smyrna. His asylum within the Church. having been betrayed, he retreated to another. Rabbi Jehuda I had raised the patriarchate to its But his hour had come. When the officers of highest point. At no after period did it present justice approached his retreat, Polycarp might so many claims to the universal respect of the have escaped by the flat roof to another house, Jews. Its power was indeed exceeded under but refused to do so, saying, “ The will of the some of the Nasi's successors, but, from their Lord be done.” inferiority in personal talent and learning, and He only requested an hour for prayer, which in from the gradual decline of Jewish theology in the fullness of his heart was protracted to two. Palestine, these patriarchs did not command In vain did various magistrates urge the the same influence. Jehudia’s eminent piety, venerable bishop, by entreaties and threats, to modesty, and learning secured not only the recant, at least in appearance, or to pacify the universal respect of his contemporaries, but multitude by yielding a little. He replied, “ attached to his name the title “Ha-Kadosh,” the Eighty and six years have I served Him, and He Holy, and surrounded him in the Synagogue has done me nothing but good; and how could I with a halo of almost superhuman glory. To his curse Him, my Lord and Savior? “ At last the collection of traditions or Mishnah, his proconsul proclaimed that Polycarp had successors added such legal ordinances as had confessed himself a Christian, and, yielding to either been omitted or not quite established the shouts of the infuriated Jewish and heathen under Rabbi Jehuda, under the title of “Matnita

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Boraitha,” or simply “ Boraitha,” “the External when, in conversation, he would have excused Mishnah,” in contradistinction to the Mishnah himself to the physician, the latter playfully itself, or “our Mishnah,” which had soon gained retorted, “ that so it was appointed in the Book a sort of canonical authority. of Adam that Samuel should be called a sage, Rabbi Jehuda was surrounded by celebrated but not a Rabbi, and that the Patriarch's disease contemporaries, among their number being should be removed by him,” Rabbi Jehuda had many who were not of Palestinian extraction. for many years been sickly, and specially One of the most distinguished of their number suffered from neuralgic pains in the face, and was Rabbi Chija, whose chief merit seems to from an abdominal disease. The ingenuity and have consisted in the fresh impulse he gave to application of Samuel had, by the blessing of the instruction of youth, for whom he procured God, indeed removed the distemper, but the a large number of copies of portions of Patriarch continued subject to frequent Scripture. He also introduced a system of infirmities. We have already noticed to what mutual instruction, by which students, each of causes Jewish tradition ascribed the origin of whom had mastered a different subject, his ailments, and what beneficial effects it was communicated to one another the knowledge thought they had on his contemporaries : the which each had gained. Rabbi Chija's nephew Rabbi's sufferings atoning for the sins which was the celebrated Abba Areka, as he was would have brought judgments upon the land. afterwards denominated in Babylon, in order to These legends show at least in what estimation indicate his eminence. Another celebrated the Nasi was held by posterity. At last the hand authority was Rabbi Chanina, between whom of death was about to snatch away the great and Abba a good deal of jealousy existed. Some representative of the house of Hillel. During his trifling matter brought the secret dislike to an last years there had been many disputes open rupture. In vain did Abba afterwards wait amongst the theologians, which even his upon his colleague year after year, on the eve of authority could not altogether repress. the Day of Atonement, to effect a reconciliation. [Fresh troubles seemed to be in store for the Chanina remained inflexible, and Abba at last, Jewish nation. “ After the death of Simon the in disgust, left Palestine, to sustain a son of Gamaliel came sufferings; after the death distinguished part in the rising academies of of Rabbi they were redoubled,” was a saying Babylon. current in later times. Probably for some forty Rabbi Ishmael ben Joses was an authority much years had the Patriarch wielded supreme consulted by the Patriarch. Though Ishmael spiritual authority, he had passed the allotted neither possessed the talent nor attained the short period of threescore and ten, when the eminence of his father, his faithful memory had man of iron will and determination, to whose stored up the statements of his parent, and decision the most wayward theologian had frequently had the Nasi to submit his personal implicitly to submit, the pride and idol of his opinion to the acknowledged authority of the people, was descending into the dark valley. late Rabbi Joses as quoted by his son.2 The tenderest care of Samuel seemed unavailing; the devoted attention of his favorite [He had outlived the distrust due to his support servants, Joses and Simon, who bestowed on of the Roman authorities.] their master the affectionate services 'of Chija's two sons were celebrated as Rabbinical friends, was lavished in vain. The sages interpreters. Rabbi Ushaja was called the “ assembled round his couch to hear the Father of the Mishnah.” Of Bar Kappara's wit Patriarch's last will. After committing their and readiness we have already spoken. Samuel stepmother to the special affection of his sons, was attached as physician to the patriarchal and minutely enjoining the continuance of the court, where he also became a theological present household arrangements, he celebrity. For some unascertained reason the nominated his eldest son, Gamaliel, his Patriarch, however, refused to ordain him; and successor; and his second son, Simon, Chacham.

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He gave directions for the ordination of In truth, the general mourning of the Synagogue Chanina ben Chama, and then proceeded to was not unreasonable. instruct his sons in the rules to be observed by [“ After the death of Rabbi,” it was said, “ those who filled the high places to which they humility and the fear of sin ceased from among were elevated. Then turning to Rabban men.” The schools of Palestine had now reached Gamaliel, the Nasi-designate, he said, “ My son, the zenith of their splendour; in the next use your office with dignity. Throw gall generation, Babylon would become the chief amongst the theologians.” seat of Jewish learning.] Meanwhile, on tidings of the Patriarch's danger, Rabbi Jehuda I was the last of a particular class the populace had, in vast numbers, assembled of Talmudical teachers, which are denominated in the streets of Sepphoris, and before his as the , the traditionalists. They were abode. Jehudia’s impending death had put an succeeded by the , or expounders, end to both business and study. Many a prayer whose special task seemed to be to explain the was offered for his recovery, and the excited ordinances settled by their predecessors, rather multitude went tidings of the Patriarch's than to originate new statutes. demise. The Nasi had expired, but none [The date of Jehudia’s death is difficult to ventured to intimate the event to the people. At determine, but we may assign it approximately last Bar Kappara went to the balcony, his head to the year 210. Of the life and doings of Rabban covered and his garments rent, and said to the Gamaliel ill., his son and successor, history tells people us little beyond the fact that he faithfully “Angels and mortals contended for the ark carried out his father's instructions. His distrust The angels have conquered the ark is gone ! of the Roman authorities is shown by the A general outburst of grief followed the warning which he addressed to his disciples : “ announcement. “ Is he dead? “ asked thousands. Be cautious of those in authority, for they let “You say it,” replied the ever-ready Bar not a man approach them except for their own Kappara. The sound of the lamentation was purpose. They appear like friends when it is to heard, as tradition affirms, at a distance of some their advantage, but they will not stand by a miles. His favorite servants prepared the body man in his hour of need.” Perhaps he regarded for the burial, which took place on the day of with suspicion the increased friendliness of the his death, a Friday. Rabbi Jehuda had requested Roman government; for both the emperors that public mourning should not be instituted Severus and Antoninus Caracalla issued laws for him in the various cities, and that the favorable to the Synagogue.] colleges should be reopened after the lapse of From a legal determination preserved to us, we thirty days. An immense crowd accompanied learn that these emperors allowed Jews to his body to its last resting place in Beth- attain civic honors. In one respect the privilege Shearim, and funeral orations were delivered in thus accorded offered few attractions to the no less than eighteen synagogues. exclusive Jews, who had no inclination to Although by law the descendants of Aaron were identify themselves with the Roman interdicted from defiling themselves by contact government, or to bear the burdens and duties with dead bodies, veneration for the departed which such honors would necessarily bring Nasi led to the suppression of this ordinance for with them. Although Jews were expressly set that day, and even priests took part in the last free from all offices which in their discharge offices. Tradition had it that the sun remained offered violence to their religious convictions, it longer on the horizon, to enable the funeral was a current saying in Palestine (showing the cortege to reach their homes before the sunset general aversion to all such offices), “ If you are of Friday ushered in the Sabbath of rest and chosen member of a council, flee to the deserts sanctity. around Jordan.”

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[Jerome also informs us that a remarkable which it had anon so carefully raided to protect change took place about this period in the itself against heathenism. social relations of the Jews, so as to induce Alexander Severus, who ascended the throne in them to apply to the times of Severus and 223, was very favorable to the Synagogue. That Antoninus the passage, Dan. 11:34, “Now, when emperor differed greatly from his immediate they fall, they shall be holpen with a little help.” predecessors, both in his private and public ] conduct. For a short time, justice, moderation, Rabban Gamaliel was succeeded by his eldest and temperance took the place of the unbridled son, Jehuda 11., whose patriarchate is licentiousness and intolerable tyranny of the distinguished by certain internal and external masters of the world. In matters of religion, reforms which indicated striking changes in the Alexander Severus displayed considerable views of the Rabbins. Hitherto, although the moral earnestness. As in the case of many at the province of Judea had been almost entirely time, it led him, however, into a religious forsaken by theologians, the custom had still eclecticism which placed the various creeds and continued of determining the period of the new their representatives on a footing of equality. In moon in that part of the country. The Patriarch his Lararium, or domestic chapel, he had, now transferred this function to Tiberias, which amongst others, the statues of Orpheus, of he chose as his residence. Gradually the Abraham, and even of Christ. His mother southern part of Palestine, the sacred soil to Mamsea, during her stay at Antioch, held which the memory of Judah had clung so intercourse with the celebrated Christian tenderly, lost its Jewish inhabitants, and its few teacher . synagogues became disorganized. Galilee, once It will be readily understood how an emperor so despised, now became the Holy Land, and of such a disposition, and of Syrian descent, Tiberias its Jerusalem. A degree of jealousy, should have entertained views peculiarly which seems to have subsisted between the favorable to the Synagogue. Independent non- teachers of Galilee and a celebrated theologian Jewish confirmations are not wanting to prove of Judea, may have contributed to this result. the existence of that favoritism. The Greater changes followed. Jehuda ii. allowed the Alexandrians gave him, in mockery, the title of “ use of oil prepared by heathens; and it is Syrian Head of the Synagogue” certain he would even have granted permission (Archisynagogos), to eat their bread, had he not been afraid of the [We are told that the emperor publicly opposition of some of his contemporaries. commended the care taken by the Jews and The 9th of Ab was no longer to be strictly Christians in selecting proper persons for observed; the decree by which some of the ordination, and he desired to introduce the expressions of joy at marriages had been same precautions in the appointment of officers suppressed in consequence of former of state.] persecutions, was repealed, and even the It was doubtless at this time that the alterations marriage with a childless widowed sister-in- above referred to were made by the Synagogue, law, and many other legal enactments, would with a view to approximating to the Gentiles. It have been declared no longer obligatory, had was even allowed to the members of the not the sacred college interposed to put a stop Patriarch's household to have the hair dressed to the spirit of innovation. Other and more in a manner similar to the Romans, a important changes were, however, introduced. concession which, however trivial in itself, Thus the study of the was not when viewed together with the permission to only allowed, but recommended; intercourse learn Greek, to decorate the houses with with heathens became frequent and intimate; paintings, etc., indicates an altered state of paintings were admitted into houses; and, in feeling. general, Judaism broke down the barriers

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[Possibly some of the traditions with regard to He also endeavoured to put the Rabbins on the Antoninus and Aseverus contain indistinct same footing with the laity; and insisted, for recollections of privileges enjoyed under example, on their bearing their share in the Alexander Severus.] civic burdens, from which they had hitherto Remarkable evidence of the favored position of been exempt. This innovation was violently the Jews is given by Origen,' who describes, as resisted by the theologians, and serious the result of personal observation, the almost disputes ensued. But still greater dissatisfaction regal authority exercised in his day by the was aroused by the manner in which the Jewish Patriarch. The court over which he Patriarch exercised his power of conferring presided administered not only civil but also ordination. Jehuda II. was covetous, and ready criminal justice, even putting offenders to to admit those to the sacred office who had no death, and all this with the connivance, at least, other qualification than their wealth to of the Roman government. From other sources recommend them. This naturally occasioned we learn that the punishment of stripes was some painful scenes, and brought upon the frequently administered not only by the Patriarch severe practical rebukes. Those on authority of the Supreme Court, but in the whom the sacred office was bestowed merely various synagogues. To enforce their authority, for money, were now designated as “ silver and the Patriarchs surrounded themselves with a golden idols,” and generally despised. It was bodyguard, while their revenues were mostly probably at this time that the sacred college derived from the religious offerings of the Jews formally deprived the Patriarch of the sole right in and out of Palestine, which were collected in of conferring ordination, and made it in future all countries by means of regular legates. depend upon the joint consent of the Patriarch and the Sanhedrin. [The Jews were indeed now far more favored than the Christians. In the time of Septimius If this be the true occasion of the change, it Severus we hear of Christians who had must be allowed that the college had too good professed Judaism in order to escape from reason to interfere. Thus, on one occasion, a persecution. In the present reign, while the rich but ignorant man had been ordained, and, Christians were merely tolerated, the former according to general custom, had sat down to privileges of the Jews were confirmed, a deliver a theological dissertation. Beside him distinction which doubtless rested upon the stood, as Methurgeman, the able and ready Juda fact that the latter represented a nation, while ben Nachmani, so well known in his days as a the former did not.] poet and divine. In vain did Juda bend down his ear for the discourse of the newly ordained The intimacy between heathens and Jews, Rabbi, which, as was his duty, he had to give in which naturally resulted, operated unfavorably a popular shape to the audience. At last Juda on the Church; and a father of the Church began, with an evident allusion to the silent complains of the hostile attempts of the Jews preacher : “ Woe unto him that saith to the against the Christians, which were apparently wood, Awake ! to the dumb stone. Arise ! It countenanced by the heathens. shall teach ! Behold, it is laid over with gold and [In private life, Rabbi Jehuda II displayed a silver, and there is no breath (in the Hebrew, simplicity of manners and disregard of spirit) at all in the midst of it “ (Hab. 2:19). The ceremony which sometimes even called forth scandal which this occasioned may readily be the disapproval of his friends.' At the same time conceived. he showed himself determined to exalt the Another Rabbi of great influence, whose external power and dignity of the patriarchate. prayers the Patriarch had solicited, probably on Allusion has already been made to his armed account of the troubles which succeeded the bodyguard, and to the princely state which he death of Alexander Severus, expostulated, “ assumed.] Take not from others, and others will not take from thee,” Still more severe was the reproof

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administered to the Patriarch in a sermon by Rabbi Jochanan was very liberal in his conduct. one Joses from Maon. Indeed, so sensible was To him the ordinances which allowed the study the Nasi of the affront, that he sent to imprison of G-reek (to males and females), the alteration the preacher. But E. Joses had fled. Two in the dress of the Jews, the introduction of influential Rabbins, to whose advice the paintings, etc., were due. However, as others of Patriarch generally deferred, interceded for the similar character, he was a bitter opponent of offender, and procured for him pardon and an the Roman power, and of that of , in interview. But when the Patriarch tried to short, of all foreign domination. To the former puzzle the preacher by curious questions, the he applied the prophecy of Daniel, declaring latter retaliated by replies which plainly that the Roman Empire was the fourth beast indicated his low estimate of the spiritual head and the little horn of that vision. The term of his of his nation. One of the two Rabbins to whom life extended much beyond the usual period. we have just referred, Rabbi Jochanan, His latter days were saddened by severe family exercised a remarkable influence over the affliction. He successively lost each of his ten Patriarch, and zealously supported him in many sons, the youngest perished by accidentally of the reforms which Rabbi Jehuda had falling into a caldron of boiling water. The determined to introduce. unhappy parent, who had now but one There are few persons of whom tradition daughter left to him, is said to have ever records more than of Rabbi Jochanan bar afterwards carried about with him a bone of the Napacha. Left an orphan at an early age, he body of his youngest son, to comfort mourners lived a long and happy life, to die amidst sorrow by exhibiting that memorial of his own severe and misery. He is described as the most affliction. Rabbi Jochanan was also beautiful man of his age; and many are the distinguished for great moral earnestness. The poetic and other allusions to his bodily trials with which he was visited during his attractions, according to which he seems to latter years induced illness, or temporary have resembled rather a beautiful woman than insanity. a fine-looking man. Combined with his bodily, Ben Lakish was Rabbi Jochanan's personal were rare mental qualities. At an early age he friend and brother-in-law, but his theological had attended the lectures of Jehuda I, although opponent. In his youth he had seen Jehuda I, without much profit. His limited means induced and had been trained in the school of his him for a time to engage in commerce. He successors. At one time, probably on account of entered into business with one of his poverty, he accepted an engagement at a circus, colleagues, Rabbi Apha. But a voice from where he acted as slaughterer of wild beasts; heaven, which intimated his future greatness, and many were the stories told of his enormous induced him to sell his small paternal estate, bodily strength. and to devote himself exclusively to study. He Tradition records that on one occasion Ben soon attained eminence and importance. Unlike Lakish surprised Jochanan while bathing, and, many of his colleagues, he often deviated from attracted by the beauty of the woman (for the Mishnah to decide certain questions which he took Rabbi Jochanan), plunged into according to the Boraitha, i.e., if the latter had the water after him. The conversation and the preponderating weight of authority. His admonitions which then ensued, together with lectures attracted students from all countries, Jochanan's promise of giving his sister in and filled Tiberias with theologians; and he marriage to Ben Lakish, on condition of his became the principal adviser of the Patriarch. devoting himself to Rabbinical pursuits, are While differing from contemporary sages, said to have induced a complete change in the chiefly in not simply accepting the Mishnah as latter. Certain it is that Ben Lakish left his such, he kept on friendly terms with all the companions, married Jochanan's sister, and other Rabbins. His pupils diffused his opinions. became as distinguished for his Rabbinical lore as he had formerly been for strength and

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prowess. His investigations were characterized the cause of the death of his friend. Rabbi by acumen and an earnestness which even Jochanan never recovered from the shock of bordered on austerity. this occurrence. He adopted Ben Lachish’s son, A smile was never seen to play on his features, and soon afterwards followed his friend into as unbecoming a member of that nation which the grave. groaned under heathen bondage; nor did he The third of a famous trio of Palestinian ever associate with any of whose probity he Amoreans was Rabbi Joshua ben Levi, a sage entertained not the fullest conviction. So much who, to some extent, represented the mystical was this the case, that, popularly, intimacy with tendency in the Synagogue. His father was Ben Lakish was looked upon as a sufficient perhaps Levi bar Sissi, one of the last of the guarantee of character, conduct, or testimony. Tannaites. Levi and Rabbi Ephes, the immediate He did not scruple to rebuke even the Patriarch predecessor of Rabbi Joshua in the presidency (although on intimate terms with him); and on of the college at Lydda, had both been so one occasion actually proposed that in cases of distinguished that even the proud R. Chanina delinquency, the head of the Synagogue should, had given them Rabbinical precedence. At that like other defaulters, be subject to the time Lydda was almost the only place in Judea punishment of stripes. proper where traditionalism and theological Anticipating that the Patriarch would scarcely learning were still cultivated, although the tolerate the statement of such doctrines, Ben inhabitants of that place were looked down Lakish fled, just in time to escape the upon by the spiritual aristocracy of Galilee. messengers of justice sent by the Nasi. But Rabbi Joshua reorganized the congregations in when, at the public sitting of the college, Judea, at least for a season. He was no less Jochanan refused to go on in the absence of Ben reputed in the Synagogue for his Halachic Lakish, the Patriarch not only waived the point decisions, than for his power of working in dispute, but even consented to go and meet miracles. He conversed with Elijah, his prayers the bold Rabbi, a step which the latter brought down rain, the angel of death had no somewhat profanely compared with God's power over him; the Rabbi even deprived him going down to Egypt to deliver His people. of his sword, and entered Paradise. These However, even on that occasion the language of legends, which sufficiently indicate in what Ben Lakish was so unconciliatory that the repute Joshua was held, by and by assumed quarrel was almost renewed. more definite shape, and increased in proportions with the lapse of time. In the later The method of Ben Lakish differed from that of Midrashic literature we find an account not Jochanan : while the latter decided according to only of his journey to Paradise, but of his visit the preponderance of authorities, the former to all the regions in the other world, of which he raised ingenious questions, and propounded sent an accurate and full description to novel and striking theories. Thus h held that the Gamaliel by the angel of death. Book of Job was only an allegory, declared that the name of angels dated from the sojourn in We have already referred to Rabbi Chanina, the Babylon, maintained that former times had not friend and companion of the elder Jehuda. He been better than the present, etc. Views such as presided over the academy of Sepphoris, where these brought him into continual theological he represented the genuine traditional element. collision with Rabbi Jochanan. At last a dispute Like Eleazar ben Hyrcanus, he taught only what ensued in which Jochanan forgot himself so far he had heard from his teacher, and had himself as to remind his friend of his former mode of proved by experience on at least three separate life. Tradition has it that Ben Lakish was killed occasions. His reputation for piety and severity by a look from Jochanan, who was reputed to enabled him to expostulate with his possess what is still familiarly known as “ the contemporaries for their moral laxity, in terms evil eye.” Certain it is that the latter used to which would scarcely have been tolerated in reproach himself for having been in some way others. It must be allowed that the conduct of

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the inhabitants of Sepphoris afforded but too these predictions on the supposition that they much ground for the Rabbi's reproofs. It was to were penned by a contemporary of the this moral degeneracy that he ascribed the Maccabees, and with reference to the events of inefficiency of his prayers in times of public their times. Origen himself was instructed in trial. So great was his influence and reputation, Hebrew by a Rabbi, whom he designates as the that when he appeared on one occasion before Patriarch Huillus, probably Hillel, the brother of the proconsul at Caesarea, the latter the Patriarch Jehuda 11. Many of his exegetical respectfully rose, declaring that Chanina and views he acknowledges to have derived from Joshua “ appeared to him like angels.” Rabbi Jewish sources. One of the results of his studies Chanina was the teacher of Rabbi Jochanan. The was the celebrated Hexapla a work in which the pupil, it will be remembered, slightly modified Septuagint translation is placed side by side the theological system in which he had been with the original Hebrew, and compared also trained. The Synagogue was also well with the Greek versions of Akylas, Symmachos, represented in Caesarea. Another sage, Rabbi Theodotion, and with others which he had Simlai, by birth a Palestine Jew, would deserve discovered at Nicopolis and at Jericho. more full notice, but that he spent the greater part of his days in Babylon, with the history of Chapter 13 – Extinction of the Patriarchate whose Jewish inhabitants he is more or less and Final Dispersion of the Jews identified. Rabbi Simlai had no claims to The Jewish schools and the Jewish nation in the distinction in the Halakhah, in fact, his decisions Roman provinces had attained the highest point were rather distrusted. But he acquired fame in of prosperity, when both declined, the schools the Haggadah, and for his violent opposition to to be finally closed, and the nation to be Christianity. exposed to a storm of persecution which, in One of the persons engaged in this controversy duration and severity, far surpassed aught that was possibly the celebrated Origen, who spent had formerly been endured. No doubt they had considerable time in Palestine, and whose not made proper use of their brief liberty. interpretations of Scripture not infrequently Those who had so frequently suffered from the recall the methods of Jewish exegesis. It will intolerance of others, had not learned to extend readily be conceived that Christian truth was again that freedom which they had so earnestly placed at disadvantage when made to depend claimed for themselves. More especially their on isolated portions or texts, and defended by conduct towards Christians exhibited a degree exegetical niceties and subtleties; instead of of bitterness and a desire for extermination, resting on the general scope and bearing of the which, when occasion offered, the latter were Old Testament teaching, and on whole but too ready to retort. In truth, toleration, as passages, taken in their breadth and fullness, as distinct from persecution or indifferentism on the individual exponents of general and well- the part of a ruling or influential majority, ascertained principles. However, Haggadic seems to be a virtue of most difficult studies led sometimes to a spirit of zealous attainment, requiring a thorough conviction not inquiry, and to frequent controversies between only of the truthfulness, but of the spirituality Christians and Jews. of our principles, as independent from and not to be promoted by material means. [Moreover, they proved to Christian scholars the necessity of gaining some knowledge of The close of the reign of Alexander Severus is Hebrew, instead of relying entirely upon the contemporaneous with the commencement of Septuagint.] those great troubles which terminated in the destruction of the Roman Empire. In the trans- So general, indeed, became these Old Euphratic provinces, to the history of which we Testament studies, that when Porphyry, a refer at present only so far as absolutely heathen, would attack Christianity, he felt necessary, a new dynasty, representing the constrained to attempt an exposition of the prophecies of Daniel, in which he accounts for

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ancient Persian dynasty and religion, had distance (sixty miles) south-west from the violently displaced the Parthian rule. Euphrates, on the high road between the [The new king, Ardashir, declared war against Roman and Parthian monarchies. From its Rome, and invaded Mesopotamia and advantageous position, beauty, and salubrity, Cappadocia (230). Alexander Severus was that city had gradually risen to opulence and compelled to march against the invaders. He importance. Odtenathus was soon involved in a seems to have gained some advantage, but in quarrel with the Persian monarch. We are told the end retired without honour to Antioch.] that, while Sapor was prosecuting his successful incursions into the Roman provinces, Another invasion soon called him to the banks a train of camels, laden with the richest of the Rhine (235), where the rude Maximinus, presents for him, arrived from Odtenathus. But a Thracian by birth, held an important Sapor, offended because the Palmyrene chief command. Here the disaffection of the army, had not appeared in person, haughtily replied originally aroused by overtures for peace, to the embassy, that “ if Odtenathus entertained ended in the murder of the emperor and of his a hope of mitigating his punishment, he was to mother, and the elevation of Maximinus to the fall prostrate at the foot of his throne with his imperial dignity; and now a period ensued hands bound behind his back.” Odtenathus, which, for its confusion and pernicious effects repulsed in his friendly advances, threw himself on the commonwealth, is unparalleled. into the Roman cause. He fought with success [Of twenty-three emperors who assumed the against Sapor, reduced Nisibis, and twice purple between the years 211 and 284, very besieged Ctesiphon, the Persian capital. During few escaped a violent death; while in 237-238, six years Palmyra defended the Roman Empire, six emperors perished in the course of a few and well did Odtenathus deserve the honors months.] which Gallienus conferred upon him. Most of these emperors were nominated by the Jewish writings speak of a certain Papa bar soldiers from amongst their generals, and Nazar, who is styled both a king and a robber speedily gave place to other equally worthless chief; and it has been supposed that this usurpers. It appears strange almost an irony individual, who was designated by some of the upon Rome that at that very period one of these Jews as “ the little horn speaking great things,” emperors, Philip the Arabian, should have was none other than Odtenathus, one of whose celebrated by great festivities the Roman ancestors bore the name of Nasor. millennium, 1000 years having elapsed since According to Jewish historians, Papa bar Nazar the foundation of the city. took and destroyed the Jewish city of Nahardea. Amidst these rapid and frequent changes in the [An obscure passage in the Talmud brings Papa tenure of the supreme office in the State, one bar Nazar into connection with Zenobia, while episode at least deserves to be more Zenobia is represented as in direct conflict with particularly recorded, not only from the some influential Rabbins.] interest, we might almost call it the romance, attaching to it, but from its connection with our The Jews, who were at first adverse to the history. The new Persian dynasty had proved Persian power, whose fanaticism gave them too everywhere victorious, and the Roman much cause for apprehension, had gradually emperor, Valerians, had fallen into the hands of become reconciled to it, and stood in friendly its representative, Sapor. His weak son, and even intimate relations with the new Gallienus, was both unable and unwilling to dynasty. On the other hand, Palmyra, as the ally rescue his father. At that time Odaenathus, the of Rome, seems to have shared in the cordial husband of Zenobia, was the hereditary chief of hatred felt by the Jews for the Roman power. Palmyra. This city, known also as Tadmor, was Thus Rabbi Jochanan declared that “ he was built on an oasis in the midst of a desert, north- happy who should witness the fall of Tadmor.” east from Damascus, and at about the same

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About 267, Odtenathus was murdered, perhaps mode of accession. Tradition asserts that when on political grounds, when Zenobia assumed the emperor was in Paneas, at some distance the reins of government, and soon showed that from Tiberias, he suddenly sent a message on a she meant not only to call herself, but to act as Friday afternoon, ordering the Patriarch and the Queen of the East. If only part of the almost the principal Jews to appear before him on fabulous descriptions of Zenobia are true, that Sabbath evening. The order, which seemed to queen must have surpassed in beauty involve the necessity of Sabbath desecration, Cleopatra, in courage Semiramis, and in energy, reached the Patriarch and his friends while coupled with liberality of sentiment, the more taking the Friday bath. However, a friendly recent royal ornaments of her sex, Elizabeth of demon, the Argonaut, who came to their England and Maria Theresa of Austria. To assistance, undertook and succeeded in unrivalled beauty she added equal chastity; to conveying them to Paneas before the Sabbath. fortitude and courage, fertility of device; to The emperor, in mark of contempt, ordered the administrative wisdom, the faculty of Jews to bathe for several days before appearing discerning and availing herself of the talents of in his presence. But at their interview the others. Nor were arts and sciences less Patriarch completely conciliated the emperor. It cultivated in Palmyra than statecraft. At her is difficult to indicate how much foundation in court we find the celebrated philosopher truth this story may possess. Longinus; while through her favor and [The Patriarch referred to was Jehuda II, and protection Paul of Samoset, the heretical Bishop Diocletian was in Syria three or four times of Antioch, was able to retain his See, although between the years 288 and 300. Elsewhere it is he had been condemned and deposed by a stated that this emperor treated the inhabitants Council at Antioch for denying the divinity of of Paneas with such harshness, that they our Lord. resolved to leave their homes. Usually, Jews and Christians have in turn claimed and however, the reign of Diocletian is mentioned disclaimed Zenobia as their co-religionist. The with approbation in Jewish writings. Rabbi truth seems to be, that she belonged neither to Chija bar Abba is said even to have risked one nor other of these parties, but shared the Levitical defilement in his desire to see the general eclectic views of her intimate friends, emperor during one of his visits to Palestine.] one of whom, for example, Longinus, could not Meantime the Patriarch Rabbi Jehuda II and his sufficiently express his sense of the sublimity of friends and coadjutors had, one by one, been the command, “ Let there be light,” in the gathered to their fathers. If the first generation Mosaic account of Creation. But Zenobia's reign of Amoraim exhibited a sad declinature when was cut short, in the midst of her conquests, by compared with the Tannaim -of former the victorious advance of the Emperor Aurelian, generations, their successors proved still more who at last took and destroyed Palmyra, and clearly the decadence of the Synagogue in brought her queen in chains to Rome (273). Palestine. Rabbi Gamaliel IV, son and successor Under the reign of Diocletian, who ascended the of Rabbi Jehuda II, was openly and avowedly throne in 284, the empire became for a time treated by the teachers of Palestine as an more settled. However rigorous and systematic unlearned and ignorant person, to whom, by were the persecutions of that emperor against way of precaution, it was even necessary to the Church, which he had resolved wholly to interdict what in itself might be lawful. He was extirpate, or against the Samaritans, whom he apparently unable to decide in any case of is said to have forced to worship idols/ the dispute, and had to refer all these matters to Synagogue escaped. According to a Jewish the sages. At the same time the study and tradition, some suspicion at first existed against knowledge of the Scriptures declined so sadly, the Synagogue. Enemies had reported that the that one of the most celebrated Rabbins Patriarch and his friends had spoken in a confessed that he was (at least exegetically) disparaging manner of Diocletian's origin and unacquainted with the text of the Ten

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Commandments. Nor was even the study of the lands an annual tribute, or religious Halakhah cultivated. It had gradually given contribution (mentioned as “ aurum place to the sophistry and allegorical playing of coronarium,” like that of the Roman emperors, the Haggadah, a discipline to which the term “ or as “canon” and “pensio”), a kind of Jewish “ rooting up and carrying away mountains” was Peter's pence.” Rabbi Chija was appointed to applied. The very style of correspondence and this post. However, notwithstanding his the language of that period, with its turgidity celebrity, he was so ignorant of the Bible, that, and its meaningless puns and pleonasms, in answer to a Haggadic query, he had to contrasts most unfavorably with that of former confess he was not aware whether the word “ days. good “ occurred in the Decalogue. [The decline of the spiritual authority of the Chija's brother Simon was reputed so pious, Patriarch is evidenced by the absence of his that his teacher, the celebrated Jochanan, said name from an important decree of the of him, “He that cannot form a notion of the Sanhedrin relating to the Samaritans.] virtues of our Father Abraham, may become The temporal power of the Patriarchs, however, acquainted with them by observing this Simon.” rather increased during these troublous times, Although very poor, he was too independent to and the patriarchate was treated by the accept any assistance, and his friends supplied Romans as a civil dignity. Although Rabbi his wants by putting money in his way, that he Jochanan had affected a thorough contempt for might accidentally find it. His difficulties at last the Babylonians (as he called them), those of compelled him to seek employment out of his successors who enjoyed any fame, had come Palestine, which was at first refused, from a from beyond the river, and ultimately desire to retain him in the Holy Land. He submitted their own decisions for review to the afterwards settled in Damascus. In spite of his superior wisdom of the trans-Euphratic learning, through lack of a suitable opportunity, teachers. Jochanan had solemnly ordained, he failed to obtain ordination. A similar amidst the sound of songs in their praise, his uprightness and similar sufferings marked his Babylonian pupils, Rabbins Ami and Asi, as “ private and his public life. He successively lost judges of the land of Israel.” After the death of his two wives, both of whom he seems to have Jochanan's successor, the Babylonian Rabbi married mainly from conscientious motives. Eleazar ben Padat, they were almost the sole, as The two sons of Abba were rigid Talmudists, well as the supreme judicial authorities of and interdicted a Grecian education to Jewish Palestine. maids. The two sons of Abba, Chija and Simon, were Another highly interesting personage was equally celebrated for their merits and Rabbi Abihu, by birth a Palestinian. He was a misfortunes. Both suffered from crushing manufacturer of veils in Caesarea Augusta, poverty. Chija had at first been largely assisted where he also presided over a celebrated by the wealthy family of Silvani in Tiberias, who academy. Abihu was very rich, lived gaily, and continued to pay to this Rabbi, as a descendant educated his daughter after the Grecian fashion, of Aaron, the regular tithes. But when another to which his more strict colleagues objected. He sage declared something lawful which Chija had possessed considerable influence with the interdicted, and the Silvani gave him to Roman proconsul, which he employed in favor understand that more moderate views were of his co-religionists and colleagues. His requisite in one who depended on their bounty, personal attractions, both of body and mind, he not only declined their assistance in future, and his wealth, secured him a leading position but resolved never to receive it again from any in Caesarea, and indeed in Palestine. At the other party. To fortify himself in this resolution, same time, he was so modest and retiring as he accepted a post which forced him to travel even to be unwilling to become the head of a out of Palestine. The Patriarchs now employed “ school. On one occasion he lectured to a apostles,” as they were termed, to collect in all crowded audience on the Haggadah, while his

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more learned colleague, Chija bar Abba, could leader of the devotions, as being the worthiest scarcely collect a few to listen to his expositions in the land. of the Halakhah. In fact, the Halakhah had lost The relations between the Church and the its attractions for the Palestinian Jews. An Synagogue were now becoming more and more analogous change took place in the mode of embittered; nevertheless the religious delivering public orations, where the controversy between the two parties was Methurgeman, instead of simply interpreting zealously, and not unsuccessfully prosecuted. the preacher's language, now arrogated to Rabbi Abihu complained of the spread of himself independent powers, and taught Christianity, and frequently disputed about the according to his own, not according to the doctrines of the Gospel, although such of his preacher's views.' Rabbi Abihu owed a great arguments as have been preserved are not very part of his reputation to his wealth and to a formidable. But if numerous Jewish converts certain amount of acuteness and prudence. He adopted Christianity, on the other hand, many was ignorant of the Halakhah, but, in deference Gentiles became Jews, while still more adopted to his position, his colleagues did not venture to Jewish practices. Even within the Church there contradict even his erroneous assertions. By his were not only Judaizing sects, who held certain patronage, Caesarea was elevated into an Jewish doctrines, and conformed to many of academic city, along with Tiberias. He taught in their practices, but the complaints of the Synagogue still known as that “ of the ecclesiastical fathers at a later period against revolution,” probably the same whence the evils which must have existed long previously, rising against the Roman power, in the time of sufficiently indicate their extent. St. Chrysostom Nero, had first issued. Abihu saw not only his complains of the undue influence of the sons, but even his grandchildren ordained. numerous Jewish physicians, or rather Meantime Judaism, decaying within, was soothsayers, who supplied charms against represented by some of the Gentiles as a various diseases. species of heathen mysticism, while the vast He had even to deliver eight orations for the majority despised and openly ridiculed it. purpose of warning against Jewish practices. Abbahu complained that the. Jew formed the Christians seem to have attended the never-failing theme of ridicule in the comedy, synagogues at Antioch; to have taken part in the the Punch of every provincial theatre. In some Jewish feasts and fasts; to have preferred respects there was indeed too much ground for administering and taking an oath in the the reproach. The state of the Synagogue is well synagogue, as being more solemn, etc. Imperial illustrated in the following occurrence : A rescripts refer to intermarriages between Jews season of general drought and scarcity elicited, and Christians, which frequently ended in the as usual, the prayers of the congregation. conversion of the latter; the circumcision of According to custom, the worthiest man was to Christian slaves; and even to the voluntary be chosen to lead these devotions. For this submission of causes in dispute to the decision honour a person was recommended who, on of Jewish tribunals. The enmity of Jews to account of his infamous avocation, bore the Christianity manifested itself not only in popular designation of “Pente-kaka,” or “Five- various calumnies, and acts of violence when Sins.” In conversation, Abihu had however they had the power, but even in the dispatch of elicited from that man, that although he directly special messengers to all parts of the Roman or indirectly ministered to almost every vice, he world to hinder the spread of the Gospel. had on one occasion given all his means to an The son and successor of Gamaliel IV was unknown weeping Jewish female, to enable her Jehuda III, whose character and learning did to redeem her husband from slavery without not secure for him greater esteem than that having to gain the requisite money at the enjoyed by his father. expense of her honour. This good deed of “ Pente-kaka “ induced Abihu to appoint him

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[In his time, the monthly examination of Christianity. Diocletian had nominated witnesses as to the appearance of the new Maximianus his colleague, and also elevated moon sank into a mere formality.] Galerius and Constantius to the dignity of The new Patriarch, however, displayed a deep Caesars. Galerius was a bitter enemy of the interest in the cause of education, for he Church, and became the instrument of a fearful dispatched some of the leading Rabbins to persecution. Soon afterwards, Diocletian and inquire into the state of the elementary schools Maximianus resigned, while Constantius, who throughout the land, and to supply any had always shown himself mild and tolerant to deficiencies in this respect. It is said that, when the Christians, was succeeded by his son in a certain city the deputation found not any Constantine, afterwards denominated the scholastic provision for the youth, they Great. On the other hand, Galerius had named inquired of the magistrates for the city guard. Severus and Maximinus as his colleagues. When the armed men were paraded, the Heavy taxation in Italy, and jealousy at Rome, Rabbins replied, “ Nay, these are the destroyers, before long led to a rebellion, in which not the guardians of your city; its proper Maxentius, the son of the former Emperor guardians are the teachers of youth and the Maximianus, was proclaimed emperor, and instructors of the people; for except the Lord Severus was put to death. There were now five keep the city, the watchman waketh but in rulers of the Roman Empire : Galerius, vain.” Maximinus, Constantius, Maxentius, and Maximianus, the old emperor, who again Conformity to heathen rites had led to a assumed the purple, and who had united his complete separation between the Samaritans daughter Fausta to Constantius. To these must and the Jews. Rabbins Ami, Assi, and Abihu be added, as sixth, Licinius, whom Galerius brought about their formal exclusion from the elevated to that dignity. Synagogue. This was probably the last decree of the Palestinian Sanhedrin. Another Rabbi, The continual intrigues of the old Emperor belonging to this and partly to the succeeding Maximianus led to his fall. After the death of generation, deserves mention. Seira was a Galerius, Maxentius attacked Constantine, who Babylonian by birth, but his theological conquered, fighting under the standard of the standpoint, as well as personal inclination, Cross, to which, in a vision which led to his powerfully drew him towards the land of his conversion, he had been directed. Maxentius fathers. So great was his ardor to touch the fell in that contest. This victory seems to have sacred soil, that when he reached Jordan he did elated the young Caesar, who now allied not tarry to seek a bridge, but crossed the himself to Licinius, by giving to the latter his stream, to the danger of his life, apprehensive, sister Constantia in marriage. Their only as he stated, “ of delay in entering the Holy remaining rival, Maximinus, engaged in war Land, which even Moses and Aaron had not with Licinius, was defeated, and died of the been allowed to enter.” On his arrival in effects of poison which himself had taken (313). Tiberias, he was ordained, and held in high Two years afterwards, Constantine and Licinius repute for that very Babylonian method of engaged in hostilities, which were succeeded by teaching which he had formerly disclaimed, and a peace of eight years' duration. Constantine to get rid of which he had earnestly, and with distinguished himself during that period by his protracted fasting, petitioned Heaven. moderation, wisdom, and protection of the Christians; Licinius, by the opposite qualities. In The rule of Diocletian and his colleagues, so 323, another war ensued between them, in terrible to the Church, was succeeded by that of which Constantine was victorious. Having killed Constantine, the first Roman emperor who his brother-in-law, he now attained the sole professed Christianity. It is not our province to command of the Roman world. do more than indicate the way in which he became sole ruler of the empire, or the mode History has dealt unjustly with the character of and the degree in which he embraced Constantine. While his friends have elevated

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him far beyond his deserts, his opponents have were granted only to the nobility or the highest equally detracted from his merits. Constantine magistracy. The only edicts in this respect was a wise, firm, and able emperor; but it which seem to indicate any restraint, are those cannot be denied that, although free from gross in which Jewish converts were protected from vices, be was wanting in the best heathen and personal violence and the vengeance of the Christian virtues. Synagogue (an edict probably called for by the He was vain and self-confident, and, under the actual necessities of the case, as will appear by influence of the passions of the moment, and by), and that by which ultimately the committed numerous acts of cruelty; yet he was circumcision of their slaves was interdicted. far from being a mere despot. We cannot doubt The latter enactment will not appear unjust, that his profession of Christianity was sincere; when it is remembered that, as slaves were but he realized very imperfectly the obligations actually the property of their masters, they which his new faith laid upon him, and, were exposed to constraint; and the former regarding himself as an instrument of God, becomes still more reasonable when it is added manifested no real sense of personal that a similar decree protected the Jews from shortcoming. the violent zeal of Christian neophytes. The conversion of Constantine greatly swelled At the same time, the documents extant at least the numbers of the adherents of indicate an amount of general popular irritation Christianity from amongst Jews and Gentiles. and contempt for the Jews. Probably fanatics Partly many obstacles were now removed, throughout the empire, perhaps even some of partly Christian zeal found more scope and the magistrates, would, under the influence of opportunity of displaying itself, and partly the mistaken zeal, act contrary to the spirit of these dominant religion could offer many outward moderate laws. Manifestly spurious advantages to its professors. On the other hand, expressions are put into the mouth of it must be allowed that the spirit of toleration Constantine by ecclesiastical writers, which Constantine and his immediate sufficiently indicating at least what spirit successors displayed was much in advance of animated those who used them. The Council at the tendency of their times, and contrasts most Nice fixed a regular time for the celebration of favorably with later enactments. Without Easter, instead of connecting it, as hitherto, entering on the laws concerning heathenism, no with the Passover of the Jews. Some years later, fair representation of history can construe the the Council of Laodicea forbade the observance legislation of the first Christian emperors into of the Jewish Sabbath, which had in some places intolerance against the Jews. Before in the East been retained along with that of the Constantine publicly professed his adherence to Christian festival. the Gospel, he had promulgated an edict of [At Elvira, in Spain, a more intolerant spirit was general toleration, in which, of course, the Jews shown, and it was forbidden for a landowner to were included. Under former emperors they call upon a Jew to bless the crops, or even for a had enjoyed perfect civil equality. The edicts of Christian to eat with a Jew.5 Severus and Antoninus had admitted them to Jehuda in. was still Patriarch during the earlier every civic office, and freed them from such as years of the reign of Constantine.] imposed duties contrary to their religious The more celebrated sages around him were principles; while in many other ways their Rabbins Chaggai, Jonah, Joses, Jacob ben Abon, feelings were respected. {Now the Jews were and especially Jeremiah, a Babylonian by birth. once more forbidden to make proselytes, but The low state of learning in Palestine will be their position as citizens was still fully gathered from the fact that Jeremiah, so recognized. celebrated in Palestine, had been censured in The Patriarchs, and other heads of synagogues, Babylon for raising futile discussions, and been were exempt from civic offices, and received dismissed from the colleges of his native even from Christian emperors such titles as

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country. ' With a patriarchate subsisting merely exaggeration and miraculous additions, and we in name with a general decay of learning and can hardly dismiss it as incredible without influence in Palestine with the ascendancy of an further consideration. We must, however, antagonistic creed, and the many acts of remember that the story was told to Epiphanius violence which were either committed or many years after the event, and was not written threatened with the fearful pressure of down by him till a considerably later time, taxation, of which, indeed, bitter complaints when, as he admits, he no longer remembered were now to be heard in all parts of the empire with certainty the names of the Patriarch and lastly, with the daily growing number of those his son. In this point, at any rate, our informant who left their ranks to join those of the Church seems to be mistaken. He calls the Patriarch the Jews began at last to feel that another Hillel; but Jewish authorities appear only to period of misery and oppression had begun. recognize Hillel II., who was contemporary with Loud are the complaints against the many Julian, and who is said to have been the son of worldly allurements by which “sinful Rome, the Jehuda iii. It therefore seems probable that the son of thy mother, endeavoured to shake the names of father and son have been confused, steadfastness of the faithful.” that the alleged convert was really Jehuda ill., To this spirit of anxiety and longing many of the and that the son who succeeded to the discussions and conversions which at that time patriarchate as a young man was Hillel II.] took place must be ascribed. Later traditions St. Epiphanius, who, although credulous and have embellished these records with a number blindly zealous for what he deemed truth, was of apocryphal miracles, which, it , scarcely thoroughly honest, earnest in his adherence to requires to be said, are the offspring of monkish Christ, and devout, received his account from imagination, inspired by what they conceived to Joseph, a convert whom Constantine the Great be for the glory of God, or for the triumph of the had elevated to the dignity of “ Count.” It is Gospel. In this number we reckon the story of interesting to note the circumstances of the the discussion between Pope Sylvester and the narrative. During the reign of the successor of Jews, under the leadership of one Sambres. It is Constantine, Constantius, who had joined the said that the Jews, desirous of converting Arian party, the adherents of the orthodox Constantine to their creed, had applied to the creed were persecuted. Amongst others, emperor's mother, Helena. Accordingly, a Eusebius, an Italian bishop, was exiled, and meeting was arranged in presence of the found an asylum in the princely mansion of emperor and a distinguished circle. When the Count Joseph. There Epiphanius, with some Jews were worsted by Sylvester in argument, other Christians, waited on the bishop, and also they appealed to the power of working elicited from Joseph, at that time a man of about miracles. Accordingly, Sambres muttered seventy years of age, the history of his something into the ear of a bullock, which, after conversion. Though surrounded by Arians, and violent convulsions, fell dead to the ground. Not alternately cajoled and threatened by them, to be outdone, Sylvester had now to recall the Joseph not only remained attached to the ox to life, in which, of course, he succeeded, orthodox faith, receiving and sheltering an when all the Jews present immediately exiled bishop and his friends, but another professed Christianity. younger Jewish convert, it is recorded, waited Of a totally different character from such secretly (from fear of the violence of the Arians) legends is the story of the conversion of no less on the persecuted ecclesiastics. To return : a personage than the Patriarch himself. The Joseph related that at one time he had occupied story was related to St. Epiphanius, Bishop of a high post amongst the Jews, being attached to Salamis in Cyprus, by a converted Jew, who was the person of the Patriarch Hillel. When at the intimately connected with the Patriarch, and point of death, the Patriarch had sent for the who had been an eye-witness of all he related. Christian bishop, who seems also to have The account is comparatively free from practiced medicine. The latter came as

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physician of the body. When all present had Satanic agency. Possibly the strong belief been removed, Joseph, whose suspicions had entertained by all parties as to the efficacy of been excited, lingered behind, and witnessed, such means may have contributed to secure through the crevices of the door, an unexpected their success; while, on the other hand, faith in scene. Christ, and the confidence of safety with which The dying Patriarch opened his mind to the the pronouncing of the name of Jesus, and the bishop, and craved baptism at his hands. He sign of the cross, inspired Christians, may help obtained it, and felt strengthened in both body to explain the alleged impotence of magical and mind. The bishop visited the Patriarch two means against the members of the Church. It is or three times in the character of a physician, said that the young Patriarch had recourse to until the converted Jewish dignitary entered such magical means to seduce a Christian into his rest, leaving his trusty friend Joseph, female, but without effect. Joseph, aware of and another sage, guardians of his youthful son these circumstances, looked upon her and successor, who is called Jehuda. deliverance as another instance of the miraculous power of Christianity. That the conversion of the Patriarch should he kept secret cannot appear remarkable under While his mind was agitated on these important the circumstances; and the absence of any questions, he dreamt that Christ appeared to allusion to this event in Jewish literature does him and called upon him to believe. These not disprove the truth of the narrative. At the severe mental struggles induced a dangerous same time, we may doubt whether Joseph disease. When on the point of death, one of his rightly understood the nature of the scene Jewish friends whispered into his ear some which he witnessed, or whether his account has adjuration or formula in the name of Jesus. It is not been colored by the recollection of his not necessary to resort to the explanation, that subsequent experiences. We will, however, as the patient's thoughts were so much engaged continue the story. with this subject, he might in his febrile excitement have readily misinterpreted the If Joseph had been deeply impressed by what words of his friend, since St. Epiphanius adds, he had observed in the sick-chamber, his that he had ascertained that many Jews were in curiosity, as that of others, was roused by the habit, in cases of extreme danger, of noticing a large seal on the treasury-box of the attempting a miraculous cure in the name of late Patriarch. He secretly opened it, and, to his Jesus. Such practice is quite conceivable not astonishment, found there, instead of money, only on the part of believers in the exclusive what had proved much more precious to the claims of Christ to the Messiahship, but of Patriarch : a Hebrew translation of the Gospel superstitious persons generally, and tallies both according to St. John, of the Acts of the Apostles, with an inspired record of a similar occurrence and a copy of the Hebrew of the Gospel of St. (Acts 19;13) and the prohibition issued by the Matthew. Though this discovery and the Synagogue against all such practices. However, reading of. the sacred writings deepened Joseph had on his sickbed another vision, in Joseph's impressions of the truth, he still which health was promised to him, and the resisted its power. Meantime Jehuda, his young command to believe, reiterated. Such visions ward, had grown up, and been unfortunately viewing them simply as internal psychological led astray by light companions. phenomena are scarcely wonderful in the According to the practice of those times, when circumstances, nor does it appear inexplicable unbridled licentiousness sought its object, and how he should have so long and seriously found it impossible otherwise to obtain it, resisted the voice within. Accordingly, on his recourse was had to magical means, to recovery he relapsed into unbelief; but, in incantations and love-potions, a practice which consequence of another vision, attempt the the ancient Church denounced correctly in its miraculous cure of a demoniac in the name of spirit, though not in its literal meaning as the Lord. In this he succeeded, as the Jews

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supposed, by means of the ineffable name of the despaired of His coming, or sought a different Lord; mention of which, they conjectured, he deliverance. In the spirit of such doubts, Rabbi had found in the Patriarch's sealed treasure- Hillel is said to have expressed himself at one box. time, that the Messiah had already come in the Soon afterwards, the Patriarch sent Joseph, as days of Hezekiah. However, such an apostle, into Cilicia, to collect the tribute and interpretations were disavowed by other sages. inquire into the affairs of its congregations. In a [Rab Joseph, on hearing of Hillel's assertion, certain city of Cilicia, he lodged close by the exclaimed, “May God forgive Hillel for this”; and residence of the Christian bishop, whose he protested that even Zechariah had acquaintance he made, and from whom he prophesied of the Messiah.] borrowed the sacred writings. The suspicion of St. Chrysostom relates that in the time of the Jews was now aroused, while his strictness Constantine the Great the Jews made a excited the enmity of their officials. They came rebellious attempt to repossess themselves of suddenly upon him, found him reading the Jerusalem, in consequence of which the Gospels, dragged him into the synagogue, and emperor took signal vengeance, by cutting off would have beaten him to death had not the their ears and selling them into slavery. This bishop interposed and rescued him. However, story, however, is not confirmed by any reliable when he would have departed from the city, Jewish or Christian authority, and it is another tumult arose, in which he was thrown discredited by most authors. into the river Cydnus, and supposed to be Constantine, who was only baptized a short drowned. But he escaped a watery grave, and time before his death, was succeeded by his soon made a public profession of Christianity. three sons, who divided his dominions between Constantine the Great, to whose ears this story them. Two of them, Constans and Constantine, had come, and who may have enacted the edict entered into a war, in which Constantine fell. In for the protection of converts in consequence of 350, Constans was slain by Magnentius, an this and similar instances of violence, elevated aspirant to the purple; but the usurper was not Joseph to the dignity of Count, and able to maintain his position, and Constantius commissioned him to build churches in certain became sole emperor. towns of Palestine where they had not hitherto been reared. At this stage a somewhat rambling [A pious Christian in his own way, and not account is given of certain incantations by without some knowledge of statecraft, which the Jews had tried to prevent the Constantius was nevertheless altogether erection of these buildings, and of the exorcism inferior to his father. Weak and suspicious, he by which Joseph succeeded in his plans. allowed himself to be governed by the Probably, were we better acquainted with the chamberlains and officials of the court, while he circumstances, we should discover a readier was frequently guilty both of treachery and of mode of accounting for these reverses and cruelty in ridding himself of his enemies.] successes than that of supernatural agency, the This reign is marked by a growing spirit of favorite and general explanation of those times religious intolerance; and the emperor was a for all extraordinary cases or points of bitter persecutor of all opponents of Arianism, difficulty. Besides the interest attaching to this to which he himself was attached. At first the story of St. Epiphanius, it is of importance to aspect of affairs seemed promising for the Jews. notice that at that time, apparently, Hebrew While the bitterness of the Arians against the translations of the Gospels and of other parts of Catholics was naturally grateful to the the New Testament had circulated, and were Synagogue, and held out the prospect of secretly pursued by Jews. detriment to the Church by internal The mind of the Jewish nation seems to have dissensions, the doctrinal views of the Arians been much agitated about this time, and, while concerning the Lord Jesus agreed much more many inquired after the Messiah, others with those of liberal Jews than did the

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sentiments of the orthodox party. Many Arians Caesar, and committed to his charge the affairs who lived in Palestine were in friendly relations of the East. As at any previous period, energy with the Jews. Accordingly, when, at the and success were required to maintain the removal of the orthodox Bishop of Alexandria, cause of Rome against the growing Persian Athanasius, tumults broke out, and churches power. But Gallus, who only occupied himself were broken open, ransacked, and profaned by with amusements, left the conduct of the war in deeds of violence and licentiousness, the Jews the hands of Ursicinus, one of the ablest took, along with the pagans and the Arians, a generals of the time. Ursicinus, who bears a leading part in these disgraceful riots.' Such twofold character in Jewish history, is usually displays of unprovoked hostility must have represented as a cruel oppressor, but increased the bitterness of the Catholics against elsewhere he appears on friendly terms with the Synagogue, and serve to account not only certain Rabbins. for expressions of unmitigated hatred on the Judea had now to suffer from the presence of an part of some from whom other things might army quartered there; and the Romans have been expected, but for the outburst of probably had the less regard for its inhabitants, actual persecution in a party which had lately as the general tendency of the times was pleaded for religious liberty and toleration. antagonistic to the Jews. Accordingly, no regard Constantius decreed the suppression of was paid to their religious scruples. Jewish paganism, and his edicts against the Jews, bakers had to work for the Romans on Sabbaths though not very numerous, are marked by an as on other days, and, contrary to their religious increasing severity. ordinances, to furnish leavened bread during He interdicted the reception of proselytes into the Feast of Passover. Unlike their ancestors, the Synagogue, on pain of the loss of all their who would readily have sacrificed their lives possessions. rather than submit to such ordinances, the Rabbins found pretexts for sanctioning these [A Jew was forbidden to hold Christian slaves violations of the law. on pain of forfeiture, while the circumcision of non-Jewish slaves was an offence to be [Thus they justified the baking of bread on the punished by death.] Sabbath on the ground that Ursicinus did not directly wish to compel the people to Probably the political attitude of the Synagogue transgress the law, but only required fresh may have somewhat incited the emperor's bread for his army.] resentment. The tyranny and incapacity of Gallus, together [Some of these edicts were published after the with the hopes inspired by the dubious contest Jewish revolt, and the Jews may have been in which Constantius was engaged with suspected of sympathizing with the Persians, Magnentius, and by the successes of Sapor II., at with whom Constantius was at war. Sapor ii., last induced a general insurrection of the Jews indeed, had not shown himself altogether in Palestine. Simultaneously they rose in friendly to the Jews; but the fact that many of various towns, and cut down the Romans on the sages of Palestine emigrated about this time whom they could lay hands, without giving any to Babylonia implies that they preferred quarter. The headquarters of the rebellion was Persian to Roman rule.] the mountain-city Sepphoris, or, as it was then On the other hand, the Christian subjects of called, Dio Caesarea, well calculated by its Sapor were subjected to a fearful persecution, situation, its historical character -having long which one writer attributes, probably without been the seat of Jewish learning, and its almost much authority, to the instigation of the Jews. exclusively Jewish population, to be the general When, in the year 351, after strengthening rendezvous of the rebels. By some the Jewish himself by means of intrigue, Constantius leader is called Patricius, perhaps a corruption marched against the usurper Magnentius, he of the word patriarchus} But the success of the had elevated his cousin Gallus to the dignity of Jews was brief. Gallus sent fresh legions into

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Judea Sepphoris was leveled with the ground, The Jewish patriarchate in Palestine had Tiberias, Lydda, and other cities were partially continued, in spite of the numerous migrations destroyed. Fearful atrocities were committed of Rabbins to Babylon, but there is some by way of revenge. Thousands were slain, uncertainty about the names and order of the neither age nor sex was spared. The inhabitants last few Patriarchs. Probably Hillel II, the son of of Sepphoris suffered most severely. Jehuda III., held the office during the whole of [Tradition tells of unavailing attempts to evade the reign of Constantius, and survived till the death by disguise or flight, and of fugitives who reign of Julian the Apostate. took refuge in subterranean passages and in This emperor, the cousin and successor of caves. A riddling letter, sent about this time to Constantius, had, during his extended Babylonia, seems to imply that certain religious intercourse with heathen philosophers, usages had been prohibited in Palestine. The imbibed their principles, and been long secretly same may perhaps be inferred also from the addicted to the ancient superstition. Probably statement that Ursicinus caused a roll of the the religious constraint under which he had for Law, destined for use in the synagogue, to be a time to live, together with the palpable burnt in the neighborhood of Tiberias.] inconsistencies and the manifest hypocrisy of Gallus was recalled and put to death in 354, but many who professed Christianity, may have the condition of the Jews did not improve. In deepened his aversion to the religion of Jesus. fact, Constantius seems to have intended After his accession to the empire, he openly imposing new and exorbitant taxes on the renounced the faith, and attempted to Jewish population of the empire, when death substitute in its place a kind of rationalistic deprived him of the power of oppression. heathenism. Had he lived long enough, he might have been driven to persecute openly the creed Mention has already been made of Epiphanius, against which, during the period of his reign, all Bishop of Constantia in the isle of Cyprus. This his influence was indirectly exerted. Julian pious ecclesiastic took a leading part in some of professed himself a warm friend of the Jews. In the stirring controversies of his times. It is said a letter, still extant, addressed to them,2 he that he was born of Jewish parents, and repeals and disowns all persecuting or converted when about fifteen years of age; but oppressive edicts, and promises the restoration our only authority for this statement is a of Jerusalem and its Temple. He also offers worthless biography, written in the name of advice as to the best means of promoting their Polybius, who pretends to have been his pupil. cause, and calls upon his “ brother, the Epiphanius shows no slight knowledge of venerable Patriarch Hulos (or Hillel),” to Jewish customs, and in his account of various relinquish the oppressive tribute which had Jewish sects he has preserved several valuable hitherto been paid to him by the Jews in all traditions, together with a remarkable number parts of the Roman Empire. In conclusion, he of mistakes. asks the Jews to pray for his success in the He was acquainted with the Hebrew, Syriac, Persian war upon which he was about to enter. Egyptian, Greek, and Latin languages, and Julian hastened to perform what he had otherwise possessed considerable erudition. promised. He dispatched a former governor of But he was exceedingly credulous, and, though Britain, Alypius, to Jerusalem, with commission his genuine piety generally kept him right, he immediately to rebuild the Temple. Neither was ever ready to arrive at sweeping trouble nor expense were to be spared, and the conclusions, or to be betrayed into a course of civic authorities of the country were in every action which often exhibited more of rashness way to assist in this good work. It is difficult to and enthusiasm than of meekness and wisdom. understand the emperor's special motives for He closed his earthly career in 403, in the such an undertaking. hundredth year of his age. [No doubt he was pleased to depress Christianity by giving encouragement to all

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other parties, and he had already shown a declare that only the dregs of the population desire to conciliate the Jews. He may have had originally returned with Ezra to Palestine. wished, in view of his Persian campaign, to gain With the death of Julian vanished the hopes of the support of their brethren in Mesopotamia.] the Jews in Palestine. They had looked forward Possibly the measure was part of his general to a speedy national restoration, of which they policy of restoring the old forms of religion, and considered the favors which they enjoyed he would feel sympathy with the sacrificial under Julian as merely the preparation. Already system of the Jews. One writer asserts that he they were threatening to take full revenge upon wished to gainsay our Lord's prophecy of the the Christians, when the unexpected demise of desolation of the Temple; and doubtless a Julian once more put an end to these variety of motives combined to influence his anticipations. The Roman Empire was now fast conduct. Although many Jews had emigrated to approaching its dissolution. Babylon, and were hence unable, and perhaps, [The provinces beyond the Tigris were lost at from peculiar views, unwilling to assist in the the death of Julian; in Europe the policy was undertaking, the vast majority were adopted of allowing large bodies of barbarians enthusiastic in their support of this sacred to settle within the frontiers.] labor. However, while the workmen were At Julian's death the soldiers proclaimed Jovian, engaged in clearing away the ruins, volumes of a Christian, emperor. But he died before fire burst forth from the subterranean vaults. reaching Constantinople, and was succeeded by Panic seized those entrusted with the labor, and Valentinian I (elected also by the soldiers) and it was suspended at least till further orders, or by Valens, the former connected with the Julian's return from the Persian war. Whatever Catholic, the latter with the Arian party. In spite may have been the proximate cause of these of his ferocity of temper, Valentinian was, in eruptions, whether purely natural or primarily matters of belief, liberal and tolerant, but his supernatural, it proved, in the providence of weaker colleague countenanced many acts of God, the most effectual answer to the persecution. blasphemies of the opponents of Christianity, and the most palpable confirmation of the The former promulgated an edict which Lord's prediction. granted full liberty to all parties (364). During the reign of the successors of these princes, the Julian's Persian campaign was at first a brilliant Visigoths, Vandals, and other races successively success, and he penetrated as far as Ctesiphon. possessed themselves of portions of the empire, But the succors which he was expecting from and dictated terms of peace to the feeble Armenia failed to arrive, and the army was emperors. Men of that period, who witnessed forced to retreat along the Tigris, through a the terrible successes of the Goths, declared country wasted by the enemy. During the them to be Gog and Magog spoken of in retreat, Julian was killed in a skirmish (363). prophecy,' while the Jews contrasted the Legend related that he died with this sentence apparent permanence of Israel with the passing on his lips : “ Thou hast overcome, Galilean ! “ away of other nations. In the meantime, the Although Julian had interested himself so much explanations of the Mishnah, and the legal in the Jews of Palestine, their brethren of traditions current in the colleges of Palestine, Babylon appear to have sided with his enemies. had been collected during the latter half of the Perhaps they inferred that this patronage of fourth century, and immediately after the Judaism would only be temporary. More decline of these colleges. It was natural that, probably they preferred Persian to Roman when the living authorities had passed away, domination. Besides, the Babylonian sages had, such attempts should have been made to in the interest of their schools, begun to preserve their teaching, and thus to perpetuate depreciate the mother country, to claim a an influence which could no longer be claimed superior dignity for their citizens, and even to by their successors. These collections formed

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the basis of what is now known as the [We are told that the Christian populace were Jerusalem Talmud. It is impossible to ascertain highly indignant at the support thus given to the name of the principal compiler of these the enemies of the Church, and that they collections. Tradition names Rabbi Jochanan, predicted the speedy downfall of Maximus, who but we find references to persons who lived (they said) “ had become a Jew.” ] many years after his death. A similar occurrence shortly afterwards took Owing to the increasing troubles of the time, place at Callinicum, a town in Northern the Patriarch Hillel seems to have felt the Mesopotamia, the incendiaries in this case necessity of relinquishing the last prerogative being led by the bishop of the town. Theodosius of his office, the arrangement of the calendar, ordered the bishop to rebuild the synagogue. and with it the fixing of the period for the But here St. Ambrose, the great Bishop of Milan, feasts. Instead of the former method of came forward in defense of the men whose communicating the arrangements of the conduct was so little in accordance with the calendar, a new and scientific method of religion which he taught. In a sermon, and in a adjusting the lunar with the solar year had been letter to the emperor, he violently attacked this adopted, the principles of which, although very edict; and while he expressed his disapproval of complicated, have proved so correct that it has outrage, since priests should strive to promote not since undergone alteration. However, this peace, he declared that no Christian bishop act of the Patriarch did not meet with the could conscientiously assist in building a place approbation of all the sages, one of whom of worship for unbelieving Jews. wrote to the various congregations exhorting From the fanaticism which animated one of the them to continue the observance of two feast- most celebrated bishops of his time, it is easy to days, as had been enacted under different infer the general spirit which prevailed among circumstances, an arrangement which still clergy and laity. Theodosius had to recall his prevails. edict, but enjoined the magistrates to protect Theodosius I, the son of a celebrated general of the Jews in their worship, and severely to the same name, was the only one apparently punish all who offered them any violence. capable of maintaining for a time the dignity Theodosius left the empire to his two sons and integrity of the empire. He not only (395). Honorius reigned in the West, and tolerated, but as far as possible defended the Arcadius in the East. The latter was succeeded rights of the Synagogue against the lawlessness by Theodosius ii. These emperors at first of an increasing fanaticism. An edict protected extended the same protection as their father to the Synagogue from every interference with its the Jews. They went even further. They wrote internal administration, and allowed the Jews expressly to prevent all interference in the to choose for themselves judges and affairs of the Jews, to protect Jewish dignitaries, magistrates. When the Roman consular and to exempt them from all public burdens. Hesychius committed an act of violence against But in 399, Honorius forbade the payment of the Patriarch, he decided in favor of the latter, tribute to the Patriarch of Tiberias, and ordered and condemned Hesychius to death. But that what had already been collected should be frequently the fanaticism of the rabble vented paid into the imperial treasury. However, this itself in acts of violence, which, encouraged and order seems not to have been issued upon vindicated by eminent prelates, could not easily religious grounds, and was repealed in 404. be put down even by the arm of the law. The Perhaps it arose from the peculiar relations first recorded instance of this kind happened between the west and the east. Both emperors during the short occupation of Italy by the rebel were wholly under the sway of their respective Maximus. Some Christians in Rome had set fire prime ministers, whose mutual jealousies and to the Jewish synagogue when Maximus intrigues embroiled the empire in much more ordered that it should be restored. serious difficulties than that connected with the Jewish tribute. In 409, Honorius issued an edict,

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conceived in a very tolerant spirit, by which he as the Synagogue had interdicted the teaching exempted Jews on Sabbath and feast-days from of the Law to Gentiles. Thus Jerome (a attendance at courts of law. celebrated ecclesiastical writer), who was In the Eastern empire the laws were somewhat conversant not only with the Hebrew language, less favorable. The Jews were interdicted from but also with Jewish traditions and modes of building new synagogues, and from possessing interpretation, could only in secret procure Christian slaves; but they were allowed to instructions in Hebrew from Jewish Rabbins. appoint their own judges in purely Jewish These studies and aids assisted him in the cases,'' and existing synagogues were protected composition of the Latin translation of the from violence. Bible, well known as the “ ,” and still in use. The Patriarch Gamaliel V, probably the Gamaliel who was specially distinguished for his medical [Where special difficulties arose, Jerome lore, received at first some marks of distinction obtained the assistance of Jewish doctors from from the emperor, but was speedily reminded Lydda and Tiberias. From many passages in his of his real position in the empire. Presuming writings it is clearly shown that the elaborate perhaps on supposed favors, the Patriarch had system of vowel points and accents had not yet broken some of the imperial edicts, by building been introduced into the Hebrew text. The synagogues, etc. In consequence of this he was prejudices of Christians added to the difficulties in 415 deprived of all his honors.' With his of the scholar. Jerome's adversaries spoke of death terminated the Palestinian patriarchate, Bar Chanina, his Hebrew teacher, as Barabbas, about the year 425. Jews were gradually and imagined that a version of the Bible on excluded from holding public offices; and to which Jewish authority had been consulted increase the pressure which now bore them must be tainted with Judaism.] down, it was enacted (429) that the tribute Although the Church owed so much to the Jews, formerly paid to the Patriarch should, the state of feeling too general at that period according to accurate calculations, be in future towards them was probably accurately levied on all Jews, and paid into the imperial expressed in a statement of Jerome. “ If it is treasury. About the same time the Vandal king requisite,” says that Father, in self -vindication, Genseric carried, amongst other spoils of his “ to hate individuals or a nation, I own that I triumph in Italy, the sacred vessels of the detest the Jews with inexpressible hatred; for to Jewish Temple from Rome to Africa. this day they persecute our Lord in their It is scarcely necessary to observe that the synagogues.” A strange inference, certainly, studies which had so long been successfully from such premises ! prosecuted in Palestine were not suddenly The troubles to which the Jews were relinquished, but gradually ceased. increasingly exposed kept alive their desire for [Even after the fifth century Palestine was still the promised Deliverer, and as time passed on the chief seat of learning in matters connected more of earnest expectation was awakened. with the text of Scripture.] Accordingly, several calculations were made, one of which fixed the appearance of the But the study of the Haggadah, and even that in Messiah for the year 440. Several Rabbins felt it most fanciful form, had long taken the place of indeed a necessary measure of prudence to add the more sober pursuits of the Halakhah. certain cautions, so as to moderate an ardor Amongst the Haggadic authorities of that time, which was doomed to continual Rabbi Tanchunia bar Abba is specially named, disappointment. Such a state of mind to whom an elaborate commentary is ascribed, encouraged the pretensions of deceivers and which, however, dates from a later period. At false Messiahs. One of these appeared in the isle the same time the study of the Hebrew began to of Crete (in 432), and, after having for a year be cultivated by many Christian ecclesiastics. In gone through the island persuading the Jews this they encountered considerable difficulties, that, like Moses, he would lead them dry-shod

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through the sea to Palestine, he at last times the population of Alexandria had been assembled them to commence the exodus. On a notorious for its turbulent and unruly spirit. In given signal, the deceived people threw addition to constant feuds between Christians, themselves from a promontory into the sea, Jews, and pagans, at the present period the city expecting that its waves would part. Happily a was disturbed by fierce factions, which number of fishermen with boats were at hand, disputed about the merits of rival dancers at and succeeded in rescuing most. The deceiver the public entertainments. These contests, himself disappeared, and the greater number of which rarely ended without bloodshed, were the Jews in Crete joined the Church. especially frequent when the performances But scenes of a different character also took took place on the Jewish Sabbath.] place. It seems to have been customary Accordingly, the governor Orestes felt it amongst the Jews, during the somewhat riotous necessary to affix some police regulations in a festivities of Purim (the Feast of Esther), when place where public amusements were wont to their minds were elated, to pour special be held. No sooner did the Jews discover contempt upon Christianity, and particularly, amongst those who read and perhaps instead of publicly hanging Haman on a gallows, commented on these regulations, Hierax, one of to nail him to a cross, with a too manifest Cyril's most zealous followers, than they allusion to the Crucifixion. These blasphemous exclaimed that he had only come for the provocations led often to riot and bloodshed, purpose of exciting a tumult. Orestes, who was and required the serious interference of the jealous of the civil power which was usurped by authorities. Specially had the Jews in the the Archbishops of Alexandria, caused Hierax to neighborhood of Antioch carried these be arrested and severely punished. provocations so far as (in 415) to affix a Immediately Cyril summoned the chief of the Christian child to a cross, and to scourge him to Jews, and threatened them with fearful death. A fight now ensued between the Jews vengeance. Driven to desperation, the Jews, in and the Christians. self defense, leagued against the Christians, The emperor ordered the perpetrators of this agreeing upon some mark by which they might murder to be severely punished. However, this recognize each other. During the night they did not allay the irritation. Some years after this raised the cry that the principal church was in occurrence, the populace of Antioch deprived flames. From all quarters of the town did the the Jews of their synagogue. The governor unarmed Christians hasten to assist in himself felt so much the injustice and extinguishing, as they supposed, the flames. The lawlessness of this popular rising, that on his Jews then surrounded them, and a murderous representation the emperor ordered full fight ensued. Day separated and revealed the reparation to be made. But one of those combatants. Cyril then immediately put himself fanatical monks, who at that time stood so high at the head of a band, burnt down the in popular veneration for the supposed synagogue, pillaged the houses, killed many, superior sanctity connected with their and expelled all the Jews from the city. Orestes, mortification of the flesh, Simeon, surnamed indignant at the conduct of Cyril, to whose Stylites from having spent the greater part of interference he ascribed the whole tumult, his life on the top of a column by way of reported the matter to the emperor. But before penance, expressly wrote to the emperor a reply could arrive, the feud between the expostulating on the subject. The weak governor and Cyril had grown to a greater Theodosius not only revoked his edict, but even height. A multitude of frenzied fanatical monks deposed the governor of Antioch, who had poured into the city, surrounded and insulted, advocated the cause of the Jews. and one of them, Ammonius, severely wounded Orestes in the head. The Alexandrians hastened [Still more stormy scenes were witnessed at to the spot. Ammonius was secured and Alexandria, where the vehement and impetuous tortured to death. Cyril caused him to be buried Cyril now occupied the episcopal throne. At all

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in pomp, preached a funeral oration, and Henceforth the holy and beautiful land was extolled Ammonius as a martyr. Finding that forgotten, except in the tearful remembrance of the more moderate of his own friends did not past glory, or in the deep and earnest longing approve of his proceedings, he was glad to let for future delivery, unvisited except by the the matter be forgotten, and tried to make weary foot of the pilgrim, who loved to kiss the peace with Orestes. When the governor refused, holy ground, or by the armies who vainly the incensed followers of Cyril went so far as to contended for its possession. Israel had another wreak their vengeance on the celebrated, Exodus, with its bitter herbs and unleavened beautiful, and highly accomplished Hypatia, bread, and staff of wandering, and wilderness whom they suspected of having prevented a of suffering and death, but without its paschal reconciliation, actually tore her to pieces, and lamb, its Moses, its pillar of cloud and of fire. burnt her remains. But amidst all its untold sufferings, in all the Another, although happily a different event, lands of the Dispersion, the song of wailing was which occurred about the same time, deserves still heard on the 9th of Ab from all Israel, and to be recorded. The Bishop Severus, the on the night of the Passover still rose the prayer principal actor in it, has in his account so mixed of hope from every heart and dwelling. up the fabulous with the true, that it is almost Appendix I. The Great Synagogue impossible to relate it without exaggeration. On the island of Minorca, of which Severus was the Much has been written in recent years about bishop, lived a small but respectable the Men of the Great Synagogue, and it has at community of Jews, whose leader was least been proved how slight is the authority for Theodoras. The arrival in the island of the many commonly accepted opinions upon this supposed relics of St. Stephen roused the zeal of subject. Our primary source of information is a the bishop, and of the inhabitants of Minorca, passage in the Mishnic treatise Pirke Aboth (i. 1. who, in the absence of other objects, resolved 2), where “ the men of the Great Synagogue “ on a wholesale conversion of the Jews, partly by are represented as handing on the tradition of the spiritual means of prayer, of hymns, and of the Law, which they had received from the argumentation, but chiefly by the application of prophets. We are also told (ibid.) that Simon a little temporal force. The Jews had indeed the Just was “ of the remnants of the Great prepared for resistance, but were unequal to Synagogue.” Now the Mishnah was reduced to the contest. The synagogue was burnt down, writing about the end of the second century of and, partly by admonitions, partly by threats, our era : Simon the Just lived probably about partly by promises, partly by the force of B.C. 300. Our authority is therefore nearly five example and of necessity, a few, perhaps, from centuries later than the time at which the Great better motives, all the Jewish inhabitants of the Synagogue is apparently believed to have island, 540 in number, professed their ceased. Moreover, no mention of any such body adherence to Christianity. Severus, in is to be found in the Old Testament or the communicating this triumph, takes occasion to Apocrypha, or in the writings of Philo or admonish others to follow the same example, Josephus; for the passages which have and promises them a similar success. sometimes been quoted from (vii. 12, xiv. 28) cannot apply to the council to which Thus the dark clouds of persecution were once Jewish tradition relates. The statements of the more gathering on the horizon. The storm of Mishnah are indeed supplemented by a number heathen violence had indeed passed away, but of passages from the Talmud and later Jewish the much more terrible and prolonged tempest literature., but these are not entirely consistent, of mediaeval persecution was impending. and cannot be said to add much to the sum of Palestine was now no longer the centre of our real historical information. Here the Great Jewish life its sages were unknown to fame its Synagogue appears as the council which colleges were closed its synagogues dilapidated exercised the chief authority in all religious or destroyed its last Patriarch had deceased. matters after the return from Exile. To it is

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ascribed, among other things, (1) the regulation later Jews possessed only slight and inaccurate of the observance of Purim (Meg. 2a; jer. Meg. I knowledge of the history 7); (2) the writing down of certain books of The Great Synagogue is said to have consisted Scripture (B. Bath. 15a); (3) the arrangement of of 120 members, or of 90 together with or the Eighteen Berachoth (jer. Ber. ii. 4); and (4) including 30 prophets. In Neh. x. 1-28, we have the restoration of the Law to its ancient 84 (or 85) signatories. 33 or 34 more names are authority. Several traditions connect the Great to be obtained from Neh. viii. 4-7, ix. 4, h. of the Synagogue with the assembly described in Neh. period succeeding the return from Exile. Thus viii.-x. (e.g. Gen. Eab. 78, Ex. Eab. 41, Ruth Eab. they do not distinguish the times of Zerubbabel on ii. 4); and it is recognized that many of the and Ezra, and they allow for the dominion of statements respecting the number and names the Persians in the time of the Second Temple a of its members are derived from lists of names period of only thirty-four (Ab. Sar. 9 a.), or fifty- in Nehemiah. The period of the activity of this two years (Seder 01am). body is especially connected with the time of The suggestion that the Great Synagogue was a Ezra; but Simon the Just is said to have been council of prophets and scribes called together one of its members. in the time of Ezra, and lasting only for a single The scantiness of our information has given rise generation, is inconsistent with the Jewish to numerous theories as to the character and accounts, which represent Simon the Just, as composition of the Great Synagogue. Kuenen, well as Haggai and Zechariah, as members of following the example of older scholars, has that body. If, on the other hand, we accept the denied that such a body ever existed. He argues, theory that the name is only a collective term, with much probability, that the whole tradition used to describe a succession of great teachers, respecting it is merely a legendary version of it must be acknowledged that we are then the historical narrative in Nehemiah. The great abandoning Jewish tradition, and adopting in assembly, which met to receive the Law and to its place a plausible conjecture. This last theory promise obedience to it, would, according to contains at all events a certain amount of truth. this view, have been transformed by tradition It was owing to the activity of the scribes who into a college which transmitted the oral carried on Ezra's work that the Law became the knowledge and interpretation of the Law after standard and guide of life for the Jewish people. the cessation of prophecy. Kuenen's view has We know nothing of the organization of the been adopted by many recent writers; but even scribes, nothing of any formal means taken by assuming that this is the true account of the Ezra to secure the continuation of his work; but Talmudic traditions, it need not follow that it it was the scribes who carried on the work of explains the original passage in the Mishnah. Jewish teaching and tradition between the time Derenbourg, on the other hand, would see in that Old Testament history closes, and the time the Great Synagogue a body organized by Ezra of the first “ couple “ of celebrated teachers to carry on his work, and to provide for the whose names have been preserved. teaching and study of the Law. To its labors he To sum up, the evidence which we possess is would attribute the undoubted fact that in the not sufficient to prove that there ever was such time of the Maccabees we find a large portion of a body as that described by tradition as the the people devoted to the Law, and preferring Great Synagogue; but if its existence is to die rather than to disobey it. The great altogether legendary, we can account for the objection to this view is the complete absence rise of the legend. It may have grown out of of definite confirmation of it earlier than AD later traditions based on Neh. 8; or it may be 200. Doubtless many of the traditions recorded due to a natural desire to describe under a in the Mishnah are themselves of considerably collective name the succession of unnamed earlier date, but it must not be forgotten that scribes who filled up the period between the Jewish tradition is often untrustworthy and time of Ezra and B.C. 300. unhistorical. In particular, it is clear that the

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Appendix II. The President of the Sanhedrin presides at the trial of Herod (Ant. xiv. 9. In Rabbinic tradition, the Sanhedrin appears as 3—5), while Sameas (i.e. Shemaiah, or a council of scribes, with two of the most possibly Shammai) is an ordinary member of eminent scribes at its head, the President, or the court. Ananus the younger in AD 62 Nasi, and the Vice-President, or Ab beth Din. It summons a council of judges. Josephus several is, however, difficult to reconcile this times mentions Simon the son of Gamaliel, but representation with the statements of our nowhere hints that he was president of the Greek authorities, the writings of Josephus and Sanhedrin {Life, 38, 39, 44, 60; Wars, iv. 3. 9). the New Testament. The principal evidence on The fact that Simon is described as being of both sides may be briefly summarized : very distinguished family does not prove that Josephus believed Hillel to have held the (1) In the Mishnah the five “couples” are named position of Nasi. in the treatise Aboth; in Chagigah ii. 2 they are introduced in a different connection, and it is In weighing the divergent evidence, it must be stated that the first named of each pair was the remembered that our Greek authorities are Nasi, and the second the Ab beth Din. decidedly the earlier. A collection of Halachic decisions was made by Akiba (about AD 130), (2) In the Talmud (Shab. 15a) there is quoted a and a still older Mishnah is spoken of {e.g. San. Boraitha, or statement belonging to the age of iii. 4; Naz. vi. 1). Nevertheless, we are not able the Mishnah, to the effect that “ Hillel and to separate with certainty between the earlier Simon, Gamaliel and Simon, held the office of and later elements in our existing Mishnah, Nasi during the existence of the Temple for a which was not committed to writing till about hundred years.” A,D. 200. It is true that the writers of the New (3) In Jer. San. I 2 (18) we find three letters Testament need not have been familiar with the ascribed to Rabban Gamaliel the elder, in which details of the constitution and procedure of the he writes in a tone of authority to various Sanhedrin; and that Josephus, in his accounts of Jewish communities on matters connected with the Jewish constitution, often shows a tendency the tithes and the regulation of the calendar. to idealize, or passes over important (4) The appointment of Hillel as Nasi is named particulars. But more serious difficulties meet in Tosefta (Pesach. ix.). It is unnecessary to us in dealing with the statements of the refer to the later Talmudic literature, or to Mishnah, which was codified under conditions ordinances which bear the names of famous very different from those which prevailed scribes, such as Simon ben Shetach, Hillel, or before the fall of Jerusalem. Its descriptions Gamaliel the elder. The latter do not necessarily clearly represent in many cases the theory of prove more than that their authors were the the Rabbins, and not the actual practice. In leading Rabbinic authorities of their time. earlier times the Sanhedrin was not merely an On the other hand, neither in the New assembly of doctors, for the “ chief priests “ Testament nor in Josephus do we find any were an important element in the council. Yet allusion to the office of Nasi. In the New the Mishnah gives us hardly any hint of the Testament the high priest writes letters to changes which must have taken place within distant communities (Acts 9:1,2); he presides at the Sanhedrin between B.C. 140 and AD 70. It the trial of Jesus (Matt. 26:62-65), of the two tells us very little about the position of the apostles (Acts 5:17-28), and of St. Paul, and powerful priestly families, or the influence of elsewhere takes the leading part (Matt. 26:3). the Sadducean nobility. Gamaliel appears simply as one of the It has been attempted to show that there is no Sanhedrin, “ a Pharisee, a doctor of the Law, real contradiction between our different had in honour of all the people “ (Acts 5:34). authorities. It is suggested that under Herod According to Josephus, the high priest is the and the Roman procurators the high priests supreme judge (Apion 2. 22), and the head of presided in great criminal cases; or that Christ the nation (Ant xx. 10. 5). It is Hyrcanus ii. who was brought to trial not before the Great

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Sanhedrin, but before an informal meeting of Shetach. But neither of these theories explains Sanhedrists, or before a smaller court of the position occupied by Hyrcanus II at the trial twenty-three. It is urged that Shemaiah may of Herod; or follows any real principle in have not yet become president when the accepting or rejecting the authority of the youthful Herod was summoned before the Mishnah. It is indeed possible that under court, and that the action of Ananus was Hyrcanus I, or under Queen Alexandra, when irregular. But the language of Josephus the influence of the Pharisees was all powerful, respecting Simon the son of Gamaliel remains some official position was given “ to the leading unexplained, and we have to take into account Rabbis in the Sanhedrin. But even in this case the actual composition of the Sanhedrin, and the principal doctor in the Sanhedrin must have the state of political parties, in the time of the occupied a very different position from the Nasi Herods and during the period of direct Roman of later times. Indeed, Kuenen seems almost to rule. After considering all the circumstances, it do more justice to the statements of the is not too much to assert, with Derenbourg, that Mishnah and Talmud, when he regards them as neither Hillel nor Gamaliel nor Simon can have preserving an authentic tradition of the presided in the Sanhedrin. Indeed, Derenbourg succession of “the heads of the scribes of denies that Hillel was ever a member of that Jerusalem” {Bel. of Israel, iii. pp. 142, 240, 281- body, while, from the tone of authority in the 6). Only after the destruction of the Temple, above-named letters of Gamaliel, he is inclined when the high priest and the old aristocracy to believe that some confusion has arisen had disappeared, and the priesthood had lost between Gamaliel the elder, and his grandson, its importance, did a college of doctors of the Gamaliel of Jabneh. In fact, the supposed Law become the supreme authority for Israel. patriarchate of the first four members of the Then for the first time a Rabbi, who was chosen house of Hillel rests upon no sufficient to preside over a reconstituted Sanhedrin, evidence, and even tradition is silent as to the became the head and representative of the persons who were believed to have held the Jewish nation. office of vice-president under them. It should be added that Dr. Edersheim did not “With respect to the period before Hillel, our accept the views of Kuenen on. the Presidency information is more scanty; Josephus is no of the Sanhedrin, and considered that an longer a contemporary authority, and there is adequate reply to them had been made by D. nothing to show that the Rabbinic tradition is Hoffmann. Dr. Edersheim acknowledged that more trustworthy here than at a later date. the Rabbinic accounts of the Sanhedrin often Derenbourg and Gratz prefer to accept such represent “ rather the ideal than the real,” and portions of the Jewish tradition as seem to be that under the rule of Herod and of the Roman reconciled with information derived from other procurators the Sanhedrin was deprived of the sources; but neither of them receives the power of decision of all matters of real statements of the Mishnah in their entirety. importance. He supposed that the high priest, Derenbourg calls the Talmudic accounts a as the nominee of the ruling powers, presided compromise between the traditions of different in all great criminal causes or important times; but he regards it as certain that the investigations, while the presidency of the Nasi Sanhedrin was remodeled by John Hyrcanus, was confined to legal and ritual discussions. with the Nasi and Ab beth Din at its head {Hid. The trial of Christ recorded in the Gospels he pp. 87-93). To Griitz it seems self-evident that, regarded as a preliminary examination before from the time of Simon the Maccabee, the high an informal assembly of Sanhedrists, and not as priest stood at the head of the council, and a legal trial before a regular meeting of the exercised the office of Nasi; he supposes that Sanhedrin. under Queen Alexandra two scribes for the first Appendix III. The Site of Bethar time presided over the Sanhedrin, in the persons of Juda ben Tabbai and Simon ben

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The story of the Jewish war under Hadrian, as (Geschichte, iv. 156 f., 458 ff.), in support of this narrated in the text, differs considerably from view, appeals to the other Rabbinic accounts, the account which was given, on the authority which reduce the distance of Bethar from the of Gratz, in the first edition of this work. One of sea to one mile (bab. Gittin, 57«), or four miles the most important points of difference (Midrash on Lam. ii. 1). He quotes also a concerns the scene of the war and the site of passage from the Tosefta (Parah, c. 8), which the fortress of Bethar. Our principal authority states that “ the stream descending from in this matter is Eusebius, who states {Hist. Salmon failed during the war.” This he refers to Eccl. iv. 6) that Bethar was not far from the Bar Cochba war, and identifies the stream Jerusalem; and accordingly, amongst others, G. from Salmon with the Nahar Arsuf, which runs Williams {The Holy City, I 209-213) has by the supposed site of Betarus. This view is, identified the place with the modern Bettir. however, open to grave objections. The This village lies about six miles south-west of Jerusalem Talmud is here more likely than the Jerusalem. Here a steep ridge projecting into other the valley forms an admirable position for a Yorcdath ha-almon; Lut Levy {NHIVB, ii. 264&, stronghold. The hill is surrounded by the valley 312«) reads Yorcdath ha-Galmin, the stream on three sides; only on the south, near the of the images. Jewish authorities to have modern village, is it connected with the main preserved a true tradition; and the context mountain range by a narrow isthmus. Traces of certainly suggests a longer distance for the an old fortress are still to be seen on this hill, stream of blood than one or four miles. It is and a deep trench has been cut through the doubtful whether the passage from Tosefta isthmus on the south side. This identification of refers to this war at all. Moreover, the proposed Bar Cochba's stronghold has now been adopted site is in itself improbable. Betarus stood in a by many writers, e.g. Schiirer, I ii. 3 9 f .; Renan, region mainly inhabited by heathens; it was at Les Evangiles, p. 26 ff.; Derenbourg, Mdanges, no great distance from the Roman city of 1878, pp. 160—165; Conder and Kitchener, Caesarea; and, being situated in a plain, it could Survey of Western Palestine, and Memoirs, iii. not have been fortified either speedily or 20. It is supported also by Neubauer, secretly. We may add that there are G6ographie du Talmud, pp. 103—115, who independent grounds for believing that the Tur places Bethar in the neighborhood of the Malka, mentioned as the seat of the war, was in ancient Beth-Shemesh, and identifies the latter Judea rather than in Ephraim (comp. p. 203). It site with the modern Bettir; and in the main, by will be seen, therefore, that there were strong Hamburger, Real Encyclopedie, ii. 106 ff., who reasons for adopting the site proposed by supposes Bethar to have been somewhere on Williams in preference to that advocated by the mountains of Judea. This view agrees, Gratz.] moreover, with the statement of the Jerusalem Talmud (Taanith, iv. 69a), that after the fall of Appendix IV. Rabbinical Exegesis Bethar, the blood of the slain rolled with it We cannot attempt in this place to give a masses of rock to the sea, a distance of forty complete account of the principles of Rabbinical miles. In a straight line Bettir is rather more exegesis, or of the rules to be observed in than thirty miles from the coast. Several deducing Halakhah from texts of Scripture. It writers, on the other hand, have preferred to will be enough to give some examples of the identify the fortress of Bar Cochba with another methods which were in use, and to refer the Bethar or Betarus which is mentioned in two reader for fuller details to more extensive old itineraries {Itinerarium Antonini Augusti, works upon this subject. and that of the Bordeaux Pilgrim, Falaestinm It was distinctly asserted, as a fundamental Bescriptiones, ed. Tobler, p. 9; compare principle, that Scripture employed only such Reland's Falaestina, pp. 417, 419 f.) as being on modes of expression as were common in the road from Caesarea to Antipatris. Griitz ordinary language, and only rarely was it

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admitted that mere figures and illustrations necessary to wait till a third verse was found were introduced. For clearness' sake. Scripture which reconciled them. So Exo. 40:35 and Num, sometimes repeats or adds, what might 7:89 are reconciled by means of Exo. 40:34, otherwise have been inferred, as in Deut. 24:16; Again, careful distinctions are drawn between but if a statement is simply repeated, the the different modes of deducing logical repetition indicates that something additional conclusions from one or more passages of was now meant to be conveyed. Scripture, If a legal determination applies to a Inferences may be drawn from the less important object or relation, it of course juxtaposition of laws on subjects vastly equally applies to a more important cognate different; and often a word or verse is object or relation. This mode of conclusion is explained by a parallel passage in which the termed “Kal Ve-Chomer” (light and heavy). A same word occurs. Thus, Ex. 12:19, the word well-known instance of this occurs in Num. used for found “no leaven shall be found “ 12:14. By the “Gezerah Shavah”, or same class, occurs in Gen. 44:12, as : “he searched and it is meant that one or more words of the same found “; and again, the word used for searched kind occurring in two texts indicate that they occurs in Zeph. 1:12, as : “I will search belong to the same class, and hence are subject Jerusalem with candles.” Hence leaven (Exo. to the same legal provision. 12:19) must be searched for with candles. [For example, from the mention of the “right Rules were laid down for cases where different foot” in Lev. 14:17, the conclusion was drawn provisions of the law came into conflict, and for that a widow should draw off the right shoe of solving apparent contradictions. If one her brother-in-law, who refused to perform his command ran contrary to another, i.e. could not duty as next-of-kin (Deut. 25:9).] be executed at the same time with the other, the However, the application of this mode of more comprehensive, the more frequently inference required the sanction of tradition. recurring, or the more holy and important, took The “Hekesh” differed from the Gezerah Shavah precedence. in that the latter proceeded upon the analogy of Where a command ran contrary to a forbid, the the words, the former upon that of the contents command set aside the forbid, provided it was of the two passages. Thus, as in Deut. 15:12, not necessary to transgress a forbid before the male and female slaves are placed in the same command could be obeyed; nor might it run category, it is inferred that the laws applying to contrary to two forbids, or to a forbid with a the one apply also to the other. Hence, as a command attached to it, unless the forbid was female slave becomes the property of the particular, while the command for which it was purchaser merely by payment, a male slave is to be set aside was general, or else the forbid subject to the same regulation, etc. was one of which the neglect involved the In a fourth mode of reasoning, a common Divine threat of “being cut off”. quality which was found in one or more clauses [When two passages of Scripture seemed was elevated into a general principle, and the entirely to contradict one another, it was held legal determinations applicable to one case that if one of them confirmed the injunction became in consequence applicable to all contained in the second, while the second analogous cases. Thus in Lev. 15:4, every bed appeared to annul the injunction of the first, the and every chair of him that has an issue is second passage was to be rejected. Thus in Lev. declared unclean. From the special mention of 6:14 it was inferred that the injunction “before these two objects, which belong to two different the Lord,” i.e. before the Holy Place, or on the classes of one genus, it is inferred (by a west, overrode the injunction “ before the comparison of the two) that the quality altar,” i.e. on the south.] common to both is that the party affected rests If, however, there was only a partial on them; and the legal inference is, that all contradiction between two passages, it was things which serve for resting are unclean. This

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method of combination and deduction is whatsoever thy soul lust after, for oxen, or for termed “Binjan Av “ (the building or structure sheep, or for wine, or for strong drink, or for of the father), and may either be a simple whatsoever thy soul desires” Binjan Av, or a combination from two verses. In order to generalize the Perat in the above Another group of exegetical principles was text, its essential qualities, namely, that it is derived from the pleonastic structure of whole fruit from fruit (“seed from seed”), and sentences. If in a sentence a general expression produced from the earth, are first selected. Its occurred, followed by a particular one, or vice- non-essential quality is, that all these objects versa, one of these was apparently superfluous, were originally formed from the ground, not as the general naturally included the particular. from water, etc. According to the prevailing These expressions were then combined into opinion, the non-essential qualities determined one sentence, the first expression being the whether an object came within the range of that subject, the second the predicate. legal determination. Thus in the above case it The general expression was termed “Kelal”, the was ruled that birds or fishes were not to be particular “Perat”; and the rule was, that the bought with that money. The general exegetical predicate modified the subject, so that the principle was expressed as follows : “Kelal, object of the law was general or particular Perat, and Kelal you can only infer that which is according as the predicate was general or like to the Perat”. particular. We have thus two exegetical Talmudical ingenuity traced many principles, Kelal and Perat, and again Perat and modifications of the general principles. Thus Kelal. there was “the Kelal which requires the Perat”, We give an illustration of each. In Lev. 1:2 it is and “the Perat which requires the Kelal”. The commanded to “bring an offering of beasts (in rules of Kelal and Perat might also be applied to our version, cattle), of the herd and of the clauses, or even verses, in their mutual relation. flock”. The expression “beasts” is the Kelal, If a general legal determination was followed “herd” and “flock” the Perat; and the by a kindred particular, the latter modified the interpretation Kelal and Perat, namely, that general, either in the way of determining it only such beasts as belonged to the herd, or to more particularly, or of limiting it. Thus, when the flock, were to be brought. it was in general forbidden to work on the Again, when in Num. 6:3, 4, the is Sabbath, while in Exo. 35:3 it was particularly interdicted from partaking of wine, vinegar, added that no fire was to be kindled, the latter etc., and from eating anything made of the vine, more clearly determined that not only working we have Perat and Kelal, and accordingly the in general, but particularly every kind of work, inference that nothing coming from the vine, was interdicted. not even leaves or stalks, were to be used by On the other hand, as the statement that the Nazirite. If a sentence consisted of more redemption was not to be taken for a murderer than two members, various combinations of was needless, it was meant to indicate that general and particular terms might occur, but redemption might be taken in cases of inferior the only one of importance is that termed Kelal, importance, such as in that of an “ eye for an Perat, and Kelal. In this case the Kelal was first eye.” absorbed into a Perat, and then again [These different methods of drawing inferences swallowed up into the Kelal. from the statements of Scripture were not all of While the Perat was thus generalized, it still equal value, and some were only to be used retained many of its peculiarities, as its with caution. Especially the argument from properties were specified, and the legal analogy underwent in the course of time determination extended to all that shared these numerous modifications and limitations. Rab, properties. Thus in Deut. 14:26 we have a Kelal, indeed, restricted its use altogether to cases in Perat, Kelal : “Thou shalt bestow that money for which the two passages compared dealt with

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the same subject-matter. An important which we have partly referred, and to distinction was drawn between proof proper appreciate the extant monuments of Jewish and a mere reference. There were numerous exegetical investigations. When the elders of Halakhah which, though generally received, Bethera confessed their inability to decide the rested only on custom and tradition, and could question of the occurrence of the Passover on not be proved from Scripture. In such cases the the Sabbath, it is said that Hillel had attempt was made to connect the traditional endeavored to prove it by a Hekesh, by a Kal usage with the sacred text, by discovering some Ve-Chomer, and by a Gezerah Shavah, but that hint or support for it in Scripture through he was unsuccessful until he referred to a methods which often seem to us entirely tradition from Shemajah and Abtalion. From valueless and arbitrary.] this we gather that at that time the Middoth or Thus, if an acknowledged Halakhah could be exegetical rules had not yet been received by established by an alteration of the vowelpoints the Synagogue. To Hillel, Jewish historians of the text, such a change was unhesitatingly ascribe the following seven Middoth : made. Anything unusual in the language 1. Kal Ve-Chomer, inductio a minore ad indicated a special meaning, since Scripture majorem. Tosefta Sanli. vii. contained nothing that was not absolutely 2. Gezerah Shavah, verbal analogy. necessary. Letters might be drawn from the end 3. Binjan Av from one verse, or deduction of one word to the beginning of another, or by combination from one verse. words thrown out of their natural order, to establish a Halakhah. Similarly, sentences and 4. Binjan Av from two verses. whole sections might be interchanged. 5. Kelal and Perat, generalization and In order to reconcile the Halakhah with the particularization. sacred text, it became necessary to seek in the 6. Hekesh Mah Mazinu, analogy of the latter indications for enlarging technically contents of a verse, “ as it results from called “ increasing “ and for limiting its one passage.” provisions. The particles “ and, also, that,” 7. Inference from the context. belonged to the first class; “ only, merely,” etc., These Middoth, in their development, gave rise to the second. Some, such as the article, the to certain controversies in which Nahum of suffixes, etc., enlarged or limited according to Gimso and Nechuniah the son of Hakanah circumstances. But if the connection between a distinguished themselves on opposite sides; the Halakhah and a text was deemed certain, former asserting that the particles “only, also”, almost anything might be employed for proving were meant to extend or limit the meaning of all the details of the former. Thus the verb “ he the text, the latter denying it. shall be “ was, according to the value of its letters in numerals, made to indicate that a These two sages were followed by Akiba and vow, not otherwise limited, extended over Ishmael, of whom the former adopted, thirty days. Naturally, in deductions of this enlarged, and elaborated the views of Nahum, character, great weight was attached to the the latter those of Nechuniah. Akiba carried the authority of celebrated Rabbins as warranting principles of Nahum to their utmost certain interpretations, which might again be consequences, and would even have made his used for involving other inferences. Thus the interpretations the basis of other deductions. Halakhah continually increased, in agreement Ishmael resisted these attempts, and with the principle that “every point was a hill propounded thirteen Middoth, which are only a and mountain” (of laws). logical explanation of the seven Middoth of Hillel. Middoth This sketch will enable the reader to form a tolerably accurate idea both of the method and 3, 4, and 6 were contracted into one, Middah 5 of the results of Rabbinical studies. It will also was divided into eight separate Middoth, enable him to understand the controversies to

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something was added to Middah 7, while The school of Shammai differed from that of Middah 13 is entirely new. Hillel in its refusal to acknowledge the validity The 13 Middoth of Rabbi Ishmael, whose of the Middoth. It simply referred the Halakhah authority was universally acknowledged by the to the authority of tradition. But it has to be Synagogue, and which were inserted into the remembered that while the teaching of Hillel prayer-book, are: was generally received, that of Shammai was not wholly repudiated. 1. Kal Ve-Chomer

2. Gezerah Shavah 3. Binjan Av from one, and Binjan Av from two verses 4. From Kelal and Perat 5. From Perat and Kelal 6. Kelal, Perat, and Kelal infer only what is similar to the Perat 7. Kelal which requires a Perat, and Perat which requires a Kelal 8. If anything contained in the Kelal is singled out (particularized) for a decision, this is done not in order to decide about itself, but about the Kelal 9. If anything contained in the Kelal is singled out to impose a new obligation which is related to the general obligation of the Kelal, it has been singled out in order to lighten, but not to increase the burden 10. If anything that is contained in the Kelal is singled out to impose a new obligation which is not related to the general obligation of the Kelal, it has been singled out both in order to lighten and to increase the burden (it is entirely independent of the Kelal) 11. If anything contained in the Kelal is singled out in order that a new matter may be attached to it, the latter may not again be ranged with its Kelal, unless Scripture itself expressly range it again with the Kelal 12. Something may be learned from the context of a verse and something from its own bearing 13. When two verses exclude (contradict) each other, we wait till a third verse is adduced which decides between them.