Woven Fabrics and Their Construction

148 MARGRETHE HALD: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

CHAPTER IV WOVEN FABRICS AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION

TYPES OF WEAVE

A woven fabric consists of two thread systems which cross each other at right angles. The lengthwise system in the loom is the warp and the other across the width of the loom is the weft. The two sets of threads are woven together according to various principles, and this produces the different weaves. It is only natural that a graphic form of expression should develop to signify the types of weave. In the same way as notes and paralle11ines express passages of music, weaving points marked in on graph paper give the draft of a pattern. The point where the two threads intersect with the warp thread uppermost on the right side of the fabric is given by a black square, when the square is unmarked it signifies that a warp thread is underneath. Tabby. The simplest weave is when the weft passes alternately over and under the warp. The system, called a weave unit, is with only two threads (Fig. 126), and if the warp and weft of tabby are of the same thickness and the distance between the threads is equal we call it quadra- tic. Repp is a variation of tabby. The analysis is the same but one thread system is closer set than the other, and may even cover the other entirely. If the warp dominates the weave is called warp ribbed repp, and if it is the weft the term is weft ribbed repp. Tabby is one of the three basic weaves and twill is another!). Twill is a weave with a tremendous amount of variations, therefore only the types which are relevant to prehistoric Danish textiles will be dealt with here. Twill is characteristic because of the diagonal lines in its texture caused by the point of intersection of each weft thread moving one pick forward and one pick sideways. 2/2 twill is the most usual form of twill (Fig. 128). A weft thread passes alternately over two and under two warp threads, with the result that the right side and the reverse side of the fabric is similar. The points of intersection are not as close as in tabby, therefore a twill fabric is softer and more comfortable - an advantage which probably contributed towards the change in the Bronze Age from tabby to twill fabrics. Pointed twill and waved twill. The simpler variations of twill are made by changing the di- rectionof the diagonals. Shifting the points of intersection so that horizontal zigzag lines are made produces the weave called pointed twill (Figs. 129-130), and if the zigzag lines run vertically the weave is called waved twill (Fig. 131). These zigzag patterns can be divided into two groups, those where the diagonals have an accurate meeting (e.g. Figs. 130-131), and those with an inaccurate meeting (e.g. Fig. 129). The latter kind is called broken chevron twill because the meeting of the diagonal lines is not preCIse. CHAPTER IV. WOVEN FABRICS AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION 149 _ ...... _._- ..._--__ ...... _----... ------_....___._--_....-.__ ..- .. .------_ .._-.-----_._- .. ------.------_._...------_.-_- ..__ _ .._ --.- . ------21t Fig. 126. Tabby. ------Fig. 127. twill or three-shaft. Toskaft. Treskaftkiper (venstrekiper).

•• -- • _. • ------• .---- .----.------• --_.---_.------• •------• •------.------• ------_._. ---_. • ------.-•------•------.------Fig.-128.-21z twill.------Fig. 129. Broken- chevron -twill. Firskaftet dobbeltkiper (hl'ljrekiper). Brudt spidskiper (ulige tilslutning). ------• • • • -• • ------•- --•----• ------.------•- ---• - • - -• ------,...------. •------•-- -- • --• -• ------• ------•------• ------Fig. -130. Pointed- - twill (accurate- - meeting).- - -Fig.-131.-Waved-twill-(accurate- -meeting).- Spidskiper med lige tilslutning. Siangekiper med lige tilslutning. --.------_._-_.---:. --.: --=---..•. --...;-...------.--- } -----._------._.------.------.------_._------. .-.---.------_.------_._------·--.:- .:. -----::. -=- .: .&.-----:. -=- ~ .: Fig. 132. Lozenge twill (accurate meeting). Fig. 133. Broken lozenge twill. GlIsel'ljekiper eller diamantkiper. Rudekiper eller krystalkiper.

Figs. 126-133. Drafts for tabby and some typical varieties of twill weave. Analyser til toskaft og forskellige typiske kiperbindinger. 150 MARGRETHE HALO: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

M Hold Fig. 134. Diagram of lozenge twill. Skema, del' viser inddelingen af g1\se~jekiper.

Lozenge twiLL. By combining pointed twill and waved twill a checked pattern is obtained. If zigzag patterns with an accurate meeting of the diagonals is chosen the result is lozenge twill (Fig. 132), but if broken twill is decided upon the result is called broken lozenge twill (Fig. 133). Three-shaft twill represents the most simple type in this group (Fig. 127), in that the unit comprises only three threads. When the warp threads on the right side pass over 2 wefts and under I weft, warp picks predominate on the face of the fabric, i.e. 2/ I twill. When the reverse is the case the term to describe it is 1/2 twill. One would expect a simple weave like this to suc- ceed 2/2 twill, but Danish material has not established that this is the case. To date the earliest examples of three-shaft weave occur in the Viking Period. Variation. Another variation (see draft Fig. 135) occurs in the FI¢jstrup find, although it is difficult to say whether this is a combination of repp and tabby, or whether it is a twill in which every other weft thread has been woven in tabby. Spinning patterns. As we have already seen, a special type of pattern is produced by combining yarns both in the warp and the weft which have been spun in different directions (see P. 136). These spinning patterns made without any change in the weave produce checks or flecks, obviously the effect is enhanced if the diagonals of the twill are broken after changing the spinning direction2). Samitum (weft-faced compound twill). However, apart from all these simple types, we have a more complicated twill weave in some of the silk fragments from the Mammen find; these must be considered luxury fabrics presumably of foreign origin. The fragments are woven in a kind of double fabric with a double thread system both in warp and weft. CHAPTER IV. WOVEN FABRICS AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION 151 ------._------MH. Fig. 135. Draft of the fabric from Flyjjstrup (C 9266). Analyse af stof fra Fll'1jstrup (C 9266).

-••

MH Fig. 136. Draft of the weave in the non-patterned parts of fabrics woven in samitum from Mammen (cf. Figs. 107-108). Analyse af bindingen i de uml'1nstrede partier af stof i samitum fra Mammen (se fig. 107 og 108).

Fig. 137. Samjtum in cross-section (Fig. 136). Tvrersnit af samitum, fig. 136.

The diagram (Fig. 136)gives the draft of an unpatterned sample of the fabric. A weft thread on the face of the fabric passes across 8 warps and beneath the 9th, while the under weft passes across twice the number of warps, namely nos. 3 and 6. Moreover, two warp threads after each pick play no direct part in the construction of the fabric, but are simply wadding warps. The draft shows that the fabric is a double three-shaft twill (see diagram Fig. 137, showing this in cross-section). The pattern is produced by reversing the texture on each side of the fabric, viz. passing the upper weft threads into the lower shed and the lower weft threads into the upper shed, as illustrated in Fig. 138, but the wadding warps are excluded. This draft corresponds to the one published by Agnes Geijer ("Birka III" Fig. 16); related fabrics have also been identified among the finds from the Oseberg ship-burial. The renowned silk textiles from the shrine of Canute the Holy in Odense's cathedral of the same name, a cushion with a dove pattern and a cloth with eagles, also belong to the same group.

THE WEFT It is taken as a matter of course that the weft in a simple unpatterned cloth passes directly from selvedge to selvedge, therefore it is all the more surprising to find that Danish Bronze Age textiles in tabby weave break this rule, in that irregularities can be seen on the face of the cloth which are reminiscent of sporadic "cross-stitch". These prove to have been made by two weft threads meeting in the same shed, crossing, and skipping into the next shed where each 152 MARGRETHE HALD: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS - . ·. - - - • • • --- -• • - - - - .- •- • - •-.• ·- - .-.._. .-.---·- - - - ·- - . ------_.------. - . ·. - .- - . -.- - •- •- - . -·-. --- -.-- - - -. - - - • • · • •------. • • ·- •- .• - -.- .- ---- • • • - . .. --.-- •- -• • • ·• .. -•- -- .. -.. • • • • • • ••· ---•• ••••. - ·- ·. .. - -- . • • • • • •- -- .. .-- - . • • • • • • - . = : ·•- • ·•- •. • • • • --.• • • • • • • •- ·-•• .-•• • • • - - • • • • • • • • •- ----..--- • • - . • • • • • • -• •. -• •. ·- - - -• - - ---•- • - . • • ·- ·• -- ·• •- - . • • ·- -·-• - - - - • • • • _. ..------. --..- . • • • • -. .. - .·-•·•- - . -• - -...._--. • -- • • ---. ~- •- ·-. •·•- • - - - - .. -·-.- -• .• - - - ·-- - ..-.---...- ·- A - ·------. C'- - --.,.-./ --, • • • • • • _.•• ••.- •- ..-",~,...... -,-. --"', ---"" • • ·- • • • • --.. _-- ._0 _ ¥_lo:'_... '. ••••• ._. _ .' • • ·• -• • • _. -. --'-." • • • • • • •·• • • • -- - • • - . -• • ·- . ·- .. ':'-=;<::~')<:~:~~~~ - , - - - •....• .-_. ----- ""'-~.-/. -'-'---" .-•-• ·-• • - -. -• •.• ·-• • ·-.... .--- • • -• •- • • ·-• • .---- - .--- -.. •- • • • .• . ·. - - • • - • • - •- • ·------.--- i~~.;;~~:.~ ·- ·- · ------.---_...,~~--::;~:=~ - - ·- - - ·- - _.--- - -.----. ------Fig. 139. Crossing wefts for 1-4 Fig. 138. Draft of samitum (Mammen, C 140). Filling warp omitted. Analyse af samitum (Mammen, C 140). Mltextile from Karlby contains numerous CHAPTER IV. WOVEN FABRICS AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION 153

i····· , ~.c.~.~ .7.~. C.~.C.7 •.7••~.'. 1::,~;~~~~:~:"-~::':~~~;;;;;:,~.~~.~~.~.;~:;<~•••'.~'.'.'•..•••• :::1 ••::.-.::, •••• ::::::::::::::::: ••••••• ::::::::::::.:.".-~.:-:-.:-:-.:-:-. ::-.~ •• un ••••••• • •• ••••• eo • ...-: ••••••• ill·'·7'..'7.::-.7: .7.::.-:..•~~.7.:-:.•.•..'.".'."::-.•••••••.•••""7.7 .. "':.:-:'."'"7~...,.7.:::! ~!.~.~.~:~~~~.~.~~~~::::..~..~:::.:::::.;;7:::..~-;~.~~.~';':'.:.'~'':''~';.:'~' ~~.~.~.~~.~ ~.~.~:

Fig. 140. Draft with 3 crossing wefts. Skema for vrevning med 3 islrettrAde i samme skudgang.

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Fig. 141. Wefts of one colour skipping 5 wefts of another colour, and crossing wefts. Broken lozenge twill. Karlby Mose (D 4854). Figs. 27 and 204 b. Eksempel pAstof, hvori skudtrl'ldene af en farve springer over 5 trAde af en anden farve. Desuden overspring til passagen ved siden af. Rudekiper. Karlby Mose. (D 4854). Fig. 27 og 204b.

skippings of this kind, two examples are shown in Fig. 142. In the case of the Karlby textile which is checkered, it is tempting to imagine that this was to avoid breaking off a thread between colour zones. Yet we find the same practice in a cloth in one colour from Auning Mose (Fig. 143). Therefore the explanation of colour boundaries is not generally applicable unless it is taken as a sign that customs survive after their original purpose has faded into oblivion. But this special kind of skipping has an important parallel in the Swedish Bronze Age. cape from Gerumsberg (discussed on P. 189)which has a bearing on the dating of these textiles. 154 MARGRETHE HALD: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS II II 11 11 11 Jl Jl II II~ II <=> ~ m ~ m = <2ZZZZl 9?22:n"'" m a::z::z::lJ :=;)llc%ll~11~~II~II~I:'II~II~IIJ41 Jm~~~~~~lM1~~rt illI I~ ~~ I i m HaL cL Fig. 142. Draft of the textile from Karlby Mose (D 4854). Turning weft thread and skipping. Analyse af stof fra Karlby Mose (D 4854). Omkastning af skudtdiden samt overspring.

The poncho from R¢nbjerg Mose is also woven with two different weft threads (Fig. 144) but they pass from selvedge to selvedge, their turns alternating before returning in their own shed across the width of the loom. An exceptional feature, though, is the way the neck- opening is made; here the wefts turn half-way across the fabric making a vertical sLit in the middle of the fabric with selvedges, thus avoiding cutting a hole in the fabric for the head. The poncho also has weft threads which turn before reaching the opposite selvedge, returning in their next allotted shed (i.e. not the neighbouring shed but the next again because there are two weft threads, Figs. 145a-b). Turning wefts occur both intermittently and collectively in Danish Bronze Age textiles, when the latter is the case often in order to make gores. When these gores taper Lengthways in the woven field I caLIthem double gores (Fig. 146), and when they start at a selvedge and taper into the middle I call them single gores (Fig. 147). I regard these phenomena as attempts to straighten out an uneven shed probably due to an uneven warp. It is common knowledge when weaving that if the warp is laid with ample distance between the threads the weft is easily beaten down, whereas this is difficult if the warp threads lie close together. If the tension of the warp is uneven it becomes increasingly difficult to weave an even weft, a crooked or even wavy shed develops. In the end weaving becomes quite unmanageable and measures have to be taken to correct the difficulties, a natural expedient is to add wefts until the shed is again straight and work can be continued in the usual manner. These are not common characteristics among bog textiles, to date only two pieces are known to have single gores, i.e. the tubular-woven textile from Huldremose (D 3505) and a fragment from Rebild (Fig. 222a). The textiles from graves have yielded nothing but this may be because the fragments are generally smaller.

SELVEDGES Selvedges, too, often yield curious details of considerable interest, examples of these can be found already in Bronze Age textiles (see Figs. 148-150)4). The tubular type of selvedge (Fig. 150) still occurs among textiles from the Iron Age. It is formed by the weft thread passing in the normal way through the basic tabby weave to the edge where it turns. On its way back it passes over the first few warp threads before being thrown CHAPTER IV. WOVEN FABRICS AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION 155 .!...- I~ I L- I ~- i_:!ifL1-~ ~II--II'--II--II 1,1 ,I -:-1 i MH Fig. 143. Skipping wefts in the textile from Auning Mose (Fig. 36). Overspring pA skudtrAde i stof fra Auning Mose, fig. 36.

M H ••.~.,(,. Fig. 144. Diagram of weft course in the poncho from Rlilnbjerg Mose. Notice the selvedges of the neck opening (D 2625 g). Fig. 389. Fig. 145a. Turning weft in the R~nbjerg poncho Diagram over skudforl\1lbet i poncho fra R\1lnbjerg (D 2625 g). Mose (D 2625 g). Bem.erk, at halsAbningen hal' lukket v.evegr.ense i kanten. Fig. 389. Omdrejning pAskud i poncho fra R\1lnbjerg Mose (D 2625g).

into the next shed, therefore there is only one weft at the "outer" selvedge and two at the "in- ner" selvedge. The outer warp threads must therefore have their own system. There are three variations of the tubular selvedge in bog textiles (Fig. 151-155). Sometimes the selvedges are very narrow, sometimes a little broader, and in some cases broad enough for a thick knitting needle or pencil to be passed through. The diagram in Fig. 151 is that of a twill weave with tabby selvedge. Fig. 152 shows how a selvedge like this would look ifit were spread out flat. The dotted lines simply indicate the passage of the same thread, and presumably that the selvedge had been woven in a special way. The diagrams in Figs. 153 and 154 give the tubular selvedges when spread out. If the outer right- hand edge is pulled tight the two symbols above and below will meet. Both selvedges are those of the tubular-woven cloth from Huldremose and the fabric and selvedge are in twill. Yet, as seen in Fig. 153, the analysis more closely resembles repp with double warp threads but this is a logical consequence of the fact that every other weft is thrown behind. In this case, the selvedge technique and basic weave can be combined, and in Fig. 154, which is carried out on the same principle as Fig. 155, we have an example of the weft thread being given an extra turn so that the basic weave and the selvedge keep the same number of wefts; the twill weave thus remains undisturbed. 156 MARGRETHE HALO: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

1/ II II II

~,-

f I II II II MH Fig. 145b. Turning weft in a textile from Rl'lnbjerg (D 2625 1) Omdrejning pll.skud i stofstykke fra R~nbjerg Mose (0 2625f).

The strangest selvedge of all is found in the checkered skirt from Huldremose (Figs. 156and 29,30). Here the outer edge is tubular and in tabby (corresponding to Fig. 152), inside this is a repp border but only comprising a single layer in which the wefts are in pairs. The rest of the fabric is woven in 2/2 twill. Of interest, too, is the fact that the cloth is woven in two shades, one pale and one dark. While the dark weft thread extends only across the web of the twill, the pale thread (shown in red Fig. 156) sometimes appears in the selvedge (both tabby and repp) and the main fabric. We also find that two loops of the dark thread of the basic fabric interlock with one loop of the weft in the selvedge, i.e. the fullness of the weft in the selvedge is con- siderably reduced, probably to take in the fabric, made into a skirt, as a kind of waistband. This is unusual but not unique, diagrams in Figs. 157-158 show a similar analysis of the checkered blanket from Karlby Mose. Unfortunately both selvedges are very torn and partial- ly mended in prehistoric times, however down both selvedges there are areas where the weft of one colour passes right through to the edge where in a special turn it collects the loops of the wefts which only belong to the basic twill. It is not certain what the Karlby textile has been used for, nor is it possible to determine whether the selvedge was drawn in like the Huldre- mose skirt. It is of some significance, though, to be able to establish its relationship to the Huldremose find. The selvedge of a belt from'Elling Mose is shown in Fig. 159. Here the weft thread simply turns round a bundle of warps along the edge (cf. Fig. 148), the basic weave is a strange mix- ture of twill and repp. The selvedge of the R~nbjerg Mose poncho (2625 g) is shown in Fig. 160; the two weft threads here alternate in the selvedge. I n conclusion, there are examples where tablet weaving - so often an aid to loom weaving- is used for making selvedges along woven textiles. Tablet weaving will naturally give a strong and solid border to a fabric, but it has also presumably been chosen for aesthetic reasons. The diagram of the selvedge on the,blanket from Vejen Mose (Fig. 50a) illustrates the principle. It has been suggested that the specially woven side edges (tubular-woven selvedges) must have needed a special arrangement. Walter Roth gives a diagram of interest in this context showing a fabric woven by the Waiwai Indians in Guiana (Fig. 220 d)5).

WARPING The stage of the greatest importance to the completed product is the laying of the warp. We have seen that a number of flaws in our Bronze Age textiles are due to defective warping. CHAPTER IV. WOVEN FABRICS AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION 157

J -I-LI_LI·J-I--L--L-L --I--.L -L---'-··-l -I·- -l-- -I---I-,-__l----,--:.+::-':.--+.::~--:.-:!---·:.:j~ -I+-,+-1 +-,:- -I-----!-:=-,-::!-:::-I- :.:!:.----T~ ..--1---1---1------1-I--1.::.:--!.-1--- -I--:.:----:{-::--~:-:---b1 I --' +-,-1- +- - :~I--I-t:.--I- ----I ::-1,::'-1- :-j:--:b .-----1 -- -1-1- --- -:1--- :-.--- -::.j:------', .I---Ij:'-I-+~F--t:F :T·-;!;::J:.-:--I------i .:_~t·=-:l. -I I 1---1-1'-'1-' '--l,-,I->.l--:-I·----I---b '1.1-1.1-1_1 I..-!----L:-L-I-' I..!...I..!.1'\ .. --.- 1- , •.• -' ·1·-1··-,·-·--:------1 Ci.1_1-1-J.:::.-11-1-1-' I~II I-I-I-I~1_1_1 1 1 J --1--,..--:-:::- -I -I_I:!:> -F '-f. r-1 ':t:-r"T';;"I:::·I---I-ci=3 G:'"T-I~.-!--II / .!.::::--1-1-1-1 -+--1-·1----1:,1'->-' ~I I I '1-1--1 1--1--1 I-':"""--II-I:.!> Ci:1-1-1.-:.;::::.r-.--:--I -:-, 1 -I I-h, -1-- +-:.-1''1_--"1 I cl-L.1 I~ I-i-I I...... -I~~"-l...---1---- 1 1 ~I ••••• :~-I-:~-,-I-"I'·L-,I'1-1-1 .....L:=:P q:1-l1~1 I-....l.....L"j:L,:b --1-1-1::r::::: =b rwm i=r=t=fff-tlrlii TTITiTiTITITI," .MH ,M}{ Fig. 146. Diagram of double gore. Fig. 147. Diagram of single gore. Skematisk fremstilling af en dobbeltkile. Skematisk fremstilling af en enkeltkile.

No finds from the Danish Bronze Age give any indication of being part of a tool or apparatus for laying a warp. However, ancient Egyptian tomb paintings show warping (Fig. 161) being done with the help of three pegs knocked into a walI6); it is a primitive method bu t a long-Ii ved one, in any event an almost equally simple technique has been used until very recently in parts

of Eastern Europe. K. Moszynski7) writes that Slavs in the south, e.g. Bulgarians and Serbs, . lay a warp outside over pegs which they have hammered into the ground, whereas Slavs in the north, e.g. BaIts, the Finno-Ugrian people, and the Ostjaks lay a warp over pegs in a wall. U.

T. Sirelius describes a similar method in Karelian8) where pegs were knocked into doorways, rear wall or one of the side walls: "the longer the warp the greater number of pegs, the usual amount was about 4-5". The same kind of warping still survives in an old Nordic culture area, viz. the Faroe Islands, where the warp is laid round "V~rpur", wooden pegs usually three in number which are inserted into the holes made for them in door-frames as needed. A further development of this idea is the so-called warping board, a loose movable wooden frame much the same as a door-frame but the number of pegs used is greater (Fig. 162). A similar device is also found in Denmark at the Open-Air Museum near Copenhagen in the Salling farmstead. (Fig. 163). An extremely significant study in the present context is Emelie von Walterstorffs excellent treatise "En Vavstol och en Varpa" published in 1928 about a warp-weighted loom and a warping board. The two apparatus belong together and were acquired by the Nordiska Museet, Stockholm, from the Lapps in North Norway in the Lyngen Fjord district9). The loom is a warp-weighted loom with a starting border along the upper beam. It is the warping apparatus, however, which is of the greatest interest. It consists of two boards, one c. 50 cm long and the other c. 100 cm, both boards are c. 12 cm wide, nailed together at right- angles, the three ends of the boards are fitted with three pegs 25-30 cm high. Between the two pegs on the short side is wound a skein of threads to make the warp of band a. which is woven with the help of a rigid heddle b. The weft threads for the band are pulled from a ball of yarn (which must be free on the outside of the band), they are drawn in long loops, first round peg c. and peg d., lastly down over peg c. The heddle is then changed for a new shed, the yarn from the ball is again pulled out in a loop, passed through the shed and round the pegs like the first 158 MARGRETHE HALO: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

'- . n '-

:::: (

(

Fig. 148. Selvedge of cape from Fig. 149. Selvedge of blanket Fig. 150. Tubular selvedge of cloth Muldbjerg. from Trindh~j. from Dragsh~j. Sidekant pAtliljfra kappe fra Muldbjerg. Sidekant pA treppe fra Trindhlilj. Rundvrevet sidekant pAtliljfra Dragshlilj.

time. Thus we find that the weft is always a double thread in each shed. The band a. has to be .Ioosened now and then and moved a little forwards, when it has reached a length corresponding to the loom width of the projected textile, the entire band is transferred from the warping apparatus to the upper beam of the loom, and the long loops of the wefts hang down as the warp. Finally, ordinary stones acting as loom weights are tied to the hanging loops. These warps will run in pairs in the same shed throughout, and their loops will consequently remain intact. There is general agreement among textile scholars that the warping board used by the Lapps and a certain type of prehistoric textile have a common denominator in this special method of using a band-woven fabric as the basis for laying a warp on a loom. A number of textiles from the Bronze Age and the Iron Age have similar starting borders, therefore I will try to divide the textiles into groups according to the characteristics of their warping, in order to see whether any conclusions may be drawn as to what tools have been used for laying warps.

FABRICS WITH STARTING BORDERS It was impossible to decide from my examination of the Danish Bronze Age textiles whether a special starting border had been prepared in each case, and likewise no complete warp could be studied, with a single exception - the Trindh\2lj blanket (Fig. 167) - because the transverse edge or edges in all the other textiles were frayed by cutting 10). This has meant, too, that the original measurements of the cloth are by no means certain, the pieces may have been cut smaller. The starting border found in numerous Bronze Age textiles is shown in the diagram Fig. 166. In these cases the warp must have been laid with yarn from one ball, the half-loops below in the diagram are added to show the passage of the thread during the warping process. This border is identical with the diagram published of the Lapp warp by Emelie v. Walterstorff. However, the similarity goes no farther because the warp threads in the Lapp textile continue in pairs, whereas in the Danish textiles they separate after the border to continue singly through to the opposite transverse edge as in tabby weave. Another kind of transverse edge found in Danish Bronze Age textiles is the plaited border. Formerly I interpreted this as a starting border, a notion which 1 have since abandoned because of certain characteristics in the Bronze Age blanket from Egtved, one of our largest tex- CHAPTER IV. WOVEN FABRICS AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION 159

1 ~II ;:, =-r ::ss s 5 l-~±±=-gn SS = ~~ 1-- --1------.. I I I >SS SSS + -1-1 - 1& ·I---I-~----~---n - 1 1--,--1------~ 1 -1-. I --1------1--1------1--1~ -1-) ~1 ~ I...=:L-L--~-o -- 0 11- IIII~~ Fig. 152. Tabby selvedge in Fig. 151 spread out flat. Fig. 151. Tubular selvedge of scarf from Toskaftet sidekant som fig. 151 i udbredt tilstand. Huldremose (Fig. 31). Rundvrevet sidekant pfl Wrklrede fra Huldremose, I fig. 31. -I-I--1---IV~-I_-~-I---~v}1I -I ~ I J=t I.L::_I__~_I_~_I_~ · 1-=-1 I =1~1~=t5-51}l l=-I-=I--I--?l-l~-I--k)3 :-II--::I--I---:---~--J -11- I -, l-t~=I~=I=~-1}4 I-I-I------~ I -I ----l-~-I----~ I . -I -1- - -:""I -I -I --~~1---~-1---~}5 - I _-1__--'-__-'__--1/ -I -I--I---~-I--71 ~T--;.;;.;;-Io-I .-,

Fig. 153.One of the selvedges of the tubular-woven piece af cloth from Huldremose (D 3505). Fig. 154. Selvedge corresponding to Fig. 155 spread Den ene sidekant pfl »rundvrevet« t~j fra Huldremose (D out flat. 3505). Sidekant svarende til fig. 155, udbredt. / /. "<' '- ....•.. '"~ r r I/'\.. ,- " rr rr " ""\ \. '/ rl'. '\ I I 7' '1 \ , II I , - '- \\.4\ t--. - -- ••• .- I- 1- •••• I- - "-' , r- ~. --\ " r~n..•• - \ \\ ~/~

Fig. 155. The scond selvedge of the tubular-woven piece of cloth from Huldremose (D 3505). Den anden sidekant pfl »rundvrevet« t~j fra Huldremose (D 3505). Figs. 151-155. Diagrams of various tubular-woven selvedges in Danish bog textiles. Analyser af forskellige typer af rundvrevede sidekanter pfl stoffer fra mosefund. 160 MARGRETHE HALD: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

I I I: I I; I I I ====11 1:;:;= -- -- I II ~II~II I - I --I ~ :::::::

TIT I I -----rFI I~ I ~II (ll--I~ --cg

1--Iii- --- ~- I I- == -~~=I--- I I I -- (([=--1 ~ ~ 1 1 ---

- L'l' T--T ---IT--- -- ~~ ~ 1----

~ - 1_--- ~ __ IC-- @t:- ((T-- I --T -- -- ~II - dfl 11lJIlJI ~ - - m ==~======- ca=l= I,= i IImil II fn=~f*I ==11 II II-iiII Fig_ 156. Diagram of selvedge of the Huldremose skirt (C 3473) (Figs. 29-30). Analyse af sidekanl pli del lemede sk\'lrt fra Huldremose (C3473). Fig. 29-30. CHAPTER IV. WOVEN FABRICS AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION 161

•

- M Hald

Fig. 157. Selvedge of blanket from Karlby Mose (Fig. 27). Sidekant pll treppe fra Karlby Mose, fig. 27.

-I-I-I-=",-I-I-I~ =~:!_I : ; ;~ 11111111 -1-1-1-""1 I-=-, 1-=-1)( -1-1-1-/ =111 -1- -1-1-';) -11_'/11- - ~ -I-I-f~ -1-1-1-') =iii .1=,1--11 -I-I-'~ IIII II-ll-II-W Fig. 160. Turning wefts in selvedge of the R0nbjerg Fig. 159. Turning wefts in belt poncho (Fig. 389). Fig. 158. Fragmentary selvedge from Elling Mose. of the Karlby Mose blanket. Omdrejning pll skud i sidekanten Omdrejning pll skud pll brelte fra pll poncho fra R~nbjerg Mose, Sidekant pll treppe fra Karlby Mose. Elling Mose. fig. 389. 162 MARGRETHE HALD: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

o o o

Fig. 161. Egyptian warping method (after Johl). tEgyptisk trendemetode (efter Johl).

Fig. 162. Warping frame from the Faroe Islands (measured by Mrs. Petra Djurhuus). Fa:rl

Fig. 163. Warping frame in the Salling farmhouse at the Open-Air Museum, Frilandsmuseet, on the outskirts of Copenhagen. Trenderamme fra Sallinggflrden pfl Frilandsmuseet ved Sorgenfri. CHAPTER IV. WOVEN FABRICS AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION 163

u C

Fig. 164. Diagram of Lapp warping frame. a: warp of band, b: rigid heddle, c and d: pegs. Skema over tr~dforl\ilbet i lappernes trendeapparal. a: b~ndvrevets krede, b: vrevespjreld, cog d: tapper. b

11111 /

Fig. 166. Warping with one thread and a starting border in repp. Bronze Age blanket from Skrydstrup. Kredelregning med en kelt tr~d. Opsretningskant i reps. Bronzealdertreppe fra Skrydstrup. Fig. 165. Warping board used by the Lapps in North Scandinavia (after E. von Walterstorft). Trendeapparat benytlet af lapperne i Nordskandinavien (efter E. von Walterstorff). tiles. It measures 258 cm in length, one transverse edge is cut and measures 192 cm while the oppo ite transverse edge with a plaited border is only 170 cm wide - a difference of 22 cm in width which I now consider to be the result of drawing in, a gradual reduction caused by too tight a weft or because the loom had no means to prevent the textile from contracting during the weaving process. As the plaited border is along the shortest transverse edge this must be the last woven passage, in other words the plaited border cannot be a starting border. In bog textiles and Iron Age textiles from graves we find warps laid with either one or two threads in connection with starting borders that are sometimes repp-woven, sometimes 164 MARGRETHE HALO: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

Fig. 167 a-b. Details of the lower border of the Trindhy)j blanket. Detaljer af den nederste bort p~ ta:ppet fra Trindh~j.

c Fig. 168. Repp selvedge on a scrap of =r~r1cloth from Lousgaard I \ \ I I \ , I I / \ I \ (C 5706). I I -'-+- -l.-....l- -+--r- ~\H()H/ -'-I , I , A7 I , I I Kantbort i , I I I , I , , , I UUUUUUUUU , , I I I : reps pA t~jrest T ,.,... "T""i -r-r ~ -\-\------I -- MH I I I I I I I I fra Lousgaard I I , I Fig. 169. Warping with I I I I T ~ ~ -+--+- (C 5706). ..-.- / I two threads and a ..,.. I _' I -'- ~ ..l I •..•.. I~ I.J.. ' ...L. I I I -to I ..•.. I , --L I - tablet-woven starting I T -(-(-(- I ..•. I ..•.. , ..•.. I -+- ..J.. I I I border. Corselitze.(C 7325 a) . / ..,..' ...,... , -+ I i , I I I I I , I I I I I I I I , )-/-1-) Ka:delregning med to tr~de og I I I I -I 1- I I I I I I I /'1H I I I I I , I opsa:tningskant i I , I I I , I I I , I : , , I , I brikva:vning. Corselitze (C 7325 a).

t I I I I I I I I ~~~~ i' -, ~, - I " " I I Bq. :""'1 ,-;- ',-- 1'1 : :: :; :: :' ~~-±i~tl~~tl~~tl~7~I " I' f' I I I I, I r ': I I , I. I t I. I I II1III1111 I , I I I' I. I .' " . .' .~- : " .. ' ',_I' I U V V V U V UM-f Fig. 167c. Starting border in repp and Fig. 170. Starting border in tablet Fig. 171. Part of the same warping with two threads. Bronze Age weave and warping with two border as Fig. 170 but blanket from Trindhy)j. threads. Corselitze (7325 b). warping with one thread. Opsa:tningskant i reps og ka:dela:gning med Opsa:tningskant i brikva:vning og ka:de- Parti af samme kant som fig. 170, to tr~de. Bronzealderta:ppe fra Trindh~j. Ia:gning med to trAde. Corselitze (7325 b). men trendet med enkelt trAct. CHAPTER IV. WOVEN FABRICS AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION 165 tablet-woven with four thread tablets. For example, we have a parallel to the diagram of the Bronze Age fabric (Fig. 166) in the Iron Age scrap from Lousgaard which also has a repp border and a warp laid with a single thread (Fig. 168). Examples of warps laid with tlVO threads are the blanket from Trindhl3j (Fig. 167) and two textile from the Corselitze find, the latter with tablet-woven starting borders. One of the Corselitze pieces (No. C 7325a), though, is without a finishing border, but its warp must have been laid according to the diagram in Fig. 169. This corresponds to the warping in textile No. C 7325b (Fig. 170) in which the loops of the finishing border seem in some places to be the same thread side by side. The warping here is not consistent, though, in one area only a single thread has been used (Fig. 171). The reason why specially woven upper starting borders could well be an indication that the textiles in question were woven on a vertical loom is because these borders are remarkably effective for carrying the woven fabric below. A closer analysis of the borders reveals that the threads of the warp hang from loops in the warp of the starting border; therefore the warp threads are secured well and cannot be pulled down from the border as the warp tautens, e.g. from the pull of the warp weights.

Fig. 172. Lock of the tubular-woven cloth from Huldremose (0 3505). The fabric has been photographed in the weaving direction and the "cylinder" is therefore horizontal. 2/ I. Lukning af kreden i rundvrevet l\

,.. •...• ~ _ .... ,... -;"'\ (1 c- ~- "'" " " '"' C....-

I ~- \ \ k- A ~ - ' J-\ W'I -~I """ ~, - - ~I n Itt "n' ft - I :x: y

B .•.. •...• ~ U ...• •.. l:; "" '-' "" - Fig. 173. Warping arrangement of the tubular-woven Huldremose cloth (Fig. 172). Kredestilling i rundvrevet t~j fra Huldremose, fig. 172.

A ----'----r I 1 I I I I I I I I I I I I c ----I

Fig. 174. Warping arrangement in Fig. 173 but with each alternate pair of threads untwisted. Kredestilling pA rundvrevet t~j, fig. 173. Vridningen pA hvertandet trAdpar trenkes ophrevet. CHAPTER IV. WOVEN FABRICS AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION 167

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I \ I \, v'J tf\~ Fig. 175.Laying a tubular warp without twisting each alternate Fig. 176. Diagram of the warping pair of threads, suitable for tabby weave. arrangement for the tubular-woven Opsretning til rundvrevning uden vridning pAhvertandet trAdpar. Egner Huldremose cloth when spread out sig umiddelbart for vrevning af toskaft. tlat (D 3505). . Kredestilling til det rundvrevede tliljfra Huldremose, udbredt. (D3505).

FABRICS WITHOUT STARTING BORDERS Of the bog textiles to reach the National Museum in the 19th century two are exceptional because details of their construction are not otherwise found in Danish textiles, neither prehistoric nor modern. These are the so-called tubuLar fabrics, one of which is part of the Huldr-e- mose find (Fig. 173) (No. D 3505). Unfortunately no record exists of where and how the second textile was found, and J will therefore concentrate on the tubular fabric from Huldre- mose. The special characteristic of this textile is that it is tubular and without joining seams, perhaps better described as cylindrical, or like a sack open at both ends. In a stripe down the length of the cylinder a slight change of texture is visible (see photograph Fig. 172). An examination of this line has established that it is caused by warp threads turning round a through-going thread which acts as a kind of lock by keeping the warps together (Fig. 173). If this thread is pulled out the lock is opened and the cloth can be spread out flat with selvedges along all four sides. This textile. then, can be used in two ways: primarily in its tubular form and secondarily as a flat square piece. Danish archaeological material has yielded no parts of a loom which could have produced textiles like this, in other words a loom I will call a "tubular loom". We can deduce from the 168 MARGRETHE HALD: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

~~~~ II II II II II II II" II II ,I '11 II 1 II II II 11 II = II II !! II " II I!! II II II II II JI II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II _II II II II II II II II " II II II II II II -II II II II II II

II II II " II II II II

Fig. 177. Warping of the Arden scarf(Fig. 14)(C). Fig. 178. Warp and course of weft threads Two of the fringes are shown untwisted. Note in the checkered Arden scarf (Fig. 14) (C). that along one transverse edge the loops are The fringes are shown untwisted but the formed by neighbouring threads, while along the through-going thread is in place. other they are threads I and 3, 2 and 4, etc. Kredestilling og skudforl\3b i det ternede Kredestilling i torklrede fra Arden, fig. 14 (C). To WrkJrede, fig. 14, fra Arden (C). Hele frynser frynser trenkes rettet ud. Bemrerk, at det pA den ene trenkes rettet ud, dog er den genneml\3bende grrense er nabotrAdene, der danner l\3kker sammen, trActvist pA sin plads. men trAd 1 og 3, 2 og 4 pAden anden tvrerkant. textile, though, that the loom had two beams round which the yarn of the warp was wound in rings. Between the beams and parallel with them lay a thread (or stick) round which the warp threads were looped during the warping, and this produced the lock. The first characteristic noticeable in Fig. 173 are the crossing warps above the locking thread, undoubtedly to make sheds in the weave from the beginning and to keep the threads in order. The two first wefts above and below A. follow the shed of the locking thread, all the =li)f, A f'=A-A A=f\=A=(t I I n J: I :> 'I "0 ~I:',HI: :'!\'i"F 'I: !! '! :'I'f:.: ...., ...--_1 ....• I I I I I ~ I • " I I '. I I I I tTl l ;:co ;= I -'-1 I~J IL I I: \Ti:~ I -< ~I I I I I I I I I ~ l, xN I 0 < I I I I~' I I I \~ I ztrl 1 I I I 1 s: ~ 'Tl I :> =r= o:l 1 B ;:<:I '-'cs:s:::5~~, I I ~ ~ I ~ ~$ ~ H I I I I () :=n r.n 11 ,f) :> (;rz~=I1===:~=~ ill~I~I: :~ '~I~'I'"':c I I z ~I:"I t:I ...., I J: I II" II I I I :1' I i .~ ~ I tTl Til; I: ; I ;:co I I I II I I I I'll I I I I II I n I z0 I I I I I I : I I I r.n Ii: ~I Il I p:=rr ...., I ;:<:I .=$ c: I n ~~ ~-b' b":-~~61III U~~~6' , ...., -- - •••••• -- •• 'v--::: ~ 0 z Fig. 179. Checkered scalf from Arden Mose (Fig. 14) (C). Three stages: I. warping round 2 bars and a cord, Il.twisting each alternate pair of threads and the position of the first weft thread, III .Twill draft and the fringe when the cloth has been removed from the loom.

Ternet t\ilrklrede fra Arden Mose (C), fig. 14. Tre stadier. I: kredeoplregning om to strenger og en snor. II: vridning pA hvertandet trAdpar og f\ilrste skudtrAds stilling. III: analyse af kiperen og arrangementet af frynsen ved stoffets fjernelse fra vreven. 170 MARGRETHE HALD: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

Fig. 180. Plaited border on fragment of cloth from Krogens M~lIe Mose (0 1310) (cf. Figs. 2 and 3). Loops c. 3\12 cm in length. Flettekant p~ tl'ljstykke fra Krogens Ml'llle Mose, fig. 2 og 3. (D 1310). Ll'lkkeme ea. 3'12 em lange.

II II II II II ,I Ii II Ii II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II ,I ,I ,I II I "I, II 'I II II II 'I II I II " II II Ii :1 II" II II " 'I I II II II II " Ii II- II !I "II I Ii :1 II II "II I II _II II II -- II II I P

Fig. 181. Reconstruction of warping for the Kro- gens M~lIe Mose cloth (D 1310 N-R) (see Figs. 2 and 3). Rekonstrueret kredestilling for stof fra Krogens Ml'llle Mose (D 1310 N-R). Se fig. 2 og 3. CHAPTER IV. WOVEN FABRICS AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION 171

I I I I I I I 1-==1 _, I

Fig. 182. Warp of a piece of cloth from Arden comprising two lengths (see Figs. 12 and 13). Kredestilling i stofstykke fra Arden, sammensat af to baner. Se fig. 12 og 13.

Fig. 183. Loops on the transverse edges of the Durup blanket (Fig. 5 b). Omdrejningerne pi\.tvrergrrenserne pi\.treppe fra Durup, fig. 5b.

Fig. 184. Warp loops in plaited border of a fragment (7325 x), part of the Corselitze find but of uncertain provenance. Omdrejningerne pi\.kredetri\.dene i f1ettekant pi\.stofrest; uvisl om den er fra Corselitze (7325 x). . other wefts follow the natural passage for 2/2 twill, the weave of this textile. However, we cannot say whether the warping arrangement in Fig. 173 is a primary stage of development because by twisting each pair of threads a half turn backwards as shown by the arrows in Fig. 174, the turns along the opposite edge untwine- giving a construction suitable for tabby weave (Fig. 175). A central question, then, is whether there are examples, in the fairly plentiful Danish material, of tubular textiles woven on the principle adopted for the Huldremose fabric and then 172 MARGRETHE HALD: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURJALS cS ~~

~~ - 1 •.• 1' III '•..•1

Fig. 185. Plaited border on cloth from Krogens MlIJlle Fig. 187. Plaited border on piece of cloth from Frreer (Fig. Mose (Fig. I). Threads I and 3 make the loop. 6). Neighbouring threads are the loop. Flettekant pflt~j fra Krogens M~lle Mose, fig. I. Trfld log 3 Flettekant pfl t~jstykke fra Frreer, fig. 6. Nabotrfldene danner danner I~kker sammen. l~kker sammen.

Fig. 186. Plaited border on the checkered skirt from Huldremose (Figs. 29-30). Neighbouring threads are the loop. Flettekant pfl ternet sk~rt fra Huldremose, fig. 29 og 30. Nabotrfldene danner I~kker sammen.

Fig. 188. Tubularloom with three beams set up for the weaving of a corn-sack, Hama, Syria. (M. Hald phot.) Rundvrev med tre bomme opsat til vrevning af en kornsrek. Hama, Syrien. (Fot. M. Hald). CHAPTER IV. WOVEN FABRICS AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION 173 spread out flat. But we must first imagine that we have flattened the large, tubular Huldremose fabric by removing the locking thread from the warp loops (Fig. 176). We immediately recognise the crossings of the warp loops in pairs along the lower edge of what has been the lock - a striking characteristic of this method, which we will call theftrst category. The turns of the warp along the other edge (the upper edge in the diagram) are also characteristic in that they face each other in pairs. This we call the second category. The best examples of open, tubular woven fabrics with crossing loops are the two scarves from respectively Huldremose (Fig. 31, C. 3474) and Arden Mose (Fig. 14, 428/42). The principle on which they have been woven is virtually identical, thus the diagrams of the Arden scarf applies to both ofthem. Fig. 177 shows the warping arrangement, and Fig. 179 an attempt to demonstrate the analysis and the three phases into which it can be divided. A number of other fabrics or fragments of fabrics can be identified as tubular weaves because of the transverse edges. The first category (with crossing warp loops intact) is repre- sented by the fragment with a plaited border from Krogens M¢lle Mose (Figs. 180 and I), a long piece made up of two lengths from Arden (Figs. 12 and 13), a blanket from Durup with fringes along all four edges (Fig. 5b), and a small fragment from Corselitze (Fig. 58). Fabrics with the second category of loops, facing each other in pairs, are the checkered skirt from Huldremose (Figs. 29-30) and a fragment from Fneer Mose (Figs. 6, 187), as well as a blanket from Auning Mose (in the Randers Museum) with one transverse edge preserved (Fig. 36).

A TUBULAR WARP WITH ONE THREAD When I was given the opportunity in the 1940s to carry out research into the method by which the large Huldremose textile had been woven, my point of departure was that the loops of the warp must have been gathered on a thread, as this was to be seen in the textile - evidently a garment. I imagined that this connecting thread, A. in Fig. 173, was tied to the two uprights of a two-beam loom, and that the warp was laid by passing one ball of yarn vertically round both the upper and lower beams, and each time looping the yarn round the locking thread. The

Fig.189.Diagram of warping for the tubular loom, Fig.I88. Band C are the lower and upper beams, E the rigid heddle, A an iron rod on which the warp loops are gathered, and D the movable back beam. Diagram fork

( - - , -, I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I t I I I I IA --- I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I J I I fB ------.Jrf){

Fig. 190. Warping for tubular weave from Huldremose. Kredelregning for rundvrevning af Huldremose-tlo'jet. CHAPTER IV. WOVEN FABRICS AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION 175

What does this method tell us? I. That two persons worked together. 2. That the ball of yarn was permanently on the floor beside the weaver. 3. That the yarn is pulled from it in loops which are then threaded onto the connecting rod A. 4. That the rod which gathers the loops is attached at one end to an upright but free at the opposite end. I have tried to lay a warp corresponding to the dimensions of the Huldremose gown with one thread on the basis of these tips. Fig. 190gives the result, i.~. using a stick with one end free to receive the loops. The fact that I worked from right to left is not offundamental importance. In any event, the method is practical and quick, but only possible with the help of a rigid rod with onefree end. A cord or thread cannot be used here in the same way, neither can it withstand the weight of the warp. I return to the problem in the following.

WARPING EXPERIMENTS WITH TWO THREADS FOR A TUBULAR TEXTILE A fragment (Fig. 52) (Find no. 44) deserves to be studied closely when considering a tubular warp with two threads, although at first glance the scrap bears little resemblance to the other textiles discussed in the above. It is a narrow strip of cloth c. 39 cm long and 7-9 cm wide, evidently torn from the transverse edge of a larger piece offabric. It is of special value because a row of wa~p loops are intact along one longitudinal edge. The loops are empty and measure l-I~ cm, possibly large enough to have been threaded onto a rod. But they reveal a very important detail, in that from them we can see that the warp has been laid with two separate balls of yarn. I imagine that a warping arrangement of this kind has been laid on a tubular loom, i.e. a loom comprising two beams, and with a rod in the middle on which the warp loops are gathered, i.e. crossing warp loops from above, and the warp loops turning alternately in pairs from below. The result of my experiment is shown in Fig. 192. It is best carried out by two people - a weaver and an assistant. The warp is put up from the left upright of the loom, to which the rod for the loops, rod A, is attached at one end, the other end of the rod is free. The two balls of yarn are on the floor behind the loom and are looked after by the assistant who has two jobs: one is to pull the yarn from the balls in loops and to hand these alternately to the weaver, over and under the beams respectively; the second job is to switch the balls of yarn to prevent tangling. The weaver receives the warp loops and arranges them in the correct order as shown in the diagram. The experiment may also be carried out in two phases. When laying a warp with yarn from two balls it is done as shown in Fig. 193. We will call this the basic position, but the blue symbols by the upper and lower beams show how the characteristic twisting of the loops is made. On the lower beam B the twists of the loop marked D-E are changed so that E is pulled over D. On the upper beam C the twist below F is pulled to the right over the blue neighbouring loops, as far as the short dotted line and arrow indicate. Then the twist below G is pulled to the left as far as the unbroken line with arrow indicates. In this way a crossing of the red threads occurs in the middle of the black loop. The threads stip into position with all the back threads parallel and the manoeuvre is completed. Cf. the tubular weaving of the Rcebild textile (Fig. 222 a-c). 176 MARGRETHE HALO: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

FABRIC WITH A ONE-THREAD WARP AND WITHOUT A STARTING BORDER

The poncho (Fig. 389)11) of the R¢nbjerg Mose find is unique among the Danish material. It has four selvedges and a warp laid with one thread, Fig. 194 illustrates the loops of the warp along one transverse edge, the other transverse edge is identical. The warp thread is simply laid backwards and forwards over a skein of threads at each end. Its peculiarity is that there are two areas in the middle of the cloth at each outer edge where extra warps have been added (Figs. 46-47). In the chapter on costume, Fig. 389 shows where the arrangement is found in the textile, with the result that the garment has extra width across the shoulders; a detail known from parts of Siberia and from Peru (P. 327). In the present chapter, though, we are more con- cerned with the special technique for adding the extra warp. It is extremely difficult to add new threads with the correct tension and length while weaving, and it is even more difficult to pass through the last weft thread in this area because it has to pass the normal warp and the narrow turns of the added threads. It seems unlikely that this textile is the product of a loom with a true heddle because extra leashes would have to be added for the extra warps. Moreover, the arrangement gives no indication of whether the loom was horizontal or vertical, both would be equally odd in this context. My impression is that the weaving has been done from both ends as on the Persian loom (Fig. 221 b).

COMPARA TIVE FOREIGN MATERIAL We have now seen which of the prehistoric Danish textiles give us some information about their construction, and I will in the following try to find parallels with foreign material. The use of a starting border as the basis for a larger piece of weaving is found in textiles from different periods and in various parts of the world: the Swiss Stone Age textiles for example, and in the blankets still woven by the Lapps. During the past few decades scholars have identified starting borders among textiles from archaeological material in Scandinavia, North Germany, the Baltic countries and FinlandI2). Two types occur, one with a draft corresponding to four-thread tablet weaving with cording, and the other with a repp draft (cf. Fig. 166). Vivi Sylwan 13) has found related starting borders in the textiles brought home by the Sven Hedin expedition to Lou-Ian, thereby establishing that textiles have been woven in Asia during the first centuries A.D. on the same principle as some Danish prehistoric textiles. Furthermore, some Egyptian linens from the Roman Period have loops at the upper edgeI4). Vivi Sylwan has also found plaited borders along transverse edges in the Lou-Ian textiles, i.e. a cape, the upper transverse edge of which is given in the diagrams (Figs. 196-197)15), compare this with the diagrams of the edges in some of the Danish textiles (e.g. Fig. 180)16). Some minor differences are to be found, though, for example in the Lou-Ian textile a loop is pulled over three neighbouring loops in such a way that it is given a twist between each, whereas in the Danish textiles with this type of border the loop to be fastened passes all those it is grouped with, except the last loop which it is pulled through. Vivi Sylwan has identified this type of border as a starting border, although she mentions an example which appears to have had warp loops across both transverse edges, i.e. a loincloth numbered 5: 147. The Lou-Ian textiles, therefore, have characteristics similar to the prehistoric Danish textiles, both in regard to starting borders, plaited borders, as well as warp loops along the transverse edges - or in any event one transverse edge. However, a warping arrangement corresponding to our tubular-woven fabrics is not in evidence, although a fragment of a cape CHAPTER IV. WOVEN FABRICS AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION 177

Fig. 191. Loops coming out at transverse edge of strip of ! I I.!..!.IIJ..!.I I.!..!..I I !....!. I II cloth from Thorsbjerg, Fig. 52. -1- 1-1-1- Udtrredende h;lkker pAtvrergrrense pAtliljstrimmel fra Thorsbjerg, ----- fig. 52. - - ) )

7 B ., to {{ 1S

1 I \ I I I IA I I I \ I \ \ \ \ ~- I B --- Fig. 192. Warping of a piece of cloth from Thorsbjerg (Fig. 52) as for tubular weaving. J1}{ Trending for tliljstrykke fra Thorsbjerg (fig. 52) som rundvrevning. G G F ( F ( I r - - -..- - --) I ..•.r------) - - ~ - -1 r - If , ~ I r \ I 1 \ I \ I \ I \ I I I I \ I \ I I \ \ \ I I I \ I I \ I I .. 1-. J J_ I \ , . l' \ .~T J I \ - \ --, I \ -, I \ I " I \ I \ \ I I \ I \ I I I I /lZJ( \ J I \ I B 0 a. J J ~ - -<------< - D E D E Fig. 193. Same as Fig. 192 but with alternate pairs of threads twisted. Samme som fig. 192, men med hvertandet trAdpar krydset. 178 MARGRETHE HALO: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

! I r I...L. I f I fC'1 FIr,' I IT? -I-I-I-I-I-I-I-I-~ -I-I-I-I-I-I-I-I-IjI-I-I-I-I-I-I-I-l-~ -I-I-I-I-I-I-I-I-I~I..J..1- 1-1-1- 1-1- 1-- p) -1-1-1-1-1-1-1-1-11-1-1-1-1-1-1-1-1- -I-I-I-I-I-I-I-I-I~-(I~G0~tf=:\G -, J i-F 1717 17-17Ii!+- !+l~ITi

- i- 1--- 1--- 1-1- 1-1-1-1- I-I- I I \.i-I \;;--,IT:-f\..~-I-,l:;-1 - -1-1-1-1-1- --" -I-I-I-I-I-I-I-I-j}I-I-I-I-I-I-I-I-I~ -I-I-I-I-I-I-I-I-~1-1-1-1-1-1-1-1-1 -I-I-I-I-I-I-I-I-~I-I-I-I-I-I-I-I-I~ L1~.~~~l::=-S-=l-=~ Fig. 194. Warping and extra warp threads in the poncho from Rl'lnbjerg (Fig. 389) (D 2625 g). Kredestilling og indfliljet ekstra krede i poncho fra Rlilnbjerg, fig. 389.

which Vivi Sylwan calls 36: 3 is of interest because the threads in the fragment which continue as fringes are not, according to Sylwan (P. 75), neighbouring threadsI7). Archaeological material has yielded examples of a curious combination of a repp border and crossing warp threads, i.e. in the Swissl8) and Egyptian 19) textiles, the diagrams of two Neo- lithic textiles from Switzerland are reproduced in Figs. 199-200. Both have a repp starting border and tabby as the basic weave that fully correspond with a Danish Bronze Age textile (Fig. 166). The warp must have been laid with thread from one ball of yarn and in the~me way, but here the resemblance ends. If we turn to the question of crossing warp threads between the border and the basic weave in Fig. 20 Ib, we see what the starting position must have been, and Fig. 20la shows the shift in the warping to produce the construction shown in Fig. 199, while Fig. 20lc corresponds to Fig. 200. The innovation here is that every other pair of threads is crossed: a phenomenon which is only found among the Danish prehistoric textiles without starting borders. What, then, was the purpose of the arrangement? Although a fully satisfactory explanation cannot be made, there is at any rate the advantage that the warp threads lying in pairs in the border can be arranged so that they make a shed, one thread up and one thread down, viz. suitable for tabby weave. These warping arrangements may also have depended upon a certain type of loom. CHAPTER IV, WOVEN FABRICS AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION 179

Fig. 195. Warp loops in the Lou-Ian cape (5A:2; a. Vivi Sylwan). Kredel~kker p1iWjstykke fra Lou-Ian (kappe 5a:2, efter Vivi Sylwan).

Fig. 197. The fringe ends of the Lou-Ian cape (36:3; a. Vivi Sylwan). Sammenhrengen i frynsespidseme p1i kappe fra Lou-Ian (36:3, efter Vivi Sylwan).

Fig. 198. Warping for the South American "tipoy" (after E. Nordenskiold, Fig. 55,2). Kredelregning til sydamerikansk »rundvrevning«, kaldet tipoy (efter E. Nordenski6ld, fig. 55,2).

Fig. 196. Fringe on the Lou-Ian cape (36:3;a. Vivi Sylwan). Frynse p1i kappe fra Lou-Ian (36:3, efter Vivi Sylwan).

Fig. 199. Diagram of Neolithic cloth from Fig. 200. Diagram of Neolithic cloth from Switzerland (after E. Vogt) (cf. Fig. 201 a and b). Switzerland (after E. Vogt) (cf. Fig. 201 c and b). Analyse til stenaldervrevning fra Schweiz (efter E. Vogt). Analyse til stenaldervrevning fra Schweiz (efter E. Vogt). Sml. fig. 201 a og b. Sml. fig. 201 cog b. 180 MARGRETHE HALO: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

I I I I I I I 1 1 1 I 1 I , I I I 1 , I I • I I ' I • 3' '1-: 5'I ,: 7' S, lo, 7, 51 I ~d , I (.. l' , I I I , I I I I I I , : I I I I I I I •

a b c Fig. 201. Reconstruction of the warping for the Swiss textiles (Fig. 199 and 200). Rekonstrueret kredestilling til de schweiziske vrevninger, fig. 199 og 200.

nnnnnr nnnnnr ,, '1,1 __ iT Ii"II'j'"j'" .i _11-11-1..w.. I'l' I I r 'I .!.. .!..!..Ti~iT.u..T -'IIIII 11 II 1I ..!..LTi'll.jT.L..L T -II 1111 .L!.., I 1 I I I I I ..w..'j""j'.!..l..rrllT 11---1 - 11-11-11- ~ll)i.IJ.~ TXI~I~ 1-1-1-1-1-1 1-1-1-1-1-1 -1-11-1-1-1---'_1-,'-1 -1-1-1-1-1-1-1-1-1-1-1 -;:1-'.L,1.Tl:iJ..T -1-1-1-1-1-1-1-1-1-1-1 -1-1-1-1-/- -1-1-1-1-1- '-1-1-1-1- JUUUUU UUUUU Fig. 202. Diagram of the weave of an Fig. 203. Diagram of the weave of an Egyptian textile (after E. Flemming). Egyptian textile (after E. Flemming). Analyse til en regyptisk vrevning (efter E. Analyse til en regyptisk vrevning (efter E. Flemming). Flemming).

The diagrams reproduced here after E. Flemming (Figs. 202-203) are similar in some respects to the warping described, in that they have crossed warp threads at the transition from repp to tabby. However, we are not told whether the borders are edges or in the middle of the textile. I have added additional arcs above and below in the diagrams in an attempt to follow the original warping arrangement in full. There is a theoretical possibility that the warp was laid with two threads, but there are so many unknown factors that I have not experi- mented on the basis of two threads. Perhaps a solution to this problem will be found among the rich Egyptian textile finds. CHAPTER IV. WOVEN FABRICS AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION 181

TABLE F Types of weaving occurring in fabrics from Danish bog finds.

No. I NO.4 NO.5 NO.7 NO.8 No. II No. 12 Krogens Borre Durup Frreer Rre- Arden Stok- MlJlle Mose Mose bild holm Jour. Skov- D 1310 No. huse Coarse Fine Ker- A D K N 177/41 7141 fabric fabric chief C 7649

Tabby ...... x

Repp ......

Four-shaft, '/, twill •• 0. x x x x x x x x x x x

Broken lozenge twill ...

Three-shaft twill ......

Checks ...... __•.... x x x x

Tablet-weaving ......

No. 14 No. 15 No. 16 No. 18 No. 19 No. 25 No. 26 No. 27 No. 28 No. 29 Daug- Daug- SjlJrup Krage- Grathe Aale- Karlby Huldremose Huldre- Auning bjerg bjerg lund Hede strup mose I. II. Leg- All C 9830 D 3956 D 4854 C 3473 C3474 D 3505 wrappers pieces

Tabby ......

Repp ......

Four-shaft, '/, twill ..... x x x x x x x x

Broken lozenge twill ... x

Three-shaft twill ...... x x

Checks ...... Stripes Traces of x x x checks

Tablet-weaving ...... 182 MARGRETHE HALD: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

TABLE F continued

No. 32 No. 33 No. 34-36 No. 38 No. 39 Haraldskrer Mose- Rl'lnbjerg Vejen Vong lund Mose D 2625 C 5238- 3706 c 3707 c' 39 a-e h i g a b c

Tabby ...... x

Repp ...... x

Four-shaft, '12 twill ..... x x x x

Broken lozenge twill ... x x

Three-shaft twill ...... x x x

Checks ...... x x

Tablet-weaving ...... x

No. 44 No. 47 Provenance Thorsbjerg Corstlitze unknown

24820 I 24821 24822 24823 24824 7325 Unnumbered. Provenance a b a-b c a b unknown

Tabby ....••••••.... o. X

Repp ......

Four-shaft, '/, twill ••• 0. x x x x X x x

Broken lozenge twill ...

Three-shaft twill ......

Checks ......

Tablet-weaving ...... x x x x x x CHAPTER IV. WOVEN FABRICS AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION 183

TABLE G Types of weaving in fabrics from Danish settlement and grave finds.

NO.51 No. 52 No. 53 No. 54 No. 55 No. 56 No. 58 Borre Tome- Brrende Nort- Brokrer Sneum- Hjllrring Prreste- Mose buske Lydinge vig gaard gaards Mark hllj I. Half 2. Half 1.-2. 2. Half 3. Cent. 3. Cent. I. Cent. 1. Cent. Cent. 2. Cent. 3. Cent. B. C. A. D. A. D. A. D. C 2181

A B C C 9410 C 3290 C 7439 a doe f i

Tabby ......

Repp ...... x x

Four-shaft, 2/2 twill ..... x x x x x x x x x x x

Broken lozenge twill ... x x

Mixed spinning in warp and weft ...... x x x

Three-shaft twill ......

Checks ...... x

Tablet-weaving ......

No. 59 No. 60 NO.61 No. 63 No. 64 No. 65 No. 66 Donbrek St. Kan- Kanni- Flade Him- Vrangstrup Bllge- nike- kegaard lingllje 4. Cent. bjerg 3. Cent. gaard 3.--4. 3.--4. 5A. C. 5793-5810 3. Cent. 3. Cent. Cent. Cent. C 23585a C 23595a and c Cent.

a g 5805 C 952 C 1144-45 18360 C 7672 1 a 111a 111c C 3121-2 4

Tabby ...... x

Twill ......

Four-shaft, 2/2 twill ..... x x x x x x x x

Broken lozenge twill ... x x

Mixed spinning in warp and weft ...... x x x x

Three-shaft twill ......

Checks ......

Tablet-weaving ...... x x x x 184 MARGRETHE HALO: ANCIENT DANISH TEXTILES FROM BOGS AND BURIALS

TABLE G continued

No. 67 No. 68 No. 69 No. 70 No. 72 No. 73 No. 74 No. 75 Saltuna Brekkegaard Lous- Lous- Vrads FI0jstrup S011ested gaard gaard I. Half I. Half 5.--8. Cent. 7.--8. Cent. 7.--8. 9. Cent. 9. Cent. 10. Cent. C 5992-93 Cent. C 9266 25594 C 5596- C77OD- a b c C 2583 C 2389 5602 C 5706-11 03 I 2 3 1 2

Tabby ...... x x x x x x x x x

Twill ......

Four-shaft, 212 twill ..... x x x

Broken lozenge twill ... x x

Mixed spinning in warp and weft ......

Three-shaft twill ......

Checks ......

Tablet-weaving ......

No. 76 No. 77 No. 79 Mammen Hvileh«lj Jelling Close of 10. Cent. Close of 10. Cent. C 135-144 C 4280 a-e woollen fabric - C 135 a C 135 b Cl35d CI35 e CI39 CI40 CI44 a under b under c Tabby ...... •••• o. X X X X X X x

Repp ......

Four-shaft. 2/2 twill .... x

Broken lozenge twill .. Samitum Samitum

Mixed spinning in warp and weft ......

Three-shaft twill ...... x

Checks ......

Tablet-weaving ...... CHAPTER IV. WOVEN FABRICS AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION 185

Notes

I) The third basic weave is satin weave, but it does not occur in our prehistoric textiles. 2) Poul Sterm has kindly told me that spinning patterns are widely adopted in modern textiles, for example georgette, poplin. 3) Da'nske Bronzealders Dragter, P. 307. 4) Danske Bronzealders Dragter, P. 222, Fig. 51; P. 242, Fig. 305 & P. 249, Fig. 372. 5) Walter E. Roth in his book" Additional Studies of Guiana Iildians", 1929, P. 87, Fig. 82, gives a diagram of a special set of heddles used by the Indians for making tubular selvedges. 6) C. H. Johl: Altagyptische Webestiihle, 1924, P. 15. 7) K. Moszynski: Kultura Ludowa Slowian, Fig. 307. Swedish translation P. 177. 8) U. T. Sirelius: Suomen Kansanomaista Kulttuuria II. P. III, PI. VI, Fig. 2. Swedish translation II, P. 43. 9) Emelie v. Walterstorff: "En Vavstol och en Varpa". Fataburen 1928. P. 143. 10) Skrydstrupfundet, P. 75, Fig. 66 a-b. Costumes of the Bronze Age in Denmark. P. 35 and Figs. 37 a-b. ") D 2625 g (see P. 64). 12)Cf. bibliography for Tablet Weaving Chapter VII. 13)Vivi Sylwan: Woollen Textiles of the Lou-Ian People, P. 64-75. In the same publication (Pp. 14-15) Folke Bergman writes that the Lou-Ian empire dates from the 2nd century B.C. to shortly after 330 A.D. 14)M. Hald: Ancient Textile Techniques in Egypt and Scandinavia. Acta Archaeologica XVII, 1946, Figs. 5 and 6. 15) The cape is numbered 5 A: 2, PI. XII 1-4. 16) Cf. Konrad Hahm: Ostpreussische Bauernteppich, 1937, P. 22. Figs. 16 and 17 a and b illustrate warp loops on a transverse edge. The loops are pulled through each other in a similar way to those of some Danish bog textiles. The custom, then, still seems to exist in East Europe. 17) Vivi Sylwan suggests (op. cit., Pp. 75-76) that in the fragment of cape 36:3 from Lou-Ian, warp loops below have been made into an attractive fringe by adding extra threads. 18) E. Vogt: Getlechte und Gewebe der Steinzeit, Pp. 51 and 53, Figs. 82 and 86. 19) Ernst Flemming: Textile Kiinste, 1923, P. 45, Figs. 14,4 and 6.