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VTT Technology 348: Electric Commercial Vehicles (ECV)

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VTT Technology 348: Electric Commercial Vehicles (ECV) Electric Commercial Vehicles (ECV) Final report VTT TECHNOLOGY Transport and mobility are in the middle of a major transition to 3 4 8 large-scale electrification of a large range of vehicles, mobility use cases and fleets. Energy efficiency and low emissions are the main benefits of electrical propulsion. With the continuing development of the key technologies, system implementations and new business models, the economic benefits are also emerging fast - first in professional and commercial operation and fleets, later in private mobility. This report summarises main results and findings from a Finnish project entity Electric Commercial Vehicles (ECV). Even though both technology and business in this field are developing rapidly, many of the project's results, produced during 2012–2016, are still surprisingly valid. Electric C o m m ercial Vehicles (E C V) Electric Commercial Vehicles (ECV) Final report ISBN 978-951-38-8681-3 ISSN-L 2242-1211 ISSN 2242-122X (Online) Mikko Pihlatie | Jenni Pippuri-Mäkeläinen (eds.) DOI: 10.32040.2242-122X.2019.T348 VTT TECHNOLOGY 348 VTT TECHNOLOGY 348 Electric Commercial Vehicles (ECV) Final report Mikko Pihlatie & Jenni Pippuri-Mäkeläinen (eds.) VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd ISBN 978-951-38-8681-3 VTT Technology 348 ISSN-L 2242-1211 ISSN 2242-122X (Online) DOI: 10.32040/2242-122X.2019.T348 Copyright © VTT 2019 JULKAISIJA – PUBLISHER VTT PL 1000 02044 VTT Puh. 020 722 111 https://www.vtt.fi VTT P.O. Box 1000 FI-02044 VTT, Finland Tel. +358 20 722 111 https://www.vttresearch.com Cover image: VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd Preface This report gives a broad overview of the work carried out during Electric Commer- cial Vehicles (ECV) -project. The project was active during 2012–2016 and it was partly funded by Tekes, the Finnish Funding Agency for Technology and Innovation (nowadays Business Finland). The project brought together multiple partners from both industry and academia in jointly funded research and development. Research parties included VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd., Aalto University, Lappeenranta University of Technology, Tampere University of Technology, Metropolia University of Applied Sciences, University of Vaasa and Rovaniemi Uni- versity of Applied Sciences. Among other key information, a comprehensive list of partners can be found from the webpage of the project, www.ecv.fi [referred 27/03/2019]. Final seminar of ECV was organised in May 2016. The first day of this two-day event summarised the work carried out in the national ECV projects, whilst the sec- ond day was dedicated to a more international context through the 2nd Nordic Elec- tric Bus Initiatives. The total number of seminar participants was around 200. This report is a collection of the work presented in the seminar and additional contribu- tions from throughout the project. It addresses all the important aspects of electric commercial vehicles from technology to operability and operation requirements and environment. We wish to thank all the partners and funders of the project for their invaluable co- operation and contribution. Editors Mikko Pihlatie and Jenni Pippuri-Mäkeläinen 3 Contents 1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 9 1.1 The paradigm change ............................................................................ 9 1.2 Growing international business for Finland............................................ 11 2. Electric Commercial Vehicles ................................................................... 13 2.1 Executive summary of activities 2012–2016.......................................... 13 2.2 Summaries of work packages .............................................................. 14 2.2.1 Energy storage technologies (eStorage) .................................... 14 2.2.2 Electric bus technologies (eBus) ................................................ 21 2.2.3 Electrical and hybrid working machine (Tubridi).......................... 29 2.2.4 Vehicle systems, power grid and charging (eCharge) ................. 38 2.3 The international context ...................................................................... 46 2.3.1 Zero Emission Urban Bus System – EU ZeEUS ......................... 46 2.3.2 The European Bus System of the Future 2 – EBSF_2 ................ 48 2.3.3 Nordic co-operation of transport authorities ................................ 50 3. Battery technology and applications ........................................................ 59 3.1 Electrical and thermal characterisation of large lithium-ion batteries....... 59 3.1.1 Introduction............................................................................... 59 3.1.2 Characterisation of batteries ...................................................... 60 3.1.3 Experimental............................................................................. 62 3.1.4 Results ..................................................................................... 65 3.1.5 Discussion ................................................................................ 67 3.1.6 Conclusions .............................................................................. 67 3.1.7 Acknowledgements ................................................................... 68 3.2 Research highlights from experimental battery research ....................... 68 3.2.1 Introduction............................................................................... 68 3.2.2 Experimental............................................................................. 69 3.2.3 Results ..................................................................................... 70 3.2.4 Discussion ................................................................................ 75 3.2.5 Conclusions .............................................................................. 75 3.2.6 Acknowledgements ................................................................... 75 3.3 Aging of commercial NMC/graphite Li-ion cells at elevated temperatures ....................................................................................... 76 3.3.1 Introduction............................................................................... 76 3.3.2 Experimental............................................................................. 78 3.3.3 Results ..................................................................................... 78 3.3.4 Discussion ................................................................................ 80 3.3.5 Conclusions .............................................................................. 80 3.3.6 Acknowledgements ................................................................... 81 3.4 Ageing investigation of graphite/LiFePO4 lithium-ion cells cycled at low temperatures ....................................................................................... 81 4 3.4.1 Introduction............................................................................... 82 3.4.2 Experimental............................................................................. 83 3.4.3 Results and discussion.............................................................. 83 3.4.4 Conclusions .............................................................................. 84 3.4.5 Acknowledgements ................................................................... 84 4. Electric buses and powertrains ................................................................ 85 4.1 Electric city bus energy flow model ....................................................... 85 4.1.1 Introduction............................................................................... 85 4.1.2 Electric city bus model............................................................... 87 4.1.3 Validation results ...................................................................... 92 4.1.4 Discussion ................................................................................ 94 4.1.5 Conclusion................................................................................ 95 4.1.6 Acknowledgements ................................................................... 95 4.2 Electric city bus demonstration environment – results from laboratory tests on commercial buses ................................................................... 95 4.2.1 Introduction............................................................................... 96 4.2.2 eBus fleet ................................................................................. 97 4.2.3 Testing method ......................................................................... 98 Driving resistance model ...................................................................... 99 4.2.4 Results ................................................................................... 101 4.2.5 Discussion .............................................................................. 103 4.2.6 Conclusions ............................................................................ 104 4.2.7 Acknowledgements ................................................................. 104 4.3 Evaluation of energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions of electric city buses .............................................................................. 104 4.3.1 Introduction............................................................................. 105 4.3.2 Electricity production and pathways ......................................... 107 4.3.3 Simulation
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