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Home , Bahubali, Batukeshwar Dutt, Bhadrajun, Bhamashah, Chaturmas, Chhand

1

Chapter - 1

M ajor Civilizations of the Wor l d

1.0 Aim 1.1 Preface 1.2 Origin of Man and Development . 1.2.1 Questions for Exercise 1.3. Sindhu Civilization 1.3.1 Saraswati River 1.3.2 Indus Architecture 1. Town Planning 2. Great Bath and Great Grannary 3. Great Reservoir and Stadium 4. Great Dockyard. 1.3.3 Other Arts of Indus. Saraswati Civilization 1.3.4 1.3.5 Science 1.3.6 Economic Life. 1.3.7 Social Life 1.3.8 Religious life 1.3.9 Political Life 1.3.10 Cremation of the Dead 1.3.11 Questions for Exercise 1.4. Vedic Civilization 1. 4 .1 and Literary Richness 1.4.2 Political System 1.4.3 Social Life 1.4.4 Economic Life 1.4.5 Religious Life 1.4.6 Knowledge and Science 1.4.7 Questions for Exercise. 1.5. Ancient Civilization of Egypt 1.5.1 Political System 1.5.2 Social Condition 1.5.3 Economic Condition 1.5.4 Religious Life 1.5.5 Art 1.5.6 Knowledge and Science 1.5.7 Questions for Exercise 1.6 Ancient Babylonian Civilization 1.6.1 Political System - (1) Administration (2) Law (3) Judicial System 1.6.2 Social condition 1.6.3 Religious Life 1.6.4 Economic Condition 1.6.5 Art 1.6.6 Knowledge and Science 1.6.7 Questions for Exercise 1.7. Chinese Civilization 1.7.1 Royal Dynasties of China 1.7.2 Administrative System 1.7.3 Social Life. 1.7.4 Art 1.7.5 Religious Life 1. 7 . 6 Economic Life 1.7. 7 Chinese Philosophy and Teachings 1.7.8 Script and Literature 1.7.9 K nowledge, Science and Technology 1.7.10 Questions for Exercise 2

1.8 . Civilization of Greece: - 1.8.1 Greek Society 1.8.2 Religious beliefs. 1.8.3 Literature 1.8.4 City State 1.8.5 Kingdom of Alexander 1.8.6 Greek Philosophy 1.8.7 Questions for Exercise 1.9 . Civilization of Rome 1.9.1 Ancient Rome 1.9.2 Political Condition of Rome 1.9.3 Roman Society 1.9.4 Language, Philosophy and Literature 1.9.5 Roman Art 1.9.6 Science 1.9.7 Decline 1.9.8 Questions for Exercise. 1.10. Answers, Multiple choice and Very Short Questions 1.11. Glossary

1.0 Aim: - After the study of this unit you will understand  What is meaning of civilization and difference between civilization and culture.  About origin and development of human being  The major characteristics of Sindhu - Saraswati and Vedic civilization.  The characteristics of civilization of ancient Egypt.  The characteristics of ancient China and Babylonian  About characteristics of ancient Roman and Greek Civilizations. 1.1 Introduction: - Civilization means practical knowledge of man of rules o f that discipline following which a human bein g spends a community life. Civilization is related to outer environment of man, whereas, culture is related to intellectual thinking, spirituality, cultural traditions , emotions of a man. Civilization i s body while culture is its soul. They are dead and us eless without each other. Civilizations began to rise in some parts of the world about 7 - 8000 years ago. Most of them developed in river valleys as conditions were favourable there for them. The important major civilizations of the world include S indhu S araswati, Vedic, Egyptian, Babylonian, Chinese, Roman and Greek Civilizations.

1.2 Origin and Development of Man Origin of man is quite interesting. Today , the Earth is more than 1 a rab, 97 crores, 58 lakhs 8500 0 years old. From the view of advent of life on earth, sea animals, reptiles, avian and the mammals came subsequently. The ancestor of human being who developed from mammals was a monkey without tail who remained naked and survived on root s, vegetables. Es timated on time scale, the development of man dates back 5 lakh to 5000 B.C. The initial era of human development is also known as snow age. The sequence of development of man is called Pre historic age, Stone Age and metal age. During Stone Age, hand made several tools, arms and instruments of stone, mixed agriculture came into existence. Clay utensils were made and art of weaving and spinning also Him Manav 3 developed. With inventions of wheel, clay utensils were made, and then carts were drawn with it. Animals were used for carts. Discovery of metals like c o p per, bronze and iron led man to civilization. Among the metals, copper was first discovered. Civilizations developed in major countries of the world. Due to spread of civilizations, commercial relations were established between various nations. Bharat developed cultural relations with countries of world along with commercial relations. Indian culture and religion was propagated abroad.

1.2.1 Questions for Exercise: 1. Which metal was discovered first in human civilization? (a) Iron (b) Bronze (c) Copper (d) Mixture of 8 metals 2. The development era of early man is known by which name? 3. Underline the development sequence of man point wise.

1.3 Sindhu Saraswati Civilizations The Sindhu - Saraswati civilization owns the honour of being one of the most ancient civilizations of the world. It was developed near the banks of Sindhu - Saraswati River, where fertile land, adequate water, facility and t ransportation were available. Madho Swarup Vats and Dayaram Sahni have dated this civilization to 3500 B.C. In 1856, work to lay down railway lines was in progress in Karachi. The workers spread bricks from a nearby mound to use them instead of stones req uired for the railway line. These bricks were remains of an archaeological site of related to a great civilization of the world. The Burton brothers informed about Harappa to the government in 1856. In 1861 an Archeological Survey Department was se t up under the guidance of Cunninghum. In 1904, John Marshall was appointed its director. In 1921, Dayaram Sahni excavated this site. In 1922, Rakhaldas Bannerji discovered Mohenjodaro. Since Harappa was discovered first, this civilization came to be known as Harapan civilization. The initial centres of this civilization were around the and therefore, initially it was named Indus Valley Civilization. But according to recent informations, the geographical and cultural expansion of this civilizati on is found mostl y in , , and Gujrat around the river valley of the lost Saraswati River. Thus, it is now known as Sindhu - Saraswati civilization. Alchin found out 70 Centres of this civilization. G r ogery found out 2500 centres while Virendranath Mishra has estimated 1500 centres. According to latest estimated information about its expansion, the excavated sites include 917 sites in Bharat, 481 in and 2 in . It expanded from west to east upto 1600 km and north to so uth upto 1400 km. Its centres are found in Agfhanistan (Shortgoi and Mundigark), Baluchistan (Su t kagendor, Suk t akoh, and Balakot), Sindh (Mohenjodaro, , Kotd i ji, and Judirjodaro) , Punjab, Pakistan (Harappa, Ganeriwal, , Saraikhola, Ja lilpur), Punjab (Ropar, Sanghol), Hariyana (, , ) Rajasthan (Kalibanga, Pilibanga), U.P. (, Hulas), Gujrat (Rangpur, , PrabhasPatan, Bay of Cambay) and Maharastra (Dai mabad).

1.3.1 Saraswati River: - Around 40 settlements were found in areas of Indus river and its tributaries. Almost 2/3 settlements were in now extinct, Saraswati river area. Around 250 settlements were outside the flow of Saraswati River. The flow of Saraswati and its tributaries was between the Indus and the 4

Ganges. It was the basis of life for people in Vedic literature addresses her as 'Naditam e Devitame, Ambetame'. During the last few years, scholars have tried to tract down its route through aerial and land survey. Proven from signs of flow of water as received through satellites, study of water taken out through drilling machine and prehistorical and scientific studies , the existence of Saraswati River is now accepted. It originated from Mana Mountains of Shivalik m ountain ranges of . It came down to plains from Adi Badri and flowed till Anuprgarh and Suratgarh via Thaneshwar, Kurukshetra, Sirsa, Jhansi, Saraswati River Drainage Route Agro h a, Hanum anGarh and Kalibanga. It assimilated into the ocean through various tributaries. One reached the ocean through Prabhas Pattan while the other into through Indus. Its lenght was 1600 K.M. and breath was 3 to 12 km Famous archeologist Dr. V.S. Vakankar led an expedition with his group to trace out the flow route of Saraswati and travelled about 40000 km. Due to geological changes and deprivation of water from main source, the river dried out.

1.3.2 Indus A rchitecture - 1.Town planning : - Planning of t owns were an important characteristic of this civilization. Every city had a mound on a raised platform and a city on a lower part. The king, priest and officials resided in the fort. The rampart was made of thick wall and had broad walls. Wid e roads cut each other at right angles in the cities below. They usually measured a breadth of 9 to 34 mts.

Sindhu S araswati Site Dholavira Town Planing, Mohenjodaro One road, perhaps the main road, was 34 mts broad. The lanes were broad from 1 to 2.2 .4 mts. The roads of Kalibanga were 1.8, 3.6, 54 & 7.2 mts broad. The big bricks were in ratio of 1:2: Normally the bricks measured 7x15X30 inches. Bricks for r ampart were of 10x20x40 inches. Adequate arrangements were made for flow of water. Even the Egypti ons were not acquainted with baked bricks. Bricks 5 with paintings have been discovered from floor of houses in Kalibanga. The houses of Mohenjodaro and Harappa were double storied. Usually, a house contained 3 - 4 rooms, bathroom, study room and a well. There was courtyard in the middle and drains were provided in every house for effective drainage of water 2. Water drainage System: - The drainage system was the most prominent feature of Sindhu Saraswati Civilization, which is not found elsewhere in any other civilization of the world. The water of houses was drained through drains which carried dirty water out of the city. Big drains

Water drainage System Great Bath were covered. The drains were straight and were upto 2 mts broad. Clay, gypsum and lime was used for binding Ma i nholes have also been found in drains of roads. There were chambers in between the drains which were regularly cleaned. 3. Great Bath: - It is an important bu ilding in Mohanjodaro which measures around 39X23X8 feet. The stair case is made of bricks. There are verandahs on three sides Bricks are used on floor and walls. Remains of a well are also found nearby which the source of water was. E itght small bathrooms are constructed towards north. 4 . Great Grannary: - Remains of great grannaries are found from Harappa and Mohanjodar o . The Grannary of Mohanjodaro measures 45.71x15.23 mts. The area of grannary of Harappa is 55x43 mts which was divided into two parts. Th ey are constructed on a high platform for safety from flood waters. Every part has storage rooms of 6, each in 2 rows. The parts are apart by 23 ft. The entrance of this gran n ary is towards river Ravi. This grannary was a government grannary. Similar gran n aries are found in cities of Mesopotamia. 5. Great Reservoir and S tadium: - Sixteen big and small reservoirs are found in excavation of Dholavira which inform us about the contemporary system of water conservation. A reservoir of 95x 11.42x 4 metre out of a rock in south of the fort is a good example. A part from this, evidences of a stadium are found from Dholavira. The size of stadium is 283x 45 mts. Stands for audience are found around the stadium. The ceremony spot is attached to wall of the fort and its breadth is 12 mts

Rock Cut Great Reservoir Dholavira ] Cultivation at Kalibanga 6

6. Large Dock Yard: - A baked brick structure is discovered from which is identified as Dock Yard by the archaeologist S.S. Rao. Its average size is 214x36 mts. Present depth is 3.3 mts. There is an entrance gate in north wall about 12 mts broad from where the ships arr ived. This door was attached to Bhogava River which facilitated income of water in the dock. Rao writes that the dock of Lothal was far more advanced and old than that of docks of Finishia and Rome. The dockyard of Lotha l is larger than that of present doc kyard of Vishkha pattanam.

1.3.3 Arts of Sindhu - Saraswati Civilization: - Stone statues, figure of Ox, bronze statue of a dancer, Swastik symbol on seals, beads, clay pots, bronze statues found from the remains of this civilization are an excellent exampl e of art. A steatite statue of is found here along with statues of a dancer (bronze and clay). The bronze idol is 11 cm tall. A large repos i t o ry of clay statues is symbol of the developed art. Statues of a hun mp ed Ox is another example. The inscriptio ns on seals are a proof of art loving people. The seals found here bear picture of an animal on the fore and a brief inscription on the back.

Figure of Ox statue of a dancer s wastik symbol statues , m ohanjodaro clay Pot

1.3.4 Indus Script : - A reliable study of Indus script has not been made yet. About 2500 inscriptions have been found on seals . T he longest and biggest incriptionhave been found at Dholavira is of 17 letters. The script here is ideographic. Seals making Art of S indhu Sarswati Civilization

Indus Script - Dholavira 7

1.3.5 Science: - There were symbols for numbers in mathematics. The people were awar e of addition and nultiplication. Some extracts found in excavation are said to be of some medicinal value. Remains of skulls are found from Kalibanga and Lothal. There are six holes in th e skull of a child from Kalibanga some of which have healed. It indicates surgery of skull. They were also introduced to metal science, casting of metal and tool making. The bronze statue of dancer from Mahenjodaro and c hariot from are an example. Clay utensils were made on potters wheel. Remains of furnaces measuring 2.1 mts are found which were used for baking. The utensils were then coloured ochre with designs in black colour.

1.3.6 Economic Life: - Evidences of an advanced agricultural system, animal husbandry, industries and trade (both internal and external) have been found. New evidences point out that they were acquainted with horse as well. Remains of horse are found at Surkotda and Ranaghundai. According to S.R. Rao, clay statues of horses are found from Rangpur and Lothal. Dr. V.S. Wakankar has claimed to discover bones of horse from many places near banks of Saraswati River during his kachcha Saraswati river research programme. (i) Advanced A griculture and A nimal H usbandry: - Large grannaries found from various places indicate that there was a surplus crop of grains due to which system of cosmopolitanism developed. The main produce was wheat, barley, cereals, peas, finger millet and Samba . Cotton, dates, sesame seeds and rice were also grown. Wooden plough was used for cultivation. A farm with criss cross pattern is found from pre Harappan period which indicates presence of two crops being grown simultaneously. The crops were harvested with bronze sickle, c ow, oxen, buffal oes, sheep, goat and pigs were major domesticated animals. (ii) Crafts and industries : - It was a bronze age civilization The bronze utensils are the most remarkable examples of art of Sindhu - Saraswati civilization. Artifacts of copper and bronze are found in excavations. The bronze tools included first hooks, swords, mirrors, knives, pointers of spear, utensils etc. Famous bronze statue of a female dancer and artifacts of oxen, dogs and birds prove that metal industry was advanced here. They knew the art o f making clay utensils. Bead making industry was also advanced. Factories are found from Lothal and Chanhudaro. These beads were made of gold, silver, copper, clay, steati t e, precious stones conch, etc. Around 2500 sea l s are found from this civilization wh ich we re mostly made of steatite. They contain pictures of animals (Unicorn, , elephant Ox, rhinoceros trees and plants, human figures etc. S pinning wheel has been discovered which reflect human activities and religion of that period. Cloth industry w as also very developed at that time. Evidences of cotton production and cloth are found. (iii) . Trade and commerce: - Both internal and external trade were in edvanced stage at this time. Copper ore, precious stones, semi precious stones and metallic things , ornaments were traded in, most probably, Bronze from Ganeshwar Rajasthan, gold from Mysore, silver from Iran and Afghanistan, precious stones for beads from Gujrat and were imported. There were commercial relations with Mesopotamia which is r evealed from an inscription found from Mesopotamia. The word Meluha is used for people of Indus which was a major commercial centre at that time. Around 24 seal is discovered from Lothal. Such seals are also found from Bah a rin Island, Bay of Persia and a s ub town of Mesopotamia. 8

There was a fixed system for exchange of things and measurement. The measuring weights were round made of chert, jesper and agate. The weights measured in an ascending order of 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64.

1.3.7 Social Life: - From the remains of the Sindhu Saraswati civilization, we gather information about different stratas of society which were the rulers, officials, commoners, workers and agriculturists. Ruler and important officials resided in fort whereas other sections lived in c ities below. The smallest unit of society was family. Importance of women and existence of matriarchal society is proved by clay idols of mother goddess. Evidence of cotton clothes are also found. The idea of family is thus traced even in proto historic period. Men and women were equally fo nd of ornaments. Ornaments made of beads are very popular. A picture of drum on a seal indicates their interest in instrumental music. Evidences of hunting and music are also found.

1.3.8 Religious Life: Not a single trace of temple is found here which makes it clear that Indus people worshipped in the open sky. 1. Worship of tree, water and animals: - Tree worship was in vogue in form of worship of the soul residing in the tree. One seal depicts a god between two p i pal tre e s with seven human figurines paying oblation to him. The Sindhu - Saraswati civilization has an important contribution in ancient religion. Tree worship, idol worship, sanctity of water, tradition were its main characteristics which are still prac ti s ed today. 2. Worship of Mother Goddess: - It was a major characteristic of this civilization. Many female idols are f ound from Harappa, Mohanjodaro and Chanhudaro etc. 3. Worship of : - Yogeshwar Shiva is depicted in Padmasana on a Pashupat i seal. The idea of Pashupatinath prevailed here. The idol of yogi from Mohanjodaro is an example. A s eal from Harappa depicts growth of a plant from uterus of an idol which is probably a form of mother earth. Another seal from this civilization depicts a male figure in padmasana surrounded by elephan t and tiger on one side and a buffalo and rhinoceros on the other. In yet another seal this figure has three faces and is worshipped by snake. 4. Tapa, Yoga and Yajana - Fire pits and fire are found from excavations of Kalibanga, Banawali, Rakhigarhi and Lothal. A statue of Yogeshwar in padmasana is also found. Apart from this, different statues in difference asan a s of yoga have also been discovered. A picture of a unicorn is often found on seals. H u mped bull, humpless bull, tiger and elephant are also depicted. Later on, animals began to be worshipped as gods. They became popular as vehicle to many gods and goddesses. A large reservoir from Mohanjodaro projects con cern for sanctity of water and tradition of meditation in this civilization.

1.3.9 Political Life: - Though there is no clear picture about political life of this civilization, it is clear that the Indus people were basically interested in commerce and tra de. There must have been four big centres of administration Harappa, Mohanjodaro, Kalibanga and Lothal. A s ys tematic town planning, cleanliness, water conservation proves the existence of totally efficient monorchial control. Proof of existence of a munici pality is also found. Absence of arms in a large number indicates peaceful nature of its residents. Handsaw, swords, pointers of spears, knives and arrow pointers are discovered. The foreign cultures too give us proofs of the Indian civilization. They had cultural as well as commercial relations. Crete, like Bharat, too practiced mother worship, Mohanjodaro depicts a bearded 9 sheep while Sumer and Babylonia depict bearded ox. Like Harappans, the Sumerians too tied their hair with string. Thus, we can say th at influence of our civilization and culture prevailed over other civilizations of the world.

1.3.10 Last rites of the Dead: - The people performed the last rites of their dead in three ways – 1. Total burial 2 Partial Burial and 3. Cremation.

1.3.11 Questions for Exercise : 1. From where have the remains of dockyard been found? (a) Kalibanga (b) Banawali (c) Lothal (d) Ropar 2. In which state is Dholavira situated? (a) Rajasthan (b) Gujrat (c) Hariyana (d) Punjab. 3. From where has been the famous statue of female dancer found? 4. Who excavated Mahenjodaro and when? 5. Which archeologist started the lost Saraswati River research movement? 6. What do you know about art and science of Sindhu Saraswati civilization? 7. Throw light on trade and c ommerce of Sindhu Saraswati Civilization. 8. Interpret the religious life of Indus people. 9. Mention important sites of Sindhu Saraswati civilization. 10. Comment on Town planning of Sindhu Saraswati civilization.

1.4 Vedic Civilization The Vedic civili zation developed in continuation with Sindhu Saraswati civilization. The river Saraswati is mentioned several times in . were inhabitants of Bharat and spread Indian culture abroad. The source of this civilization is Vedic literature which is v ery wide and contains all the aspects of life of the Aryans. Vedas are counted among the best literature of the world and they are the foundation stones of vedic civilization. The builders of this civilization were the Aryans. The word ‘Arya’ is not used in racial terms but qualitatively which literally means ‘Noble’ or ‘ the best’. Vedas provide us information of these noble people. The word’ Arya’ is used many times in Vedas. The ancient texts of Aryas, the Vedas, are filled with unbound knowledge. Their language was and script was Devnagri. Some western scholars have called the Aryans as foreign invaders and have shown their narrow mindedness Aryans were inhabitants of this land. Vedic literature has no where called them foreigners. The Aryans have praised land of Bharat and have called her rivers as mother Goddess. They spread to Iran and from Bharat, which is proved by spread of Indian culture in Middle East. New researches have revealed several similarities between Sindhu Saraswati Civ ilization and Vedic Civilization. A geographical area of both civilizations was river Indus and its seven tributaries. The ‘Nadi Sukta’ of Rig Veda mentions 21 rivers which included in the east and () river in west.

1.4.1 Language and Literat ure 1. Vedas: - Sanskrit language is the glory of Indian culture and there is no complete language like this in the world. The oldest scripture of the world, Vedas, are written in Sanskrit language. Sanskrit grammar is quite scientific. The basis of most of the is Sanskrit grammar. Lit erature written in Sanskrit 10 language is found in the greatest number in ancient period. The script developed from Brahimi script which is praised by Mac Donald in his work History of Sanskrit Literature. Bharat was prosperous in literature. There is no bra nch of knowledge which is not mentioned in Vedic literature. Vedas have been called Apaurusheya. The knowledge which were realized by our for a long period of time are compiled in the Vedas. Therefore, Vedas are also known as . Initially, th ey were not written down. They were remembered orally and were thus, also known as ‘Shruti’.They are four in number s. E very Veda is attached to a , an Aryanak and an Upanishad. The oldest of all is which has 10 chapters and 1028 suktas. The stanzas contain praise of the gods. Every, Sukta contains a mention of a god and a . Some ‘Suktas’ contain description of wars and thoughts. Compilations of , rituals and means of worship are in . It has 40 chapters and is divided in to two parts - Shukla a n d . Samveda has compilation of musical verses. Among its 1801 , only 75 are new. Rests are borrowed from Rigveda which are sung during praise of gods. The last Veda, , has 20 chapters, 731 suktas and 6000 mantras . The first seeker of Atharva Veda was the A th rva Rishi. After Vedas, various were written by the rishis among which Manusmriti and are important. We receive information about society religion and politics from them. Brahman Lite rature - (i) Brahman Text - Later on, literature which was composed on the basis of and rituals is called text. Texts are Koushitaki, Taitriy, Shathpath, Panchvish & Gopath. (ii) Vedang: - Vedang literature was written to understand well the content of the Vedas. It has six parts - , Kalp, Vyakaran, , Chhand and Jyotish. (iii) Aryanak and : - Description of philosophical subjects is found f rom Aryanak. Upanishads discuss c plex issues and moral principles. Isha, Ken, Kath, Prash n a, Mundak, Mandukya, Aitareya, Taitareya, Shewtashwear, Chhando g ya, Brihadaranyak, Mantrayani, Kaushi ta ki are some important Upanishads. (iv) : - They are imbedded with information of history Histor y is now given importance as described in the Puranas. We come to know a systematic history of various events. Their authors were L omharsha and his son U grashrava. Among the puranas Matsya, , , Brahmana, Bhagwat, , Markandeya are worth mentio ning. We find genealogies in Puranas. They are a work of 2 - 3 centuries. They dispel important information about history of Guptas and other important events. literature is equally important. The rishis have tried to regulate social and religious life of a man. Among them, Sutra is important which has three parts - Shraut, Grihya and sutra. Vedang, Smritis, and Mahakavyas (Ramayans and ) hold important place in Vedic literature.

1.4.2 Political System: - An organised political li fe had begun in Vedic period. The smallest political unit in this age was that of 'Kula' while the largest was 'Ras h tra. The descending order was that of 'Rastra' - Jan - Vish - Gram and Kula. One Rastra contained many 'Janas'. The head of kula was kulup. of gra m was gramini, of vish was vishapati, of Jana was Gopa. The country was known as 'Rastra'. w hose chief was the ruler. The post of the ruler was hereditary; Rigveda mentions that sometimes the king was elected. We see the concept of a welfare state in those times too. The king had to vow for welfare of people during the 11 coronation ceremony. People paid taxes to the king w hich was known as Balihrit. Panchjana is often referred to in Rigveda - there were five major janas - Anu, Yadu, Turvas, Purv and Duhya. Rigveda also mentions a big war known as 'Dashragya Yuddha'. This war was fought between king Sudas, ruler of Bharatjana, and rulers of 10 Janas on the banks of river Parushni (Ravi). Sudas attained victory. The confederation of 10 rulers included Alin, Paktha, Bhalanas, Visani and Shiva apart from the Panchjana. It is believed that since king Sudas made Rishi Vashis htha his purohit by removing Vishwamitra from this post, the later organised the ten kings for war against Sudas. The purohits and senani played an important part in administrative works of the ruler. Sabha and Samiti: - Both rigveda and Atharvaveda mention Sabha and Samiti which were an important constit u ent of political organisation at that time. They were institutions which imposed restrictions on arbitrariness of the ruler. According to scholars, samiti - appears to be representative assembly of common pe ople in which important political and social issues were discussed. The king participated in meetings of samiti. Sabha was a smaller gathering as comapred to samiti which was constituted of elderly or import ant people Rigveda mentions a 'S ujat Sabha' (nobl e or important people). Sabha was an assembly of experienced people which assisted the ruler by co unsel ling and judicious works.

1.4.3 Social Life: - 1. Family and position of Women : - The concept of family is an important feature of Indian social life. Thi s institution has created bonds between individuals, society and nation. With this spirit we give the slogan of 'Vasudhav Kutumbakam' The word 'Kutumb' is used instead of pariwar in Vedic samhitas. Families of 2 or 3 generations lived together in Kutumb, w hich is now known as joint family in modern times, Patriarchal families are reffered to in Vedic Age. But the social and religious rights of a son and a daughter did not differ. A daughter like a son, had rights of 'Upanayan Samskara', education and perfor mance of yajnas. Women enjoyed a respectable status in form of mother and wife. The spirit of ' Naryastu Poojayante, Ramante Tatra ' (Gods reside where women are worshipped) prevailed in the society. The seers of some verses of Rigveda were women. Names of Apala, Ghosha, Lopa mudra, Vishwara and Sikta Nivavari are found who conducted the Yajanas. Widow Remarriage prevailed in later Vedic period but marri a ge in one's own family (Sagotra) was prohibited. 2. System: - The Varna and the sys tem were the foundation stones of ancient Indian society. The ' of 10 th chapter of Rigveda mentions origin of the four Va r nas (, Kshtriya, , ) from Parampurusha. According to it, society was taken to be a man and Varnas as his organs. The basis of these Varnas was occupation. People were free to adopt any occupation. Members of one family could be Brahmin, Kshtriya or Vaishya. The Varna system was further developed in the post Vedic period. Shatpath Brahman says that a perso n is a Brahmin by his Knowledge and not by birth. Several references of inter - varna marriages are found. The main aim of this system was development of occupational expertise. Varna could be changed as Mahidas the author of Aitereya Brahman was son of Itar a (Shudra) wife of some unknown teacher and was thus known as Aitariya. Ved Vyas was another such example. 3. System: - Development of this system is taken to be from post vedic period. There were majorly three ashramas in the Upanishads - Brahmachary a. and Vanprastha. The Dharma Sutra literature and smritis give information about this system. Life of a human being was conceptualised in an ideal circumference and was divided into four . It was expected from him that he would attain 'mo ksha' the final aim of life, after crossing these four stages - the Brahmachrya ashrama. Grihastha ashrama, Vanprashtha ashrama and the Sanyas ashrama. A scientific division of life of a man is also a 12 contribution of Indian culture. The 'Purushartha' and 'A shrama' are interrelated. Man acquaints with dharma in brahmachrya, receives education and realises it. In grihastha ashrama, he strives for 'arth' and '' while following the 'dharma'. In Vanprastha, he devotes his entire, time to society and in Sanyas , he strives for '',. The aim of Varna system was to make a person productive for society according to his guna, and nature, whereas the ashrama system m a i nly aimed to assimilate the physical, social, spritual and moral aims in an equal way. A developed form of this system is found in the Age of S utras and Mahakavyas. Prof. G.C. Pande writes, “ Ashrama system was supplementary to Varna system. Ashrama binds humans with society and become a sequential step for his development. ”

1.4.4 Economic Li fe: - 1. Agriculture and Animal Husbandry: - The main occupation of the Aryans was agriculture and animal husbandry. Ploughs were large enough to attach 4 to 24 oxen to it. From the point of view of crafts, mention is made of carpenter, chariot maker goldsmith, potter, traders, and skinner. Shreshthi, Gana, Ganapati are mentiond. Bharat is an agricultural country. Agriculture and animal husbandry are the basis of our economy. Cow was considered Ahanya (not to be killed) and is called Gavo Vishvasya Mataram (Cow like mother tends the whole world) Rigveda talks about sowing, ploughing, reaping, products of grains etc. Kulyas (canals) are also mentioned. All these point out to an advanced stage of agriculture. 2. Trade and commerce: - The trade was in advanced stage. One instance tells the price of a statue of as 10 cows. Rigveda mentions a boat with 100 oars. Taitariya Upanished gives message of more pr oduction. A new agricultural technique developed in post Vedic period. Two six and twelve oxen were harnessed; cow dung was used as manure. By this time, commercial unions had started to form. Use of words like Shreshthi, Gana and Ganapati was in this cont ext. 3. Crafts and Industries: - People in Vedic period were capable to shape the metal 'Ayas'. Rigveda mentions making of various gold ornaments. 'Karnashobhan' and 'Nisk' (also used as unit of value) were made. The Vedic Aryans were well known to the art of weaving cloth. 'Vaya' dhatu was used for weaving, 'Vay u n' was the art of weaving, Vay u n was used for the weaver and the weaved cloth. Tantu is used for thread and '' for the loom. Excellent examples of wood art are also found.

1.4.5 Religious Li fe: - The w o rshipped the natural powers. They tried to understand the mysteries of nature. Vedic religion was a progressive religion. The Vedic Gods and goddesses were adjectives of natural powers. Polytheism: - They were large in number and were divid ed into three categories. Sky - Dhaus, , Surya, Savitri, Aditi, Usha, Mitra, Vishnu, Ashwin, Mitra. Earth - Prith \ vi, Agni, Som, Brihaspati, Saraswati etc. Cosmos - Varuna, Vata, Indra, , Parjanya, Marut The Gods were propitiated through pr a yers and yajnas. The unity of god was emphasized inspite of presence of multiple gods. Their power created the existence and is worshupped in different forms. Rigveda claims, ‘ Ekam sad ’, ‘ Vipra Bahudha vadanti ’ (truth is one but is expressed in many ways). Upanishads call HIM ‘Param ’. A t ma is a part of that param brahma. Atma and Brahma are same. According to philosophy of the Upanishads, entire existence is born from ‘Brahma’ and merges into HIM. This absorption of Atma into Brahma is called ‘Moksha ’. Upanishads give message to shun 13 our attachment for wordly things, make ow n intellect mind and it lect pure and live a virtuous and simple life.

1.4.6 Knowledge and Science: - Science is also widely described in the Vedas. The Sanskrit texts on math, ast rology and chemistry were later translated into Arabic, Latin and English languages. The west had limited knowledge about these branches, but it seems like in Bharat, generations were continuously engaged in research work in these branches. The Sindhu Sara swati civilization had symbols for numbers of mathematics. Bharat was well advanced in mathematics. Indians knew about zero and its use. Medicine - We all are acquainted with ’s relevance in present circumstances. It not only mentions the well being of humans but this entire universe. It elaborately describes medicine. Bhishak (Vaidya) is mentioned at several places. At one place he is depict ed in joining a fractured bone which indicates that medicine was quite developed. Charak, Sushrut and were famous scholars of this field. Charak deals with medicine in detail. Dhanvantari Charak According to Indian tradition, first of all Brahma gave the knowledge of Ayurveda to Daksha and Bhaskar. The later developed his own medicinal system. Daksha taught it to Ashwini Kumars who obtained medicines from mountains and showed many miracles in this field. The p rinciples of Tridhatu, Tridosha, Panch Bhautik deha, Saptadhatu principle of Sankhya philosophy are s t ill relevant and useful in field of medicine.

1.4.7 Questions for Exerci se: - 1. How many chapters (Mandals) are there in Rigveda? (a) 15 (b) 18 (c) 12 (d) 10 2. Among the following who was the god of earth ? (a) Varuna (b) Marut (c) So m a (d) Savita 3. Name two scholarly women of Vedic period 4. How many are there? Name them. 5. Describe political life of Vedic Aryans. 6. What were the major features of economic life of the Aryans? 7. Describe the condition of Vedic society.

1.5. Ancient Civilization of Egypt. The origin and development of ancient Egyptian c ivilization was on both the sides of the Nile river. The soil is productive due to Nile River and therefore, Egypt is called a G ift of Nile. Highly fertile sand is accumulated through floods and fulfils needs of the people through minerals, grass and veget ation.

1.5.1 Political condition: - The work of organizing almost 40 small states into one political unit was done by ruler Minnis in 3400 B.C. in ancient Egypt. On the basis of political events, the history of Egypt can be divided into three phases: - (a) Pyramid Age - 3400 B.C. to 2160 B.C. 14

(b) Fe u dal Age or middle Ages - 2160 B.C. to 1580 B.C. (c) Age of Imperialism 1580 B.C. to 650 B.C. In 6 th century B.C. Persia conquered Egypt Later on, Alexander conquered Egypt in 332 B.C. The rulers of Egypt were known as pharoes. Administrative System of Egypt: - Pharoes considered himself as representative of Sun god (Ray). Theoretically he was the sole a uthority of the administration. He was head of the state, commander of armies, chief religious leader and judge. There was a council for advice known as ‘Saru’. (i) Kingdom was divided into 40 provinces known as Noam, the official of the province was known as ‘Nomark’ who was appointed by the Pharoe. (ii) A separate official was appointed for administration of big cities by the Pharoe and was in turn responsible to him. (iii) There was no separate class for judiciary. Civil officials conducted the judicial systems. Someti mes, appeals were made to Pharoe. Penal code was severe. Severing of organs, exile, physical torture and death penalty were practi s ed.

1.5.2 Social Condition: - 1. Division of classes: - We find division of society in Egypt. The society was decided into three parts. (a) Noble class which included people related to ruling class feudals, priests etc. This class was affluent and loved luxury. (b) The second class included scribes, traders, intellectual workers and independent land holders. They had influence in administration but lacked power. (c) It was the most populous strata which included farmers, labourers and slaves. Their condition was pitiable. Slaves were treated like animals and w ere punished for defiance. 2. Living and food: - The living style and food differed a lot according to different classes. Mostly people lived in clay houses. They wore cloth like ‘lungi’ or wrapped leather round their waist. Rich people adorned themselves with expensive clothes and lived in airy palaces. Poor people lived in dirty suburbs and huts. Dancing, music wrest l ing, animal fighting and di c es were in fashion. 3. Family system and condition of women : - Family was the smallest unit of society. There was joint family system. Initially, there were matriarchal families. Indications of patriarchal family are found historically. Women were respected in society. The eldest daughter was heir to the proper t y of father. Some queens like Hat shepsut and Cleopatra ran the administration.

1.5.3 Economic Condition: - 1. Agriculture and animal husbandary - The main basis of economic life of Egyptians was agriculture. The people sowed wheat, barl e y, peas, onions, millet, cotton, grapes, olives and dates. Plough and oxen were use d. Many Egyptians also practiced life of herdsmen. They tamed cow, ox, horse, goat, sheep, mules donkeys, cocks, pigs and ducks. 2. Trade and Commerce: - People here were expert in manufacturing instruments of iron and copper. They imported metals apart fro m bronze. The Egyptians were expert in making glass, paper and cloth, also in gold silver ornaments with enameling on it. They prepared paper from bark of papyrus plant. Nile was the means of transportation and communication. They had commercial relations with Sudan, Mesopotamia, Arab, Bharat and Ethiopia. Egypt exported utensils, food grains, objects of glass, paper, furniture etc. and imported various metals, wood, colours, spices, sandal wood and objects of 15 ornamentation. There were written contracts in trade. Religion was very important in lives of the Egyptians. Polytheism, humanization of gods, idol worship, religious rituals, sacrifices, worship of natural powers, animal and tree worship, immortality of soul, rebirth, karma theory and last rites of th e dead were some prevalent features.

1.5.4 Religious Conditions: (i) Major gods and goddesses: - Sun was the main god. In north Egypt, he was known as Ray, in Thebes as Yeman and in South Egypt as Horus. After Sun, Osiris (the earth) as his representative and Isis as his wife were major goddesses. River Nile was also considered as a goddess. Moon was known as Sin. (ii) Belief in other world - They did not consider death as end of life. After death, body of human being has a special power. Egyptians believed in soul. According to them, good souls are reborn soon whereas the bad souls suffer t ortures. (iii)Pyramids of Egypt: - Egyptians believed that after death, souls go to other world for purification after which they wish to reenter the bodies of the dead. Therefore, the people preserved the bodies of the dead through special ointment and mixture of spices. They were known a s ‘Mummies’. They were preserved in large pyramids. Various articles and grains were also kept in them.

1.5.5 Art: - 1. Architecture: - The large triangular pyramids are the major examples of architecture of Egypt. The large pyramid of Giza is 480 ft. tall and 755 ft long. About 23 lakh stone blocks each weighing 2.5tons are used to build it. It was constructed by one lakh workers in 20 y ears. The large temples of Karnak and Laxore are also famous for their artistic beauty. Apart from these temples, mausoleum s of stones are also excellent examples of art of Egypt. The town of Ma m uphese and Theaves are examples of superior art. 2. Sculptur e: - The Egyptian sculptors constructed beautiful statues of gods, goddesses, Pharoes, animals by casting metals. The large s tatue of Sphinx in front of Kufu (Giza) pyramid is the largest statue of the world. Large pyramid of Giza & Statue of Sphin x Apart from these, large stone statues of Thutmoj III and Remesis II and statue of rising sun of Abu Simbel temple are fine examples of art. 3. Painting and Metalurgy - Examples of painting are found inside the walls of Pyramids, temples and buildings in form of pictures in multiple colours. Statues of gold, silver , copper, bronze etc. , w e a pons , cha riots, crown, throne, ornaments and utensils were made: 4. Script of Egypt: - The Egyption script is pictographic which is known as Hyrographic script. It has 24 symbols. Later on, the number of symbols increased to 500 . They used pen made of straw of leaves of pap y rus.

1.5.6 Knowledge and Science: - The Egyptians had progressed a lot in math,astrology and astronomy. They were acquainted with symbols 1 to 9, ke nw about addition and substraction, but not multiplication. Solar calendar was their important achievement. They also knew about 365 days of a year, 12 months 16 and 30 days of each month. Keeping mummies for preservation through embalming show their knowledg e about chemistry. The Egyptians had also invented sun dial. 1.5.7 Questions for Exercise: - 1. Ruler who founded political unity in Egypt was (a) Akhnatan (b) Minnes (c) Nomarc (d) Aman ho tai 2. Into how many parts was Egyptian Society divided? (a) Two (b) Four (c) Three (d) Five. 3. What was ruler known in Egypt? 4. Name major gods of Egypt. 5. What was the nature of Egyptian script? 6. Where is the statue of Sphinx situated? 7. Describe features of religious life of Egypt. 8. What was the position o f women in Egyptian society? 9. Comment on development of human. 10.What are characteristics of religious of Egypt?

1.6. Civilization of Ancient Babylonia It is also known as Mesopotamia, an area lying between rivers of Dajla and Farat. The civilizations of Babylonia, Sumeria and Asiria flourished here presently, this area is known as Iraq. 1.6.1 Political System: - The shape of Mesopotamia is like a crescent. Due to fertile land of this area, it is also known as the Fertile Crescent. Its southern part was called Sumer; northeast was called Babylon and Akkad while the highland of north was known as Asiria. The Sami dy nasty first established Babylon kingdom in place of Sumerian and Ukkarian kingdoms and made Babylon its capital. Hammurabi (2128 BC to 2081 BC) was a famous ruler here who implemented a common code of law throughout the country and founded a strong nation. In the beginning, the Sumerians here developed as prosperous civilization and founded cities. Kaldimai defeated the Asirians to establish a second powerful Babylon state. In 539 BC the Parsis defeated them.

Hammurabi’s Common C ode

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1.6.1 Administrative System: - 1. Hammurabi - He was a great ruler and empire builder of Babylonia who belonged to Amorite dynasty . He ruled 42 years from 2123 BCE to 2081 BCE. He was a law specialist and famous for implement ation of common code of law . He also made new laws to develop trade and commerce. There was rise in despotism of the ruler during the reign of Hammurabi, but the rulers were not cruel and tyrannical. The responsibility of administration rested with ministers of different departments. The state was divided into provinces. The administrative system of the provinces was with the fe u dal s . 2. Code of Laws: - An important achievement of Babylonian civilization was the Hammurabi code of Law. Hammurabi compiled the prevalent customs and formed a code after adequate amen dments and got it inscribed on a eight feet high boulder in 3600 lines. It was placed in Mandir - i - Sagil in Marduk. It was discovered by the French scholar N.D. Morgan. Its language was semetic and has 285 clauses. 3. Judicial System: - Reforms were made in judicial system also . Arrangements were made for making appeals against lower courts. The last appeal could be made before the king. Penal code was strict. Hard punishment was given for false evidence. There was also provision of wate r test or sacred oath.

1.6.2 Social Condition: - 1. Division of Class: - The Babylonian society was divided into three classes. The high class was known as Awilu m . It included officials, ministers l and holders and traders. The members of middle class were k nown as Mus k enu m . It included small traders, intellectuals, craftsmen and workers, f a rmers etc. The third class was of slaves who were known as Wardu. There was a custom of branding them and they wore a special dress. 2. Family system and condition of wo men: - Family was patriarchal. The father has a strict control over members of family. Both boys and girls had equal right over property of family. 3. Condition of Women: - Like Egypt, their condition was respectable. A contract letter was signed before the marriage. Decisions regarding divorce, remarriage were taken keeping in mind condition of women. Right of alimony existed in case of divorce. 4. Food and Dress: - Their staple diet was grains, fruits, meat and vegetables. Men wore a long dress below waist. Women wore ornaments. Music and dance were means of entertainment musical instruments like bagpipe, fente, trump harp, drum were used.

1.6.3 Religious Life : - Babylonians believed in Polytheism. The primordial Gods and goddesses among Babylonians were An u (Sky), Shamas (Sun), Syn (Moon), Bel or enki (Earth), Ninangal (Wife of Moon) etc. Ishwar and Marduk were their new prime deities. Their were diffrent Gods of rivers and farms (fields). Istar was their chief goddess. Tamuz was the God of vegitation.Templ es and idols also existed and oblations were performed. Priests belonged to a higher caste. People believed in superstitions, prophecy, black magic and spirits. They also believed in life aftewr death. Therefore things of daily use were buried along with t he corpse.Cremation by torching the fireof the dead was also common.

1.6.4 Economic Condition: - 1. Agriculture and A nimal H usbandry - Like other civilizations, the main source of earning of the Babylonians was agriculture. Here, the land was extremely fertile, Farming was done with oxen and 18 plough, construction of dams is also mentioned. Every ruler of Hammurabi dynasty constructed and repaired canals. Apart from grain production, the people gave importance to dates, olives and grapes. They formed stringent laws for land. Provision of punishment existed for those who caused harm to crops. There were also provisions for remittance of taxe s and encouragement to agriculture. Ruling class was also engaged in agriculture. Herdsmen were employed to take care of state animals in towns and villages. Cows, Ox, buffalo, sheep, goat, pig, donkey and mule were t amed. 2. Industries and Trade - Leather, wo o l and hair were derived from animals for trade and industries. Major occupations included spinning, weaving, pottery, sculpture, carpentry, ornament making, arms manufacture etc. The Babylonians mostly imported items of luxury, furniture, wood, bronze copper, gold, silver etc. Grains, arms, instruments of metal, jewellery and statues were exported. It had trade relations with Bharat and Ela m . Camels and donkeys were employed to carry the goods. Trade was conducted through barter. Commercial engagements were written down.

1.6.5 Art: - 1. Houses were made of unbaked bricks which are now destr oy ed. Baked bricks were used in palaes. D istinctive example of Babylonian art were buildings called Jiggurat which were multi storied and became small with each store y. 2. Examples of giant statues were also found. Some statues are a mixture of man and animal form. Music and dance art was also developed here. 3. Script and Literature: - They adopted the cuneiform script of the Sumerians. Articles, s ymbols, pictures were used and around 300 words were symbolic code. From the point of p review of literature, an epic ‘Gilegmesh’ was composed which was divided into 12 chapters. This division is symbolic of division of a year into 12 months. Religious literature was also comp osed in form of prayers of gods and goddesses.

1.6.6 Knowledge a nd S cience 1. Babylonians had knowledge of math and used only three numbers so that they were written from 1 to 9 only. To write 4, they repeated 1 four times. The second symbol was for 10 an d the third was for 60. 2. Normally, the fortune tellers possessed the knowledge of astrology. From the point of view of astronomy, people knew about duration of day and night, time of sun rise and sunset. For them a year consisted of 12 months, 6 months w ere of 30 days each while the other half of the year had 29 days in each month. Thus, there were 354 days in a year. In every fourth or fifth year, an extra month was added to coordinate position of sun and moon. 3. The Babylonians for the first time prepa red maps of provinces and cities. An inscription dated 1600 BC, has a map of ‘Shat Ajalla’ a province in one square inch.

1.6.7 Questions for Exercise: - 1. Which script was used by Babylonians (a) Pictographic (b) Symbolic (c) Cunieform. (d) Devnagri. 2. A Babylonian year consisted of how many days? (a) 365 days (b) 364 1/4 days (c) 360 Days (d) 354 days 3. What is Hammurabi famous for? 4. What is ‘Jiggurat’? 19

5. Which epic was written in Babylonia. 6. Explain the contribution of Hammburabi in administr ative system of Babylonia . 7. Explain major features of religio u s life of Babylonia. 8. What were the chief features of Society of Babylonia. 9. Underline the agriculture and commerce of Babylonia. 10 What did Babylonians know about math and astronomy.

1.7 Chinese Civilization 1.7.1 Dynasty of China: - Civilization of ancient China developed along the river Hwang Ho. The lenght of this river is 2700 miles. Due to heavy floods, it is also known as sorrow of China. The oldest dynasty of China is Shang dyna sty, whose rulers ruled from 1766 BC to 1122 BC. After them, the Chau dynasty ruled from 1122 BC to 22 5 BC. Laotse and Confucius flourished during this period. The dynasty was famous due to measures like use of metals, issue of currency, banking system, la nd reforms, printing press and invention of gun powder. After this, the Chin and Han dynasty ruled. To stop Hun invaders, a 1500 metre long, 22 ft tall Famous Great Wall of China and 20 ft broad wall was constructed by the C hin dynasty. In 960 AD Chao Kuang of S o ng dynasty laid the foundation of new dynasty.

1.7.2 Administrative System: - Chinese rule was b as ed on theory of divine kingship. Chinese ru ler considered themselves as son and representative of God. Cen c er was the head of the administrative council. A Assembly consisting of one prime minister and four ministers existed to assist the ruler. It was presided by the prince. Another commit tee of six members handled affairs of all other departments. The Chinese empire was divided into many parts which were presided by princes or powerful nobles. Local administration of villages was the smallest unit of administration. Head of families electe d head of village. Group of villages was known as 'Hin. Two or three 'Hins' formed a 'Tao' and 2 or 3 formed one Sang (Province). Public service commission selected candidates for administrative services.

1.7.3 Social Life 1. Classification of Society: - C hinese society was divided into many classes. The highest class consisted of the ruler and nobles follwe s by that of intellectuals, traders, craftsman, fa r mers and s l aves. Social equality never prevailed. One class consisted of scholars, known as Mandarin. This class was respected in society. 20

2. Family system and position of women : - Joint family system prevailed. Elderly women and men were specially respected. The family was patriarchal but mothers too enjoyed high position. Later on, women lost this respec t. Birth of girls child was considered inauspicious. Marriages were conducted with consent of parents. Dowry system prevailed. 3. Life style and food: - Affluent people lived in houses with thatched roofs. Food and dress was simple. Festivals and fairs had importance. Story telling, chess, plays, cards were pass times.

1.7.4 Ar t - From the architectur al point of view palaces and Pagodas (Buddist temples) were made in Chinese towns. The Great Wall is very remarkable from architectural point of view. Painting was in a very developed form during Han dynasty. A vanity case with lid of that period has bee n found, which features picture of a bird. Animal statues are found from initial peoiod. Later on, Statues of Buddhist saints were also made. A statue of reclinin g Buddha is found from a temple near Beijing which is an exemplary specimen of sculpture. Bronze utensils were also made here.

1.7.5 Religious Life: - The ancient Chinese were extremely religious and worshipped natural forces. They worshipped arms and ance stors. They worshipped sky (shang bi) and earth (Ho u Tu) as man and woman. Initially, they also worshipped wind, rains, rivers and the s un. The New Year celebration continued for two weeks. F or welfare of cosmos , long life and pr event ion from any danger they worshipped their ancestors and tried to propitiate them .

1.7.6 Chinese Philosophy and T eachings of Confucius. China is famous for 10 0 philosophical sects. In the 6 th Century A.D., philosophers like Mensius, Mot su, Lao Tse and Confucius existed . Major Philosophical sects also came into existence. The Chinese philosophers taught the lessons of mutual love, cooperation and tolerance. Confucius: - He was prominent philosopher of China who was born in 551 BC in ‘ Lu ’ State of China. He started his care er as a teacher. His famous books are (i) E. C hin (Book on Philosophy), (2) Shi Ching (poetry) (3) Le Ching (Book of moral conduct) 4. Shu Ching (History writing). The disciples of Confucius complied a scripture of his teaching and principles called Lun Ch ui. He believed that: - (i) History, religion should be taught in schools while literature, peotry and science should be taught in higher educational institutions. (ii) Respect should be paid towards parents along with polite behaviour, respect for teachers and good conduct towards friends should be maintained. (iii) King should possess divine qualities. A cruel despot should be dethroned through a public rising. (iv) Superstitions should be avoided and realistic approach should be adopted. (v) A serving human being is a true human being. (vi) Five virtues of kindness, knowledge, justice, truth and service should be developed in a human being. Apart from him, Lao Tse, Mensi u s and Motsu also gave messages of love, service and peace.

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1.7.7 Economic Life: - 1. Agriculture and animal husbandry - The basis of economic life of the Chinese was agriculture. They sowed the seed after worship due to danger of excessive rains. Major crops included millet, wheat, tea, vegetable and fruits. Cows, Oxen buffaloes, goats, dogs, pigs, dear were rear ed. 2. Trade and Industries: - Chinese were famous for making clay pottery weaving cloths, metal jewellery, arms, toys and silk garments. Car v ing of white sapphire was their expertise. A sweet tune would come out by striking the sapphire. The Chinese were f amous for paper industry and bronze mirrors. 1.7.8 Script and Literature: - Chinese rulers accepted 300 symbols for script. With invention of paper in 1 st century C.E., the art of writing progressed. A tradition to write dynastic history started. Suma Chin i s considered as the first historian of China. 1.7.9 Knowledge, science and technology: - China is famous for inventing gun powers, paper, compass and printing press. Wind mills and water clock were also invented. Description of 100 meter long canals was als o there. They knew the use of decimal in math but not of zero

1.7.10 Questions for Exercise: 1. During the reign of which dynasty wa s the Great wall of China built? (a) Shang (b) Cha u (c) Han (d) Chin 2. Author of the book E Chin was (a) Confu c io u s (b) Laotse (c) Mensius (d) Motsu 3. Name major philosophers of China. 4. What was the group of villages know in China? 5. What were the five major sections of society in China apart from ruling class? 6. Describe main teachings of Confucius. 7. Explain progres s of China in knowledge and science. 8. Explain main features of economic life of ancient China. 9. What do you know about political history of China?

1.8 Civilizations of Greece 1.8.1 Greek Society: - In the beginning the Greek lived in tribes, which consisted of many families. Their main occupation was agriculture, animal husbandry, and manufacture of clay pottery, swords and ornaments. 1.8.2 Religious belief: - Their religious beliefs were simple. Th ey had many gods, just like Bharat and they visualized a human form of these gods. 'Jeus' was the god of sky and ‘ Osiden ’ was god of ocean. Apollo was sun god and Atha n a was the goddess of victory. She was similar to goddess Saraswati of Bharat, According to Greeks; their gods resided on Olumpius Mountain, north of Greece. There were no priests in Greece. The yajana was performed by head of the family. 1.8.3 Literature: - After the development of script, the Greeks penned down the stories of their ancestors. Homer composed the famous epics of 'Iliad' and 'Odessey'. They give us much information about life and society of the Greeks. 1.8.4 City State: - The groups of villages began to take shape of states around 800 B.C. Acropolis fort was constructed at the hig hest point of a city. City states began to be formed in Greece and nearby Sparta, Athens, Macedonia Thabes etc. Sparta and Athens were prominent city states. A conflict continued between these two city states in which Athens was defeated. 22

1.8.5 State of Al exander - King Philip of Macedonia took advantage of defeat of Athens and took control of Greek states. Alexander inherited a huge army of Philip. Alexander first conquered Greek States, then powerful Iranian empire and then invaded Bharat. But courage of P orus disheartened his army. After his death, his commanders divided his empire. One of his commanders, Ptolemy, who was also a great scholar, got constructed a temple in Alexandria dedicated to goddess of art literature and education. Scholar of geometry, Uk lid and Archimedes also lived here. 1.8.6 Greek Philosophy and S cience : - Many philosophical ideologies developed here. Democrats, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle were famous philosophers. Socrates laid emphasis on knowledge. Plato wrote 'Republic'. He plac ed political powers in hands of intellectuals. Aristotle was a scientist apart from being a philosopher.

The Greeks did not differentiate between philosophy and science . Hippocrates is considered as father of medicine . Aristocrats expounded the principl e that earth and other planets revolve round the sun.

Academy of Plato

1.8.7 Questions for Exercise: - 1. The Sun god of Greeks was known as : (a) Je u s (b) Osidin (c) Apollo (d) Elnia 2. Name the epics by Homer. 3. Name the famous philosophers of Greece. 4. Which book did Plato write? 5. Comment on rise of city states in Greece. 6. Write a short comment on political condition of Greece. 7. What progress did Greece make in area of knowledge and Science?

1.9 Civilization of Rome The main centre of this civilization was Italy which also worked as connecting chain between Greece and Rome. The development of Roman civilization dates back to 6 th century BCE. With downfall of Greek civilization, the Roman civilization surged towards progress. 1.9.1 Ancient Rome: - The city of Rome was founded in Latian district, in south of Tiber river and perhaps this is the reason that its language was known as L atin. There was a king, an assembly and a senate in ancient Rome. Senate was most powerful. In 6 th B.C.E. the post of king was abolished and a republic was established. The society of Rome was divided into two parts - (i) Patricians (high class) (ii) Plebia ns (lower class included workers, small farmers, craftsmen, small traders and warriors). A penal code was also prepared in Rome which was written on wooden plates. They were known as ‘Twelve Tablets’.

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1.9.2 Political condition of Rome: - After control ling o ver entire Italy, the Romans tried to capture other lands too. Wars took place between Rome and Cartage for land of Sicely. These wars took place between 264 BC to 146 BC and are known as Punic Wars. Rome captured Cartage, Greece and Asia Minor . Julius Cea ser - In About 144 B.C., Commander Julius Ceaser captured England and Germany and became dictator of Rome. Senate at first resisted but later on accepted his dictatorship. Coins were minted in his name and he was offered crown. But respecting the republican traditions of Rome, he did not accept it. He paid attention towards organisation and reform. But Casuist and Brutus, followers of Pompi, murdered him on 15 th March 44 BC. He issued a reformed calendar called Julian calendar which continued till modern tim es. Conditions of civil war preva i led in Rome after Caesar's death. Octavian ruled over Rome and western provinces while Mark Antomy ruled over Egypt along with Eastern countries. Octavian defeated Antony and Queen Cleopetra and laid control over entire R ome. Senate adorned him with the title Augustus (The Lucky one), He became famous as Augustus Ceasar He ruled from 31 BC to 14 AD. Augustus Caesar introduced many reforms and provided facilities to citizens. He reformed the Assembly and committees and tri ed to eradicate corruption. He appointed honest governors in provincial administration. He was a staunch supporter of purity of Roman race and blood. Rome, from 324 to 337 C.E. was ruled by moral wise, patient and liberal rulers like Constantine. He calle d his new capital as Constantinople. 1.9.3 Roman Society: - Family system prevailed in Roman society. Though father and husband held an important place in family yet, women were suitably honoured. They reared cows and oxen. They manufacture d their own clothe s by using woo l and ju te. They worshipped many gods. Jupiter was god for crops while ma r s was the god of wars. Juno protected the women. The society was divided into four parts (1) Aristocracy (2) Traders and moneylenders (3) Independent farmers and rural population (4) Slaves which worked the most. 1.9.4 Language, Philosophy and Literature: - Rome developed its own alphabet on lines of Greek alphabets Latin became the language of most of the western Eur opean nations. Lucitius wrote ‘ On the nature of things ’, Cicero was a famous orator. Virgil was a great poet. The famous historian of Rome, Tacitus, wrote, ‘Annals and Histories.’ 1.9.5 Roman Art: - Romans, first of all, used concrete. They could firmly join the pieces of bricks and stones. Domes were made. Th e famous dome of Rome can be seen in temple ‘ Penpian.’ Roads baths and water system are major features of their city life. The residents also developed sculpture and frescoes. 1.9.6 Science: - Rome pioneered in public service. It arranged for distribution o f free medicine. Roman callender is another important contribution. Some of its months were named after Caesar rulers. The Christian calendar stands close to it. July from Juli u s, August from Augustus, September, October, November and December denote 7, 8, 9, 10. Roman New Year commenced from March. 1.9.7 Decline: - Imperialism played an important role in its decline. Democracy came to an end and slavery was encouraged. Due to propagation of Christian religion, power of empire weakened. The Christian religion attracted the down - trodden category towards it. The German tribes put an end to Roman Empire.

1.9.8 Questions for Exercise: - 1. The most powerful institution from political point of view in Rome was (a) Army (b) Assembly (c) King (D) Senate. 24

2. Famous Roman historian was (a) Tacitus (b) Homer (c) Arian (D) Luc r itius 3. Where was the centre of Roman trade situated in Bharat? 4. Name the famous poet of Rome 5. Name the major gods and goddesses of Rome. 6. Mention major works of Julius Ceaser. 7. Describ e the role of slaves in Roman civilization. 8. Explain major reforms of Roman emperor Augustus. 9. Describe progress in field of Roman art and Science. 10. Comment on literature of Roman philosophy.

1.10 Answers. Multiple choice and Very short questions .

1.2.1 Origin of man 1. (b) Copper 2. Snow Age.

1.3.11 Sindhu - Saraswati civilization 1. (c) Lothal 2 (b) . 3. Mohenjodaro 4. Madho Swarup Vats and Dayaram Sahni excavated Harappa in 1921 and Rakhaldas Bannerji excavated Mohanjodarao in 1922 .

1.4.7 Vedic Civilization 1 (d) 10 2. (c) 3. Ghosha, Apala, Lopamudra, Vishvavara, 4. 6 Parts – Shiksha, Kalpa, , Nirukta, Chand and Jyotisha.

1.5.7 Civilization of Ancient Egypt. 1. (b) Minies 2 (c) Three 3. Phar oes 4. Ray 5. Pi ctographic Script. 6. Kufu (Giza) Pyramids.

1.6.7 Old Babylonian Civilization 1. (c) Cuneiform Script. 2. (d) 354 days 3. For Penal code 4. Multistoreyed building 6. Gilg a mesh epic. 1.7.10 Chinese Civilization 1. (d) Chin Dynasty 2. (a) Confucius 3. Confucius, Lao tse , Mensius. 4. Hin . 5. Intellectuals, traders, craftman, farmer and slaves

1.8.7 Greek Civilization 1.(c) Apollo 2. 'Iliad' and 'Odessey'. 3. Socrates, Aristotle, Plato, Democritese. 4. 'Republic'.

1.9.8 Roman Civilization 1. (d) Senate 2. (a) Tacitus 3. M e luha 4. Virgil.

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Chapter - 2

Major Religions of the World

2.0 Aims 2.1 Preface. 2.2. Vedic Dharma 2.2.1 Vedic Literature 2.2.2 Vedic Gods. 2.2.3 Vedic Yajnas 2.2.4 Major Festivals of Hindu Dharma 2.2.5 Questions for Exercise. 2.3. Jain Dharma (Jainism) 2.3.1 Major teachings of Jaina Dharma 2.3.2 Major Principles of Jaina Dharma 2.3.3. Contribution of Jain Dharma to world 2.3.4 Major festivals of Jain Dharma 2.3.5 Questions for Exercise. 2.4. Baudh Dharma (Buddhism) 2.4.1 Life of Mahatma Buddha. 2.4.2 Major teaching of Baudh Dharma 2.4.3 Major festivals of Baudha Dharma 2.4.4 Questions for Excercise. 2.5. Sikh Dharma () 2.5.1 Saint Nanak and Sikh . 2.5.2 Ma jor Festivals of Sikh Dharma 2.5.3 Questions for Exercise. 2.6. Parsi Community in India/Parsi Dharma 2.6.1 Parsi Dharma 2.6.2 Questions for Exercise. 2.7. Christian Religion (Christianity) 2.7.1 Jesus Christ 2.7.2 Sacraments of Christianity 2.7.3 Festivals of Christianity 2.7.4 Questions for Exercise 2.8. Islam Mazab 2.8.1 Hazrat Mohammad Sahab. 2.8.2 Festivals of Islam 2.8.3 Questions for Exercise 2.9. Answers 2.10. Glossary

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2.0 Aim  This chapter explains about the oldest religions, sects and creeds of the world.  It invokes embracement of virtues of every sect and religion spread of humanitarism through methods of worship and their utilisation for welfare of world.  An attempt is made through this chapter to acquaint the students of 'Vasudhaiv K utumbakam' of Vedic religion, " Parmodharma' and 'Aparigraha' of Jain Dharma, message of peace by Baudh Dharma, 'Lesson of equality by Sikh Dharma, concept of repentance of Christianity. 2.1 Preface - Vedic religion is related to Vedas. The word Ved originates from 'Vid' which means knowledge of 'Truth'. Truth is known through Vedas. Vedic Dharma is also known as 'Shrot Dharma', 'Aarsha Dharma' or 'Sanatana Dharma. Vedas are considered 'Apaurusheya' they are not written by any human being. They are di vine knowledge which has come down through Rishis and Munis. Followers of Vedas are known as Arya or .

2.2. Vedic Dharma Vedic Dharma is the oldest Dharma of the world which is very close to existence and nature. It incorporates the way of living and empathy for every living being. It describes the disciplined system of working of existence which expects coordination among all the tacets of nature. This Vedic knowledge was gained by the Rishis through mantras. These Vedic Rishis include - males like Vashistha, Vishwamitra, , Angira, GautamaVamdev and women like Lopa Mudra, Shraddha, Romsha, Vishvavara, Ghosha, Surya, Yami etc.

2.2.1 Vedic Literature Vedic Literature includes Vedas, , Aryanakas, Upanishads, Sutra Granthas and Vedangas 1. Ve das - Vedas are four in number 1. Rigveda, 2. Yajurveda, 3. Samveda, 4. Atharvaveda Upvedas - Every Veda has Upvedas. 1. Rigveda - Ayurveda 2. Yajurveda - 3. Samveda - Gandharva Veda 4. Atharvaveda - Shilpa Veda. 2. Brahmana Literature - Texts which interprets the Vedic mantras are called Brahmanas. 1. Rigveda - Aitereya Brahmana, Shankhayan/Koshitaki 2. Samveda - Samvidhan and Tandaya 3.Atharvaveda - Gopath 4.Yajurveda - Thaitirya, Shatpath 3. Aryanak - They are appendices to Brahman texts and spiritual and philosop hical issues are discussed in them. 27

4. Upnishads - Upnishad means knowledge gained by sitting nearby. Upanishads explain the highest form of spiritual knowledge of matter and contemplation. They are 108 in number like Isha, keh, Kath, Mandukya, Pra shna, Aitreya, Taitiriya, Chhandogya, Vrihadaranyka and Shwetashwar. 5. - They contain working ethics of Vedic ya jnas. 1. Shraut Sutra 2. Grihastha Sutra, 3. Dharma Sutras 6. Vedang: - Six developed supplementary Vedic Texts to understand the vedic lite rature are called Vedangas 1. Shiksha 2. Kalpa 3. Vyakaran 4. Nirukta 5. Chhand 6. Jyotish

2.2 .2. Vedic Gods: - During Vedic period, man was excited to see the functions of Nature. He considered them conscious, ceaseless, beneficial and essential. The invisible power and truth which controlled all these natural activities were referred to as gods. A code of conduct was prepared to gain of these gods and to appease them. Human beings made contacts with these natural gods through these yajna s. Indra, Varuna, Agni, Prithvi, Vayu symbolized powers of nature. They were early Vedic gods and symbolized polytheism. These gods were granted human form too. Vedic gods represent different powers of one god. Theory of Rit: Vedas have been variously labe led as '' from the view of 'Sat', Rit from the view point of moral regulation and 'Madhubhava' from the view of bliss. It is a disciplined system for conduct of universe whereby all actions are regular, disciplined and coordinated for benefit of world . Theory of creation: According to Nasdiya Sukta of Rigveda, in the begnining of creation, there was no life and no death, no night and no morning, no sky and no space Creation was breathing on its own power. Theory of Karma: Every one receives results o f one's own (actions). Notion of rebirth is based on this principle of Karma, One should follow good deeds, so that rebirth takes place on these principles and keep purity of heart. Efforts to accomplish good deeds is known as Tapa (Austerity)

2.2 .3 Vedic Yajnas: To purify the environment and to contact the gods through fire, and cow's butter was known as yajnas. But actually yajnas mean good deeds. Yajnas had three purposes: - 1. To praise, worship and pray God. 2. To respect the learned, Rishis and Munis. 3. To purify the Panch Tatvas (Five Elements) i.e. Earth, Water, Space, Fire and Wind. Daily Yajnas: Daily Yajnas to be performed in Grihastha Ashram (Married Life) are: - 1. Brahma Yajna - Study, ponder, reflect upon Vedic literature. 2. Deva Yajna - Worship, propitiate and revere the Vedic Gods. 3. Pitr Yajna: - To serve mother, father, teacher, scholar and elders. 4. Bhoot Yajna - To work for conservation and flora and fauna i.e. maintain food chain, bio diversity and ecological balance. Naimitti k Yajnas – They are per formed to furfill a particular aim of a person or the world like Putrayeshti Yajna for procuring a son, Vrishti Yajna for rainfall, Ashwamedha Yajna - for extending 28 boundaries, Rajsuya Yajna - on the occasion of accession, Samrasta Yajna - for fraternity; Vishw a Mangal Yajna - for welfare of the world.

2.2.4 - Major Festivals of Hindu Dharma: - Deepawali: - i.e. of lamps - It is a festival celebrated all over the world by the Hindus on of . It is believed that Lord Shri Ram had r eturned to after 14 years of exile. it is a festival of light. Every follower of Indian culture decorates his house with light on this day and receives blessings from elders. : - It is festival of colour celebrated on Vedic Yajnas poornima of Falgun month according to Hindu calendar. This festival is celebrated by all communities with joy and fervour. According to beliefs, , the demoness, tried to burn to death Prahlad, a devotee of lord Vishnu. Holika was reduced to ashes and Prahlad escaped. Holika is burnt in streets and the next day 'Dhulandi' is celebrated with colours. Rakshabandan: - This festival is celebrated on Poornima (Full moon) of Shravan month Holi ka Dahan of Hindu calendar. On this da y, a brother pledges to protect his sister. Sister ties 'Raksha - Sutra' on brother's hand and offers him sweets. Shivratri: - The festival initiates with worship of lord Shiva on 14 th day of waning moon (chaturdashi of Krishna ) of Phagun month. Men and Women observe fast and worship Shiva Linga with , honey, cow's butter, sugar and 'Bel Patra'. () Ram Navmi: - It is a festival celebrated on occ asion of birth of l ord on nineth day of waxing moon (Navmi of Shukla Paksh) of month. Jayanti - Special prayers are offered in temples on birth day of devotee of lord Rama, Hanuman Entire night is spent in devotion. It is celebrated on Poornima (Full Moon ) of Chaitra month. Navratri: - Worship for nine consecutive days. Mother with her nine other forms is worshipped from day one to nine of Shukla paksha (Waxing moon) of month. Dashhera: - It is also called 'Vi jaya Dashmi', Lord Rama on this day killed in Lanka. Symbolising victory of good over bad, effigy of Ravana is burnt all over India. This festival falls on the tenth day of Shukla paksha of Ashwin month i.e. on end of Navratri. Kartik Poornima: - It is a celebrated by a dip in holy rivers on Poornima of Kartik month. Jayanti is also celebrated on this day. It is also celebrated as the day of Deepavali of the gods. 29

Makar or : - It denotes journey of Sun towards north. Sun enters the constella tion of Capricorn on this day. It is celebrated on 14 th or 15 th January in entire India with sweet meals made of sesame seed and . Basant Panchami: - It is celebrated on fifth day of Shukla Paksha of Magh month. Goddess Saraswati, goddess of educatio n, arts and wisdom is worshipped Women wear yellow clothes. Yellow rice is cooked as 'Prasad' in all houses. : - It is celebrated on eight day of Krishna Paksha of Bhadrapada month Lord Krishna was born this day. On this day the followers observe fast and Jhanki's of Krishna depicting his childhood and his Leelas are displayed. Ganesh : - Celebrated as a day of arrival of lord Ganesh on earth, the festival falls on the fourth day of Shukla Paksha of Bhadrapada month. The festival s tarted as a symbol of nationalism in India. utilised this day to inculcate love for motherland among the youth. Chetichand: - It is celebrated as birth day of lord on second day of Shukla Paksha of Chaitra month with fervour. Ac cording to legends attached to this festival, when people of Sindhi community traded through seas and oceans, they faced various hardships like storm, sea animals and pirates, who would loot them, Women, therefore, worshipped lord Varun at the commencement of their journey. Lord Jhulelal, being god of oceans, is considered as deity of the Sindhi Community. Chetichand was celebrated as a festival at the safe arrival of men. Religion - One Founder, one method of worship. Dharma - It originates from 'Dhri' dhatu of Sanskrit language which means 'Dharan ' or Values of life to be followed by a person, like, , abstention renunciation , patience , truth , knowledge and duties of a human being along with properties of thing s. According to a definition, dharma is practice of otherworldly pleasure (Abhudaya) and Moksha (Niha Shreyas)

2.2.5 Questions for Exercise: - 1. When is Deepawali Celebrated? (a) Kartik Poornima (b) Kartik Amavasya (c) Phalgun Poornima (c) Sharvan P oornima 2. Which of the following is not a Naimittik Yajna? (a) Ashwamedha Yajna (b) Samrasta Yajna (c) Brahma Yajna (c) Rajsuya Yajna 3. Name some Rishis, Munis of Vedic period. 4. Why are Vedas considered Apaurusheya? 5. Name Vedic gods and goddesses. 6. Explain principle of 'Rit'. 7. What is meant by Yajna? What were the aims of performing Yajnas? 8. What is meant by Upanishads? Name Major Upanishads. 9. How many Yajnas are prescribed? Name them. 10. What is meant by principle of Karma? 11. When is Ra m Navami Celebrated?

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2.3. Jain Dharma The saints who founded Jain Dharma are known as Tirthankar. means - the one who takes you across the ocean of life by establishing Dharma. There were 24 in Jaina Dharma. First one was Rishabhdev whose reference is found in Vedic literature like Rigveda and Yajurveda. The 23 rd Tirthankar was Parshwanath and the 24 th tirthankar was Mahaveer . The world Jain is derived from the Sanskrit word 'Jin' which means victory over senses. Jai n Dharma was propagated by Mahaveer Swami. He was born in 599 BC in a family in Kundagram near (). His father was Siddhartha and mother was . He left home at the age of 30 years. He attained kaiva lya (enlightenment - supreme knowledge) Mahaveer Swami after 12 years of exile in Riju Palika village near Riju Palika River. He had attained victory over his senses and had observed penance. Therefore, he was honoured with the title 'Mahavir'. He died i n Pavapuri near Rajgriha.

2.3.1 Major T eachings of Jain Dharma The 23 rd Tirthankar Parshwanath gave the principles of Satya (Truth), Ahimsa (Non Violence), Asteya (Non stealing) and Aparigraha (Non possession). The 24 th Tirthankar Mahavir Swami added the principle of Brahmacharya (Celibacy). Together, they are known as Panch mahavrata. 1 Satya. Every human being should follow truth by heart, speech and action. 2 Ahimsa. Every human being should shed violence not only against another human being but also against animals, insect etc. Human beings should not carry the emotion of violence not only in actions but also in heart and speech. 3 Asteya - It means possession of anything or even the desire of possessing somebody else's prop erty. It can be called stealing. Thus according to Mahaveer Swami no one should steal. 4 Aparigraha - Human beings should not possess things more than what is needed. Everyone has equal right over the resources of nature. One should even conserve these resourc es for future generations. Parigraha means depriving someone. Therefore, no one should possess more than what is needed. 5 Brahmacharya - Human beings should stay away from sensory pleasures. Brahmacharya is control over senses and desires. Jain Dharma does n ot accept god as creator but believes in reincarnation on the basis of Karmas. According to it, a human being receives what he sows. Creation in Jain Dharma in considered to be eternal, infinite and continuous. Moksha or Kaivalya Gyan: - Kaivlya Gyan is con sidered essential to break free from the cycle of life and death. Kaivlya Gyan means - Absolute knowledge, where nothing remains to be sought after acquiring it. A person achieves eternal knowledge, eternal perspective, eternal joy and eternal courage. It i s also known as principle of chatushtya. It is a means for attaining Moksha. For Moksha, knowledge of 'Tri Ratna' or Triyak Gyan' is required: - 1. Samyak Gyan - It means attainment of truth by comprehending differences between truth and untruth, suitabl e and unsuitable and proper and improper. 31

2. Samyak Darshan: - To follows path shown by the Tirthankars having faith in Jain principles, ideas and teachings. 3. Samyak Charita: - To maintain righteous behaviour and morality of character. For this, householders sh ould adopt five Anuvratas and ascetics should adopt five Mahavratas.

2.3.2 Major Principles of Jaina Dharma - 1 . Anekantvada - According to this principle, every matter has many aspects. It is composed of many virtues but it is not possible for human being to comprehend all its features and aspects. He considers only that aspect of the matter to be true which he sees. Infact, it is not the absolute truth. If only one can understand this principle that one can develop liberality, coordination and cooperation. Tussle created between two people for one aspect can come to an end for this principle provides a broader view. It shows that whatever is thought of is not truth. What is comprehended by another person is also a truth which is not seen by the former or which is not being comprehended This principle is essential for universal peace. 2. Syadvad - It explains and interprets the theory of Anekantvad. Theory of relativity in science conforms to this principle. Syad means - a specific notion and Ved means stat ement. When one aspect in seen by one person, another person may see another aspect. Both views are true even when the object is common. For example, one man can be somebody's son, brother and husband to a woman. Being one person, he is in different relati onship with different people. Jain Community: With passage of time, Jain community was divided into two parts - Shwetambar and Digambar. Shwetambars wear white clothes where as saints of Digambar community live without clothes.

2.3.3 Contribution of Jain D harma to the world: - Jain Dharma has taught the world way of non - violence and peace. Fraternity, harmony and tolerance is possible in world through these principles. Another important principles is Anekant vad. If rightly understood, it can establish harm ony and coordination by ending hatred and tussle. A major teaching of Jaina Dharma, Aparigraha, can be very useful in present scenario. Developed nations are exploiting the resources of nature injudiciously, thereby spreading not only pollution but also de priving future generations of resources of nature. Therefore, of nature in form of resources should be judiciously spent so that the next generations may also utilize them. Major principles and precepts of Tirthankars were compiled by their fo llowers called 'Ganadhar.' These are called 'Agam' which are 12 in numbers and are thus known as 'Dwadashangi'.Most of the is scribed in Prakrit langauge. Temple of Nakoda Bhairav Ranakpur and are famouns Jain temples. Similarl y the idol of '' in Shravanbelgola. is a unique specimen of sculpture.

2.3.4 Major Festivals of Jain Dharma: - 1. Mahavir Jayanti: - This festival is celebrated with fervour by the Jain community in Chaitra month on occasion of birth of Mahavir Swami. The idol of Mahavir Swami is anointed in a special manner. Thereafter, it is taken out in the city for a ride. 32

2. Chaturmasa: - Four months of a year (of ) i.e. Ashad, Shravan, Bhadrapada and Ashwin are spent by the saints of Jain Dhar ma in a city by practicing penance yoga and spreading messages of peace to their followers (jataka). Jains believe in non - violence. In monsoon period, insect life becomes active and some are not seen by naked eye. If the saints tour the land by walki ng, these insects can be hurt. This is also one of the reason that the saints hault at one place. offers a chance of worship and granting assurance of safety to living beings. 3. Paryushan/Kshama Vani Parva: - It is celebrated in B hadrapada month during chaturmasa. The follo wers practice Yoga, penance, meditation and . Daily commercial practices are abstained. Both men and women Logo of Jain Dharma observe fast without water which is known as 'Upwasa' Purity of soul and body is required fo r penance. Some principles are to followed for purity of soul, which are followed during paryushan. It is observed for 10 days by the community and 8 days by the Shwetambara community. At the end of 10 days, is observed. On this day, a follower asks for forgiveness from his family, friends and relatives for his actions which may have caused distress. 4. Daslakshna Parva: - It continues from fifth day of shukla paksha in Bhadrapada to the fourteenth day. Fourteenth day means Anant Chaturd arshi which is also celebrated by the Hindus. It is also known as 'Jain Samvtsari', During this period, the followers observe difficult fasts and observe these 10 rules - 1. forgiveness 2. humility 3. destruction of illusion 4. purity 5. truthfulness 6. abs tenence 7. penance 8. sacrifice 9. non - possession 10. celibacy. 5. Deep Malika Parva: - It is an important spiritual festival of the Jainis. On this day Mahavir Swami attained Nirvana or Moksha. 6. Shrut Panchami - Celebrated on fifth day of Jayeshtha month . It is believed that 2000 years ago, on this day, Jain Saint Dharsenacharya composed, 'Shatkhandagam'. The followers pray wearing yellow coloured clothes.

2.3.5 Questions for Exercise: 1. Which was added to Panchmahavrata by Mahavir Swami? (a) Ahinsa (b) Brahmacharya (c) Aparigraha (c) Satya 2. Mahavir Jayanti is celebrated in - (a) Chaitra (b) Bhadrapada (c) Phalgun (c) Ashwin 3. How many Tirthankars are there in Jain Dharma? 4. What is meant by 'Tirthankara'? 5. Explain major principl es of Jaina Dharma. 6. Explain the meaning of he word Jain. 7. Name the Panch Mhavrit given by Mahaveer Swami. 8. What is meant by 'Tri Ratna'? 9. Jain Dharma is divided into how many factious? Name them. 10. What is the contribution of Jaina Dharma to the world? Elaborate. 11. When and why is Shrut Panchmi celebrated?

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2.4 Baudh Dharma 2.4.1 Life S ketch of Baudh Dharma was established by Mahatama Buddha in 6 th century B.C. Buddha was born in 563 BC in Shakya Kshatriya family of Shuddhodhana in Lumbimi. His mother was Mahamaya who belonged to Kaushal republic. Hi s childhood name was Siddhartha. His mother died on the 7 th day of his birth and he was brought up by his aunt or step mother Gautam i . A brahmin Kaudi n ya prophesised o n his birth that the child would either be a Chakravartin rule r or a great saint. Being a prince, his childhood was spent in prosperity and grandeur. He got married to Yashodhara, a princes s and had a son Rahul. Siddhartha was still occupied in finding solutions to problems of life. One day, during a tour into the town, he first saw an old man, then an ailing man and a dead body. In the last, he saw an ascetic who was happily engaged in medi tation and did not suffer from any worldly woes. This incident agitated Siddhartha. At the age of 29 years, he left his home, wife and son. This incident is known as Mahabhinishkraman. After six years of hard penance, he attained Bodhi Gyan or Enghtment a t the age of 35 years on Vaishakha Poornima on the banks of Rijupalika River under a Pipal tree. This tree is known as Bodhi Vriksha. From onwards, Siddhartha came to be known as Mahatma Buddha. In Saranath, he made five , his disciples and then in ducted into Bandh Dharma. This incident is known as 'Dharma Chakra Parvartana' n Buddhist Scriptures. At the age of 80 years, in 483 B.C., he attained Nirvana in Kushinagar, capital of Malla Republic. This event came be known as Mahaparinirvana. Four counc ils were organized to compile and compose the teaching of Buddha, to resolve differences between various factions of Buddhists and to spread Buddhism. They are also have known as Baudh Sangiti. S. Council & Place Ruler President ship Conclusion No. Period 1. First 483 Rajgraha Ajatshatru Maha Kasyapa Sutta & Vinaya Pitak BCE Magadh (Bihar) Magadhs

2. Second 383 Vaishali (Bihar) Kalashoka Sabakami Buddhism divided into BCE Sthavira (Thervadi and Mahasadhik

3. Third 283 Patliputra Mogali putta Philosophical BCE (Bihar) Tisya interpretation compiled into Abhidhamma pitak

4. First 1 CE Kundal Vana Kanishka Vasumitra Hinyan & Mahayan (President divided into two Ashvamedh Ashwamedha Vice President Communities

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Teaching of Buddhism have been compiled in to Tripitak i.e. Three baskets (i) Sutta Pitak (ii) Vinaya Pitak (iii) Abhidhamma Pitak. Vinay Pitak was compiled by Upali which contains rules regarding behaviour and discipline to be followed by Buddhist monks and which is to be essentially followed. Sutta Pitak contains practical rules to be followed by commoners. They were compiled by Anand, Buddha's disciple. Abhidhanma Pitak contains philosophical interpretations about life - death, soul, rebirth, pleasure pain etc. Hinyana: - Followers who considered Mahatma Buddha as a mortal human being, discarded idol worship and believed in traditional teachings came to be known as Sthavier or Thervadins and were followers of Hinayan branch. Mahayan: - Followers of this sect accepted Buddha as god, apart from being s upporters of idol worship and new experimental thoughts. Followers of this sect were known as Mahasadhik or Sarvastivadins They believed in miracles.

2.4.2 Major T eaching of Baudh Dharma: - 1. It does not believe in Atma (Soul) and Parmatma (God). It considers everything in this world as impermanent, dynamic and changeable. It is also known as Theory of Anityavad or Kshanikvada. 2. It believes in rebirth based on Karmas (actions) Good Karmas lead to dissolution of all desires lust, longings and ego wh ich leads to freedom from cycle of birth and death. Every action occurs due to a reason. This cause and effect relationship is known as pratitya - Samutpada It has three principles: - (i) If this exists, that exists (ii)If this ceases to exist, that also cea ses to exist. (iii) If resisted this, that happens to stop. This chain of cause and effect has 12 steps (1) Ignorance (Avidhya) (2) Sanskar (Accumulated Karmas) (3) Science (Vijana) (4) Naamrupa (5) Shadayatana (6) Sparsh (7) Vedana (8) Trishna (9) Upasa na) (10) Bhava (desire to acquire body) (11) Jati (to acquire a body) (12) Jara - Marana. (Old age and death) It is also known as bhava chakra or Dwadash - Nidana. Nirvana: - To be liberated from cycle of birth and death to rebirth is known as Nirwana. Desire , which is the root cause of Dukkha when controlled, leads to Nirvana. Ten Sheels: - Ten Principles are prescribed for a moral behavior and discipline in the lives of Buddhist monks. These principles were mandatory for them like not to take food at inapprop riate time, use one blanket, not to accept food more than one bowl, wear rosary, discard comfortable bed and luxurious things like Mahatma Buddha gold and silver. Four Noble Truths: - 1. Dukkha: - According to Mahatma Buddha, world is full of suffering 2. Dukkha Samudaya: - There is reason behind every suffering 3. Dukkha Nirodh: - Cause of Suffering is ignorance. Moksha can be attained by controlling it. 4. Astangik Marg (Eith Fold Faith) Victory over suff ering can be attained by adopting this eight told path. (i) Samyak Drishti (right view) Faith in Four Noble Truths and Teachings of Buddha. 35

(ii) Samyak Sankalp (righ resolve) To follow Buddhi teachings along with wishes of welfare of all. (iii) Samyak Vani (right Speech) : To speak language which spreads brotherhood and fraternity. (iv) Samyak Karma (right conduct) - To perform actions which are universally beneficial. (v) Samyak Ajivika (right livelihood) To earn in a virtuous manner and beneficial to society. (vi) Samyak Vyayam (right effort) To restrict ill thoughts and bring in right thoughts. (vii) Samyak Smriti (right mindfulness) To control senses which cause suffering to prevent desires. (viii) Samyak Samadhi (meditative absorption) To meditate with concentration. Madhyam Marg (Middle Path) - Mahatma Buddha had adopted an extreme way to search truth and had experienced near death while following this way. Therefore, he adopted a path to search truth which was neither leaned towards worldly pleasures nor towards extreme penance. According to hi m, Moksha can be gained only by walking through these two extreme paths.

2.4.3 Major F estivals of Baudh Dharma: - Buddha Poornima - It is celebrated on Poornima (full moon) of Vaishakaha month. On this day Gautama Buddha was born. Pari Nirvana Divasa - Gautam Buddha left for heavenly abode on this day in Kushi , capital of Malla republic at the age of 80 years. This occasion is celebrated as Pari nirvana divasa. The followers do not mourn his death as they believe that he had attained Moksha after gaining enlightenment and freedom from worldly pains. 2.4.4 Questions for Exercise: 1. In which month, is birthday of Mahatma Buddha celebrated? (a) Falgun Poornima (b) Shravan Poornima (c) Bhadrapaada Poornima (c) Vaishakh Poornima 2. Where did Mahatma Buddha attain Nirvana? (a) Saranath (b) Gaya (c) Kushi Nagar (c) Vaishali 3. Who founded Baudh Dharma? 4. When and where were Buddhist Councils held? 5. What are the main factions of Buddhism? 6. What is meant by Dharma Chakra Parivartana? 7. What is meant by Mahabhinishkraman? 8. What are Four Noble Truths? 9. Which path should be adopted to escape suffering? 10. What is meant by Tripitak? 11. According to Buddha, which path can lead to Moksha? 12. Why is Parinirvana Divas celebrated?

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2.5 Sikha Dharma 2.5.1 Saint Guru Nanak Dev and other Sikh Guru: - Sikh dharma was founded by saint Guru Nanak Dev. He was born in 1469 at Talwandi (, Pakistan). This sacred spot is known as . He faith in monotheism and considered god as formless, colo urless and shapeless. He preached Sikh dharma by traveling to various places. There are in all, 10 gurus in Sikh Dharma among whom guru Nanak ji is considered to be the first. He was well versed in Punjabi, Sanskrit and Persian languages. After him, the s econd guru was Angad Dev who wrote biography of Guru Nanak. He popularized the Gurumukhi script initiated by Guru Nanak. After him, Guru Amardas became the next guru. He adopted the practice of Langar i.e. free meal which is continued till today. He also o pposed the contemporary ill practice of . Guru Nanak Dev In 1574, fourth guru Ramdas Sahib succeeded. He was the son - in law of the third guru. He founded the town of Ramdaspur which later became popular as . During his life time construction work of ‘Swarn Mandir’ () started. Guru Arjun Dev was the fifth guru. He compiled Guru Granth Sahib. He was murdered on orders of when he declined to adopt Islam. After his death , his son Hargovind Sahib ascended the seat. He gave the theory of Miri - Piri which had faith in peace and non violence. ‘’ was constructed during his reign. Har Rai Sahib was the seventh guru and Harkishan Sahib was the eight gurus. He is also kn own as Bal Pir (Bachche Nabi). Teg Bahadur was the 9 th guru. He was killed by when he refused to accept Islam. Guru Tegbahadur laid foundation of Anandpur city. The last and tenth guru of Sikh dharma was Guru Govind Singh Ji. In 1699, he founded ‘Khalsa panth’. He transformed the into courageous, military, warring and fighting people for protection of Hindu dharma. After him, the seat of Guru was abolished. He made his followers wear compulsorily, Kesh, Kada, Kachcha, Kripan and Kangha. 1. Kesh (hair) - Kesh have a great significance in Sikh dharma. Men are not allowed to trim their hair and turban is used to cover them. 2. Kada - It is worn in right hand. It is given spiritual importance and denotes spiritual relationship between the guru and the be arers. As there is no beginning or end of a guru, the beginning and end of Kada can’t be found. 37

3. Kripana: - It is considered to be a symbol of security, bravery and courage. It is mandatory for a Sikh to tie the Kripan to his wais t , Kripana means Kripa or bl essings, blessings of saint or guru and ‘an’ means pride to defend which, one has to possess qualities like a soldier. 4. Kangha: - Since it is essential for every Sikh to grow hair, their trimming is prohibited. To maintain long hair, a wooden comb is kept. Every Sigh is required to comb his hair twice a day. 5. Kachcha: - It is essential to wear kachcha in Sikh dharma. It is important from the point of view of hygiene and cleanliness. It is believed that wearing kachch helps to control desires. Guru Wani: - Messag e and teac hing delivered by gurus in Adi G ranth are called Guruwan i. It is sp iritual knowledge. Messages of G uruwani are simple and pure. These teaching are universal and omnipresent. It awakens thoughts and intellect and liberates soul from thoughts. Panc hdosha: - Sikha dharma elaborates those vice which take away the logical capacity of a person or destroys it. They pose hurdle in attainment of ones aims. These are major five weaknesses of a human being. 1. Kama (Desire): - It distracts human mind from his pat h. It is very essential to control it. 2. Krodh (Anger): - It destroys our power of understanding between the right and wrong. Distracted by it a human being takes a wrong decision and harms himself and his own people. 3. Lobh (greed): - it directs man to work in hi s own interest and acquire control over all resources, thereby depriving other of their rights influenced by it, a man forgets all human consideration. 4. Moha (Attachment): - Ignoring, one’s duties and actions, influenced by attachment is considered unrighteo us. 5. Ahamkar (Ego): - when a person believes himself to be the sole doer of any action and gnores contribution of other, he falls prey to it which takes him to downfall. A human being is adv i se d to stay away from these panch doshas (five vices). Therefore, one should aspire for company of saints to acquire virtues and perform good actions. Teachings of Guru Nanak Dev: - 1. God is eternal, timeless and formless. 2. He is omnipresent. 3. Equality should prevail among people i.e. he critic ised caste distinctions. 4. He asked to believe in monotheism. 5. He believed in empathy towards all living beings. 6. All should earn virtuously and donate a part of their income among the needy.

2.5.2 Major F estivals of Sikh Dharma Lohiri: - It is a cultural and religious festival celebrated a day before in January. Fire is lighted. It is an occasion of northward () movement of sun from south (). Sesame seed, jaggery, peanuts are offered. Famous dances of Punjab like Giddha an d are also performed. Vaishakhi: - It is celebrated in Vaishakh month to celebrate reaping of new crop. People pay visit to Gurudware to attain blessings of Guru Granth Sahib and perform devotional songs in honour of Panch - Pyaras. Langar (public Kit chen) is organized in Gurudwara. It is observed to celebrate ripening and harvesting of Rabi (winter) crops. Guru Govind Singh founded ‘Khalsa Panth’ on this day. 38

Guru Nank Jayanti: - Birth day of first guru of Sikh Dharma, Guru Nanak, is celebrated on Poor nima (Full moon) of Kartik month with fervor. Gurudwaras are decorated especially and langar is organized Guru Nanak was born on 15 th April 1469 in Talwandi (Lahore).

2.5.3 Questions for Exercise: - 1. By whom was Guru Granth Sahib compiled? (a) Guru Arjun Dev (b) Guru Angad Dev (c) Guru Teg Bahadur (c) Guru Amardas 2. Who is given title of Bal Pir (Bachche Nabi)? (a) Guru Ramdas (b) Guru Harkishan (c) Guru Har Govind (c) Guru Govind Singh 3. Who founded Sikh Dharma? 4. When and where was Guru Nanak Born? 5. Who founded Khalsa Panth? 6. Where is Swarna Mandir (Golden Temple)? By whom it was built? 7. How many gurus are there in Sikh Dharma? 8. When is Guru Nanak Jayanti celebrated?

2.6 Parsi Comm u nity in Bharat 2.6.1 Parsi Dharma Foundation of Parsi dharma was laid down by Zoroaster in 7 th Century B.C. in present Iran (Pharas). He advocated monotheism in his messages. This area was earlier known as Pharas and its inhabitants were known as Pharsi which later on changed to Parsi. God Ahurmajda is in vo ked in this religion. They consider God as limitless formless and invisible. God is considered as symbol of truth and life given. The dharma talks of light and darkness as good and evil soul Ahurmajda represents good soul. They consider fire as pure. Thei r scriptures are written in Avesta language which was in prevalence in old Persia. They neither bury their dead nor burn them. They leave the dead bodies on a tree, post or well where carnivorous birds could eat them. The corpse is kept at Tower of Peace. It is done for a missionary purpose. Since they believe that a human body is made of elements like fire, wind, water and earth, it ought to be of some value to some other living being. Most of population of Parsis in India resides in . Members of t his community are big businessmen. They have embraced Indian civilization and culture. They contributed significantly towards Indian freedom struggle, initially, like . At present, their presence in Iran is reduced to almost zero in number. They were forced to find refuge in India due to advent of Islam in Persia.

2.6.2 Questions for Exercise: - 1. What is considered pure in Parsi Dharma? (a) Fire (b) Water (c) Wind (c) Earth 2. Who founded Parsi Dharma? 3. Name the chief God of Parsi Dharma. 39

4. What is the chief Language of Parsis? 5. How do they perform the last rite of their dead?

2.7 Christian Religion 2.7.1 Christianity was founded by Jesus Christ. He was a Jew and was born of Virgin mother Mary in Bethleham (Jordan) His father Yusuf was a carpenter. He was consecrated into spirituality by Yahunna.

2.7.2 Sacrament of Christianity: - 1. Baptism - A three year old child is admitted into Christianity by the priest who sprinkles holy water on child. 2. Confirmation - A 12 year old is beslowed full membership of the community. 3. Eucharist (Holy Communion) - On this day the family dines together. 4. Confession - Her e any faithful obtain absolution for the sins committed and are reconciled with the community of the Church. Jesus Christ 5. Ordination: - Any pe rson of 18 years of age can renounce worldly life and become a clergy. 6. Marriage: - Man and woman are granted permission for a married life. 7. Last Rite: - Corpses are given a last bath before the burial. Holy book of the Christian is the Bible which com bines Old and New Testament. Old principles of Jewish religion are found in Old Testament whereas life, teachings and philosophy of Christ, as compiled by his disciples Mark, Mathew, Luke and John known as New Testament.

2.7.3 Major festivals of Christian community 1. : - It is the holiest festival of Christians. On this day Jesus Christ was born and is celebrated on 25 th December all over the world. The members of the community decorate their homes and Church and present gifts to family members, frie nds and relations. 2. : - It falls on Friday just before the Sunday between 20 th March and 23 rd April. On this day Jesus Christ gave away his life preaching peace and humanity. Prayers and meditation are observed in churches. The community pr ays for purity of their souls by practicing fast and abstainment. 3. Easter Sunday: - Christians believed that while Jesus Christ died on a Cross, he resurrected after three days which is celebrated as Easter Sunday.

2.7.4 Questions for exercise: - 1. The res urrection day of Jesus Christ is celebrated as: - (a) Christmas (b) Good Friday (c) New Year (c) Easter Sunday. 2. Who founded Christianity? 3. Name the holy book of Christianity and its parts. 40

4. How many sacraments are there in Christianity? 5. What does Christian community pray on Good Friday?

2.8 Islam Mazhab 2.8.1 Hazrat Mohammad Sahab Rise of Islam is an epoch breaking event of 7 th century in Asia. Founder of Islam Hazrat Mohammad Sahab was born in 570 C.E. in Mecca town of Saudi Arabia; Pa ntheism was prevalent in peninsula of Saudi Arabia at that time. Society was divided into different tribes and each followed its own rule and law. Superstition and ignorance reigned. The early life of Mohammad Sahad was spent in scarcity. His father’s nam e was Abdulla and his mother was Amina. They were related to Kureshi tribe. He lost his parents in his early childhood and was brought up by his uncle Abu Talib. At the age of 25 years, he was married to a wealthy and affluent widow who was elder to him by 15 years, named Khadija. He received the message of Allah through his messenger, Jibrael on Mountain Heera during day time. To spread this message of truth, he founded the religion of Islam. Thereafter, he opposed age long superstitions, which turned the conservative society against him. For this reason, he left Mecca for Madina in 622 AD. This event is known as ‘Hijrat’ and is considered to be commencement of ‘Hijri Samvat’. (Calender) Quran: - Holy book of Islam is Quran Sharif which contains principles r elated to Islam. These principles were received by Mohammad Sahab from Allah. It contains 14 Sura (Chapters) 1. Shahadah - Allah is one and Mohammad Sahab is his only prophet. 2. Salat - Follower of Islam should perform Namaz five times a day. 3. Saum: Every follower should observe fast from sunrise to sunset (Roza) during the holy month of Ramzan. 4. Zakat - Followers should donate 40% of his annual income in charity. 5. Haj: - Every follower should once visit Meeca and Madina during his life time as pilgrimage . Controversies erupted on question of succession after Mohammad Sahab among his followers. Hajrat Mohammad had no son but only daughter Some followers wanted to declare Ali, his nephew and son - in - law his successor and first Khalifa. Khalifa meant head of the Muslim world. This controversy divided Islam into two factions - Shia and Sunni. First three Khalifas belonged to Sunni group (Abu Bakr, Umar and Usman) and they are not accepted by the Shias. Since there was no legitimate successor to Mohhamad Sahab, t he institution of Khilafat was turm apart with differences. Leaders of society called Khalifa now became the head of Islamic world. Abu Bakr, Umar and Usman made Madina their capital. After the death of Ali, Unmaiyad dynasty succeeded. Its Khalifa Muabia, made Damishk his capital. Abbasi dynasty acquired the seat of Khalifa thereafter which made Baghdad its capital. They belonged to the family of paternal uncle (Abbas) of Mohammad Sahab and originally belonged to Mecca. Replacement of Umaiyyed dynasty in 75 0 AD by Abbas dynasty is known as Abbasi revolution. Their rule patronized Iranian culture and there was decline of Arabian influence. Third Khalifa Usman was a Kuraish. Population of his tribe increased during his reign. For this reason, he bore anger of other tribes and he was murdered. Fourth Khalifa was Ali. After his murder Islam was divided into two factions, Shia and Sunni. 41

Ali ruled from 650 C.E. to 661 Ad and fought two wars against the aristocracy of Mecca. He lived in a cave. He defeated the army led by Aisha (Wife of Mohammad Sahib) in the ‘Battle of Camels’. The second war took place in Siffin (present Iraq) which ended with a truce. The first four Khalifas ruled from 632 C.E. to 661 C.E.. They continued to rule claiming proximity with Moha mmad Sahab to be the basis of their reign. The Arabian Peninsula was not congenial for trade and Islam could not prosper in absence of taxes. Therefore, they adopted the policy of war to expand their ideology. It led to accumulation of wealth by loot and spread of Islam by force. The first two Khalifas laid strong foundations of their empire through invasion of Byzatine and Sansani empires. The defeated who refused to embrace Islam were charged with Khiraj and Jazia. They had declared the Jews and Christia ns as protected (Dhimmis).

2.8.2 Major Festivals of Islam: - 1. Moharram: It is observed in first month of Islamic Calendar in memory of martyrdom of Hazrat Imam Hussain, grandson of Hazrat Mohammad, and his 72 followers on grounds of Karbala, all over the Is lamic world. 2. Barahwafat: - It is a festival of Happiness. On this day, Mohammad Sahab was born. It is celebrated 12 th date of third month of Islamic calendar. 3. Idul - Fitr - ID (Sweet) is celebrated on the day after 30 days of Roza () in the Ramzan month of Islamic calendar. 4. Idul Juha - It is celebrated on 10 th day of last month of Islamic calendar. It is celebrated in memory of sacrifice of Hajrat Ibrahim and his son Hazrat Ismail, forefathers of Mohammad Sahib. 5. Shab - i - Barat: - It is celebrated in memory and peace of souls of forefathers and hopes of good actions in future on 14 th day of eight month of Islamic calendar. Prayers are offered overnight.

2.8.3 Questions for exercise: - 1. In which month of Islamic calendar is Shab - I Barat celebrated? (a) First (b) Third (c) Twelfth (c) Eighth. 2. Who founded Islam? 3. Name first three Khalifas. 4. What is meant by Hijrat? 5. Explain main teachings of Hajrat Mohammad. 6. How is birthday of Hazrat Mohammad celebrated?

2.9 Answers: - Multiple Choice and Sort Answer Type Questions. 2.2.5 Vedic Dharma 1. (b) Kartik Amavasya 2. (c) Brahma Yajna 3. Males - Vashishtha, Vishwamitra, Anti, Angira, Gautam, Vamdev, Females - Lopa Mudra, Shraddha, Romsha, Vishvavora, Dhola, Surya, Yam. 4. They were created by God and not written by human beings. 5. Spiritual knowledge gained at the feet of the guru. Major Upanishads - Isha, Kena, Kath, Mandukya, Prashna, Tattariya, Aitrey, Chandogya, Vrihadaranyak and Shwetashwetar. 42

6. Indra, Varuna, Agni, P rithvi, Som. 7. It is a disciplined arrangement to conduct the world. All natural actions are continuosly, systematically and serially function for world interests. 8. Noble actions are yajnas. It was abulation of cow's butter through Havana to gain b lessings of Vedic gods and purify environment during Vedic period. 1. Prayer, adulation and remembrance of god. 2. Respect acsceties, shcholors and Rishi - Munis 3. To make Panchtatvas (Agni, Jal, Vayu, Prithvi, Akash) pollution free. 9. Two - Nitya (dai ly) and Naimittik (purposefully) 10. Peron reaps his own actions; therefore, one should follow noble path, noble deeds and pure heart. 11. On ninth day of Shukla paksha of Chaitra month of Hindu Calendar.

2.3.5 Jain Dharma . 1. (b) Brahmacharya 2. (a) Ch aitra 3. 24 Tirthankar 4. Tirthankar - One who carries through the cycle of birth and death. 5. Jain word is derived from ‘Jin’ which means victory i.e. controls over senses desires. 6. Satya, Ahimsa, Asteya, Aparigraha, Brahmacharya. 7. 1. Anekantvada 2. Sy advada 8. Three ways to attain Moksh - 1. Samyak Gyan 2. Samyak Darshan 3. Samyak Charitra. 9. Two factions 1. Digmbar 2. Shwetambar. 10. Ahimsa, Shanti (Peace and Aparigraha) 11. Fifth day (panchami) of Jayeshtha month. On this day. 2000 years ago, first Jain, Saint Dharsenacharya composed, Shatkhandagam.

2.4.4 Baudh Dharma. 1. (d) Vaishakha Poornima 2. (c) Kushi Nagar. 3. Mahatma Buddha 4. Four Buddhist Council - 1 st Rajgriha (483 B C.E.), 2 nd Vaishali (383 B C.E.), Third - Patliputra (283 B C.E.) Fourth Kundalvana Kashmir (C.E.) 5. Hinayana, Mahayana 6. Buddha delivered his first sermon to five brahmanas in Saranath. This event is known as Dharma Chakra Parvartana. 7. When Buddhan left his home at the age of 29 years in search of truth. 8. Duk ha, Dukha Samudaya, Dukha Nirodh, Madhyam Marg. 9. Ashtangitk Marg. 10. Suttapitak, Vinay Pitak, Abhidhamma Pitak 11. Madhyam Marg. 12. Gautama left his body and attained moksha.

2.5.3 Sikh Dharma. 1. (a) Guru Arjun Dev 2.(b) Guru Harkishan 3. Guru Nan ak Dev. 4. Nanakana Sahib in Talwandi near present Lahore in 1469 C.E. 43

5. By Guru Govind Singh in 1699 AD 6. Amritsar - Construction started during Guru Ram Singh and completed during Guru Arjun Dev 7. Ten 8. On Poornima of Kartik month.

2.6.2 Parsi Dharma 1. (a) Fire 2. Zoroaster 3. Ahur Majda 4. Avesta 6. Hang the corpse from a well, pillar or tree so that birds could eat it. 2.7.4 Christianity 1. (d) Easter 2. Jesus Christ 3. Bible - Two Parts 4. Seven 5. Christians worship for purity of soul by c ontrol of desires and fasting.

2.8.3 Islam 1. (a) Eight Month 2. By Hajrat Mohammad Sahab 3. Abu Bak, Umar and Usman 4. The event of migration of Mohammad Sahab from Mecca to Madina in 622 C.E. 5. 1. Sahadah - Allah is one and Mohammad Sahab is his only pro phet 2. Salat - offering namaz five times daily 3. Saum - Keeping fast (roza) during the month of Ramzan 4. Jakat - Donation of 40 p.c.. annually out of income to the needy. 5. Haj - Pilgrimage to Mecca and Madina by every follower atleast once in a life time 6. Barawafat

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Chapter - 3

Renaissance, Reformation and Industrial Revolution in Europe

3.0 Aims 3.1 Preface 3.2 Renaissance 3.2.1 Causes of Renaissance. 3.2.2 Causes for its initiation in Italy. 3.2.3 Effects of Renaissance 3.2.4 Literature, Painting, Sculpture, Music etc. 3.2.5 Questions for Exercise 3.3 Reformation: - 3.3.1 Causes of Reformation 3.3.2 Martin Luther and his contribution towards Reformation 3.3.3 Impact of Reformation. 3.3 .4 Counter Reformation 3.3.5 Major Scholars & Thinkers in opposition of Church and Pope before Reformation 3.3.6 Questions for Exercise 3.4 Industrial Revolution 3.4.1 Causes for Industrial Revolution 3.4.2 Various area of Industrial Revolution 3.4.3 Impact of Industrial Revolu tion - Social Economic and Political 3.4.4 Questions for Exercise. 3.5 Answers 3.6 Glossary

3.0 Aim s The chapter enumerates the transformation in art, literature, painti ng, sculpture and music during R enaissance keeping humanitarianism and human being in the core. Students are made aware of new changes in religion as a challenge to immoral & inhuman orders of Pope Reformation. Changes in world and social, economic and political impact on the world due to Industrial Revolution is depicted. Socialism which emerged due to protest against capitalism is explained. Struggle for citizens' rights by labourer and middle class and their organization into political parties is also enumerated. 45

3.1 Introduction: - Changes in behavior and intellectual matter s of man during 1350 to 1550 and cultural transformation which was witnessed is known as Renaissance. Man bec a me free f rom the fretters of superstitious tendencies, religious insanity and concept of other worldly pleasures.

3.2 Renaissance It is also known as the age of transition from m iddle ages to modern era and adaptation of modern thoughts. Church and orders of Pope were law for man in middle ages. These orders were issued in order to gain pleasures of the other world and religion which in turn laid restriction on thoughts of a man. Man started to use logic keeping individual and humanity in the core in the fields of literature, art, philosophy and science. Geographical discoveries and search of pleasure of human being became two main aims of Renaissance.

3.2.1 Causes of Renaissance: - 1. Enhancement in geographical knowledge due to discovery of new commercial routes. 2. Invention of gun powder and compass. 3. Concept of private property and inception of capitalism 4. Formation of Nations on basis of nationalism 5. Study of old culture and literature. 6. End of feudalism. 7. Introduction of eastern knowledge to Europe due to Crusades. 8. Invention of paper and printing press. 9. Capture of Constantinople, capital of Roman Empire by the Turks. 10. Rise of Mongol Empire.

3.2.2 Causes for its initiation in Italy: - 1. Due to capture of Constantinople by Turks, the Greek scholars, writers and traders migrated to Italy and brought with them a rich tradition of knowledge. 2. Italy, being the birth place of ancient Roman Empire, had remnants of Roman civilization, which reminded them of old pride. 3. Education system in Italy gave move importance to geographical knowledge than religion. 4. Feudalism had not taken its sway in Italy as compared to other nations of Europe A liberal independent ideology prevailed here. 5. The ge ographical position of Italy had made her a prosperous nation from commercial point of view. Italy was situated in middle of Mediterranean Sea. It was a centre of commercial activities between Asia and Europe. A logical outlook, therefore, developed due to exchange of thoughts. 6. Its trade had transformed the country into a prosperous nation. The affluent traders took pride in patronizing the writers and artists just like the rulers. Great artists and writers like Dante, Petrarch, and Buccaccio. Angelo, Leon ardo de Vinci, Machiavelli and Giberti, resided in Florence city of Italy. Due to its prosperity, the trader community considered a luxurious life and possession of luxurious things as basis of happeness. 7. A middle class rose in Italy which played a promine nt role by raising voice for political, social and economical rights and discarded middle ages’ superstitious traditions. 46

Important Characteristics of Renaissance: - 1. Local languages and secular literature were more treated with priority. Common languages how became more literary. 2. Renaissance created a curiosity to discover world which inspired geographical discoveries. 3. Humans and humanitarianism replaced Pope and other worldly pleasures. Ideology centering around joys and sorrows of human being, his problems and importance of his prosperous life began to be adopted. Efforts were made to make earthly life more comfortable and beautiful than life after death. Humanitarian outlook and sensibilities were paid more attention in sculpture, painting, archite cture, music and literature. Literary and architectural creations did not centre round the church and dictats of Pope, but around emotions of human beings. 4. Renaissance e ncouraged liberal intellectual development and logical thinking, now logic was used to understand the relation between cause and effect on basis of truth. 5. Scientific enquiries and experiments were given importance in education. 6. Inner feelings of man and outer beauty were given adequate place in art (sculpture and painting). 7. New cities were founded.

3.2.3 Impact of Renaissance: - Literature: - Religion and ideas centering around it formed the main crux of literary writing in middle age and which were decided by the Pope. Any literary work could be printed only after recognition of church and ap proval of Pope. Humanitarianism replaced religion and individualism replaced Pope during Renaissance. Now literary works were based on emotions of human being and its beauty. Dante, Patrarch and Buccaccio were famous writers of Italy. Divine Comedy by Dant e is a story which centres around joy and grief. Dante also wrote La Vita Nuova, a collection of love songs, which describes beauty of a woman. In his another work De Monarchia, Dante lends out his support for ideals of ancient Roman Empire and individual liberty. This book was banned for being anti - Pope. He wrote all his works in his mother tongue. He is also known as ‘Father of Italian Poetry.’ Petrarch collected ancient manuscripts of Greek and Roman literature. Petrarch is also known as father of Renais sance and also of Humanitarianism. Buccaccio wrote “Deca Meron” a collection of 100 stories which depicts moral corruption in affluent families of Italy. One of his other books contains description of ‘Black Death', an epidemic in Europe. His another exemp lary work is “Genealogy of Gods” which explains how knowledge makes a human being intelligent, moral and virtuous. Rabelais and Montaigne were famous French writers of this age. Rebelais raised his voice against religious insanity and staunchness Montaig ne spoke against terror of Middle Ages. He is honoured as the first modern man. Chaucer, Thomas More, Frances Bacon and William Shakespeare belonged to England. Chaucer is known as father of English poetry. His famous works include ‘Counterbury Tales’ Thom as More wrote ‘Utopia’, Bacon was an essayist. Shakespeare was a great poet, playwright and writer of that age. His famous works included Macbeth, Romeo Juliet, Hamlet and Merchant of Venice.Erasmus was a famous writer of Holland, who was a great humanitar ian. He wrote “In the Praise of Folly’, Carvantes was a famous Spanish writer who wrote ‘Don Quixote.’ De Monarchia’ by Dante (French writer) supports a state parallel to the church. Similarly, Marsilins another French writer opposed Pope’s interference i n political matters and choice of King. 47

Machiavelli, resident of Florence, criticized Pope and Church in ‘The Prince’ He is known as the modern ‘Chanakya’ of politics. Art: - The art of Middle ages was influenced by religion Orthodox traditions has restri cted the creativity of man. Now importance was given to joys and sorrows, beauty, thought and love. Nature came into limelight during Renaissance and subjects related to religion became secondary.

Last supper 1. Painting: - Giotto is considered as father of Christ painting. He made paintings different from the Byzntine style. Common man, besides Christ and Mary, also became subject of painting; Painting did not reflect apathy, now they reflected beauty. The three great painters of Italy were Leonardo da - Vinci, Miachael Angelo and Rephael Vinci was painter, scientist , musician, engineer and philosopher of Florence. He painted, world famous paintings, ‘ The Last supper' and 'Monalisa' . Similarly, Angelo wa s also a s culptur ist , architect, engineer and a poet. He painted the inner walls of tomb of Cystine Church of Rome with scenes of Bible. Last Judgment’ painted here is famous. Raphael's paintings reflect beauty, liveliness, motherly love and motherhood. Amo ng the best of his paintings is ‘Madona’, Jesus’s mother. The Eyck brothers of Belgium, Hubert Van and Jan Van discovered the techniques of mixed colours. Similarly, Hals depicted joy on faces of soldiers Monalisa , in his work ‘Laughing cavalry’ . Architecture: - Arches, Domes and mixture of classical Roman and Arabic styles replaced the dull Gothic style of middle ages. Saint Peter’s Church of Rome, Louvre palace of Paris, Saint Paul’s Church of London are the best exam ples of this age Donatello, Michael Angelo and Lorengo Giberti were famous sculptors of this age. Architecture in Renaissance Period 48

2. Music: - Christianity had imposed restrictions regarding music which faded away during the Renaissance. Martin Luther composed religious songs. Giovanni Palestrina was a famous musician. Violin was invented in this age. 3. Science: - British scientist Francis Bacon em phasized on investigating cause and effect law. The Polish scientist, Copernicus, proved the geocentric theory of the church as fallacious. He professed the solar centric theory i.e. the earth revolves round the sun. German astronomer Capler further gave his approval to the theory by propagating the principle of elliptical revolution of all planets around the sun. Italian scientist. Galileo invented telescope. Newton of England gave the ‘Law of Gravity.’ William Harvey gave the theory of Telescope 4. ‘Blood Circulation’. Now, subtle metals were used in medicines. Hailmont discovered de - oxide gas. Galileo invented pendulum which made manufactures of watches and clocks possible. 3.2.5 Questions for Exercise: 1. The musician of Renaissance period among th e following was: - (a) Michael Angelo (b) Leonardo da Vince. (c) Raphael (c) Palestrina 2. Who is known as modern Chanakya? (a) Erasmus (b) Rebelas (c) Chaucer (c) Machiavelli 3. What is meant by Renaissance? 4. In which country did Renaissance sta rt? 5. Name Major writers and their works in era of Renaissance. 6. Name major painters and their works during this period. 7. Name the churches built during Renaissance. 8. Write a short note on contribution in the field of science during Renaissance. 9. What were the political impacts of Renaissance? 10. What were the economic impacts of Renaissance? 11. What were the causes of Renaissance? Explain briefly.

3.3 Reformation The Pope and the church ruled in medieval Europe before 16 th century. Orders of Pope were mandatory on catholic citizens. The customs & beliefs of religions had restricted independent thinking of society. Man continued to live under the impact of church till his death. All the social, economic and political activities were conducted keeping in mind the religious practices. The logical mind and Effective Church decision making power of man was restricted due to - practices of society, 49

corru ption, immoral conduct, arbitrary orders of church, persecution of clergy and mal practices of religion. The s cientific, logical and critical mind which developed due to Renaissance, encouraged man to oppose ills of church and so called empire of clergies. The moral misconduct of the clergies had led to several superstitions, abstentious corrupt and immoral trends. The movement started to remove these ills is known as Reformation (To reform). It elevated the moral, spiritual and intellec tual standard of Christian world.

3.3.1 Causes of Reformation: 1. Scientific Outlook: - Reformation brought forward all the myths spread about nat ure and which had assisted the clergy to rule over people. Now man started to question logically and critically the relation between the cause and effect and accepted facts thereafter . T his scientific outlook weakened the influence of Church. 2. Rise of Middle Class and Trade: - Trade led to foundation of new cities and towns. The middle class citizen of these cities fo resaw its benefit out of trade. He aspired to live a luxurious life like clergies of church and feudals from profits out of trade while the commercial class could see its benefit by borrowing loans from banks. They preferred to pay taxes to the king rather than church so that the former could grant them patronage keeping in mind nation’s benefits Ambitions of this middle class forced them to oppose taxation system of the churches. 3. Economic reasons: - Tax exacted from people was deposited to the Pope in Rome. The rulers, therefore, wanted to get rid of authority of church as they wanted to spend this local tax on army to expand it. 4. Development of Nationalism: - Renaissance led to development of nationalism. The church and the clergy, on the other hand, regarded entire catholic population of Europe under Pope of Rome. Nationalists strived to get rid of Pope to establish a Nation State. The ruling class also saw its interests in this stride and thus supported the Reformation. 5. Ills of Church: - Clergies had given up their moral values, they lived a luxurious life and church controlled maximum land which was free from taxation. Church and clergies were themselves free from control of ruler. The former dispensed justice among common men, which was an intrusion in sovere ign rights of the ruler. Representatives of Popes interfered in administration which was objected by the ruling class. Any ruler could be dethroned by Pope’s order by virtue of power of ex - communication vested in him; therefore, both the ruling class and t he common men became a part of Reformation. 6. Effects of Renaissance: - Renaissance transformed society from dark middle ages to a logical one. It refused to accept false, pretentious, unwisely, corrupt and superstitions nature of church without testing them on logical grounds. Humanitarianism brought the joys and grief of common man to the core. Now service of human being was considered service of God. It shook the foundations of Church. 7. Intellectual Movement: - Renaissance gave rise to a long chain of support ers of humanitarianism which chiefly included Erasmus, Boccaccio, Dante, Lorenzo. They considered worldly joys as supreme and asked men to enjoy beauty of this world. They connected God 50

directly with common man. Man started to accept the conclusions reache d out of discussions, arguments and logic, as opposed to earlier execution of Pope's orders without questioning. These thinkers started exposing the corrupt and immoral lives of clergies before people and opposed it. Bible was considered as guiding path of Christianity and authority of the Pope was rejected. The rulers, on the other hand, also wanted to get rid of Pope. They wanted to increase their power by becoming fully sovereign rulers and rejecting to authority of Pope. They were weary of political int erference by Pope. They disliked collection of taxes by Church and Pope.

3.3.2 Martin Luther and his contribution in Reformation: - Martin Luther was a scholar of Christianity. He knew that path of salvation lay in belief and devotion to Jesus Christ and his spiritual teachings. He was greatly agitated by the luxurious, autocratic, despotic and immoral lives led by Pope of Rome. He bel ieved that only through repentance, a man could attain salvation from all his sins. Despotism of Pope, atrocities of Church and immorality and corruption of the clergy was at its pinnacle. When in 1517 AD, he saw Tetzel, a representative of Pope Leo X, sel ling letters of Indulgence in Germany, he raised his voice. According to these letters, a man could be redeemed of his sins merely by buying them. Martin Luther Thus, money was extracted from people immorally. Martin Luther strongly opposed their sale in Wittenberg (Germany) through his logic. Pope excommunicated him from Christianity. Martin Luther presented 95 Theses in opposition to the sale of these letters. People supported him. He demanded Nationalisation of Church, confiscation of property of Church and sovereignty of the ruler. The ruling class too stood in his favour. In a debate in 1519 with a representative of Pope in Lipjing, Martin Luther exposed the futility of presence of Pope between man and god. He published his views in three papers - 1. To the Christian N obility of the German Nation - He supported confiscation of entire property of church and freedom of German rulers from foreign powers. 2. The Babylo nian Captivity of Church protested against the Pope and his contemporary authority. 3. Freedom of a Christian - Bible was translated into German language along with principles of salvation, so that message of Bible could reach people directly. Pope excommunica ted him and ordered punishment. Luther burnt the order. Both the rulers and commoners supported him. In 1526 AD the first assembly of Speare was held in which the assembly was divided into Catholics and Lutherans. In 1529, a second Assembly was again held in Spears. Pope gave strict orders against the Reformation which were opposed by supporters of Luther on 19 th April 1529. These supporters were called Protestants due to their protest and their group became Protestantism.This group was recognised in 1530 t hrough Augsberg Treaty. There was a civil war in Germany from 1546 to 1555. The ruler, King Ferdinand, adopted the policy of conciliation. Treaty of Augsberg was signed in 1555 which contained the following provisions: - 1. The rulers were given freedom to cho ose their sect. 2. No other faction other than Protestants was recognized. 3. Property of Church captured by Luther's supporters belonged to them. 4. Protestants will not be forced for conversion in Catholic majority areas. 51

5. In case the Catholic clergies convert to Protestants, they will have to quit their office. Martin Luther expressed faith of a Christian in Jesus - Christ and Bible and protested against Pope and church. He considered faith and devotion to God as means of salvation. He approved of only three sacrame nts which were Baptism, Confession and Eucharist. The Protestants favoured translation of Bible into local languages and recognised marriage of the clergy.

3.3.3 Impact of Reformation: - 1. Christianity was divided forever into two groups - catholics and the pr otestants. 2. Reformation encouraged and recognised translation of Bible into local and provincial language to make it easily available to people. 3. Reformation favoured trade and commerce which led to increase in income of states. 4. Reformation opposed immorality and corruption of clergies. It led the Catholies to struggle for their survival. It laid down parameters for a moral and simple life style of its clergies. Thus, both the catholiecs and the Protestants began spending a simple, pure and ideal lif e. 5. Reformation also led to civil war between the Protestants and the catholics in which helpless common man paid the price. 6. It gave recognition to nationalism and considered one nation and head of the nation as supreme and sovereign. Powers of ruler were p laced over powers of church and the pope. Ruler was free to choose sect for his nation. Appointment of clergies was now the prerogative of the ruler. National churches began to be established in European countries. Pope was left as an international institu tion. 7. Reformation enhanced scientific temperament. The orders and regulations of Church were now accepted after much discussions and debates. It led to need to educate people and it in turn resulted into increase of schools which were supported by the stat e. 8. Discoveries invented in Renaissance period increased production.

3.3.4 Counter Reformation: The Reformation shook the foundations of the Catholic sect. Survival of the sect became a major question. Therefore, the Catholics started a reinterpretation of Catholic principles and teachings. A council was called in Trent, in north Italy which passed regulations which were reformatory. Pope was accepted as the supreme authority. Church was assigned the power to interpret the Bible. The basis of salvation wa s expressed in faith in Church and miracles, but letter of Indulgences were suspended now. Latin language was accepted officially but local languages too were recognized. Only educated and cultured clergies were to be appointed and they were instructed to lead a pure, moral life to present an example in the society. The seven sacraments were considered irreversible. A court of Inquisition was established to scare the Protestants and punish the atheists. Thus Counter - Reformation movement began against the re formation movement by the Protestants. In 1534, Ignitious Loyalla founded, '', whose members had to vow to lead a pure, moral life, and to serve humanity in a simple and selfless way. Its discipline was like that of military. Reformation in Britain : - Reformation in Britain was started by its ruler Henry VIII. He wanted to divorce his wife Catherine but the Pope disallowed it. Henry VIII got an "Act of Supremacy" passed by the parliament. He also severed all relations of Britain with Roman Cat holic Church and founded a national church, which was named as Anglican Church. This reform came to be known as Anglicanism. 52

Reformation in France: - Reformation in France was led by Calvin, who propounded the theory of Destiny which believed that the fate of man is decided according to wishes of God. Salvation can be attained only through blessings and grace of God and not by actions or faith. His sect consisted mainly of traders Calvin wrote ‘Institutes of Christian religion. He wanted to establish an idea l international sect. Reformation in Switzerland: - Zwingle was the supporter of Protestant sect in Switzerland who was a humanitarian and liberal thinker. He declined the authority of Pope and considered Bible as the guide. He initiated simple prayers to w orship God through an amalgamation of Luther and humanitarian views of Erasmus. He forced the Catholics for conversion violently, which led to a civil war in 1531 . Z w ingle was killed in this war. The war came to an end by Treaty of Capel which approved bot h the sects, the Catholics and the Protestants.

3.3.5 Major A nti Pope and A nti church Thinkers and S cholars before Reformation: - 1. John Wycl i ffe (1320 - 1384) - He criticised the corrupt system of Pope and regarded only Bible as a means to salvation. He was interested in translation of Bible into local languages. His followers are were known as Lollards. He is also known as 'The morning star of Reformation." 2. John Huss: - (1365 - 1415) - He was professor in Prague University and firmly believed that salvation can be attained only through Bible. A man need not visit the Church or obey the orders of Pope. The Zealots got Huss burnt alive by declaring him an atheist. 3. Savo narola (1452 - 1488) - He was a common clergy of Florence. He asked the Pope to shun the pretentious, luxurious, immoral and corrupt life and to adopt a simple, and pure life style. The Christian Council too ordered to burn him alive for discarding Pope's ord er. 4. Erasm u s (1466 - 1536) - He was a major humanitarian scholar of Holland. In 1511 he wrote "In praise of Folly”, which ridiculed the ignorance and pretensions of the clergies. A new edition of 'New Testament' was published in 1516 which interpreted the pri nciples of Christianity in a clear, simple and pure manner.

3.3.6 Questions for exercise: - 1. Who propounded the theory of export? (a) Zwingli (b) Ignitions Loyalla (c) Calvin (c) Martin Luther 2. Who was the Pope when Letters of Indulgence were sold? (a) Pope Leo x (b) Pope Leo V (c) Pope Leo VIII (c) Pope Leo I 3. Name the book written by Erasmus. 4. What was the immediate cause of Reformation? 5. Name works of Martin Luther 6. What was counter - Reformation? 7. In how many factions did Counte r Reformation divide Christianity? Name them. 8. What was the Treaty of Augsberg and what were its major provisions? 9. What is meant by Reformations? 10. Who founded Society of Jesus and what were it aims? 11. Comment on Anglicanism. 53

12. Name the reformer s who had to sacrifice their lives due to protest against Pope's and church's orders. 13. Who was John Wycliffe and what is he famously called? 14. What were the effects of Reformation? Describe.

3.4 Industrial Revolutions Industrial Revolution in commo n language means chain of changes in means of production of industry as well as production. It transformed the cottage industries of household into production by machines at one place. Now, the goods were produced by power and in industries in place of han ds and in households. Production started to operate on principle of profit based on demand and consumption rather than fulfillment of basis needs. It lead to an unpreceded increase in production. To obtain raw material for this production and to consume th e material in markets, a need for colonies was felt. Thus industrialization changed political, social and economic relations. Industrial revolution started from cotton cloth industry of Britain. The word ‘Industrial Revolution’ was first used by ‘Georgis Michalle’ of France and ‘Carlyle Ajenma’ of Germany. Arnold Toynbee used it for the first time in English for the changes between 1760 and 1820. It was not a sudden industrial event but had initiated for several centuries earlier and which displayed result s in present century. These continuous changes were described by Toynbee in his work, “Lectures on Industrial revolution in England.”

3.4.1 Causes of Industrial Revolution: - Following reasons were responsible for initiation of Industrial Revolution in England: - 1. The average per Capita income in England was higher than other nations in Europe. Products were in more demand due to enhanced buying power of the British. 2. The navy of Britain held monopoly over oversees trade and used power in favour of trade. The trading class encouraged trade through political control over nations with the help of navy. 3. England received the right to colonies a tropical country like India which provid ed raw material like cotton easily. It is believed that Industrial revolution began through cotton cloth industry which became possible only through supply of raw material from India. Manchester and Yorkshire, cities of England, came into existence only du e to cotton supply from India. 4. The real capital of England was in hands of commercial class who were heading for increase in production through scientific inventions and experiments and its consumption in colonies. This class was interested in trade and co mmerce. 5. Banking system had developed in England, which provided facility for loans and deposits. 6. Politics and administration of England encouraged trade. 7. Surrounded by ocean, England was facilitated with cheap transport and this fact encouraged it to becom e an international commercial centre. 8. Agricultural revolution had already begun in England in 18 th century. The surplus could then be exported through trade for profit. 9. Use of currency increased in England in 17 th century in place of barter system. Currenc y facilitated the labourers to spend more. 10. The population of 11 cities of England doubled in 18 th century which led to search for increase in production. This demand encouraged many inventions. 11. The basic needs for an industry like iron and coal mines were easily available. 54

3.4.2 Various aspects of Industrial Revolution: - 1. Inventions in industry of cotton clothes: - (i) Flying Shuttle Loom - It was invented in 1733 by John K. which made manufacture of broad sheet of clothes. (ii) Spinning Jenny: - It was invented by James Hargreaves in 1765. Multiple threads could be used simultaneously. (iii) Mule - It had characteristics of both Jenny and water frame. Thread of good quality and endurable thread could be manufactured. It was invented by Samuel Crom pton in 1799. (iv) Water Frame: - It was made by Richard Arcright in 1769 with which cotton cloth could be manufactured with great speed. (v) Powerloom: - Invented by Admund Cartright in 1787, this machine made thread which Spinning Jenny made strong thread. (vi)Sewing machine: - Elias Howes made this machine in 1864. 2. Inventions in means of communication: - (i) In 1807, America Robert Fultan made a steam boat called ‘Claimont’. (ii) In 1814, George Stephenson invented a steam engine ‘Rocket’. It was used to pull goods on railway tracks. (iii) In 1830, first rail was conducted between Manchester and . (iv) In 1880, petrol engine was invented which gave thrust to automobile industry. (v) Charles Goodyear volcanised Rubber in 1839 which made communication easy. Steam E ngine 3. Roads and Canals: - (i) Macadum of Scotland made roads whereby heavy stones, small stones and sand were placed consecutiv ely to make good roads. (ii) Bradley made Bridgewater canal in 1761 for cheap transport of coal which inspired construction of canals for cheap means of transportation. (iii) In 1869, French engineer Ferdenaid de Lasseps constructed Suez Canal which joined Mediterra nean sea and Red sea. It proved revolutionary in connecting Europe with Asia for trade and reduced the distance between Europe and India more than 1/3. 4. Agriculture: - (i) Drill machine to sow seeds was invented by Jethrotal

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(ii) Townshend suggested rotation of crop s which led to increase of fertility of soil leading to increase in yield. (iii) Arthur Young, a wealthy farmer offered to combine small farms into one and indicated benefits of such expansive forming. He also authored ‘Annals of Agriculture’.

Grain Filter Machine (iv) Between 1792 to 1815, ceiling laws were passed which led to expansion of crops but also drove away small farmers from farming. They in turn headed towards towns where they worked as labourers in factories. It further enhanced growth of industrial development. (v) Juston Bob Leving, a German chemist, displayed importance of manure like potash, nitrogen and phosphorus for crops. (vi) Whitney, an American, in 1793 invented a machine to separate crops from husk.

3.4.4 Impact of Industrial Revolution: - (i) Industrial revolution disrupted the system of joint family. (ii ) It increased the number of labourers. They were forced to live in unhygienic conditions in dirty slums. Women were discriminated in payment of wages inspite of same work. Children were forced as bonded labourers for even upto 18 hours. (iii) It made labourers and middle class conscious of their rights and inspired them to raise struggle for them. Social consciousness made them aware of their power regarding liberty and fundamental rights. (iv) It changed the relations between the owner and the labourers. The owners were now not associated closely with their employees. They were more interested in making profits by exploiting their workers. (v) There was a population explosion in cities. Most of them were labourers which resided in slums near factories. Health related problems and immorality were on rise. Absence of clean water and healthy environment led to epidemics. (vi) Due to increase in number of labourers, they were exploited in factories which forced them to form unions for their security. It was the beginning of labour unions which was keen to fight for its rights against owners of factory Government had to pass various labour laws keeping in mind the health and economic int erests of women and labourers. Political impact: - (i) Industrial revolution led to surplus production and it led to establishment of colonies for consumption of goods. It further increased imperial expansion and commercial competition. 56

England and France and later England and Germany became competitors. First World War was fought for this commercial monopoly. Colonies were exploited by the mother nations. (ii) Middle class and the labourers united for their political rights. Many towns came into existence as a result of industrial revolution and were unrepresented in Parliament. This demand of representation bounded the government of England to give voting rights to labourers, in 1867. (iii) Hours of work were fixed along with minimum wages. Laws w ere formed for security of child labourers. Now welfare state was accepted as a policy by the government. Economic Impact: - Industrial revolution encouraged capitalism. Big companies were founded. The banking system encouraged trade by providing loans. T his capitalism, on one hand enhanced national income, while on the other hand encouraged exploitation. Workers were given less wages in comparison of hours, they were asked to work. It paved for a new social class of capitalist which demanded for protectio n of national market and search for new ones. Industrial revolution completely wiped out the system of home production. Now cheap and quality goods were obtained from factories. It led the population inflow from their home towns to industrial areas. It tra nsformed England into a workshop, furnace of the world, and a banker. Class Struggle: - Along with increase in production and annual income, the revolution also led to a conflict in relationship between the owner and the worker. Supporters of capitalism i n England propounded theory of states interference in trade and supported free trade. Adam Smith in England and Turgo in France supported Laissez faire, i.e. free trade. Smith, in his work, ‘Wealth of Nations’, described the condition of workers as natural . He said that relations between the owner and worker are arbitrary. There is no compulsion. If workers are at loss, the owners are at no fault. Similarly, David Ricardo gave the principle of ‘Iron law of wages’ according to which a worker could not earn m ore than his income. Similarly, Malthus declared that workers can be controlled only by this poverty. Free trade and capitalism was proving hazardous for the workers. An opposition was only natural. Ideology of Socialism developed for welfare of labourers . Socialism meant social, economic and political equality. Its essential features include post according to qualification, equal opportunities, equal salary and minimum wages. It inspired the labourers to protest against capitalism. It was a social struggl e against individualism. Socialism demanded control of all classes on all means of production. A British industrialist Robert Owen implemented this ideal system of socialism in his factories. He arranged for social institutions for welfare of workers, mean s of recreation for all, minimum wages for a living and education for boys. Louis Blanc was also a prominent socialist of France who favoured improvement of condition of labourers. Thus two ideologies, capitalism and socialism developed in world which was to be a dividing factor in world in future. America, France, Germany, England and Italy became capitalist countries while China, Russia, Korea etc. became supporters of socialism.

3.4.5 Questions for exercise: - 1. ‘Wealth of Nations’ was written by: (a) M althus (b) Adam Smith (c) David Ricordo (c) Louis Blanc. 57

2. Name the British industrialist who implemented an ideal socialist system in his factories for welfare of workers. (a) Robert Owen (b) Louis Blanc (c) Adam Smith (c) Malthus 3. What is meant by industrial revolution? 4. In which country did industrial revolution first start? 5. Who first used the word industrial revolution? 6. Who invented powerloom? 7. Who invented rubber tyre? 8. Who constructed Suez Canal? What were it benefits? 9. Which machine did Whitney invent? 10. What were the reasons for the beginning of industrial revolution in England? 11. Mention social impact of industrial revolution. 12. Which ideology did Industrial revolution promote? Write a short comment.

3.5 Answers 3.2.5 Renaissance. 1. (d) Palestrina 2. (d) Machiavelli. 3. Changes in intellectual thinking and cultural behavior of man between 1350 to 1550 AD and the changes it brought in art, literature, science keeping humanitarianism in the core, is known as Renaissance . It reduced impact of religion and church. 4. Italy 5 . Writer Work

Dante Divine Comedy, The Monarchia

Chaucer Canterberry Tales.

Thomas Moore Utopia

Shakespeare Macbeth, Romeo Juliet, Hamlet, Merchant of Venice

Erasmus In Praise of Folly

Marsillio Defender of Peace

Machiavelli The Prince

6. Painter Famous Paintings

Leonordo da Vinci Last Supper, Monalisa

Michael Angelo Last Judgement

Raphael Madonna

Hubert and Ian Van Laughing Cavalry.

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7. 1. St. Peter's Church, Rome 2. Lowere Palace of Paris 3. St. Paul Church of London. 8. Theory of Gravitation by Newton, invention of pendulum clocks by Galileo, discovery of carbon dioxide by Helmot, invention of telescope by Galileo, Solar centric theory by Copernicus. 11. Discovery of new geographical routes, invention of paper and printing press, control of turks over Constantinople, capitalist ideology, invention of gun powder and compass, study of ancient culture and literature, rise of Mongol empire etc.

3.3.6 Reformation 1. (c) Calvin 2. (a) Pope Leo X 3. In the Praise of Folly 4. Sale of Letter of indulgence by Tetzel, representative of Pope of Leo X in Germany and its opposition by Martin Luther was the immediate cause. 5. 1. Address to feudals of Germany 2. Babylonian captivity of church of God 3. Salvation of Christian. 6. Protest by Martin Luther and growing number of his supporters, created the problem of existence before the Catholics. Therefore, the Catholics reformed them selves and it was known as Counter Reformation. 7. Two sects - (i) Protestants (ii) Catholics 8. Agreement reached in 1555 AD between the German ruler Ferdinand and Protestants on the question of choice of sect and recognition to protestant se ct. 9. Protest by Martin Luther on the issues like corruption, immoral behaviour, orders and superstitious customs by Pope and church in 16 th century, came to be known as Reformation. 10. Ingnitious Loyalla in 1534. 11. National Church of England wh ich had no relations with Roman Catholic Church was known as Anglican church and this Reformation in England was known as Anglicanism. 12. John Huss, Sevanrola. 13. John Wycliffe challenged the authority of Pope and considered only Bible as authentic . He is also known as the Morning Star of Reformation.

3.4.5 Industrial Revolution: 1. (b) Adam Smith 2 (a) Robert Owen. 3. The Chain of change in working of industries and production. It replaced cottage industries with machine made goods. 4. Georges Michalle of France and Carlyle Ajenma of England first used the word Industrial Revolution. 5. Cotton cloth industry. 6. Edmund Cart wright 7. Charles Good year 8. In 1869, French engineer Ferdinend de Lassep constructed suez Canal connecting Medi terranean Sea and Red Sea. It reduced the distance between India and Europe by one third. 9. Whitney invented in 1793, a machine to separate crop from husk. ------59

Chapter - 4

Development of Nationalism in World

4.0 Aims 4.1 Ancient Civilization of American continent 4.1.1 civilization and Culture 4.1.2 Aztec civilization and culture 4.1.3 Major causes of advent and settlement of Europeans nations in America. 4.2 Freedom struggle of America . 4.2.1 Foundation of American Struggle 4.2.2 Boston Massacre. 4.2.3 First Continental Congress (5 September 1774 AD) 4.2.4 Second Continental Congress and Declaration of Independence. 4.2.5 Causes of defeat of Britain 4.2.6 Influence of American struggle. 4.2.7 Questions for exercise. 4.3 French Revolution 4.3.1 Causes of French Revolution. 1. Political 2. Social 3. Economic Condition 4. Intellectual consciousness 4.3.2 Efforts of Reforms. 4.3.3 Major Events of Revolution - Tennis Court Oath, C onstituent Assembly, D ownfall of Bastille, March of Women, Civil constitution of clergy, September massacre, Reign of Terror. 4.3.4 Impact of French Revolution - Rise of Nationalism and rule of Directory 4.3.5 Questions for Exercise. 4.4 Rise of Napoleon 4.4.1Code of Civil Law. 4.4.2 Reforms related to Education 4.4.3 Agreement with Pope. 4.4.4 Continental System. 4.4.5 Wars fought by Napoleon (i) Attack on Spain (ii) Moscow E xpedition (iii) War of Nations (iv) Battle of Waterloo 4.4.6 Causes of downfall of Napoleon 4.4.7 Questions for E xercise. 4.5 Political Unification of Germany and contribution of Bismarck 4.5.1 Hindrances in path of unification of Germany. 4.5.2 Contribution of Bismarck - ( 1 ) W ar with Denmark (2) Battle of Sadava (3) Battle of Sedan 4.5.3 Questions for Exercise 4.6 Po litical Unification of Italy and contribution of Count Cavour. 4.6.1 Initial efforts of Integration - (i) Carboneri (ii) Young Italy 4.6.2 Count Cavour (1810 - 1861 AD) - (i) Plambiers Agreement (ii) Garibaldi 4.6.3 Questions for Exercise.

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4.7 European and Indian concept of Nationalism 4.7.1 Meaning and definition of word nation. 4.7.2 Questions for Exercise. 4.8 Answers.

4.0 Aim. An unexpected voyage of Christopher Columbus in 1492 led to discovery of a route and a continent which was about to effect the world history by the new world. This new world is known as American continent in the world. Columbus had infact, ventured out to discover Bharat and the continent he reached, he misunderstood it as Bharat. Therefore, he addressed the aborigin als of this continent as ‘Red Indians’ The sea route to this continent gave opportunity to European nations to reach out, settle down, trade with and found colonies here. America derived its name from Amerigo Vaspucci, the Italian sailor, who disclosed the truth of Columbus’s discovery that the newly found land was not Bharat but some other world. The European historians have determined history of this new world since 1492, ever since it was discovered by Columbus. By doing this, they have ignored the orig inal culture and aboriginals of America. These aborig in als, the Red Indians, have since then suffered racial discrimination. The aim to hide America’s history before Columbus’s discovery was inspired by colonial nationalism and expansionism of European cou ntries. This policy was followed by them in Bharat, , , , Indonesia and China. It is necessary to acquaint the students about history of aboriginals and local culture of America to give adequate respect to the struggle of the people against racial discrimination.

4.1 Ancient Civilizations of American continent 1. North America - Maya civilization and culture Aztec civilization and culture 2. Central America - Bahama islands - Aravac civilization and culture. 3. South America - Inc a civilization and culture. We come to know about these civilizations through travelogues, daily diaries of travelers, discoverers and sailors as well as architectural remains. These civilizations were basis of an urban culture. Like other prominent civi lizations of the world, this civilization was dependent on agriculture and occupations related to it. Like Indian society, nature and environment were given appropriate representation in their social and religious acts. 4.1.1. Maya Civilization and Culture: - In Mexco at present, this culture was related to a griculture. Farming of corn was basis of their life. All the festivals, fairs and other religious activities were related to sowing, reaping of corn. This culture seems to run paralle le d to Indian culture where festivals like Holi, Lohiri, Makar Sakranti were related to sowing and reaping of crops.

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4.1.2. Aztec Civilization and culture : - This civilization is also related to Mex i co. The society was stratified in which the religious class i.e. priests and aristocracy was at a high level. Division of work was according to strata of society. Maya Civilization and Culture

4.1.3 Main reasons of A dvent and S ettlement of European N ations in America: The Europeans were driven by many reasons to c ome and settle down in America. All these reasons can be summarized as 3G which stands for Gold, Glory and God . The European Nations were insp i red by commercialism and Aztec Civilization and Culture obsessed with possessing metals like gold and silver, Inspired by glory, they wanted to possess land of maximum number of nations and aimed at exploiting their resources in favour of their motherland. Third and the last aim was God - The main religion of European nations was Christianity, They regarded it a holy duty to proselytize other nations of world and destroy their local culture. They disguised this aim under the garb of service and education. 1. Discovery of G old, S ilver, P recious M etals and S pices: - European nations were temperate zones and therefore, farming of spices (pepper, , black pepper, cardamom etc.) was not naturally possible. But the re were a requirement of food. So to obtain them search for trop ical countries was necessary. Similarly, precious metals were considered a symbol of prosperity. Therefore, obtaining them by exploiting the resources of conquered nations was also an aim. 2. Desire for a share in administration: - The right to rule was exclus ively divided in ruler, clergy and the aristocracy in European nations. A large section of society was demanding their share in political rights. It was a situation of struggle for power. The deprived section who was tired of this political system hoped to reach and settle down in new areas where they could set policies and hold supreme power. 3. Spread of Christianity: - Discovery of new routes encouraged European nations to bring entire world into the orbit of Christianity and spread of Christian culture. For example, Spain and Portugal, 62

inspired by this instinct, were providing resources and capital for discovery of new lands.‘Capitulation’ the contracts also contributed in spread of Christianity. According to it, the Pope had promised prize to people who dis covered any new area. 4. Feeling of colonialism and Expansionism: - Supply of raw material and consumption of products due to industrialization encouraged expansionism. The main basis of industrialistion was agriculture and by products. Commercialism was driving Europe to colonise maximum nations in name of trade. To control them commercially and to boldly exploit their resources in favour of mother nation was only possible when their political system could be overpowered. These colonies were to be a big m arket for supply of raw mat erial and consumption of goods. This inspired search for Bharat, a tropical country but instead America was discovered. 5. Religious atrocity - Authority of Church reigned during this period. It extracted a number of taxes from peop le which was spent on luxurious living of Church and clergies. Church was playing the role of supreme judge. The atrocities of church inspired Europeans to settle down in other countries. 6. Wars: - A long war had ensued between England and France on question of being the centre of European politi c s. Other European nations were becoming part of this wa r by taking either sides. The commoners and the peace loving people were thus inspired to settle do wn in other areas. 7. Population increase and problem of s ettling the Convicts: - Increasing crime in European Notions filled their jails with criminals. At the same time increased population had also become a problem. Banishment was a form of punishment whic h then prevailed. The criminals were given an opportunity to reach and settle down in newly acquired territories not only to accommodate the newly increased population but also to settle down people who were inspired by Christian culture. European citizens arrived in America, New Zealand, Australia and South Africa thus inspired. Slaves were bought and sold for wars. They were considered as property and not humans. Therefore, the slaves were driven by the feeling to excape death in these wars for new settle ments. 8. New knowledge of geography: - Ptolemy wrote ‘Geography which enhanced geographical Knowledge , that the world is round inspired courageous sailors to undertake long voyages. Effect on A boriginals on a rrival of European: - The arrival of Europeans d estroyed the urban culture of America and their population. This cultural transformation completely changed their food, life style, dress, festivals, thoughts etc. The Red Indians were subject ed to serious diseases like plague, influenza, small po x etc. Th e invaders forced the remaining population to settle down in small areas through displacement. These ab a rig in als were forced to live as minorities in their own country. They were deprived of human rights and were forced to live a deplorable life. They live d like slaves, deprived of political rights, in their own country.

4.2 Freedom Struggle of America There are some misconceptions about the struggle between American colonies and England on issue of separation of America from its motherland, England. Some thinkers and historians address it as a struggle of revolution while other historians call it an exa mple of struggle of m utual commercial conflict or economic conflicts. In reality this struggle was different fr om other independence struggles. It was not fought by aborignials to get rid of any foreign power or against any fe u dal system, e c onomic exploita tion or social inequality. 63

The white population of American colonies, in the beginning, was not trying to get separate from their c ountry fellows (the British). They only wanted their share in profits accruing from trade. This struggle was inspired by commercialism between people of same culture, religion, style of living, language, complexion and thoughts, No American aboriginal and common men participated in it. . It was purely carried out for commercial partnership by traders and middle c lass. Karl A. Baker called the struggle between colonies and Britain as economic struggle . Colmbus Travel Route In fact, this struggle was between like those two brothers for a piece of lan d 'from where both had driven out the actual occupant out of it. This struggle was termed as struggle, fought for the fundamental rights of a human being. After the struggle, the ab a rig in als , commoners, women and slaves were kept deprived in constituent co uncil which framed the future policies of American colonies. They were also deprived of civil rights after the constitution was framed. The constitution was solely framed to benefit the commercial and middle class. Therefore, the so called freedom struggle of America needs to be introspected.

4.2.1 The bases of American struggle 1. Free atmosphere of colonies - The 13 colonies of America, from the beginning, had experienced freedom. This atmosphere had motivated participation of resident towards self rule, democracy and political partnership. England too, initially, did not interfere in their local administratio n which further enhanced the spirit of liberty and self rule. Later on, emperor George III, prime minister Greenville and finance minister Townshend interfered but it was too late. These politicians tried to manipulate the balance of trade in favour of Eng land and formed many laws. But by that time, financial independence had become a part of American colonies. Therefore, the laws which controlled the trade were strongly opposed. 2. Seven year wars: - The seven year wars between England and France had enhanced the influence of Britain. Now, conquered areas of France were also included in American colonial settlements. The residents of newly conquered areas were supporters of Catholic ideology. The Red Indians were also present in large number. They together, had no sympathy for England. The seven year war revealed to local colonial residents that it was no longer feasible to stay with England and that colonial settlements could too defect from the mothe rland, England. 3. Row between Governor and his local legislative council: - The colonies were founded by the orders of the Emperor. Governor and his executive council represented the emperor. They continuously interfered in local administration in favour o f England which resulted in tension between local legislative council and executive council of the governor. The Legislative council had banned the salary allowances of the governor and his supporter judges. 64

4. Lack of empathy for England - The residents of colonies were criminals who were exiled, tormented by cruelties of church and supporters of free trade. They had no empathy for England since beginning. They had arrived in America as a deprived class suffering from religious cruelties, economic exploitat ion and politically ignored. England, too, encouraged criminals to settle down in these colonies in a large number. 5. Intellectual awakening: - Intellectual awakening is required to bind common people to a struggle which comes from books, news papers, sati re, pictures, debates, conferences and protest movements. Thomas Paine, James Ot t is, Patrick Henry and Samuel Adams participated in bringing about the awareness. Thomas Paine in his book ‘ Common Sense ’ even wrote that no island (England) can ever rule over a continent (America). 6. Initial disinterest of England: - The American settlements were colonies of England, but she had, from the beginning, never tried to control them by interference in local administration. These settlements had experienced freedom in their day today life. Actually, at that time, there was a struggle for supremacy between the king of England and parliament. Therefore, the emperor could not pay attention properly. But when he tried to implement the colonial laws, the protest was natur al. 7. Theoretical differences between British Parliament and American colonies: - England was inspired by commercialism According to it, the colonies were mere suppliers of raw material and consumption markets of goods. According to traditional ideology of commercialism, positive and one side trade in favour of motherland was beneficial. The parliament of England considered itself supreme and considered exploitation of resources by controlling power of colonies as its right. On the contrary, the white res idents of America favoured free trade. They wanted to frame commercial policies for themselves and contribute a part of it to the emperor of England. The parliament had no empathy with the American colonies who opened that the colonies were framed by order s of the Emperor and not through legislative powers. Also, there was no representation of American colonies in Parliament of England. Thus, the parliament had not right to impose tax without representation. Thus, the American settlements were at no cost, ready to accept right of parliament to impose tax. 8. Wrong economic policies and Acts of Emperor George III: - Emperor George III and the Prime Minister Greenville were of the view that colonies exist for benefit of the motherland. They were inspired by the feeling of commercialism. The expenses incurred on America were high. Therefore, apart from extracting taxes they imposed following laws strictly: - 1 . Sugar Act 1764 A.D: - Before this Act, America bought sugar or molasses from the Dutch and French companie s with out any import duty this act restricted import of sugar and taxed molasses. They also forced America to buy these two from England. The custom officers began to follow this Act strictly. 2 . Currency Act - It declared all currency issued by colonies as illegal. 3. Quartering Act (1765) - Expenses of stay and food of government soldiers were to be borne by the colonies as England believed that they are there for security of the colonies. 4. Stamp Act (1765) - Stamps became mandatory on all magazines, news papers, licenses, lease papers etc. This Act was strongly opposed. The opposition was not about the amount of tax, but one principle. The colonies opined that since they do not have any representation in the Parliament, the Parliament in turn has no right to impose taxes. Due to huge agitation, the Act was suspended. 65

5. Tax scheme of Townshend(1765) - The finance minister of England, Townshend, imposed import duty on tea, glass and color. This Act was also opposed. Income from this duty was scheduled to be s pent on Governor and his executive. This Act became the foundation stone of American struggle.

4.2.2 Boston Massacre - In June 1769 AD the New York Assembly was suspended due to failure in the arrangements of stay and food of British Soldiers could fail fd . As a protest, three civilians were killed by the British soldiers in March 1770. Following this incident all the Townshend taxes were suspended apart from that on tea.

4.2.2 Boston Tea Party (16 th December 1773 AD) - The British parliament handed over monopoly of selling tea to in America. This company was to provide tea on a minimum price. This would have endangered the smuggling business of America. Samuel Adams and his friends reached the Boston port on night of 16 th December 1773 and threw the tea chests into ocean. This incident is known as Boston Tea party. To punish Boston for this act, George III passed five laws - 1. Boston port to be closed until losses was compensated. It meant ruin of the Boston. 2. The Catholics were given liberty to follow their sect. 3. Court cases regarding murders and other crimes were to be held in England or other colonies. 4. Arrangements for stay and food of British soldiers were to be made by local authorities. 5. The right to elec t parliamentarians of Massachusetts was given to the Emperor.

Boston Tea Party (16 th December 1773 AD

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Struggle of America against England

4.2.3 First Continental congress (5 th September 1774 AD) To oppose all laws related to Boston and to demand rights, all the colonies except Georgia, held a conference on 5 th September 1774 AD. It was decided to send a representation to England. Lexington Massacre: - John Hancock and Samuel Adams were arrested on 19 th April 1775. The British soldiers killed people who opposed it. As a protest, volunteers killed British soldiers.

4.2.4 Second Continental C ongress and Declaration of Independence : -

Declaration of America Independence Second C ontinental C ongress was convened on 10 th May 1775 in Philadelphia under president ship of John Hacock . All the 13 colonies appointed George Washington as commander on 15 th June. Richard Henry presented proposal of independence of America, which was seconded by John Adams. This pr oposal was prepared by a committee of five members which included Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, Roger Sermon and Robert Livingston. On 2 nd July 1776 the C ongress approved the proposal and independence of America was announced on 4 th July. Thre e important wars were fought in this struggle. England won the war of Trenton while America won the wars of Saragota and Yorktown. Washington and Roshambi forced Cornwallis, the 67

British commander to surrender in war of Yorktown. Victory of S erogata brought France, Spain and Holland in favour of America. Their powerful navy reached to protect America. France wanted to avenge its defeat in seven year wars. Trained soldiers of France like Lafayette, laid foundation of American victory. On 3 rd December 1783, th e representatives of England and American colonies signed the Paris peace treaty. The colonies of America were considered free. of America is celebrated on 4 th July as on this day in 1776, the declaration for its independence was accepted.

4.2.5 Causes of D efeat of England: - 1. The colonials were the original inhabitants of England. They were thus acquainted with political economic and social rights of England. They were demanding those civil rights which they had seen there. 2. The Britis h were fighting with their own brothers. Therefore, they lacked enthusiasm. People of these colonies were similar in personality, race, food, habits and worship so that of Britain. The British soldiers could not place this struggle in right perspective. 3. Distances of thousand of kilometers between England and America also posed hurdles in Victory of England. 4. Foreign powers like Spain, Holland, and French navy was ready to help America. 5. Ruler and minister of England like George III, Townshend, and Greenville due to their in competence and unforesightedness could not evaluate rightly the power of colonies. Their policies also were a reason of struggle.

4.2.6 Impact of American struggle - 1. Relations formed post struggle put an end to commercialism and free trade became witness to the increasing trade between the two nations. 2. After independence religion was separated from state and church Every person was given right to worship according to his will. 3. A written constitution, secular and federal republic were introduced in the world. 4. After this struggle, Britain realised that it was important to know and solve problems of other colonies or situation like American struggle would reemerg e. To prevent this British Commonwealth was formed which had representation of England and its colonies. This platform was working to stop or minimize any future conflict. 5. The policies of George II I were also responsible for slip of American colonies fr om British hands. The ruler was considered guilty. Now parliament emerged as a popular power and the powers of the ruler were reduced. 6. The American struggle inspired the Irish. They demanded to end commercial restrictions and foundation of an independe nt Irish parliament. England too, keeping in mind the Irish sentiments, made executive of Irish parliament independent. 7. French participated in the war to avenge its defeat in seven years wa r inspite of its weak financial condition. It further deteriora ted economic condition of France. At the same time, the French soldiers gained knowledge about civil rights and demanded the same in France. It further accelerated the advent of French revolution.

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4.2.7 Questions for Exercise : - 1. Independence day of Am erica is celebrated on (a) 2 July (b) 4 June (c) 4 July (d) 3 December 2. Number of American colonies (a) 12 (b) 13 (c) 1 (d) 9 3. Who discovered route to America and when? 4. After whom was America named? 5. What were the prosperous urban cu ltures of North America? 6. When did Boston Tea party occur? 7. What is meant by '3G'? 8. Who are called 'Red Indians' and w hy? 9. Where was second continental congress called? 10. When was American declaration for independence accepted? 11. What is the date of American independence? 12. What is stamp Act? 13. What is meant by Sugar Act? 14. What was reason for advent of European nations to America? 15. What was the impact of freedom of America on the World?

4.3 French Revolution 4.3.1 Causes of French Revolution Social, political and economic reasons, all the three were responsible for French revolution. This revolution took place against the ruling class for the contemporary political and social discontentment. The French were a gitated to change that political system which had sidelined them. 1. Political Reasons: - (a) France was an autocratic monarchy . K ing was considered as representative of God. The kings were

Autocratic Monarchy in France committing atrocities on people which were on increase. It had caused discontentment among people. 69

(b) The French rulers were inefficient indolent, indulgent and w ere incompetent from administrative point of view. The kind of competence required to run an authoritative rule was absent in Emperor Louis XII. He was under the influence of his wife Mary Antoinette. (c) The palace of Versailles turned into graves of French revenue. King along with his servants and officials was spending huge amount in pomp and show. (d) The laws were not unif orm in entire France. According to Voltaire, “Rules changed here as frequently as soldiers changed their horses”. The method of extracting tax was quite inhuman. Judicial system was corrupt. For example, any person’s name could be filled in the warrant Lat re de Cause, and he could be arrested without any reason. Subordinate officials of the emperor were using it against their opponents and common people for atrocities. (e) Though Estates General and Parle m a existed which could have controlled political dis satisfaction, but they were under the influence of aristocracy. 2. Social Reasons - Entire French society was divided into two parts - privileged and the under privileged sections. Priest, nobles and the king were empowered with rights where as labourer, farm ers, teachers, doctors, traders, artists and other moaned under burden of taxes. Inspite being a majority of the population, they had no rights in the administration, Farmers had to pay 80% of his income as tax. Labourers had either to perform begar or les ser wages. Traders, teachers, artists, doctors, small government officials represented the middle class. Since this class was monied and educated, it was asking for rights in administration. On the other hand, priests and nobles were only one percent of the population, but possessed one fifth part of state property. They had many special rights. They did not pay any tax but extracted taxes which they used for their own luxuries. In spite being a productive class, the farmers and labour class were leading life of minimum means and i nspite being the unproductive section, priests and nobles were leading a life of respect. Clergies imposed various religious taxes on people. Church possessed large properties and money. Even the right of dispensing justice was with the Church. The cle r gy class had lost its morality and was leading a luxurious and immoral life. Since the posts of officers were hereditary, members of nobles' family assumed the posts inspite of their incapability. 3. Economic Condition - Incompeten t ruler luxurious life, corrupt taxation system and hereditary civil government had weakened the economy of the country. Duties imposed on every mile and changing rules had restricted progress of free trade. Taxation was defectful injudicious and discrimin ating. Eighty percent of crops the farmers were taken as tax by the ruler and the church. Tieth was a tax imposed by the church which was 1/10 part of the crops. One company had the monopoly to impose salt tax (Bebel) which extracted exorbitant amount and possessed the right to punish. In order to enhance its reputation, France participated in American War of Independence and war of succession in Austria and further weakened its economy. 4. Intellectual Awakening - The growing social dissatisfaction of France was given an intellectual platform by the middle class. They popularized dialogues and talks through satire, poetry, plays, debates, conferences, assemblies and news papers. This middle class was in favour of equality in matters of equality before law and payment of taxes from nobles and the clergies. It was demanding its equal share in administrative and political system of France. The philosophers of France wanted to put an end to inequality between the privileged and the unprivileged class of France. Th is intellectual class was 70 constantly making efforts for political economic and social equality. These philosophers included, Rousseau, Voltaire, Didero, Montesque etc. Rousseau in his book, ‘ Social Contract ’ , gave the principle

French Revolution of liberty, equality and fraternity He believed that man was born free and every where he is in chains. He was infavour of liberating man from political and other institutions. Napoleon has considered Rousseau as father of French revolution. Similarly, Robesp ierre was a student of Rousseau and always carried ‘Social Contract’ with him. Voltaire waged an anti - church campaign. He was a staunch opponent of clergy class and addressed pope as foreigner. Montesquieu gave the principle of balance of power between ju diciary, executive and legislature. This principle of division of power is the basis of conducting administration in democratic countries till today.

4.3.2 Efforts of Reforms: - Louis XVI appointed Turgo as his finance minister who proposed three rule to increase income (i) No bankruptcy (ii) No increase in taxes. (iii) No loans. Free trade was also encouraged. He dismissed a tax called Korvi (begar) on the farmers. But Queen Mary Antoinette favoured the privileged class on question of suspension of salt tax and privile ges and Turgo was removed from the post. After Turgo, the newly appointed finance minister Necker proved how disastrous were expenses of this unproductive class (priests and nobles) by publishing statistics of income and expenditure. Offended by this, th e privileged class removed Necker from this post and appointed C a l l on e as finance minister who resigned after watching a worsened economic condition. Now Brian was made the finance minister. He convinced the king to summon Estates General to carry out fin ancial reforms.

4.3.3 Major Events of the Revolution: - (a) Commencement of session of Estate General: - (5 th May 1789) Representation of three classes was there in Estates General - the clergy, the noble and the common. All the three sat in the Estates General 71 as different classes. Each class had one vote, which is why the nobles and the clergies by voting togeth er would form a majority. The ruler doubled the number of members of common class but they still represented only one vote. Therefore, this class demanded voting to be done individually not as a class but as an individual. If accepted, the clergies and nob les would have lost majority. On 5 th May 1789, session of Estates General was convened in which 308 clergies 285 nobles and 621 members of commoners were invited. Thus there were 1214 members and including substituting member, there were more than 1600 mem bers. The privileged and the unprivileged classes were in conflict regarding the issue of voting as a class or individually. On 28 May, Abesi e s and Bai l ey the lawyers crossed over and came in favour of third house. Encouraged by it, the commoners declared themselves as National Assembly on 17 th June. On 19 th June, clergies also joined it . On 20 th June, the king locked the premises of the Assembly hall. (b) Tennis Court Oath (20 th June 1789) - After the Assembly building was locked, the third estate (commeners) assembled on a nearby tennis court. An oath was taken to stay there till the formation of constitution as proposed by Monier. This incident is known as Tennis court oath. (c) Constitu ent Assembly - T he ruler agreed to the demands of the third estate and declared N ational Tennis Court Oath Assembly as constituent Assembly. (d) Fall of the Bastille (14 th July 1789) The fort of Bastille was a symbol of atrocities over people. After the formation of Constituent Assembly, the queen and the noble class pressurized the king to dismiss Necker from his post and called the army. The c onstituent Assembly out of fear constituted National guard which was ready to protect people and property. Casemille Desemolla instigated crowd to r evolt. The crowd attacked the fort of

Fall of the Basteille 72

Bastille and freed all the prisoners. The houses of the nobles were attacked and their properties and documents were destroyed. People gave up the white flag of the ruler and instead adopted red, blue and white flag. On 4 th August 1789 C.E. the nobles and the clergies gave up their privileges, Ta xes imposed by the church were taken back and doors of government services were open for all. On 27 th August 1789, the National Assembly expounded some aims and principles for formation of constitution on proposal by Lafayte. They became basis of human r ights Acton says that the pages of the Declaration were more important than conquests of Napoleon. 1. Law of religious liberty was implemented. 2. Ownership of private property was recognized. 3. Liberty of thought was implemented. 4. Right of equality in government services was accepted. 5. Law of State to be based on wishes of people, they could not be arrested without legal rights and the state exists for protection of life and property of its citizens. (e) March of women: - On 5 th October 1789, the king was surrounded by 5 - 6000 women in Versailles for demand of bread. This is known as March of women. (f) Civil constitution of Clergy: - Under this constitution, the clergies and the church were made paid servants under the state. They were to take oath of constitution of the country. Thus, independent status of church came to an end.

Civil C onstitution of Clergy The clergies who adopted the constitution were called Jurors and those who declined were called non - Jurors. On 21 st January 1793, Louis XVI was sentenced to death. This event turned entire Europe an antagonist against the French. It put an end to monarchism. The National Assembly declared war against Prussia and Austria in April 1792. The volunteers sung 'Mershailles' song written by Radget de Laila. This song is national anthem of France. 73

(g) September Massacre: - During war with Prussia, the members of Jacobian group killed supporters of French monarchy and those of enemy nations. This messacre occurred between 2 to 6 th September 1792 under the guidance of Dante and hence known as September massacre. During 20 th September 1792 to 26 th September 1795, the administration of France was run by National convention. This period is known for mutual conflict between the Jeron dists and the Jacobians and massacres by the Jacobians. Inspite of all this turbulence, France protected itself from foreign powers and established a republic. The Jacobians and Jero n dists remained in tussle on issues like palace of Paris, on ruler and re sponsibility of September massacre. ‘ Jerondists: - Members of this group came from Jerond province of France. They were opposed to extreme importance given to Paris. They believed that France Paris is not France . They were idealists, impractical, republic ans and inexperienced. Brisson and madan Rolland were its major leaders. Jacobians: - They were related to Jacob church. They were very aggressive, practical and republicans. They conducted September massacre as a symbol of Reig n of Tesrror. Robespeare, Dan te, Maran were members of this group. Roberspeare carried out the rule of terror aiming to establish a mo r al state. The labourers were supporters of this group. (h) Reign of Terror : - The Jacobian leader Robespeare adopted the policy of control and punishment to protect the country from foreigners and protect the republicanism. Jacobians This policy was necessary to deal with the revolutionaries and foreign enemies. But the members of this group continued it to deal with mutual discord and satisfy their individual ambitious. This Reign of Terror came to an end on 27 th July 1794 with death of Robespeare. In 1795 the system of onal commention came to an end and all the powers of administration were concentrated in hands of a committee of five members. This system came to be known as Directory. Reign of Terror

4.3.4 Impact of French Revolution: - 1. Along with announcement of human rights, natural birth rights of humans were also announced which could not be suspended even by the state. 2. The ‘ division of power ’ principle of Montesquieu is still the basis of conducting administration in democratic countries today. 74

3. Principle of equality was implemented by p ut ting an end to privileged classes. It was decided to grant equality before law and equal opportunities in j obs to people. 4. Feudal system came to an end along with hereditary bureaucracy and military system. 5. Army was attached to the nation and its personal allegiance and devotion to the king came to an end. 6. The wave of nationalism borne out of French revolution reached out to other European nations which became basis of integration of Italy and Germany. This nationalism inspired Spain to struggle against Napoleon. Protection of country, love for nation, sacrifice inspired colonies to stand up against imperialism. 7. Religion was made a personal issue. Secular states were founded. 8. Education was separated from the church and was made useful. It was attached to a syllab us which was fruitful for the nation. The aim was education was considered as nationalist and humanit arian. Religious field was freed from education. 9. Labourers, farmers and middle class got the right to administration in political way. Deprived society could now stand before the noble and aristocracy on basis of merit. An equitable system of taxation was implemented. 10. The divine theory of kingship that king is a representative of god on earth and therefore, has the right to rule now came to an end. Now people came to know about their rights. People of similar views and ideologies grouped together and got or ganized into parties to conduct affairs of the country. Sovereignty of state stepped down from crown to people. 11. Beginning of republicanism and end of monarchies started with this revolution. 12. Beginning of democracy is considered to be from this revolution. France supported liberal democracy. 13. Liberalism in France encouraged free trade, commercial activities free from state control and equal taxation. 14. The French revolution introduced nationalism full of a certain ideology, one flag one national anthem and one army for every nation. Every nation was inspired to protect and die for his nation inspired by this nationalism.

4.3.5 Questions for Exercise: - 1. Human rights were declared on (a) 27 June 1789 (b) 20 June 1789 (c) 4 August 1789 (d) 27 August 1789 2. P rinciples like Liberty, Equality and Fraternity were expounded by - (a) Rousseau (b) Voltaire (c) Turgo (d) Co a l l on e 3. Against whom was the French revolution occurred? 4. Who was the ruler at the time of French revolution? 5. What is meant by Letters de Ca u se? 6. Name thinkers who aroused intellectual consciousness during French revolution. 7. Who wrote ‘Social Contract? 8. Who gave the Principle of Division of Power? 9. Name the ministers who made efforts for reforms before the revolution. 10. What was Estates General? 75

11. What is meant by Tennis Court Oath? 12. When is National Day of France celebrated? 13. What is meant by March of Woman? 14. What is meant by September Massacre? 15. Who established ‘Reign of Terror? 16. Comment on Jero n dists party and Jacobian party. 17. What was G i llotine? 18. What is meant by Rule of Directory? 19. What was the impact of French revolution on the world? 20. Explain the causes of French revolution.

4.4 Rise of Napoleon. Napoleon is counted among the greatest comma nders of the world He was born on 15 August 15 6 9 in Corsica. His father Charles Bonaparte represented Corsica in French court. He was the commander of French revolution. He ruled over France as First council from 11 th November 1799 to 18 May 1804 as empero r from 18th May 1804 to 6 th April 1814. On 18 th June 1815, in the Battle of Waterloo, he was made a prisoner by the British army in St. Helena Island. After six years, on 5 May 1821, he died there. According to historians, he was poisoned to death. His most important accomplishment was formation of a P enal code.

4.4.1 Penal C ode of Napoleon: - 1 . He gave a systematic form to laws by compiling them. 2 . Court marriage and divorce were recognized. 3. Importance was given to joint family system and discipline in family. Father was considered hea d of the family as well as owner of all property. 4 . Right to private property was accepted. 5. Farmers given right to ownership of land. 6 . Common code of law was implemented in entire country. Nopolean is called as ‘Second Justinian’. He violated the ri ght to equality by denying rights to the labourerrs. He was inspired by commercialism and therefore, took the sides of owners against the labourers. Napoleon himself accepts that his Penal code was better than his conquests.

4.4.2 Reforms in Education 1. Church’s control over education was demolished. 2. Family discipline, patriotism and military education were included in syllabus. 3. Religion was separated from education. 4.4.3 Treaty with the Pope: - 1. Church was considered to be under the state. 2. The stat e was to recommend the appointment of clergies. They were now salaried officials though the appointment letter was to be issued by the Pope. 3. Properties taken over by the farmers during the revolution were to be retained by them. 4. The opposing clergies were released from jail after they took oath of the constitution. 76

Napoleon used religion conveniently to maintain his power. He said I am a Muslim in Egypt and a Catholic in France.

4.4.4 Continental System and Order - in - Council. After being defeated by Englan d in Battle of Nile, Napoleon decided to defeat England in trade war and not directly. He kn e ws that strength of Britain lies in its, trade and profits out of it. Therefore, he declared blockade over Britain and its allies. But due to lack of navy he could not achieve his aim. On the other hand, England passed order - in - council in which she decided to possess and destroy ships of France and its allies detrimental. This continental system proved detrnental for France. Due to lack of goods and trade, iflatio n increased in France and other European nations. 4.4.5 Wars of Napoleon: - 1. Attack on Spain: - Spain had accompanied Napoleon in his victory run. Bourbon dynasty ruled there and Napoleon was skeptical about it. Therefore, he waged an attack on his ally, Spain. This attack strengthened wave of nationalism in Spain. Russsia, Austria, Prussia, Portugal and Sweden supported Spain emotionally. This atta ck isolated France in European politics. The wave of nationalism in Spain inspired nations of Europe to unite against Napoleon. According to Grant and Temperly’. The war of Spain soaked the power of Napoleon like cancer. Napoleon himself accepted that the Ulcer of Spain destroyed him.

Moscow Expedition 2. Moscow Expedition: - Since Russia had refused to support Napoleon due to C ontinental S ystem, France attacked Moscow. Five lakh French soldiers lost their lived due to excessive bitter cold of Russia and chara cter of Russian soldiers. It is said that Russian winters never face defeat which was proved by Moscow expedition. French soldiers did not die of military wa r but due to cold. Thus, the Moscow expedition remained unsuccessful. 3. War of Nations or War of L e i pjig (October 1813) – Sweden, Prussia, Austria, England and Russia collectively attacked France. This war is known as War of Nations Napoleon was defeated in this war. It formally ended the continental system. The allied nations signed a treaty with Napole on o f Fountain Blue in March 1814 and he was exiled to Elba Island on a n annual pension of 20 Lakh Franks. 77

4. Battle of Waterloo: - O n 30 th March 1814, Napoleon escaped from Elba, reached France and assumed kingship. The allies again defeated him in Battle of Waterloo on 15 th July 1815 and sent him to St. Helena Island as a prisoner. He died there on 5 th May 1821 due to illness of stomach. His remains were brought to France after 20 years. 4.4.6 . Causes of downfall of Napoleon: - 1. Spanish war or Continental war - The wave of nationalism which erupted in Spain as a result of French invasion formed an anti - Napoleon front and defeated him in war. 2. Continental system: - Napoleon attacked economic interests of England as he was skeptical about defeating her directly. He i mposed blockade on England and forced his friends not to trade with her. This increased inflation in Europe and friends like Russia were offended. 3. Expedition against Russia: - The Moscow expedition of Napoleon proved detrimental to France. Lakhs of soldiers died due to extreme cold without fighting. This expe di tion drained him financially and created an atmosphere against him. 4. Strong commercial condition of England and superior naval force: - Napoleon had tasted defeat in the hands of England in the Battle o f Nile. The continental system failed due to naval superiority of England. It gave moral force to enemy nations to struggle against France. 5. Insult shown to Pope: - Napoleon did not wear crown from the hands of Pope in Church of Nastedrum and wore it with hi s hands. He remarked, “I found this crown laying on the ground, so I picked it up with my sword .” Pope considered it to be his insult and the staunch Catholics become anti - Napoleon. 6. End of national character of Napoleons army: - The spirit of sacrifice and love for nation which was an inspiration in the army during the revolution, ame to an end due to recruitment of foreign soldiers in Napoleon's Army. Now, they were not fighting Napoleon Bonaparte for the country, but for money . 7. Long span of wars: - The wars which made Napoleon as victor in Europe, drove him towards devastation. According to S alvoane, “ All the reasons for downfall of Napoleon were buried in his past”. 8. End of ideals o f French revolution - Napoleon put an end to the main to basis of the French revolution which was republicanism and declared himself an emperor. He restricted the newspapers to write against him. He reestablished authoritarian dictatorial authority along wi th monarchy in France which made the French antagonistic. 9. Obstinate nature of Napoleon: - At the peak of power, Napoleon made his nature stubborn. He gave priority to his views and stopped taking advice. Not knowing the truth proved very detrimental for him .

78

4.4.6 Questions for Exercise: - 1. Against which nation was 'Order in council' issued? (a) France (b) Spain (c) England (d) Prussia 2. At which place did Napoleon die? (a) Elba Island ( Fr ance) (b) Saint Helena (England) (b) (c) Moscow (Russia) (d) Poland 3. What was continental System? 4. Between whom the war of Nations fought and when? 5. When and between whom was the Battle of W aterloo fought? 6. What was the Treaty of Concordat? 7. Describe three reasons for the downfall of Napoleon. 8. Explain major features of the Penal code implemented by Napoleon. 9. What was Continental war? 10. Describe major reasons for downfall of Napoleon.

4.5 Political Integration of Germany Integration of Germany began with formation of Rhine federation which was a natural outcome of victories of Napoleon. This federation was formed in Congress of Vienna by combining 39 States. Austria became the president of this federation and Prussia was its vice - president. Lipson considers victory of Napoleon to be the father of modern Germany.

4.5.1 Obstruction of Ger man I integration 1. Austria was the president of Rhine federation and was a big power of European politics at that time. People of different nationalities resided in its jurisdictions. It was a strong opponent of German integration. It did not want any nat ion to defect from its jurisdiction and form a new nation. If allowed, people of other similar nationalities would have tried to form a separate entity. 2. Though the integration was a result of European victory of Napoleon, but he himself did not want the rise of a strong nation in neighborhood of France. Therefore, he was a strong opponent of this integration. 3. England wanted to maintain his influence on northern States of Germany and its Southern states were under the influence of church. France consid ered itself as a patron of Catholism. Therefore, it was not in favour of integration by relieving the southern states of influence of Church. The people were also not unanimous about it. Some favoured monarchy and others republic. Supporters of monarchy w ere also divided on the question of leadership of integration by Austria or Prussia. Before the political integration took place, economic integration of Germany had been completed. It was the fundamental factor which benefited the middle class and tradin g community in political integration . A mong the members of Rhine, Prussia, was the largest state from military and economic point of view. It has signed treaty of Zollverine (custom duty) with Sonder - Sochen in 1818. According to Zollverine, a free trade wa s agreed upon between the two nations. The treaty enforced economic unity by ending the feelings of provincialism. Trade increased by leaps and bounds as a result. For this reason, by 1834, small states of Germany joined the treaty. 79

This treaty completed economic integration. The commercial class who was benefited from it, foresaw the benefits of political integration as well. They provided strength to reach the goal. On the other hand, Ruhr of Germany was rich in coal and iron. These metals were foundati on of industrial revolution. Zolleverin enabled the industrial revolution to reach to smallest of places. Economic benefits of Zolleverine made Prussia a powerful economic power. Austria was engaged in continuous wars in European politics which were cau sing economic losses. All these factors were preparing a foreground or basic structure of integration of Germany. It was to be led by Prime minister of Prussia, Bismarck.

4.5.2 Contribution of Bismarck: - Integration of Germany happened under Prussian leadership. William I, emperor of Prussia appointed Bismarck as Prime minister. Bismarck was a firm believer of monarchy a clever politician, expert of international matters and an efficient diplomat. He desired to integrate Germany by military power under the leadership of monarchy. He believed that the political problems of the time could not be solved through speeches and majority proposals but by the policy of 'Iron and Blood'. Therefore, he made Prussia a very powerful state Bismarck and armed with resources. It was important to drive away Austria, construct a strong Prussia and taking advantage of international conditions for integration of Germany. To give it a pr actical form, Bismarck signed secret treaties with other nations and made diplomatic efforts. The integration of Germany can be summarized into three wars. S.No. Wa r s Aim Treaty

1. War with Denmark (1864 C.E.) To prepare foundation for Gastien Treaty future war with Aus tria (Denmark, Prussia and Austria)

2. War with Austria Battle of To drive out reactionary Treaty of Prague Sadova (1866 C.E.) Austria out of German between Austria and federation Prussia 23 August 1866 AD)

3. War with France (1870 C.E.) To complete German Treaty of Frankfurt Battle of Sedan. integration by joining between Prussia and northern and Southern France ( 26 February German states 1871 )

1. War with Denmark: - The two states of Germany, Schleswig and Holstine were under the control of Denmark. Both Germans and Danes dwelled in Schleswig where as Germans lived in Holstien. Since Danes were related to Denmark they were against German integration. On the other han d, Germans favoured integration. Though through the Treaty of C L ondon in 1852, Denmark had accepted not to 80 merge these two states into Denmark, y et in 1853 Frede rick, ruler of Denmark occupied, these two states. Presenting an example of his diplomacy Bisma rk decided to make this issue a basis for future was with Austria. He gave these two states to Austria and made it ally against Denmark. In February 1864, the combined armies of Prussia and Austria defeated Denmark. On 1 4 th August 1865, and agreement was m ade at Gastiene between William I (Ruler of Prussia) and Francis Joseph (Emperor of Austria) It treaty was a specimen of diplomacy of Bismark. The terms of the treaty were to prove a cause for future war between Austria and Prussia. The terms of the Agreem ent were as follows: - 1. Holsteine, the German majority area went to Austria while Schleswig went to Prussia. The state of Holstenie with German majority was sure to merge with Germany in future. 2. The Duchy of Lavenburg was bought by Prussia. 3. Control o ver K e il, a strategically important port, was gained by Prussia. 2. Battle of Sadova: - Holstein was a German majority state. Its population strived to merge into Germany and get rid of Austria Bismarck supported the movement internally. He also found an international atmosphere congenial for this work. England was following the policy of no n - intervention in Europe. On the other hand, by supporting Russia against revolt in Poland, Prussia gained support of Russia as well for any forthcoming war. Bismark gained support of France by promising to give away some portion of the Rhine to France in case of victory against Austria to its ruler Napoleon by the Treaty of Biarites. Italy, tormented by Austria was also on its way to integration. Therefore, working on the principle that an enemy's enemy is one's friend, an agreement was reached between Pru ssia and Piedmont - Sardinia (Italy) on the question of Venetia. Thus, Bismarck headed for a war with Austria after secret treaties with Russia, France and Italy. On 3 rd July 1866, the battle of Sadova or Conigraz was fought which lasted for seven weeks. Pr ussia won conclusively, On 23 rd August 1866, a treaty was signed between Prussia and Austria in Prague which was soon to become a cause of war with France. 1. German federation came to an end. Influence of Austria ended. 2. Hanover, Schleswig, Holstein joined Pr ussia. 3. A federation of northern Germany was made under the leadership of Prussia. 4. Venetia was given to Italy and its integration was completed. Though this war was lost by Austria, but from political, diplomatic and strategic point of view it was a defeat for France. Now a strong, strategic and industrial nation stood besides it. The centre of European politics shifted from Paris to Berlin. Blood and Iron policy of Bismarck made him greater than Napoleon. Therefore, it became inevitable for Napoleon III to be at war with Germany. 3. Battle of Sedan: - The seven weeks’ war, or Prussia - Austria war had laid the foundation of France Prussia war In this tense atmosphere, Napoleon offered to buy Luxemberg from Holland which the latter refused due to opposition of German nationalists. In the meantime, an ann ouncement was made to install prince Leopold on throne of Spain who was related to ruler of Prussia. This would have enhanced German power. It was natural for France to oppose this proposition. The French ambassador made this opposition clear to William (R uler of Prussia) in Ems and demanded a written assurance. At this time, Bismarck received a telegram sta t ing 81 factual description of the meeting. He got it published in newspapers using his political wisdom. The publication had the desired effect. France an d Prussia both considered it as an insult to themselves. A war was fought in Sedan between the two parties on this issue. On 15 th July 1870 the Prussian commander Volt Moltke managed to get surrendered Napoleon III with his 83000 soldiers. Treaty of Frank furt was signed between France and Prussia. 1. On 18 th January 1871. c oronation of William I, emperor of Germany took place in palace of Versailles of Paris and German integration was accomplished. 2. Along with Germany , integration of Italy was also completed. 3. Germany acquired the French industrial areas of Alsace Lorraine. It gave an impetus to industrial revolution in Germany which also created differences between England and Germany on the question of colonies for consumption of ready goods. 4. The secret treati es of Bismarck and his policy of Iron and Blood created an atmosphere of doubt in the world. 5. France was fined war indemnity worth 20 crores. The Germany army was to be stationed in France till the amount was paid. France was insulted which laid the foundat ion of First World War. The impact of conquests of Napoleon which was seen in Germany was same on integration of Italy. He had divided small states of Italy into three parts. Reforms of Napoleon like unified law system, common rights, free trade, religious liberty, freedom of press and end of feudalism generated nationalism among people of Italy.

Germany at the time of unification

4.5.3 Question for Exercise: - 1 . Representative of which country was decided for political integration of Germany? (a) England (b) France (c) Italy (d) Austria 2 . Who was the hero of German integration? (a) Mazzini (b) Bismarck (c) Napoleon (d) Cavour. 3 . In which policy did Bismarck believe for political integration of the nation? 82

4 . What was Zollverin? 5 . Which wars contributed towards German, integration? 6. Between whom was the Battle of Sadova fought? 7. Between whom was the Treaty of Frankfurt signed? 8. Describe the contribution of Bismarck in political integration of Germany. 9. What was the impact of German in tegration?

4.6 Political Integration of Italy Like with Germany, Austria was the major reactionary force in way to integration of Italy. Pope had control over Rome, the capital of Italy. Population was a supporter of Catholic sect. Currencies of all state s were different. According to Mazzin, ‘These different currencies made them strangers. According to Austria Italy was merely a geographical expression. There were many social and orthodox beliefs. The aristocracy or noble class was also against integratio n. Contrary to Germany, Italy had not witnessed industrial revolution or basic am e nities were not available for it initiation.

4.6.1 Initial E fforts of I ntegration: - 1. Corboneri - Carboneri meant black coal or coal out of burnt wood. The organization meant to drive away foreigners out of Italy and establish constitutional freedom. This organization was found in Naples in 1810. Due to absence of fixed aims, it failed to achieve its aim. 2. Young Italy: - It was founded by Cavour in 1831. Mazzini is considered to be the spiritual force for integration of Italy. According to Mazzini, the real power of a ny nation resides in hearts of i t s youth. He was in favour of giving leadership of this revolution in hands of the youth. He was a supporter of republicanism. He filled the youth with spirit of sacrifice, struggle and independence. In the eyes of supporters of integration, Mazzini was an angel of God who had descended for integration of Italy .

4.6.2 Count Cavour (1810 - 1861 CE ) – He was the real father of integration of Italy. He was a practical, diplomatic politician and supporter of monarchy. He was in favour of integration of Italy under a monarchy. To convey his thoughts to people, he took a newspaper called ‘El Resurgent.' In 1852, he was appointed Prime Minister of Sardinia - Piedmont by Victor Emanuel. Cavour was well aware of the military power of Italy, He knew that military capacity of Italy was less and could not integrate Italy. Therefore, this integration was not possibl e without a foreign help. For this reason, he decided to make the question of Italy an international one. Cavour was practicising a practical polities. At that time, entire Europe revolved around England and France. Since England was working on policy of n ot interfering in European politics, only France was left from whom there was hope of cooperation. The French ruler, Count Cavour Napoleon, had sympathy with Italy. 83

Taking advantage of war between Russia and England - France on the issue of Crimea sent 18000 soldiers against Russia. This made Italy an object of sympathy for France - England. It provided benefits in Paris conference of 1856 Italy was invited inspite of opposition of Austria. Italy used this platform to present co ndition of Italy before the world and held Austria responsible for it. It was the first moral victory for Italy in integration. 1. Plambieres Agreement - Cavour signed an agreement with French ruler Napoleon at Plambieres and convinced him of providing militar y help. In return, Italy agrees to give away N ice and Savoy regions of France. Along with this arranged marriage of Clotilde, daughter of Victor Emanuel with Je ronm e Bonaparte, brother of French ruler, Napoleon Jerore Bonaparte was accepted as future ruler of a new state of Perma, Modena and Tuscany after victory in war of Austria - Sardi n ia. In this treaty, the territory of Pope was left untouched. Sardi n a was to receive Lombardy and Venetia. Soon after this agreement, Cavour sponsored revolt in Karara and Muss provinces. On

Italy during Unification this issue, a war was fought between Austria and Sardinia - Piedmont. On 3 rd May 1859, France too joined the war in favour of Sardinia under the obligation of Treaty of Plambieres. Sardinia won decisively in the w ar. The war ended with the Treaty of Villafranca (11 th July 1859 CE ) . This treaty was thou gh a disappointment for Sardinia , but foundation of integration of Italy was laid through it. 1. Sardinia got Lombardy 2. Perma, Medona and Tuscany became independent states . 3. Austria got Venetia. 4. A new federation of Italy was formed while maintaining the state of Pope. The terms of this treaty were verified by Treaty of Zurich. 84

This disappointing treaty initiated revolt in Parma, Medona, Tuscany, Romagna and Bolagna with sympathy of France and England. There was a referendum in th ese areas on 1860 in which Parma. Modena, Tuscany, Romagna and Bolagna decided to merge into Italy. Nice and Savoy, on the other hand, supported their merger into France. The second stage of integration of Italy was thus completed. Garibaldi - He is known as sword of Italian unification. He formed the group 'Red Shirts' His supporters were republicans and militarists. He attacked Sicely with 1000 Red shirts volunteers on 5 th May 1860. P eople welcomed him. The naval wa rships of England helped Garibaldi in t his mission.

4.6.3 Questions for Exercise: - 1. Which was the main reactionary force in the integration of italy? Garibaldi (a) Austria (b) Spain (c) France (d) England. 2 . Who was the main hero of Italian unification? (a) Bismarck (b) Mazzini (c) Cavour (d ) Napoleon 3 . Who founded 'Young Italy."? 4 . Name major cooperative organisations in Italian unification. 5 . What were the major slogans of "young Italy". 6. Who was the ideal of Italian unification? 7. Who was the sword of Italian unification? 8 . Name the organisation founded by Garibaldi. 9 . What was Law of Papal Gaurantees? 10. Clarify the role of Cavour in Italian unification. 11. What was the role of 'Red Shirts' and Garibaldi in Italian unification?

4.7 The European and Indian Concept of Nation

4.7.1 Meaning and Concept of word 'Nation': - Meaning of the word 'Nation' is expansive. To understand it, is important to know state and country. There has been difference of opinion among the sociologists regarding meaning of nation. In this context, the concept of Indians of is differe nt from those of Europeans. It is important to ponder over following issues to understand nation, state and country. 1. People 2. Geography 3. Sovereignty 4. Culture 1. People - It means group of individuals or sect. It is the prerequisite for every nation to ha ve group of people to be called as a nation. Existence of nation is not possible without people, for e.g. Arctic, Greenland and Antarctic. They are a definite land of earth but are not inhabited by any person. Thus, being uninhabited, Arctic, Antarctic and Greenland cannot be termed as nation. Population is also an essential part of state or country. 2. Geography - Group of people should inhabit a fix geographical land. This term is 'necessary for state and country but not for a nation as people of same nationality may reside at different places. 85

3. Sovereignty: - Sovereign, which means capacity to take self decisions which is freed from any outside pressure, ruler or power. As regards geography and sovereignty, there is a difference between nation, state and country. They are as requisite of nation but may not be indispensable necessarily. It is not essential that people of same nationality reside on a fix geographical portion. They may reside in different places. Similarly, when Bharat was subordinate and wa s not able to take independent decision she was a nation still. Sovereignty is an essential component of a country. 4. Culture: - Culture is soul of any nation. Existence of nation is not possible without culture. Bharat is a nation from times immemorial as he r culture is same from north to south and east to west. The nationalist concept of Bharat is based on cultural nationalism. Bharat is and was always a large nation. Therefore, it is not possible to have a common code of dress, food, language, style of livi ng, personality etc. Effect of environment, period and geographical conditions are natural. The western thinkers made a false statement by making these factors as parameters and said that language, colour, dress of all the inhabitants of Bharat are differe nt, therefore, they are not a nation. But these parameters are not the basis of a nation. If they were, why America and are are different nations inspite of a common language. If colour and skin were basis of a nation, all the countries of Europe sh ould have form one nation on this basis. Why are they divided into many nations? It is because of climate and geography. India as a large nation, not a small one where there are same conditions everywhere. In north there are Himalayas and ocean in the sout h, west is arid whil e there are excessive rains in East. Western thinkers also opined that there were many rulers in Bharat who exercised their authority. The Indian thinkers retort by saying that it was an administrative system and that such arrangements were necessary due to lack of communications in ancient times to run the nation. The western concept is that of nation - state which is in comprehensible. Only culture is the parameter which is mandatory for a nation Culture means our way of life. o ur festi vities, ideal men, sacred rivers, scriptures and pilgrimages which are always worshipped since ancient times. People of one culture or of same nationality are always bound to come together. That is why the East and West Germany became one again similarly n orth and South Korea have common cultural basis. They are therefore, in conflict today to get unified tomorrow. The few community is spread over the world for the past thousands of years but connected by nationality they came forward as Israeli nation. Bha rat has been a nation for past thousands of years. Foreign powers could not destroy its culture. Rome, Egypt and Greece were contemporaries of Bharat but their culture was destroyed by the foreigners. That is why Mohd. Iqbal expressed, Rome, Egypt Greece h as vanished from this world, but we possess something that our identity never fades out. Western thinkers accept common religion, language, race, and economic terms as basis of a nation which is possible entirely in case of nation states with small units. If religion had been a basis of nation, all the countries of Europe related to Christian religion would have become a nation. Similarly, all the countries of Arabian Peninsula following Islam would have formed one nation. But this is not to be seen. Hutt i ngton in his book, ‘Who are We’ has accepted culture as the basis of a nation. Similarly, French philosopher Earnest Renon in 1882 opposed the view that common language, race, religion is necessary to form a nation. He was of the view that nation is a broa d concept which rests in experience of common 86 desire, common resolution, desire for collective work and pride in past. Nationalism in inherent in great people related to the land their courage, sacrifice and their allegiance. The forms of worship are diffe rent in Bharat but common culture has maintained their fundamental tenets. Our cultural identity is to respect women, non violence is supreme, guests are gods, and truth is one but expressed by many in many ways and protect those who come to refuge. Theref ore, nation and nation state are not synonymous. The concept of nation is cultural and that of country is political. A student of history must understand the difference between nation, state and country. Most of the problems of world have propped up due to this misunderstanding.

4.7.2 Questions for Exercise. 1. Which is the essential component for nation, state and country? (a) People (b) Sovereignty (c) Land (d) All of the above 2. Explain main ideals of Indian culture. 3. What are the necessary components of a nation according to west? 4. What is considered as essential part of nation according to Indian concept? 5. Name two thinkers who have supported concept of Indian cultural parameters.

4.8 Answers Multichoice and Very short Answer Questions 4.2.7 American Freedom Struggle 1. (c) 4 July 2. (b) 13 3. 1492 by Christopher Columbus. 4. America was named after Italian Amerigo Vaspu c ci who revealed that it was not a new world but a different world. 5. Maya, Ajtec civilization and culture. 6. 16 th December 1773 7. Gold, Glory and God. 8. The aboriginals of America are called Red Indians Discovery of America was misunderstood to be of India. Thus the natives were called Red Indians. They were black. 9. Philadelphia 10. 2 July 1776 11. 4 Jul y 12. In 1765 King George III (England) imposed stamp on newspapers, magazines, books, licenses lease etc. in American colonies. This Act was opposed by most of all. The Act was withdrawn in wake of opposition. 13. In 1764 king George III restricted import of alcohol in America and imposed taxes on molasses and asked the custom duty officers to impose this Act strictly. 87

4.3.4 French Revolution 1. (d) 27 August 1789 2. (a) By Rousseu. 3. Against contemporary social condition 4. L u is XVI 5. It was an order without name and anybody could be arrested. Ruler of France and his subordinates misused this decree. 6. Voltaire, Rousseau, Didro, Montesque. 7. Rousseau. 8. Montesque 9. Turgo, Necker, Kalon, Brian. 10. It was an institution which had representation of all the three classes - nobles, clergies and commoners. All the three class had one vote each. 11. On 20 th June 1789, the ruler locked the building of Estates General in favour of nobles. Upon this, the commoners took the oath to stay till the constitution was formed in a nearby tennis court on the proposal of Monier. This oath is known as Tennis Court Oath. 12. 14 th July 13. On 5 th October 1789, 6 - 7000 women surrounded the Versailles palace to demand bread and made the ruler prisoner in this palace. This incident is known as March of the women. 14. Between 2 nd to 6 th September 1793, Dante put to death enemies of the country and aides of the ruler I t is known as September massacre. 15. Reign of Terror was established by Robespeare to protect the republic, suppress inner revolt and protect France from foreign attacks. 16. Jerondists were connected to province Jeround of France. They were I dealists and Republicans . They were against excessive importance of Paris. Bisson and Madam Rolland were its leaders. Jacob i ans were aggressive, practical and ultra - republicans. They summoned meeting in Jacob Church of Paris and were thus called Jacob i ans. Dante, Robspeare, Heber, Mara were leaders of this group. 17. Gillotine was the symbol of reign of terror established by Robespeare. 18. From October 1795 to November 1799, the administrative system of France was in the han ds of a Directory.

4.4.6 Napoleon Bonaparte 1. (a) France (b) Saint Helena (England) 3. Napoleon decided to destroy trade and commerce of England to defeat her in an indirect war and restricted in trade with other countries by blockade. It is called Continental system. 4. From 16 th to 19 th October 1813, Sweden, Prussia, Austria, England and Russia together defeated Napoleon in battle of Lipjig. It is known as War of Nations. 5. On June 18, 1815 a war was fought between Napoleon and Mat land, commander of Allies in which Napoleon had to surrender. He was exiled to Saint Helena Island. 6. It was an agreement with the Pope in which the clergies had to take oath of the constitution and become paid servants of the state. Now Chu rch was under the control of state. Farmers were given rights over land they had snatched from the Church. 88

7. 1. Continental System 2. Illegal occupation of Spain 3. Moscow expedition. 8. Organisation of penal code, posts according to merit, right to equality, civil marriage, acceptance to divorce, right to private property, discipline, importance of father in family were major points. 9. Napoleon attacked its own ally Spai n, removed Charles IV of Bourbon dynasty from throne and placed his brother Joseph Bonaparte on the throne, This incident incited nationalism in Spain which reached Russia, Austira, Prussia, Portugal and Sweden. It inspired all these N ations to fight against Napoleon inst ea d.

4.5.3 German U nification: - 1. (d) Austria 2. (b) Bismarck 3. Policy of Blood and Iron i.e. war. 4. It was a treaty signed between Prussia - Swzchberg - Shosen in 1818 for custom duties. It ended custom duties between both the nations. It ended custom duties between both the nations. It led to an unexpected increase in trade. This treaty is known as Zollverin. 5. 1. War with Denmark (1864) 2. War with Austria (1806) 3. War with F rance (1870) 6. Battle of Sedona was fought between Austria and Prussia in 1866 which ended with Treaty of Prague. Austria was defeated and Austria was driven out of German federation. 7. With defeat of France in Battle of Sedan on 26 th January 187 1, Treaty of Frankfurt was signed in Prussia and France. Southern German states were merged into northern German states and political integration of Germany was completed.

4.6.3 Political Integration of Italy: - 1. (a) Austria 2. (c) Cavour 3. Mazzini 4. 1. Carboneri 2. Young Italy 5. 1. Keep faith in God 2. Brothers, Unite 3. Free Italy from foreign powers. 6. Mazzini 7. Garibaldi 8. Red Shirt Movement 9. It was an Act passed by parliament after integration of Italy in which Vatican city and areas nearby were given under sovereignty of Pope. Now Pope was an independent ruler and could appoint ambassadors.

4.7.2 European and Indian concept of nation: 1. (a) All of the above 2. (i) Guest is god 2. The whole earth is family 3. None Violence is the supreme law 4. Protection of a refugee 5. Respect of Woman 3. Same religion, language, race, land, people and sovereignty. 4. Culture 5. H u tti pngton Ernest Renan.

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Chapter – 5

First World War and Russian Revolution - 1917

5.0 Aim 5.1 Introduction and P reface 5.2 First World War 5.2.1. Causes of First World War. 1. Clash of interest between various nations and division of Europe into two factions. 2. Extremist military tendencies 3. Economic and commercial competition 4. Role of Newpapers. 5. Problem of Bosnia - Herzegovina and Sarajevo murder. 5.2.2. Major events of First World War 5.2.3. Results of First World War - Political, Social, Economic 5.2.4. Summary. 5.2.5. Questions for Exercise 5.3. Russian revolution of 1917 5.3.1 Major Causes of Russian Revolution i. Political ii. Social iii. Intellectual vi. Economic 5.3.2 Progress of revolution 5.3.3 Nature of revolution 5.3.4 Lenin and Bolshevik Revolution 5.3.5 Impact of Russian Revolution 5.3.6 Summary 5.3.7 Questions for exercise. 5.4 Answers to multiple choice questions and very short questions. 5.5 Glossary.

5.0 Aim The present chapter aims to point out -  Which events were responsible for First World War.?  What were the factors involved in First World War.?  To give information about major impact of First World war  What was political condition of Europe during 19 th century?  Working of monarchy of Russia during Russian revolut ion.  To make aware of the contribution of intellectual class in Russian Revolution. 90

 To give information about role of Lenin in the revolution.

5.1 Introduction and Preface One prominent feature of Age of Armed Revolutions (1871 - 1914) was extremely high mutual distrust and apprehension amongst the European powers. The entire world lived in an atmosphere where a single spark could lead to destruction Russell once said, “The mo narchies of Europe tried to destroy the French Revolution and created Napoleon. Napoleon tried to crush Prussia and created Ficte. Bismarck tried to destroy France which created counter violence and world war started.” Russia was politically, socially a nd economically backward as compared to Europe. Its society was orthodox. Entire Europe, but Russia was affected by the French Revolution. Czar Alexander II granted freedom to semi slave farmers, but there main structure of society remained unchanged. Indu stries began to flourish during the later half of 19 th century and the workers started to organize themselves. Political consciousness was on rise and secret revolutionary societies were being formed. After being defeated by Japan in 1905, the Czar had to introduce reforms and had to summon Duma. When Russia had to face Germany in the First World War, a serious economic crisis prevailed in Russia. In 1917, the labourers revolted. Soldiers did not participate in their suppression. Lenin led the revolution af ter he returned from abroad and October revolution steered Russia to greatness.

5.2. First World War 5.2.1 Causes of First World War: Most of the historians categorise the causes of First World War into two parts - the long term causes and immediate causes. The long term causes had created an atmosphere of tension in Europe for which no one country could be held responsible. These causes can be divided into five parts: - 1. Clash of interests between nations and division of Europe into two factions: - There was an extreme clash of interests among European nations. France could not forget the way Alsace - Lorraine was acquired by Germany. Its policy, during 1871 to 1914, centred around the 91

reacquisition of these two places. Similar, interest of Russia and Austria clashed in Eastern question. Commercial and naval rivalry between England and Germany was at its height. Au strian and Italian interests clashed too. In 1882, Triple Alliance was formed. Every nation implemented the policy of compulsory military service. Organisations related to defense industry were building an atmosphere for war. The politicians wanted to take diplomatic benefit by presenting an aggressive picture and were bent upon avoiding every such move which would harm their country. 2. Extreme M ilitarism and N ationalist tendency: Leaders were not ready to accept any international law or contract which would be demeaning to their national pride. It was a dangerous form of nationalist tendencies. This aggressiveness was not only limited to Europe but also infected Asia. Nationalism of Japan was such an example. 3. Economic and Commercial Rivalry: - Spread of Economi c imperialism along with nationalism added fuel to the fire. Due to rapid industrial development of these European nations (the second stage of industrial revolution after 1870) every nation searched for new countries to procure raw material and new market s for sale of their products. European population was also on a steep rise. Therefore, new colonies were required to solve problems of stay, food and jobs. 4. Role of newspapers: - Contemporary literature and newspapers too played on important role in forming an atmosphere congenial to war. Major intellectuals of the world made efforts for peace, realising the upcoming war. Russian writer Tolstoy, Swedish scientist Noble, French intellectual Costan, British writer H.G. Wells were foremost in this direction. 5. Pro blem of Bosnia - Herzegorina and Sarajevo murder : - In June 1914, the Austrian crown prince Francis Ferdinand was on a visit to Bosnia with his wife. This visit aimed to win confidence of his subjects and this region was tensed due to Serb nationalism. Its S lav residents felt more proximity with Serbia. When on the last day of his journey, 28 June, he reached Sarajevo; the capital of Bosnia, a young Bosnain, Jaberell Princep murdered him. Austria declared war on Serbia on 28 July 1914, exactly a month after t he Princes murder, by attacking Belgrade, the capital of Serbia. The world was thrown to war. Almost all major countries participated in the war which formed two groups -

1. Allies - England, France, Russia, Serbia, Japan, Italy, China, Greece, Brajil. Later on America too joined the group. 2. Axis powers - Germany, Austria - Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey.

5.2.2 Major E vents of the First World War: 1. First World War 1914 - On 9 August, 1914, Germany declared war against Russia and on 3 rd August against France. It had to fight on two fronts - with Russia on eastern front and with France on western front. Germany made a strategy to attack and defeat France first via Belgium and then fight against Russia. On 4 th August when it sent its armies against Belgium, England too joined the war against Germany. German forces marched rapidly against France and reached only 15 miles away from Paris. The French government shifted to Bordia and there was terror in entire France. But with defeat of Germany in the Battle of Mourne (6 - 10 September), Paris was saved 92

2. First World War 1915. The Allies gained victory on new way Chapel front but had to face a strong resistance of Germany, through cannons and poisonous gases, during the second battle of Yepress in A pril. On 26 th April, Italy deserted its alliances and joined the Allies. Austria defeated Italy badly. This year was unfortunate for Serbia. Bulgaria joined the war in October and a t t a c k e d

S e r b i a

f r o m south whereas the Austre - German forces attacked from no rth. As a result, Austria was captured by enemies 3. First World War 1916: - There were two major battles on western front - Vardun was attacked and the battle continued for seven months. The Germans again failed and could not capture it. At the same time, in July, the Allies counter attacked Som, which was repeated in October and November and they were successful. 4. First world war 1917 - 18 and end of the war: - Austria surrendered in November after being defeated by Italy, Now Germany was left alone. Its navy revolted. The country faced strikes and revolts all over. In 9 th November Kaiser William II abdicated throne. On 11 November, a peace treaty was signed between German representatives and Marshal Foch, first commander - in chief of the armies of Allies. At 11 o’ clock, armistice was announced.

5.2.3 Results of World War: - The war affected almost all continents. Entire humanity, apparently or discreetly faced its implications. There were results of this war which spanned for more than four years. 1. Political Results: - A big change occurred in political maps and systems of administration. Three monarchies fell – Romonoff of Russia, Hapsburg of Russia and Hohenzollern of Germany. 93

Ottoman Empire in Turkey came to an end after the war. Austria and Hungary became t wo separate nations. Poland again became an independents nation. European dominance over world faced decline. America emerged as a new power and USSR too became a super power soon. Importance of Italy and Austria waned. There was an anti - monarchical wave i n world after the war as the Axis powers were mainly ruled by dynasties, whereas the Allied powers were democratic. Saving democracies was hailed as an aim during the war and thus when the Allies won, it was considered as victory of democracies over monarc hies. Almost all countries instituted democratic governments. But hypocrisy of western democracies came to the fore when they did not carry out promises of instituting democracies in Asia and Africa and continued to exploit them. The newly formed governmen t could not fulfil peoples demands and soon authoritatianism resurfaced in Italy, Spain, Germany etc. Now workers emerged as a powerful class in politics. A new economic, political and social system emerged in Russia which proved to be an option to free th e exploited class. 2. Social Results: - It was the most destructive war of the history, About 80 lakh soldiers died and more than 2 crores were severely injured. Lakhs of people lost their lives due to air raids, epidemics and drought. Immorality prevailed and problem of illegitimate children was on rise. Women had to step out to work in factories, offices and farms as there was lack of healthy males. They had to serve during the war. They gained confidence due to this exposure, discovered their importance in s ociety and developed political consciousness. Feminism gained strength and they obtained political rights. The background to the concept of ‘Women Lib’ was formed as a result of this war. The war resulted in unemployment, the resultant frustration, gloom c haos contributed in decline of newely formed democracies. Concept of racial superiority also came to an end in this war as the nonwhite soldiers of Africa and Asia displayed exemplary courage. Education received a setback. The scientists surged towards new inventions. Scientific inventions and discoveries were made. As a result, human society advanced on the path of development. 3. Economic results: - There was a great economic loss due to war. About 10 trillion of rupees were spent directly while the indirect expenses could not be estimated. The average expenditure of both the parties in the beginning of war was 40 crores per day which exceeded more than double in 1918. Entire economic frame work was destroyed after war. Arm factories were shut down. Raw materi al was unavailable for other economic activities. The supply structure failed due to destruction of transport facilities. Trade came to a halt. There were heavy rises in prices due to inflation, particularly in Europe, due to heavy unproductive expenses an d printing of currency in an uncontrolled manner. Thus it is clear that there were sever economic, political and social outcome of the war. 5.2.4 Summary It can be summarized that the First World War affected not only Europe but the entire world. It divid ed the world into two factions which caused further loss in economy, society and humanity. Three monarchies came to an end. Democracies emerged in various countries. Russia emerged as a powerful nation on the map of the world.

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5.2.5 Questions for exercis e: Multiple Choice Questions: 1. When did the First World War start? (a) 28 July 1913 (b) 28 July 1914 (c) 28 August 1914 (c) 28 September 1914 2. Which nation was not included in Triple Alliance? (a) Germany (b) Austria (c) Japan (c) Italy Very Short Answer Type Questions: - 1. Write two causes of First World War. 2. What was the immediate cause of First World War? 3. Who were Axis Powers? Short Answer Type Questions: 1. Comment on Triple Alliance. 2. Explain the causes of First World war 3. Comment on immediate cause of the First World War. 4. Explain social results of the First World War.

Essay Type Questions: 1. Describe the results of First World War.

5.3 Russian Revolution 1917

5.3.1 Major causes of Russian Revolution: - 1. Political Causes: - The authority of the Czar was arbitrary Liberal movements could make no impact on him and there was no restriction on his arbitrariness. Church, elite class, feudals and reactionary officials only gave encouragement to his arbitrariness. Some reforms were made as results of Revolution of 1905 and Duma was established but it remained often suspended. Alexander II was murdered by terrorist groups for his autocracy and staunchness in 1881. Alexander III was also an autocrat. Thousands of terrorists were put i n jails as a result of his policy - arbitrariness, religions fanaticism and Russianisation, hundereds were exiled from Russia to Siberia. Czar Nicolas II wanted to continue this policy of his predecessors. But he was a man of weak character. He lacked the v irtues of diplomacy, leadership and firmness. He was under the influence of Czarina who in turn worked under the influence of Rasputin, a corrupt mystic. Due to her undue interference, anarchy gripped the administration and war management Apart from this, the corrupt and inefficient bureaucracy of Russia had no intention of public welfare, There was much agitation amongst people against the bureaucracy. There was a great discontent against the policy of Russianisation which was implemented strictly during the reign of Alexander III. 2. Social Causes: - Inequality and wide spread discontentment in Russian society was also responsible for the revolution. There were two sections in society. Privileged group: - It included members of royal family, higher class an d successors to the state. They supported status. Disprivileged group included farmers, workers and slaves. It was a deprived and poverty stricken group who wanted a change. An organized labourer class had also emerged as a result of industrial revolution in the second half of 19 th century which registered its protest against unhealthy 95 conditions, long hours of work and minimal wages. Socialism was propagated in this section. A capitalist middle class had also emerged which led the revolution of 1917 in its first phase. It supported change or revolution to remove obstacles in development of commerce and industry. In 1861, farming slavery was abolished but they were not given lands. They reached a deplorable condition in payment of taxes. Lands if allotted we re owned by the panchayats. They were burdened with new taxes. As as result, the condition of farmers remained deplorable. About 1/3 of farmers were landless and they were subjected to exploitation by the zamindars. The farmers on one hand were made free b ut came under bondage of loans and taxes at the same time. In brief, the unprivileged class favoured an early and complete transformation. 3. Intellectual Causes: - Russia was influenced by the western liberal and revolutionary ideas. Radical ideas of Marx , Bakulin and Cropotkin etc. were studied in Russia and had an extensive impact on the labour class. Nihilist movement was also a radical group. Literature of Tolstoy, Turgneu, Dostovoski, M. Garki influenced the educated class of Russia. Their slogan was “Go back to people’. They wanted to reorganize the society completely. They spread their views among people. Thus, anarchism, nihilism and communism prepared an intellectual background to the Russian Revolution of 1917. Since different groups were not allo wed to operate freely, there was a rise in terrorism. Revolutionary leaders were exiled but their ideology worked secretly. Bolshevik party was major among them. 4. Economic Causes: - The immediate cause of Russian revolution was the economic exploitaion. R ussia had participated in the war with enthusiasm and had recruited 1½ crores soldiers for it. After some initial victories, Russia faced defeat in Battle of Tanenberg and it unleashed a series of defeats. Soldiers did not receive enough war material which resulted into discontent. Recruitment of young men in military led to a decline in farming as they were farmers and labourers. Scarcity of food grains began. Due to employment of transportation in the war, food products could not be procured from Siberia and raw material could not reach the factories. It resulted in strikes in factories and they had to be closed down. The drought of 1916 - 17 further worsened this condition. Continuous defeats and loss of men in war, fuelled discontent of people against gov ernment. This explosive economic condition made the revolution rampant. Thousands of people who suffered from unemployment and starvation resorted to looting of eatables. The administration became helpless. Its major strength, the army, also faced anarchy and discontentment. A soldier could not decide his enemy - the army of enemy or starvation of Russian winters. The Bolsheviks were arming the soldiers with political consciousness. The Czar simply lost control over the situation.

Petroguard Assembel y 1917 5.3.2. Progress of the Revolution: - The revolution b egan with demand for the bread, 96 the female workers of cloth factories at St. Petersburg or Petrograd went on strike. Next day, other labourers joined in. Along with these 80 - 90000 workers, the common men also got conscious. Strikes and red flags in procession became common. On 11 th March, the Czar ordered the workers to go back to work and dismissed the Duma. Forces sent to suppress them, joined them. The most trusted troops of Czar Regiment Praobrashencs also revolted. On 14 March, the liberal leader of Duma, Melvo formed an interim government after alliance with S oviet of Petroguard . On 15t March, on demand of the interim government, Nicholas II abdicated the throne. Thus, a three hundred years old R omono ff dynasty came to an end. The arbitrary rule of Czar in Russia came to an end due to March Revolution. According to Lipson, Petrogard played the same role in Russian Revolution, what Paris played in French revolution.

5.3.3. Natur e of the Revolution: - The nature of the interim government consisted of middle class. It included representatives of landholders, industrialists and civil servants. It also consisted of Kerensky, a representative of revolutionary socialist party who represented soldiers and far mers. The government chiefly aimed at establishment of a constitutional liberal government, It also aimed at carring out war with fervor, solving problem of land, keeping right to private property intact. Causes of success of the Revolution: - In November the Bolsheviks successfully carried out a bloodless revolution. Following were the reasons for its success: The Bolsheviks carefully carried out the second attempt at revolution and enhanced their power in soviets of Petrograd and Moscow. The s upport for interim government dwindled suddenly with unsuccessful attempt to revolt by Cornilav. The Bolsheviks took the credit for making this attempt a failure and increased their popularity among common people. The programme of Bolshevik party was very impressive which convinced the army, labourers, farmers and common people equally. The Bolsheviks were diligent and firm and had the charishmatic leadership of Lenin. The interim government faced the rage of public due to its war supportive policy. Due to above reasons, the Bolsheviks were successful in Bolshevik Army March to Red Squire overthrowing the interim government on 7 th November 1917 . 5.3.4 Lenin and Bolshevik Revolution: Success of Bolshevik revolution and establishment of Bolshevik government was a great achievement of Lenin, He gave practical form to Marxist principles and experimented them with communism and gave a new hope to the proletariat class. It was a practical symbol o f communism. He was greatly influenced by principles of Marx and was a radical changer. He was in Switzerland during 97 the revolution of 1905 and returned to Russia with the help of Germany in April. The nature of the revolution changed completely with his a rrival. He called to make soviets stronger and announced an effective programme for Bolshevik party which included termination of war, regularization of land, ownership of factories to workers and entire power to the soviets. On 7 th November, Bolshevik Rev olution was successful under his leadership. He considered termination of war as a necessary precondition for success of the Revolution. Therefore, he concluded the Treaty of Brestlitovask with Germany He was not a were theorist. He reconstructed the dead economy of Russia through his new economic policy. At the time of his death in 1924, Bolshevik government in Russia had gained its stronghold.

5.3.5 Impact of Russian Revolution: There were two revolutions in Russia in 1917 . First was the March revolut ion which founded democracy on western links in place of rule of Czar and which was based on liberal principles. But soon another revolution occurred by Bolsheviks in November which over threw the interim government and founded autocracy of proletariat cla ss. Lipson believes that there was only one revolution in 1917 but it was concluded in two stages - March and November. As a result of Bolshevik revolution for the first time government based on Marxist principles was founded in world. The Revolution not on ly influenced Russia but also the world. 1. Impact on Russia: - The first important achievements of Russian revolution was termination of despotic rule in Russia. It also destroyed the upper class and power of church. As a result of this revolution, autocracy of proletariat class was established The new Government set out to achieve the ideal of economic equality, adopted the policy that each be given job according to ones needs and capability. Russia lagged behind Europe when the revolution took place but afte r adoption of Five year plans in 1928, economic progress gathered momentum and it left the western countries behind in some areas. It was due to sustained and balanced development and economy that Russia remained largely unaffected by the great depression of 1929. As a result of the revolution, land of land holders was divided amoung the farmers, which resulted in expansion of agriculture in the years of come. The revolution while accepting the principle of social equality, suspended all privileges of the h igher class. As a result, clash of interest came to an end. Providing job became responsibility of government. Education received an impetus whereby technical and scientific education was promoted. Education became compulsory and free till 16 years of age. 2. Impact on world : Bolshevik had a worldwide impact being the first successful social revolution; it affected the future events of world. It gave hope to the suppressed, a ray of hope and enthusiasm after the success of communist and practical translation o f principles of Marx. The capitalists of world had to change their attitude towards the workers and welfare of workers became a priority. The revolution strengthened internationalism. Problems earlier perceived as national, now came to be looked in interna tional perspective. It also encouraged national movements of colonies like Bharat Russia was the first country which criticized imperialism and favoured the conquered nations. It suspended all the treaties based on inequality. It presented the example of r apid economic development through five years plans for the first time in world which was followed by newly independent countries. 98

After Russian revolution, Russia emerged as world power and it supported socialist movements and revolutions of world along wi th financial assistance. Resultantly, a large part of world map became red with communist influence. Adversely, it led to animosity between America and Russia which paved way for cold war and race for arms.

5.3.6 Summary: - It can be said that Russian revolution created a new social, economic and political consciousness in entire world. For the first time, the labourers and workers became aware of their rights. The communist ideology emerged on result of Russian Revolution. This revolution led to new p olitical polarization.

5.3.7 Questions for Exercise: - Multiple choice questions: - 1. Who was the ruler of Russia during Russian revolution? (a) Czar Nicolas I (b) Czar Nicolas II (c) Lenin (c) Czar ina 2. From which city did the revolution start? (a) Leningrad (b) Moscow (c) Petrograd (c) Vladivostok. Very Short Answer Type Questions : 1. What was the role of Nicholas II during the Revolution? 2. Which was the unprivileged class in the Revolution? 3. Which event started the revolution? Short Answer Typ e Questions: 1. Describe four reasons behind Russian Revolution of 1917. 2. Comment on intellectual aspect of the Revolution. 3. Explain the privileged class in the Revolution 4. Comment on Bolsheviks. Essay type questions; 1. Analyses the impact of Russian Revolution o f 1917.

5.4 Answers Multiple choice questions & Very Short Answer Type Questions 5.2.5 First World War 1. (b) 28 July 1914 2. (a) Germany Very Short questions 1. Division of Europe into military camps and clash of interest of nations 2. Murder of Serajevo, the Austrian prince 3. Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria Turkey.

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5.3.7 Russian Revolution 1. (b) Czar Nicholas II 2. (c) Petrograd. 2. Farmers, Labourers and slaves. 3. Revolutions started with demand for bread. 5.5. Glossary:  Duma - R ussian parliament  Bolshevik - Proletariat Class in Russia  Nihilist – Nature of the Revolution who raised the slogan. “Go to People”  Upper Class - privileged class of Russia.  Rommonoff - Ruling Dynasty of Russia.  Tolstoy - Russian writer and learned man.  Axis nation - Germany, Austria, Hungary Bulgaria and Turkey.  Allies - England, Russia, France, Japan and Greece

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Chapter 6

World Between 1919 to 1945

6.1. Aims 6.2. Preface 6.3. League of Nations 6.3.1. Establishment and Aims 6.3.2. Organisation of League of Nations 6.3.3. Achievements of League of Nations 6.3.4. Failures of League of Nations 6.3.5. Questions for Exercise. 6.4. Fascism and Nazism 6.4.1. Causes of rise of Fascism and Nazism 6.4.2. Principles of Fascism 6.4.3. Principles of Nazism 6.4.4. Questions for Exercise. 6.5. Economic Depression. 6.5.1 . Causes of Economic Depression 6.5.2. Results of Economic depression 6.5.3. Remedies to Economic depression 6.5.4. European federation plan. 6.5.5. London World Earth Summit. 6.5.6, Questions for exercise. 6 .6. Second World War 6.6.1 . Causes of Second World War 6.6.1 . Events of Second World War 6.6.1 . Results of Second world war 6.6.1 . Questions for exercise. 6.7. UNO(United N ations Organisation ) 6.7.1 . Aim of UNO 6.7.1. Organisations of UNO 6.7.1 . Questions for Exercise 6.8. Answer 6.9. Glossary

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6.1 Aims 1. To study establishment of League of Nations and its parts. 2. To understand World Economic Depression from 1929 to 1933. 3. To analyse dictatorship in Germany and Italy. 4. To study the responsible causes for Second World War. 5. To study organisation of UNO, its functions and its efforts to maintain peace and security in present world.

6.2 Preface: The First World War caused a heavy loss of men and money in nations of the world. As it ended, a conference of 32 nations was summoned on 18 th January 1919 in Paris, but Russia and the Axis nations were not invited. Policy determination in this conference was done by Woodrow Wilson (American president) Loyod George (British P.M.), Clementeau (French Prime Minister) and Orlando (Italian Prime Minister). After this, a treaty was concluded on 28 th June 1919 (Warsaw Pact) which made Germany weak economically and handicapped physically. Insulting treaties were concluded with Germany and the Axis na tions were at the receiving end which created an atmosphere of anarchy in the world. Commander of the Allies, Marshall Foch had remarked in 1919 that it was only an armistice for 20 years. Whereas America was adopting the policy of seclusion, Russia was pu rsuing intervention. Germany and Italy were filled with revenge and encouraging dictatorship. Danger of another world war prevailed. Attempts at peace were also in progress.

6.3 League of Nations 6.3.1 Establishment and Aim s : - Results of the First World W ar proved to be very fatal. On 8 January 1918, when Wilson presented his '14 point programme', then establishment of a league of nations for establishing peace on principles of justice was conceived. League of Nations was founded on January 10, 1920 as res ult of these efforts. its headquarters were placed in Geneva. Constitution - Its constitution was framed by a committee of 19 representatives under the presidentship of American president Woodrow Wilson. It had 26 clauses - Aims: - 1. To curtail possibilities of a future war. 2. To encourage international cooperation, security and peace. 3. To enhance sense of international cooperation. 4. To enhance judicious and respectful relations between the nations. 5. To implement international treaties dutifully among the nations. 6. To implement decisions of Paris Peace conference. 6.3.2 Organisation of League of a Nations: - It ha d three major organs 1. Assembly 2. Council 3. Secretariat 1. Assembly: - It was the main organ of the League and all the nations were its members. Each nation had three representatives in the Assembly whereas it enjoyed only one vote. Every nation had equal status. Its meeting was held annually in September. It had right to ch oose its president. All the decisions were taken unanimously. No nation could be made its member without the 102

consent of 2/3 of its members. Its functions included to deliberate on matters of world peace, accept and pass the budget, election of temporary me mbers of the Council, appointment of judges of international court of Law. Its first session was held on 15 th November 1920. 2. Council: - The executive of the League was known as Council which had nine members. It was divided into two parts - permanent members and temporary members. Five nations viz., America, England, France, Italy and Japan were its permanent members. But since America rejected its membership, number of its permanent members remained four. The temporary members were elected for three years and its 1/3 members retired every year. Its powers were limitless which included termination of membership of any nation for violation of constitution of the League, military action against the agressor nation, implementation of disarmament, solve internation al disputes etc. 3. Secretariat: - Office of League’s Secretariat was in Geneva. Its chief was known as General Secretary who was appointed by the Council. There were 11 departments which were run by secretary. Its major functions included to prepare agenda fo r pending issues in meetings of Assembly and the Council, prepare documents related to functioning of meetings, publishing agreements etc. Sir James Eric Drummand (Britain) was the first general secretary. There were two autonomous organs of the League. 4. I nternational Court of Justice: - It was founded on 20 th December 1920 in Hague. Initially, it contained 11 judges. Later on, it extended to 15 in number. They were appointed by the Assembly and the Council and their tenure was for 9 years. 5. International Lab our Organisation: - It office was in Geneva. The aim behind its establishment was to improve conditions of labourers and to provide humanitarian conditions for working of men, women and children. Its membership was optional for the nations and non members o f the League could also become its members.

6.3.3 Achievements of League of Nations: - The League was founded to establish peace in the world, avert war and promote mutual harmony between the nations. Initially, it was successful but later on, it failed to achie ve these aims. 1. Achievements in politics: - The League had to face almost more than 70 disputes. It solved the dispute between Poland and Germany in 1921 on the issue of sealing of boundaries during referendum in Silesia. Similarly, it successfully solved the issues like problem of Mosul, question of sovereignty of Mamel dispute between England and France, Latisia dispute between Peru and Columbia. 2. Mandate System: - It was a major achievement of the League. It aimed for welfare, progress and development of colonies freed from defeated nations in Firs t World War and make them competent for self rule. This responsibility was shared by the Allies. They submitted annual reports regarding administration of their colonies to Council of the League. 3. Social Field: - The achievements of I.L.O were most important in social field. Condition of labourers had worsened due to industrialisation. Therefore, this organisation worked for amelioration of their condition. It performed creditably for social, political, economic, cultural and spiritual upliftment of labourers . 103

In 1923, the League founded world Health Organisation (W.H.O.) which worked to prevent cholera, malaria, chicken pox, T.B. etc. It also made efforts to restrict trace of opium and drugs along with release of prisoners of war and women welfare.

6.3.4 Failures of the League: - It failed to solve disputes of big nations, for e.g. it could not take strong actions against Polan d during Vienna dispute and Italy Korgu dispute. When Japan attacked and captured Manchuria, a large province of China, the League could take no action. When Germany made military services compulsory and caputed Austria in 1938, the League did not take any action. Similarly, during Italy's accupation of Ethiopia and Russian occupation of Fin land, the League could not act. T he most important rea son for fait l ure of the League was that America was not its member. Another reason was absence of its personal army.

6.3.5 Questions for Exercise: - 1. How many organs did the League have? (a) One (b) Three (c) Five (c) Six 2. The Headquarters of I.L.O is situated (a) Geneva (b) Paris (c) London (c) Beijing 3. What were the aims of League of Nations? 4. Describe major organs of the League. 5. Mention important achievements of the League.

6.4 Fascism and Nazism. A situation of apprehension had developed for democratic governments after the First World War. The democratic values as well as governments in Italy and Germany had declined and dictatorship replaced them. Dictatorial governments under Mussolini and Hitle r were established respectively Mussolin in Italy formed government of Fascist party while Hitler in Germany that of Nazi party.

6.4.1 Causes of rise of Fascism and Nazism: - 1. Treaty of Vesailles: - This treaty was imposed on Germany. Therefore, Weimer republic was blamed for it. Hitler considered this treaty as an insult and assured people correction of this insult caused due to democrats. Thus, the Germans supported a dictator like Hitler to take r evenge of their insult. On the other hand, Italy had participated in the First World War on the side of the Allies, for which it was promised Titol Tritino, Dalmesia, Austria & Alvania under of the London Treaty of 1915. But after the war was over, the All ies dismissed this treaty. Anger and sorrow was rampant in Italy. People considered it as a diplomatic defeat of its government and the youth pondered over forming as organisation which prepared the background of rise of Fascist Party. 2. Economic Crisis: - The world wide Economic Depression(1929 - 1933) had devastated the economy of Germany and Italy. Devaluation of currency, downfall of industries, crisis of capital in public sector, deplorable condition of peasants, workers and small traders followed countr y wide dissent and economic plight, created dissent among people towards the contemporary government. At this time, Hitler and 104

Mussolini assured commoners along with workers and peasants to overcome this economic crisis. As a result, every section of socie ty supported Fascism and Nazism and paved way for their rise. 3. Rise of Socialism and Communism: - The Socialist and Communist parties believed in direct action rather than in constitutional means. They included the unemployed, workers, farmers and lower m iddle class who were influenced by the Bolshevik revolution of Russia. The Socialist party in Italy won the electionss of 1919. This party was inspired by Marxist ideology, which believed in nationalism rather than international cooperation. Fascist party was also inspired by nationalism and therefore, the socialist party supported it. Communist party in Germany won the elections of 1930 and 1932. Communists opposed capitalism. Therefore, the leaders of Nazi party systematically waged a campaign against com munists and were supported by the capitalists. Thus, the support of capitalists paved way for the rise of Nazi party. 4. Incompetence of Democratic Governments: - The economic condition of Italy worsened after the First world war. Its agriculture, industrie s, commerce declined and the government could not take any substantial measures. After the elections of 1920, the Communist party occupied two third seats in chamber of deputies and the government failed to curb their rising power. When the fascist leader Mussolini crushed the socialists, the government assumed that they would mutually destroy each other. But it in turn, resulted in increase of popularity and power of Mussolini. He suppressed the Republican government of Italy and established total control over Italy under the leadership of Fascist party. The Weimer government in Germany was formed to get through the nation out of unemployment, poverty and stagnation. But there was lack of discipline in Parliament and the government wasted its time in usel ess discussions and debates. Therefore, the Germans wanted to support a person who would avenge the insult of Treaty of Versailles revamp the German economy. Hitler first promised this and thus, the people started supporting Hitler and his Nazi party. 6.4. 2 Principles of Fascism: - The father of Fascism in Italy was Mussolini. Fascism had no original principle of its own but a conglomeration of various thoughts from different sources. Its fundamental principles were as follows: - 1. To establish a dictatorial nation: - Mussolini believed in authority of one person and therefore, he made utmost efforts to increase the power of the Fascist party. Members of this party followed the policies and orders of their leaders like disciplined soldiers. Mussolini, leader of this pa rty, was known as Deuce and he had full control over political, social and economic institutions of Italy. The home and foreign policy of nation was also controlled by Mussolini. 2. Anti individualism: - Fascism considered state as supreme and Mussolini opposed personal interests. Therefore, Mursolin did not strive for personal interests of people as his priority was to develop the infrastructure of nation. He wanted to provide rights and privileges to people only upto that extent where they did not hamper interests of the nations. He wanted to handover the right to determine rights and liberties of citizens in the hands of nation. 3. Opposition to democracy and communism: - Decision and order of leader was acceptable to all in Fascism. Therefore, he opposed democracy. He called democracy a government of fools. Therefore, he dismissed autonomous institutions and prohibited press and speech. Thus, he found a totalitarian state in place of democracy. Communism considered economic aspects m ost 105

important for development of humanity whereas, Fascism considered political descision as decisive. Communism believed in class struggle of Karl Marx and Fascism opposed it. Therefore, Fascists opposed communism. 4. Support to policy of War: - Fascism was opposed to peace and supported war. Therefore, Mussolini opposed League of Nations and convinced that a nation can only reach its pinnacle through war According to him, war meant surging forward and peace meant maintaining status quo. Therefore, he advised members of this party to for bear hardships and carry forward the policy of war. Principle of National Federation: - This concept of Mussolini accepted importance and existence of both the capitalists and labourers. He did not uphold political and economic liberties. He established full control of the state over the capitalists and the labourers. In 1926 C.E. he founded National Federation in the country of which he upheld supreme control. The federation resolved all struggles and solved the differences bet ween the capitalists and the labourers.

6.4.3 Principles of Nazim: - Nazi party was founded under the leadership of Hitler. He imposed many restrictions on his opponents, provided many facilities to commoners and implemented principles of Nazims for econo mic, social and educational development. 1. Establishment of dictatorship: - Like Mussolini, Hitler too, did not believe in democratic system of government. He believed that only one party can develop a nation. Therefore, the Parliament invested all the po wers in him for four years, after which he assassinated all his opponents and became the dictator of Germany. The last Saturday of 1934 was called ‘Bloody Saturday’, as Hitler ordered massacre of all his opponents on this day. He suspended all civil rights and restricted speech, debates and press. 2. Suppression of Jews: - Hitler considered the ‘Aryas’ as the noblest caste in the world and hated the non - Aryans, especially the Jews, whom he considered of mean origin. The Jews of Germany were educated and had monopoly over trade. Hitler declared them to be the sole cause of G ermanys defeat in the First World War and deprived them of suffrage. They were deprived of German ci tizenship and had to submit entire account of property to the government. Their children were deprived of education. Many Jews were sentenced to death. He likewise took many steps for their suppression. Hitler 3. Economic Policy: - Nazi Party weighed the nation higher than the individual.The economic condition of Germa ny was deplorable at this time and unemployment was rampant. Hitler established factories, provided employment and reformed the agricultural system. He took away the rights to buy and sell land from the farmers but provided many facilities to them. He foun ded ‘German Labour Front’ to resolve disputes between owners of factories and the labourers. He also fixed number of working hours for the labourers. 4. Education policy: - He firmly controlled the education system and resources. He himself made appointment s for teachers. He made several changes to the syllabi of schools and colleges. Through educational institutions, he proved Germany to be the best nation and its civilization and culture to be the best. The history of Germany was re - written. The students w ere taught the superiority and invincibility of the German race. He advocated sports and military education and propagated the theory 106 of purity of blood. The students were taught to avenge the insulting treaty of Versailles. Thus, Hitler made changes in ed ucation policy to fulfill his interests. Establishment of Authorita rin ism - Hitler acquired all powers related to administration of Germany in his own hands. Administration ran according to wishes of Hitler and not the people. Thus, all the powers were co ncentrated with the Nazi Party and this is known as Administration. Nazi Party had stern control over press, radio, cinema, auditorium, schools and colleges. The rights of citizens were taken away and trade Unions were dismissed. Suspects were arresested a nd sent to ghettos. No individual had courage to criticize the policies and actions of Hitler. He dismissed the provincial executives and only the Nazi party ruled over the parliament. Hitler had right to appoint cabinet member and the parliamentarians had no right to participate in debates. Their only work was to approve the principles and actions of Hitler. Thus, Hitler put an end to the Wiemer democracy and founded a dictatorial state with establishment of government of single party.

6.4.4 Questions for Exercise: - 1. Founder of Nazism was (a) Mussolini (b) Wilson (c) Hitler (d) Churchil. 2. Mussolini ruled over (a) Germany (b) Italy (c) Japan (d) America 3. What were the causes of rise of Nazism? 4. What were the principles of Fascism?

6.5 Economic Depression There was a wave of liberalism in World till 1929. A country like Germany was trying to be self sufficient. Production of raw material had increased upto 11 p.c. and grains upto 26 p.c. in the world. But the reality was far different a nd this progress was only superficial. America was undergoing a phase of economic depression. Period between 1929 to 1933 is known as the era of Economic depression or World Depression in Europe. In 1929, betting had reached its height in American share m arket. Therefore, the rich invested their money in America instead of providing loan to Europe. There was commercial crisis in Europe. American capitalists stopped giving credits to foreign banks which created a crisis in banks. In May 1931, Austria’s majo r bank ‘Creditan stalt’ became bankrupt. The money lenders withdrew gold from German National Bank worth 5 crore pounds. In 1931, people started withdrawing money from Bank of England due to which value of pound fell by 25 p.c. New York share market became the immediate cause of this Depression and the entire world was affected by it. World Economic Depression affected the democratic governments the most. Unemployment, devaluation of currency, social unrest and insecurity developed due to which the people s earched for an alternative, in form of Fascism and Nazism. Militarism gained popularity in Japan, nations started to covet each other's lands which gave a blow to League of Nations. Thus, Economic Depression laid negative impact on future of European nations and their position remained deplorable during 1929 to 1932 due to Economic Depression.

6.5.1 Causes of Economic Depression: - 1. An important reason was the conditions which resulted out of the world war. Economic Depressions had followed earlier t oo, after three big wars - War with Napolean, American Civil war and Franco - 107

Prussian War. Need for military recruitment increases on occasion of war, which makes industrial progress indispensable. While young men join army, there is deficiency of workers. A s a result, value of labour, profit and opportunities of employment increase. This is the reason why for a time being, after the war, there is a boom in market but later on slump begins. It happened after the First World War. After ten years (1929) of the First World War (1919) Economic Depression prevailed. 2. Scientific gadgets were widely used in the war and most of the people were engaged in war. As a result, there was a growing deficiency for labourers. Use of automated tools increased to fulfill the n eed of the market. It led to revolutionary changes in agriculture and industry. Agricultural work which was earlier dependent on labour was now performed by machines. William Green comments in the context that a work performed by the labourer in 52 hours i n 1919, was now performed by him 30 hours in 1930. Unemployment enhanced in such a situation. 3. Another reason for this crisis was increase in production. Demand and profit, both increased during the war. Therefore, every person got engaged in production. Machines were a big asset in this work. After the war, rate of production remained the same but demand decreased. Economic balance of world was disturbed gradually due to debt and problem of indemnity. More production and less supply slowly resulted into the Great Depression. 4. Surplus agricultural production in America, Australia etc. and decline of purchasing power of people was also responsible for this crisis. The farmers did not get due of their production and their capacity to buy factory goods les sened due to their economic bankruptcy. Struggling with the problem of unemployment, the labourer also lost his purchasing power. Resultantly, fever of Economic Depression increased day by day. 5. Gold all round the world was being deposited in banks of Fr ance and America. Many nations gave up the denomination of gold earlier prevalent before the war. Prices of gold fell down and resulted into enhancement of prices of goods. This situation was not limited to one nation, but entire world was affected by it a nd despair spread all around. 6. Economic nationalism and self sufficiency were also major causes. It affected international trade and adversely affected economic condition of Germany, Britain and America. All nations had become self sufficient industriall y and they started levying heavy duties on imports. They restricted import of goods. Big markets of bit nations were shut down and the industries strangled due to absence of adequate sales. Immediate Cause of economic Depression: - The financial crisis of s hare market of New York in 1929 was the immediate cause of World Depression. Before this incident, the affluent Americans were spending large amount of money in Germany and other European nations. The resultant growth of industries in Germany helped it to pay war indemnity. The other European nations were also repaying their debts to America on basis of their prosperity. American capital was enriching Europe and was diverted indirectly back to America. But due to this Depression, the capitalists of America stopped investing and spending their money in European countries. As a result, it not only closed the doors of prosperity of countries of Europe, but also repayment of debt of America.

6.5.2 Results of Economic Depression: - The result proved to be disastr ous. War, defeat, revolution and inflation became a part of history of Germany and following results were evident on various nations of the world. 1. Unemployment among all nations of world became a huge problem. Demand receded due to excessive production an d decreased purchasing power of the people and it was no longer feasible 108

to run a factory. Not only people who were unemployed faced problems, but also the people who were dependent on them. 2. Profit of the traders was reduced largely. It not only proved harmful for the owners of factories and the capitalits but also the middle class who had invested their hard earned money in the factories. All the classes of society - capitalists, middle class, workers, peasants were affected adversely and it devastaded th e economic life. 3. When different governments decided to bail out the unemployed by giving them financial help, a new challenge developed as to how to manage this huge amount to benefit all the unemployed. 4. There was a huge dip in the national income of the n ations, governments imposed new taxes to bridge the gap and reduced interests on government bonds. It created a great amount of dissatisfaction among people. The owners of the factories were already too perturbed due to heavy loss of profits, their financi al condition became worse. 5. It was natural that people also were dissatisfied with the steps taken by the governments to improve financial condition Government employees were dissatisfied with reduction in salary and the bond holders were in precarious pos ition due to reduction in interests of government bonds. Thus, no section of society was satisfied.

6.5.3 Measures to C ombat E conomic D epression: - The great Economic Depression started on 24 th October 1929 which is also known as ‘Black Thursday’. The sta tesmen of Europe were keen to solve the problem through mutual cooperation. In 1929, the foreign minister of France, Brian, said that the time has come when all the states of Europe should form United States of Europe which would not only control their pol itical life but also establish economic cooperation. But rest of the nations of Europe did not agree to it. Therefore, no progress could be made on this issue. At the same time, Austrian foreign minister Dr. Johan Shobar proposed in the Assembly of the Lea gue of Nations that regional agreements should be concluded as soon as possible. Though this suggestion was accepted but could not be implemented. In June 1931, American president Hoover put forward some suggestions to solve economic problems which include d postponement of payment of all installments of international debts, cancellation of installment for one year from Germany’s share of war indemnnity and the instalment mandatorily to be paid by Germany under Young Plan was to be reinvested in Germany thro ugh ‘Bank of International Settlements. These measure would be have probably waived off the crisis but the nations disagreed. After England gave up gold as denomination of currency on 21 st September 1931 almost all European nations adopted this system. On ly France, Italy, Switzerland, Romania and Holland continued traditional currency system in 1932. Historian David Thompson writes about it thus, “There was no relevance of currency based on denomination of gold in that Europe whose gold had reached America .” This move accelerated the solution for Depression. Measures adopted by governments of different nations were as follows: - 1. They sternly controlled the currency and the exchange rates. Import was stopped, custom duties were strengthened and implemented ha rd laws to control the Depression. 2. Regional solutions were also sought, for e.g. Norway, Sweden etc formed ‘Oslo Group’ and the ‘Ottawa Agreement’ between agricultural countries like Hungary, Romania, Czechoslovakia and British Commonwealth members in 1932 controlled imports and export. 109

3. Collective efforts were made which mainly included the Losanne conference of June July 1932. It finalised the conditions of war indemnity. It was participated by England, France, Belgium, Japan, Germany and Italy. The confer ence suspended ‘Young Plan’ and demanded from Germany, an amount of only Rs. 75 crore dollars. Thus, Germany was free from 90 p.c. of its debt. This exemption was not out of , but to solve Economic Depression and accelerate the trade. The Allies wanted America to reduce the debt at the same rate, for which it did not agree and the conference failed. A call for world conference under League of Nations was also made but no concrete steps could be taken. When Germany failed to draw loan, its chancell or declared in 1932 that Germany could not pay war indemnity. Thus, this question came to an end after 10 - 11 years. Other nations also stopped repaying debts.

6.5.4 Plan of European C onfederation: - Another solution to the problem was economic cooperation between all nations of the world. Many suggestions and plans were tabeled. But the most important of them was of Brian (French foreign minister) who proposed formation of an economic federatin of Europe. The Assembly of the League discussed it but it coul d not be fruitful as some nations saw in it the conspiracy of France to hold importance over Europe. Therefore, the Austrian foreign minister proposed a regional pact which was applauded in the Assembly. Many economic conferences were held in 1931 in capit als of Europe, but due to competition and hatred no important pact could be concluded. Only Austria and Germany agreed to form an economic federation but France opposed it by calling it as an effort of Germany to take over Austria and this agreement, too, could not be materialized. The secretariat of the League was intrigued by this economic crisis as it had polluted political environment and an international competition was building up. In 1931, the League got an appraisal done on economy of the world and its report was published as ‘World Economy Survey’. The crisis was analysed as something which was result of not one but many factors. The way in which different experts and people of different ideologies understood and analysed it, prove that the causes were deep and unexplained. It not only affected the currencies of the world but made fundamental changes in world economy.

6.5.5 World Earth Summit of London: - While accepting the proposal of Lossanne C onference, the League summoned in June 1933, a sum m it in London. Representatives of 64 countries participated in it. First of all, views were expressed to bring stability in currency and for adoption of policy of mutual cooperation by putting an end to policy of protectionism France proposed that stability is a priority before end of protectionism. Britain supported France. No agreement could be reached on currency. Meantime, there were elections in America and Roosevelt came into power who removed the gold denomination from American currency in March 1933. Roosevelt with great patience and dexterity tried to improve the economy of the world.

6.5.6 Questions of Exercise: - 1. Economic Depression lasted from (a) 1929 to 192 1 9 C.E. (b) 1929 to 199 3 C.E. (c) 1918 to 1920 C.E. (b) 1928 - 1940 C.E. 110

2. Where did the eco nomic crisis first begin? (a) America (b) Austria (c) Japan (b) Russia 3. What was Economic Depression? 4. What were the main causes of Economic Depression? 5. What impact did Economic Depression have on European nations? 6. What were the results of Eco nomic Depression?

6.6 Second World War After the end of First World War in 1919, the Second World War began on 1 st September 1939 which engulfed entire Europe in its stray and this conflict turned global. Actually, Germany had to sign the insulting treaty in Paris Peace conference on 1919 which gave rise to dictatorship in Germany Japan was also unhappy with the Treat y and militarism developed there. After the Paris Peace conference, Marshall Foch had prophesized that it was only an armistice for 20 years and his prophecy turned right, after exactly 20 years of the First World War, the Second World War began.

6.6.1 Ca uses: - (a) Insulting and Cruel Treaty of Versailles: - Tough conditions were imposed on Germany after its defeat in the War to make it crippled from geographical and economic point of view. About 15 p.c. of its cultivable land, 12 p.c. animal wealth, 10 p.c . factories and all her colonies were taken away. The German navy was dismissed and she was deprived of her 2/3 of coal, 2/3 of iron and 7/10 of zinc. Several economic fines were imposed on her. Thus, the Allies had imposed this Treaty out of revenge. Germ any made constant preparations to avenge it and the background to the Second World War was prepared. Insulting treaties were imposed on defeated nations in Paris Peace Conference and Treaty of Versailles. These nations though, signed the treaties but they constantly tried to avenge this insult and started to violate the terms of treaty whenever they found chance which resulted in Second World War of 1939. Germany was divided to serve interest of Poland. A.G. Wells commented that the Second World War will ig nite on the question of Polish Corridor. So, when a chance appeared, Germany raised arms. (b) Rise of dictators: - Democratic governments were installed in the defeated nations with a hope of progress but they did not turn true to the expectations. People of Germany blamed the Wiemer Republic for accepting the terms or Versailles. Economic Depression too contributed in the rise of dictators like Hitler in Germany and Mussolini in Italy. They become the dictators and started violating the terms of the Versai lles treaty. In 1938, Hitler occupied Austria and mutilated Czeckoslovakia which led to hovering of clouds of war. At the same time, Mussolini attacked Abyssinia and Japan attacked Manchuria. When the League blamed Japan, the latter quitted the membership. Similarly, the League could not oppose these imperialistic nations and the dictators and all its efforts to maintain peace failed. As a result, the Second World War started. (c) Competition for arms in countries of world: - The Allies had decided to slack en their armed power and demilitarise after the Paris Peace Treaty. A conference was called in Geneva in 1932 for disarmament in which decision was taken to reduce arms as well as naval power. No decision could be reached due to differences between France and Germany and Hitler decided to quit the conference. The aim of the conference was defeated. After that all big and small nations started militarisation which led 111 to anarchy. No nation of Europe now supported ban on arms. Fear and apprehension, prevailed among the nations and they started preparing for war. (d) Failure of League of Nations: - The League of Nations was established for peace and security of the world but it failed in its motives. The Allies used it to fulfill their own interests whereas abse nce of America from its membership was also a cause of its failure. Hitler in Germany and Mussolini in Italy started to violate the clauses of the League and were supported by Japan along with many imperialistic nations. Thus, suspicion and absence of fait h for the League paved way for the possibility of war. (e) D i vision of w orld into two factions: - After the first world war, two factions were formed in the world. One hand were Germany, Italy and Japan. The imperialistic nations, formed Rome - Berlin - Tokyo Axis, whereas, on the other hand were America, England, France and Russia together formed the Allies, 'No agreement could ever be reached between idologies of these two groups. When Germany attacked Poland, England and France, in retaliation, attacked Germ any and the war began. (f) Aggressive Nationalism: - Economic competition was on rise due to industrial revolution. All nations treated their interests as top priority. Aggressive nationalism was at its peak in Japan, Italy and Germany. Hitler declared the Germans as the noblest race, called Versailles Treaty as a national insult and instigated the Germans to avenge this insult. (g) Immediate reason: - All the above causes brought the world politics in a state of anarchy and apprehension. Only a spark was need ed. On 1 st September 1939, Germany suddenly attacked Poland. France and Britain warned him to withdraw which Hitler ignored. Therefore, France and Britain declared war on Germany and on 3 rd September 1939, attacked Germany in support of Poland. with this, the Second World War started.

6. 6. 2 Events of the Second World War: - Due to heavy loss of men and money during the First World War and the Economic Depression, nations like Germany and Italy had lost faith in democracy and they headed for dictatorship. In 1933, Hitler became a dictator in Germany and started fortification of Rhineland. On the other hand Mussolini encouraged Fascism in Italy whose effect was seen on Poland and Japan. Militarism gained encouragement in these countries and background to Sec ond World War was prepared, League of Nations could not succeed before these nations. It could not take any action against Japan’s attack on Manchuria and Italy’s attack on Abbyssinia. Taking advantage of disaffection of German minorities, Hitler occupied Austria and Czechokoslovakia. All the nations started to militarize against the policy of disarmament, military power was expanded and entire world slipped into anarchy. Mutual differences also cropped up among the Allies. They followed a policy of appease ment to insult each other. An atmosphere of doubt prevented. On 1 st September 1939, Germany attacked Poland on the question of Polish Corridor. Against this, France and England declared war on Germany on 3 rd September 1939 and the Second World War started. On the other hand, Poland had to surrender on account of Russian attack too In 1940, Germany attacked France who had to surrender. After initial victory, Germany had to move back due to attack by Russia. On 7 th December 1941, Japan destroyed the Pearl ha rbour of America, which drove America into the war. Now, the armies of Italy and Germany were continously defeated and by 1944 - 45, both the nations fell down. The Allies asked Japan to surrender unconditionally, but it refused. On 6 th August 1945, America dropped Atom bomb on Nagasaki a prosperous city of Japan. It again dropped the bomb in Hiroshima on 9 th August 1945. On 14 th August 1945, Japan surrendered unconditionally and the Second World War came to an end. 112

After the war, the world was divided into two factions - USSR which nurtured communism and America which gave importance to capitalism. A cold war began between these two nations which continued for about four decades. A civil war broke out in China and a communist government was formed there with the help of soviet Russia in 1949. Between these two ideologies, sprit of non - alignment was born in nations like Bharat, Egypt and Yugoslovia who refused to join any one faction. Monarchy declined in Japan and democracy was established.

6.6.3 Results of the Second World War: - The war which continued from 1939 to 1945 had devastating and farlasting results: - (a) Loss of men and money: - It proved to be devasting as compared to the first world war. It was global and its effects were also wide spread. About 1 crore 50 lakh soldiers and one crore citizens lost their lives. One lakh crores of Rupees were spent by the participating countries. (b) End of colonial empires: - Many nations gained freedom after the first world war, Similarly, nations like Bharat, Lank a, Burma, Malaya, Egypt etc. were freed from foreign rule. (c) Beginning of Cold War: - World peace on world forum was expected to prevail, but at this time, two superpowers emerged. They supported different ideologies of communism and capitalism. An ideolo gical war began between the two. An era started with mutual allegations, tension and enmity. Countries of the world began to be divided into two ideologies and a pseudo war began which was not fought with arms but with declarations and diplomacy through ne wspapers known as cold war. (d) Non Alignment Movement (N.A.M.): - Newly independent nations, like Bharat, African and Latin American countries, who did want to join the cold war, started a non alignment movement (N.A.M.) They started to ponder over various economic, geographical and other civil problems like terrorism through summits. Till now, 17 summits of N.A.M. have been organised. At present members of NAM members are 120. (e) Establishment of Security organizations : - Many countries together formed various types of security organisations like N.A.T.O. (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation) by western nations. Similarly, S.E. A.T.O (South East Asian Treaty Organisation), WARSAW. Baghdad pact, came into existence. (f) Foun dation of U.N.O (United Nations Organisation : - The destruction of second world war put forward the idea of peace before the nations. Just as League of Nations was formed after the First World War, discussions about forming a peace organisation after the se cond world war were also made. In 1945, U.N.O. was founded which makes efforts for peace, security and international cooperation.

6.6.4 Questions of Exercise : - 1. When did the Second World War start? (a) 1 st September 1935 (b) 1 st September 1938 (c) 1 st September 1939 (d) 1 st September 1940 2. Paris Peace conference was organised in (a) 1919 (b) 1921 (c) 1930 (d) 1945 3. What were the causes of Second World War? 4. What were the results of Second World War? 5. Describe Fascism and Nazism. 6. What wer e the results of Second World War?

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6.7 United Nations Organisation All the countries wanted to form an organisation for peace after the second warld war. They wanted a sustainable peace after being scared of results of the Second World War and failure o f the League of Nations. It resulted in rise of U.N.O. In 1941, American president Roosvelt and British Primeminister Churchil met on warship in Atlantic Ocean which resulted in 'Atlantic Charter' It talked of freedom of speech and faith, eradication of po verty and unemployment, grant security to weak nations etc. In 1942, America, Russia, France, England, Symbol of U N O China, Bharat supported the 'Atlantic Charter and Roosevelt termed this organisation as United Nations Similarly, conferences w ere also held in Tehran and Moscow which discussed formation of a peace organisation. A conference was called on San Francisco from 25 th April to 26 th June 1945 which was attended by representatives of 51 nations. After approval of all the nations, this Charter was commenced on 24 th October 1945 and the U.N.O was incepted that day. Its Headquarters were stationed in New York.

6.7.1 Aims of U.N.O. 1. Ensure internation peace and security. 2. End international differences and conflicts through mutual cooperation. 3. Establish friendly relations between all the nations. 4. Seek cooperation from all nations for solution of social, economic and cultural pr oblems on International level. 5. Protect human rights by ending discrimination of caste, gender, religion etc. 6. Non - interference in internal matters of any state.

6.7.2 Organisation of U.N.O U.N.O. mainly consists of six organs - 1. General Assembly 2. Security council 3. Economic and Social Council 4. Trusteeship council 5. International Court of Law 6, Secretariat 1 . General Assembly: - It is the most important organ of the U.N. and is also k nown as world parliament, Every nation is represented here with five representatives but account to only one vote. Its main aim is to ponder over international peace and security. The last decision however, rests - with the Security Council. The Assembly on ly presents its proposal. Its annual meeting is held every year in September. It elects temporary members of the Security Council and all the members of Social and Economic Council. Powers and functions of the Assembly: - In nutshell, the Assembly discusses all the questions under the purview of charter of the U.N. Its powers and functions can be briefed as follows: - 1. To recommend for maintaining peace and security according to principles of international cooperation. This includes recommendations for disarma ment and regulation of arms. 2. To discuss the problems affecting peace and security and give recommendations, except for issues already under the purview of the Security Council. 3. To attain international political cooperation, development and promotion of int ernational law, attainment of human rights and fundamental liberties, to inspire studies in areas related to culture, society, economy, education and health and to recommend for their development. 4. To receive reports from Security Council and other organs of the U.N. and discuss them. 114

5. To make recommendations for peaceful solution of any matter, this endangers friendly relations between nations. 6. To supervise implementations of judicial agreement made through Trusteeship Council 7. To elect to temporary members of Security Council, 27 members of Economic and Social Council, members of Trusteeship Council, judges of International Court of Justice and appointment of General Secretary on recommendations of Security Council apart from admitting new members into the U .N. 8. To discuss budget and implement it, fix the donation to be given by nations and audit, the special Agencies. 2. Security C ouncil: - The second most important organ of the UN and its executive is the Security Council. It has 15 members in which five are permanent and ten are temporary. America, England, Russia, China and France are its permanent members whereas the temporary members are selected for two years by the General Assembly. The main aim of Security, Council is peace and security. Permanent membe rs have veto powers which mean that if one permanent member objects to a decision, it is not carried out. Functions and Rights of Security Council: - Its functions are wide. In brief, they can be enumerated as below: 1. According to clause 24 of the U.N. char ter, the main function of Security Council is establishment of international peace. All the members of the U.N. are bound to follow its decisions. It can use armed military force in case a peaceful resolution fails. 2. It also implements its decisions in matt ers of international security. 3. It examins conflicts in possibility of violation of peace and security and submits its report to the Assembly. 4. It plans the functions its performs. 5. It is the responsibility of the council to induct new members. 6. It sends its annual report to the Assembly. 3. Economic and Social Council: - It has 27 members who are elected by the Assembly. It works for general employment, to enhance values of life and progress of society and economy. Functions of Economic and Security Council: - The main functions of the council are as follows: - 1. Helps Security Council in imposing economic fines over an aggressor on request of Security Council. 2. Maintains coordination among organizations working under the U.N.O. and counsels them. 3. Provides financia l help to member nations along with technical advice. 4. Provides information and assistance to General Assembly, Security Council and Trusteeship council on their request. 5. Forms laws and working systems for its organization and implements them and has the po wer to summon international conference at any time within its purview. 6. Works for security of human rights and basic liberties, their development and expansion. The Council can form various committees and commissions for this purpose. Till now it has formed commissions as follows. (i) Statistics Commission (ii) Population Commission. 115

(iii) Social Development C ommission (iv) Human Rights Commission (v) Women Rights Commission (vi) Narcotic Drugs Commission (vii) Economic and Employment Commission (viii) T ransportation and Communication Commission 4. Trusteeship Council: - It is constituted of representatives of permanent members of Security Council and representatives of the states who take care of states of administration of colonies. It provides assistance to the General Assembly and takes care of nations under its custody. This council replaced the Mandate Commission of the Legue It is responsible for administration of those nations. (i) Which were under administration of the League of Nations (ii) Taken over by c entral powers and had come under the protégé of Security Council voluntarily. Some under developed nations have been put under custody of civilized and developed nations. It is the duty of the developed nations to provide all possible help in development o f these underdeveloped nations and remain their trustee until the beneficiaries become self dependent. The trustee nations send annual reports about their nations to the General Assembly and the General Secretary. Under the Trusteeship system of the League only colonies under Germany and Turkey were included but under the U.N.O.all the slave nations were included in the Trusteeship Council. The numbers of the members are not fixed. Every member is entitled for one vote. The decision on any issue is decided by majority of members present. Often experts are sent in this Council. This Council presents a report of social, political and educational status of its protected state before the Assembly. Its sessions are being annual and president is elected for each s ession. Independence attained by Ghana, French Cameroon, Togaland, Italian Somaliland etc. is a huge achievement of this Trusteeship system. 5. International Court of Justic e It is the judicial branch of the U.N.O. which is constituted of 15 elected member s by the General Assembly and the security council. They are appointed for nine years. It performs the task of solving legal problems between various nations. According to the constitution of the Court, apart from permanend judges, there is a provision fo r appointment if extra judges. It a state, whose case is pending, has no representation in the existing permanent judges; it appoints its legal expert as a temporary judge who is removed after the hearing of the case. His advice is sought in the matter but plays no role in the judgment. The quorum of the court is 9. All the decisions are taken by majority. In case there is no majority, the vote of the president is decisive. No appeal can be made against its decisions. Only in case of special circumstances t he court can review its decisions. The official languages of the court are English and French. Its headquarter is situated in Hague (Holland). Dispersion of Justice: - An arrangement to implement the decisions of the U.N.O. has been made in clause 94 of the Charter. According to this, every member of the U.N.O. pledges to comply by the decision of the International Court of Justice if it is a party to the dispute. If on e party does not agree to the decision, the other party can seek protection of Security Council. The Council in turn, may recommend to act as per the necessity. Although the decisions of the Court are taken unanimously, yet judge can attach his view with t he decision. 7. Secretariat: - Secretariat has been established to carry out the functions of the U.N.O. Success of U.N.O. depends on efficient and organized working of this organization. The chief administrative office r of the Secretariat is General Secretar y who is appointed for a period of five years on the 116 recommendations of the Security Council. The General Secretary of functions with the help of the S ecretariat. According to clauses from 97 to 101 following are the functions of the General Secretary. 1. If he is convinced that a dispute can cause danger to international peace and security, he can draw attention of the Security Council towards that issue. Thus, he can contribute significantly towards maintenance of world peace by displaying per sonal interest in international politics. 2. He presents his annual report regarding entire activities of the U.N.O.in session of the General Assembly. 3. He attends sessions of Security Council, economic and social council and Trusteeship Council as per virtue of his post He makes appointment of officials of the U.N.O. as per the rules laid down by the General Assembly. Attention is paid to the efficiency, merit and honesty of the applicants. Most of the nations are given representation in secretariat services, as far as possible. Such officials are expected to expel any outside pressure or receive orders from other than the U.N.O. Members have decided that the secretariat would be a responsible international organization and they would not in any manner influence the officials from carrying out their duties. Therefore, it may be said that the officials shun their national character and behave internationally.

6.7.3 Questions for Exercise: 1. What are the major aims of the U.N.O. ? 2. Des cribe major organs of the U.N.O.? 3. Mention important achievements of the U.N.O.

6.8 Answers - Multiple Choice 6.3.5 League of Nations 1 (b) three 2 (a) Geneva 6.4.4 Fascism & Nazism 1 (c) Hitler 2. (b) Italy 6.5.6 Economic Depression 1. (b) 1929 - 1933 2. (a) America 6.6.4 Second World War 1. (c) 1 st September 1939 2 (a) 1919 AD Very short answer type questions - 1. When was League of Nations founded? 2. Where were the headquarters of the League Situated? 3. Where is International court of Justice situated? 4. Where is the headquarters of International Labour organization (I.L.O) situated? 5. What was the immediate cause of the Second World War? 6. When was UNO founded? 7. Where is the headquarters of UNO situated?

Answers - Very short answer Questions 1. 1920 C.E. 2. Geneva (Switzerland) 3 Ha g ue (Netherlands) 4. Geneva 5. Attack of Germany on Poland 6. 24 th October 1945 7. New York (America) 6.9 Glossary 1. Nazism - An influential ideology in Germany between 1933 to 1945 which gave birth to the concept of racial superiority of Germany. 117

2. Wall street crash: - A huge economic depression on 24 th October 1929 in wall street share market. 3. Dictator - A person who concentrates all powers of the nation in his own hands, ensures that his word becomes t he law and is acceptable to the nation and forcefully implements his ideology. 4. Economic Depression: - surplus production as compared to demand which leads to devaluation of currency and thereby a drop in prices of the goods. 5. Capitalism: - an econo mic system ruled by private investment, dispersement, production, price, are determined by competition in free market. This economy is run for profit. 6. Communism: - An ideology which supports an equalitarian classless society on structural level. Control of entire society is accepted over economic and productive means. 7. Allies - America, Britain, France and Russia. 8. Axis Countries: - Germany, Italy, Japan, Turkey. 9. Cold War - An ideological warfare between two nations in form of allegations a nd counter allegations instead of arms. 10.Authoritarianism – A form of government characterized by strong central power and limited political freedoms

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Chapter 7

World after Second World War

7.1.Aim 7.2. Preface. 7.3. Cold War 7.3.1.Nature of Cold war 7.3.2. Causes of Cold war 7.3.3. First stage of Cold War (1917 - 1945) 7.3.4. Second Stage of Cold War (1946 - 1953) 7.3.5. Third stage of Cold War (1953 - 1958) 7.3.6. Fourth Stage of Cold War (1959 - 1962) 7.3.7. Fifth stage of Cold war (1963 - 1979) 7.3.8. Sixth Stage of Cold War (1963 - 1979) 7.3.9. End of Cold War (19 80 - 19 8 9) 7.3.10. Questions for Exercise. 7.4. Non Alignment Movement 7.4.1. Causes 7.4.2. Importance of NAM 7.4.3. Questions for Exercise. 7.5.. Development of Modern World and Challenges. 7.5.1. Terrorism 7.5.2. Causes of Terrorism 7.5.3. Terrorist events 7.5.4. Remedy. 7.5.5.. Problem of Environment 7.5.6. Modern Efforts. 7.5.7. Earth Summit 1992 7.5.8. Kyoto Summit 1997 7.5.9. World Environment Summit, New 2017 7.5.10. Questions for exercise 7.6. Answer s 7.7. Glossary. 7.8. Reference Books

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7.1 Aims: -  Know about division of world into two powers after the Second World War.  Discriminate between capitalism of America and communism of Russia.  Study cold war between nations through diplomacy in place of war.  Analyse the division of world into two factions.  Understand the policy of non - alignment apart from two factions .  Analyse new facets of world politics.

7.2 Preface. The anarchy in world after the Second World War, economic crisis along with rise of two world powers and cold war will be studied in this chapter. By this time, the world had divided into two factions, each led by America and USSR. On one hand, America was supporter of capitalism, on the other hand, USSR favored communism. Ideological hatred, political suspicion, diplomatic conflict military competition, spying, psychological wars and bitter relations between these two countries were leading the world towards diplomatic tussle. All these factors led to cold war in peace times which is an armless war. But several newly independent countries of Asia and Africa followed the policy of non - alignment and did not join any group. These Asian, African and Latin American countries were termed as ‘Third World” by Alfred Savi in 1952. India, too, followed the policy of non - alignment after independence. A new era was initiated among the newly independent countries w hich promoted a new ideology after being freed from imperialistic regime.

7.3 Cold War. When Walter Lipman used the word ‘Cold Wars’, he meant a war like situation between two powers which actually evaded real wars. It was a diplomatic war and not an armed struggle between two or more powers. Fleming described ‘Cold War’ as a conflict which does not occur on battle grounds but fought in minds of men, control of minds of several people by one mind. We can define cold war as ‘peace time’ war. Basically, it was based on ideological hatred and political suspicion. Both parties were ‘Friendly enemies’ or ‘hostile friends’. They continuously made afforts to insult each other. A constant process of espionage and military competition was carried out between th em. It was a psychological war where efforts were made to reduce influence area of the competitor and enhance ones supporters. There were clearly two major competitive groups in the world, who were armed but never used their soldiers, canons, amours, aerop lanes or warships. The two factions never bombarded their opponents but clearly and openly propagated against each other, one power group was led by United States of America which was also known as American group or Anglo - American group or western group or Democratic group. Communist writers and leaders called it as imperialist or capitalist group and criticized it. USSR was the leader of second group also known as Eastern group or Soviet group or Socialist group. Western Scholars and politicians criticiz ed it by calling it Communist Group or Dictator group. All the nations affected by cold war maintained normal diplomatic terms and did not resort to armed conflict in spite of animosity between them. In this diplomatic war, America constantly projected USS R as a danger to world peace and a destroyer of individual liberty, that USSR is an expansionist country which not only established communist governments in Eastern Europe forcibly but also interfered in socialist countries like Hungary and Chechokoslovaki a as the latter wanted to follow independent policies, independent of 120

Russia while following communism. On the other hand, Soviet leaders criticized America that it was symbol of imperialistic, colonialist and capitalist exploitation. USSR propaged communi sm by presenting it as the only remedy for all problems of Asian and African countries. It took advantage of anti - western sentiments of people of these continents and advised all countries of third world to nationalize projects funded and invested by Engla nd and America. America charged USSR for ideological imperialism. It followed the policy of containing communism so that independence of countries could be protected. There were many follower countries of these two groups. Major countries included in Ameri can group were, Britain, France, Canada, Italy, Belgium, Australia, Netherland, Greece, Pakistan and Trukey. The Soviet group included Poland, Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary and Cechoslovakia. Yugoslavia, who for some time followed the Soviet group, followed t he policy of non - alignment since 1948. But it never shunned the communist ideology. Like India and Egypt it became a prominent non - aligned country.

7.3.1 Nature of Cold War The nature of cold war is that of a diplomatic war which can led to an armed war if aggravated. Both the parties maintain peace time diplomatic relations with each other while maintaining the feeling of animosity and try to weaken each other through every other means except the war. To give expansion to their influence, both the partie s, lay emphasis on their ideologies and values. To provide financial help, interference through espionage, military intervention, arms supply, militarization, military groups and formation of regional organizations are a part of cold war. Infact, cold war was not a boycott or abandonment of war, but absence of a direct conflict between two world powers. There were widespread violence and clashes in third world countries during all these years of cold war. It clearly reflected competition between the great p owers directly and indirectly.

7. 3 .2 Causes of cold war: - 1 . Historical Causes: - Some trace the cause of cold wars to Bolshevik revolution of 1917. From this revolution, the western countries were trying to exterminate , as socialism became a worldwide movement whose ultimate aim was to end capitalism and spread communism in the world. Britain gave recognition to Soviet Union in 1924 and USA in 1933. The western countries looked at Russia with more skepticism than Nazi Germany. They instigated Hitler to attack Soviet Union. 2. Disregard of Yalta Treaty by Soviet Union: - Duri ng the Yalta Conference (1945), some treaties were signed by Roosevelt, Stalin and Churchill. Decisions were taken to form representative governments through fair and free elections in Lubnin government, in Poland, protected by the Soviet Union and London government protected by western countries. But as the war came to an end, Stalin started to deviate from his promises. He did not allow entry of American and British observers in Poland and started to merge the republican parties of Poland. He tried to imp ose his protected Lubnin government in Poland Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania and Czechoslovakia, also violated terms of Yalta and Polsdam treaties signed by the Soviet Union. Doubt for Soviet Union appeared in the hearts of Western countries. 3. Violation of B alkan Agreement by the Soviet Union: - In October 1944, Soviet Union had accepted the plan for division of eastern Europe as suggested by Churchill. It was decided that Soviet influence would be accepted in Romania and Bulgaria and British influence was agr eed upon in Greece. Influence of both over Hungary and Yugoslavia would be accepted but after the war, USSR ignored the Balkan 121

Agreement and freely helped the communist parties of these states. Proletarian dictatorship was established there. The western co untries were naturally offended. 4. Mutual distrust: - Though Soviet Union and the western countries were allies in the war and had fought back Italy, Japan and Germany together, but they could never become friends. Insecurity and mutual distrust remained t he foundation of their relations. Soviet Union could not forget how the western countries tried to fail the Bolshevik Revolution and interfered in civil war against Lenin. On the other hand, Britain and USA remembered how Soviet Union showed treachery in 1 917 when it stopped fighting with Germany and how it benefited the Axis powers. The western nations knew well that the well pronounced aim of the Soviet leaders was world revolution and destruction of capitalism. In 1938 - 39, Britain and France had ignored Soviet Union. They remained quiet when Germany violated sovereignty of Austria and supported Germany in disintegration of Czechoslovakia, which made Soviet Union doubtful of the intentions of western nations. When the fate of Czechoslovakia was decided in Munich conference, Soviet Union was kept in oblivion and was not shown minimum courtesy. Inspite of repeated petitions of Soviet Union, Britain and France continued to ignore Stalin in context of military arrangements and continued to appease the dictators . Unhappy by this attitude, Soviet Union signed non aggression pact with Germany, the western countries regarded it as a treachery. The onus of reducing tension, called cold wars, was on shoulders of both the parties. Some historians believe that expansion ism was always a policy of the Soviet Union. Through this policy, it brought Eastern Europe under its influence but Schleicher believes that Soviet Union was forced to adopt the path of conflict because of this policy.

7.3.3 First Phase of cold war (1917 - 1945) American scholar Hall and French scholar Fontanne believe that the cold war started in international politics not from 1945 but from 1917, with the Russian Revolution which brought forward an alternate of a social - economic development and a new nat ure of state power. In real terms, in form of ideological conflict, cold war started the day when Bolshevik revolution broke out in Soviet Union. World's first communist state came into existence in 1917 and ideology of Karl Marx was materialized. The capi talist states did not welcome it. Till now the concept of cold war was not used in international politics, but two different ideological groups could be differentiated. On one hand, Soviet Union was alone while on the other hand Britain was with its allies . Attitude for each other confirmed the continuation and increase of differences between the two during this period, cold war did not flare up because Soviet Union was a weak nation and Britain, America etc were tremendously powerful. Alliance between them against Hitler was a compulsion in forming this alliance. In reality, Britain and America never approved of communist ideology. In 1920, when Soviet Union tried to form commercial relations with America, the latter did not give in till some of its demands were fulfilled. It was only after the Labour government assumed power in Britain that it formally recognised the Soviet Union government in 1924. American government lived under perpetual fear for many years and established diplomatic terms only in Novemb er 1933 by formally recognising the communist government.

7.3.4 The Second Phase of Cold War (1946 - 1953 ) The real facet of cold war comes to the fore during this period. A phase of diplomatic struggle and sharp debates on questions of international impo rtance inside and outside United Nations began between western nations and Russia, which included issues like regulation and control of atomic power, disarmament, power treaties with defeated nations, policy towards Germany, Berlin problem, security of 1 22

Eur ope, decisions regarding future of less developed Asian and African nations etc. Russia took the ‘Marshall Plan’ as a challenge to existence and instead formed in October 1947, “COMINFORM’ i.e. ‘Communist Information Institute, constituting of nine communi st nations, in response. This step flared the situation of cold war. Russia made its control severe on countries of Eastern Europe. Both the parties tried to expand their areas of influence and to gain power. Finland refused to accept help granted under Ma rshall plan due to pressure of Russia but Yugoslavia under Marshall Tito refused to accept supremacy of Russia under Stalin. It was an important event of cold war as it encouraged non - communist states as well as hardened the attitude of Russia.

7.3.5 The Third Phase of Cold War (1953 - 1958) There was a change of leadership in both countries during this period and it was believed that it would pacify the cold war. After the death of Stalin in March 1953, course of events was expected to change as Stalin’s p olitics was considered to be big cause of cold war. Though he had maintained diplomatic terms with western nations, yet he was difficult to work with. His successor laid importance on peaceful co - existence and policy of mediation. There was change in Ameri can leadership as well and General Eisenhower succeeded President Truman, the promoter of cold war. Nuclear T est by Soviet Union - In August 1953, Soviet Union performed Nuclear test. On one hand, it made America apprehensive; on the other hand, both the parties understood the importance of disarmament. Birth of nuclear weapons and later on race for universe, made cold war frightful. Situation became worse due to progress of extremely powerful arms by both the powers.

7.3.6 Fourth Phase of Cold War (1959 - 1962) – In 1958 - 59 Russian Prime Minister Khrushcheve openly supported peaceful coexistence between west and east. He expressed his desire to shun the war and adoption of peaceful cooperation in international events. He was ready to visit America and remove diffe rences by meeting Eisenhower. This was a good change especially when America decided to send an invitation to Khrushchev. From 15 th to 28 th September 1959, Khurushchev toured America and held important talks with Eisenhower. This tour made international at mosphere congenial. Another constructive change occurred when the four powers, America, Soviet Union, Britain and France, agreed to call Paris summit in June 1960. While preparations of this summit were in progress, American spy plane U - 2 was caught within Soviet borders on 1 st May 1960. The pilot confessed that he was sent to Russia for a military supervision and gather information about military bases. Situation became worse when President Eisenhower clearly stated that military activities in Russia are v ery secretive and American spies on it to stop any sudden attack and shall continue to do so. This statement was within international law. But Soviet Union propagated it widely and called America as a peace disrupting nation.

7.3.7 Fifth Phase of Cold Wa r (1936 - 1979) During 1960 - 1970, Cold war spread to Vietnam, , middle East, UNO and Berlin but there were several other positive changes like international visits, summit, conferences, Nuclear Non Proliferation Treaty of 1968 and other positive c hanges. Kannedy and Khrushchev made efforts to establish world peace and slacken cold war after Cuban crisis. The first step towards this direction was related to disarmament. On 5 th August 1963, America, Britain and USSR signed Partial Test Ban Treaty (P TBT), according to which restrictions on all types of explosion except for atomic explosions were accepted. Later on 102 countries, except China and France signed this treaty. 123

Between 23 rd June to 26 th June 1967, Soviet Prime minister Kosygin and American President Johnson met and exchanged views on Vietnam and middle - east. This summit was held in wake of increasing atomic power of China, who had successfully experimented hydrogen bomb in 1967. Through this conference, lot of help was gained in understandi ng problems about mutual relations, major problems of the world and international issues. The Non Proliferation Treaty (NPT) of 1968, helped in strengthening mutual relations of America and Russia. Americas decision to not to bombard Vietnam further eased the stress. Vietnam War claimed 10 lakh people and bombardment was twice that of Second World War. Issues like Soviet interference in Czechslovakia in 1968 and Berlin Blocade of 1969, kept the flames of cold war burning. In July 1973, a European security conference was organized in Helsinkey, capital Finland which was attended by foreign minister of 35 countries of Europe. The aim of this conference was to lessen international tension, end cold war and create a new atmosphere of security.

7.3.8. Sixth ph ase of Cold War (1980 - 89) - Cooperation and competition went hand in hand between the great powers during this phase. This phase is also known as ‘Conflict of all means but war. ’ Some called it ‘Second Cold War’ or ‘New Cold War’. Though this ‘New Cold Wa r’ was initiated with Reagan’s tenure and his announcements like encouragement to arms industry, militarization of allies, speed up race of arms and adoption of strong policy towards Soviet Union. Even though throughout the Detante period, just pr c eeding b efore it, both the powers supported different parties on various international issues and problems. For example, in 1971, America supported Pakistan against freedom struggle of Bangladesh while Soviet Union supported Bharat. Israel was supported by America in crisis of west Asia and the Soviet Union sided with the Arabs. Decision of West Germany to conduct presidential elections in West Berlin in 1969 created yet another conflicting situation between the east and the west. In 1975, these powers supported op posite parties in Angola. Soviet Union failed the combined efforts of America, China and S. Africa to support UNITA in 1975. In 1977 in Ethiopia - Somalia conflict, Soviet Union provided arms to Eithopia against Somalia while America helped Somalia. In Rhode sia, Western powers continued to support Ian Smith while Soviet Union continued to support the Patriotic front. Western countries lent support to policy of apartheid of South Africa while Soviet Union staunchly opposed it. President Carte r expressed his concern over presence of Soviet army in Cuba. Previously, Carter in NATO summit stressed upon modernizing NATO powers which discussing about military capacities of WARSAW powers. 7.3.9. End of Cold War: - In 1989, there was a miraculous turn in world history. The root causes of cold war came to an end. Wall of Berlin fell, Germany was united, WARSAW pact was dismissed and friendly relations between th e two superpowers were initiated. Gorbache v It was the result of end of cold war that during Gulf crisis (1989 - 90) both America and Soviet Union together supported proposal of Security Council. The main reason behind the e nd of cold war was shattering of communism in Eastern Europe and new emerging economic and political crisis in Soviet Union. It was not in position to compete with America. President Gorbache v thought better to shun the politics of cold war by analyzing th e real situation of Soviet Union. Today, cold war is a thing of past.

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7.3.10 Questions for Exercise: - 1. Into how many factions was the world divided during cold war (a) 4 (b) 2 (c) 8 (c) 3 2. Cold war was by nature. (a) A political war (b) A mil itary war (c) A diplomatic war (c) A nuclear war 3. Define cold war. 4. What were the causes of cold war? 5. Evaluate various stages of cold war.

7.4 Non Alignment Movement (N.A.M.) The new born nations after the Second World War inaugurated the policy of non - alignment to prevent possibility of future war, to protect their freedom and to keep themselves aloof from powerful factions. At this time, the world was divided into two faction s the American faction and the Soviet faction, In 1947, after attaining independence, Bharat adopted the policy of non aligning with any of these factions and as the African nations became independent, they too adopted the policy of non - alignment. Thus, n on - alignment became means to give importance to peace and security by keeping away from power factions, cold war and military alliances.

7.4.1 Causes: 1. There was polarization of the world this time. Thus, some nations of Asia, Africa and Latin America b elieved that cold war between the two factions was not in their interest. Therefore, they started N.A.M to maintain their economic, fundamental progress and independent existence. 2. These newly independent nations believed that decisions of war and peace can only be made by powers like America and Soviet Union. These nations neither had such economic resources nor military resources to effect these superpowers. Therefore, they untidily started the N.A.M. 3. These nations had just been freed from colonial s lavery. Now, they wanted to be independent from policies of these powerful nations. They, therefore, believed that they could maintain their independence by using non alignment as their weapon. 4. New nations wanted to hold & form their political, social, cultural and economic foundations/structures independently. They wanted to carve out their separate identity and be free from influence of any super power. 5. All these nations were economically backward. Their priority was economic development of their n ations for which both capital and technical expertise was required. For obtaining this, they decided not to join any group and NAM was the only solution. The policy of non - alignment was formulated by Bharat, Egypt and Yugoslavia together and which was acc epted by newly independent countries gradually. The movement developed as Non Alignment Movement (N.A.M.) till now, 17 summits have been organized. First NAM conference Belgrade 1961: - The first summit of NAM was held at Belgrade in Septemeber 1961 in whic h observers of 25 African and Asian nations and three Latin Nehru, T i to & Nasir 125

American nations participated. A 27 point declaration was issued which decided to support disarmament, economic, social and cultural progress of developing nations. Seventh NAM conference, 1983: - The seventh NAM conference was held in Delhi in which 101 countries participated. Problems like Cambodian issue, Chinese attack on Vietnam, role of Soviet Union in Afghanistan and Iran - Iraq were discussed. New Delhi Declaration was issued which emphasized on disarmament, security of human rights, end of mutual conflict and wars and simplification of international trade to increase economy.

Venezuela Summit Seventeenth NAM conference, Venezuela 2016 - Recently NAM summit was organized on 17 - 18 September, 2016 in Margereta island of Venezuela. Till now the number of NAM countries have reached 120. The Indian delegation was led by Vice President of Bharat, Hamid Ansari. Issues like terrorism, reforms in UN, situation of west Asia, peace campaign of UN, environmental changes, constant progress, south - south cooperation, refugee problem and nuclear disarmament were discussed.

7.4.2 Impor tance of NAM NAM originated due to cold war. In its initial stage, it carried political contexts but later on its main aim was resolution of economic problems. In 1985, when the cold war became dormant due to reforms by Michael Gorbachev, the supreme lead er of USSR, the validity of NAM came to be questioned and when the cold war came to an end it was debated that since polarization of the world has ended, the NAM should also be dismissed. But the movement still carries importance as it is an important tool in obtaining economic justice. For various international problems and challenges like human rights, world trade discussions, environmental changes, reforms in the UN, NAM is working as a platform for developing nations. It has worked for cooperation and unity between countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America, Economic social and political cooperation is still required between these nations. This cooperation is known as ‘South - South cooperation’. Thus, NAM provides a platform to it. Actually, the non - al igned countries are contributing more than combined unified efforts of the world to protect peace and make it stronger. Not only this, it has made initiatives in favour of major international economic issues and the U.N. No doubt, these are important issue s and the general 126 condition of the world depends on the factor whether how far humanity would be able to free itself from wars and burden of arms.

7.4.3 Questions for exercise: 1. The policy of non alignment was propagated by (a) Bharat, Egypt and Yugosl avia (b) Britain, America and France (c) Italy, Germany, Japan (c) Syria, Lebnan, Iraq 2. Who led Bharat in 17 th NAM Summit? (a) (b) Pranav Mukherji (c) Hamid Ansari (d) Meera Kumar 3. What is meant by non - alignment? 4. Write an ar ticle on NAM.

7.5 Development of Modern World and Challenges After the tragedy and destruction of the two worlds, an ideology for one world became stronger which tried to accept peace and security along with liberal democracy. But many new problems arose in world among which the major ones were terrosism and security of environment.

7.5.1 Terrorism A simple meaning of terrorism is to create terror among people and fulfil one’s aims Thus, in terrorism any organization or group adopts a barbarous or violent mean s to accomplish political religious, economic and individual aim. The Brussel meet of 1931 defines terrorism as premeditated action to endanger life, physical integrity or human health and create an atmosphere of fear is terrorism. When any terrorist orga nization carries its agenda, receives support of any other terrorist group or opposing nation, it is known as international terrorism. For example, the terrorist organizations in Kashmir have Pakistan support though the latter never accepts it. A civil and humanitarian society never accepts terrorism. Thus, human law denies adoption of cruel means and attack on innocent people.

7.5. 2. Causes of T errorism: - 1. Interests of C ountries of W orld: - Some nations of the world provide facility in an organized manner for conduct of terrorist activities to conflicting groups for their political, military and economic interests. The terrorist activities sponsored by Pakistan in Bharat are an excellent example. US strengthened Osma - bin - Laden to drive out the Russians fro m Afghanistan, Laden later on made as terrorist attack on America itself. Thus, many nations provide support and arms to terrorist organizations against their enemy nations. 2. Pressure on O pponent N ation: - The terrorist organizations are not so powerful to fight any army of a nation face to face. Therefore, they resort to sabotage and violent activities to maintain their existence and attract peoples’ attention, so that fear is generated among common people and pressure could be exerted on the government. 3. Development of N ew T echniques: - There has been an unprecedented development in field of scientific inventions and information technology. Exchange of information has been facilitated by internet, fax, s atellite phone etc. to far off destinations. Terrorist organizations easily communicate through this modern technique for e.g. in the attack of 11 th September on World Trade center America, the terrorists resorted to use of websites. 127

4. Religious F ervor: - To gain sympathy of a particular religious group, the terrorist organization call their schemes as ‘Jehad’ These organizations, who are active specially in Kashmir, Chechnya and Philistine, derive money and sympathy in the name of Islam from Muslim nations of the world. 5. Nature of T errorism: - A disgusting face of terrorism has emerged in present time. Terrorist target not only the opponent nation but also innocent citizens and even school going children. Blood shed of innocent people and calling it a ‘Jeh ad’ is a shameful act.

7.5.3 Terrorist A ttacks: - Attack of delegation of UN in Syria by a group of Jews (1969) kidnapping of Indian plane from Kathmandu (1999), attack on Indian parliament (2001), attack on World Trade Centre in America through hijacked planes (11 September 2001), Mumbai attack of 26/11, Mumbai Train blast (11 July 2006), attack on school children in , attack on Nice in France, attack on a theatre in Moscow etc are examples of disgusting act of terrorism where their target was cro wdy areas and innocent school children. These terrorist organizations are active across the world as Jaish - iMuhammad, Lashkar - i - Toiba, Hijbul Mujahidin, ISIS, Hamja etc. Kashmir, Nagaland, Punjab, Assam, Bihar, UP in Bharat are terrorist affected areas for a long period of time where Pakistani, Islami, Maoists, Naxalites are active. On 13 th December2001, Laskar - i - Toiba and Jaish - i - Mohammad made terrorist attack on Parliament in New Delhi in which seven security men attained martyrdom. On 26 th November 2008 the terrorists entered Mumbai, financial capital of Bharat, and targeted five star hotels and railway stations which claimed 166 lives. Amir Ajmal Kasab Pakistani terrorist involved in the attack, was arrested and hanged. On 13 th May 2008, there was a seri es of bomb blasts in in which 68 people lost their lives. Recently, on 18 th September 2016, there was a terrorist attack on Headquarters of Indian army in Uri sector of Jammu and Kashmir. Eighteen armymen attained martryrdom. Similarly, Jaish - i - Moha mmad, a terrorist organization, attacked air force station in Pathankot. On 11 th September 2001, Al - Quida, a terrorist organization, hijacked four planes and striked World Trade centre in America which killed many people later on. America killed Osma - bin - Laden, the master mind of this attack in Pakistan. Another rich terrorist organization ISIS plans to control Muslim populated countries like Jordan, Israel, Philistine, Lebanan, Quwait, Syprus and South Turkey. Therefore, it has declared its commander Al - B aghdadi as Khalifa in 2014. This organization has claimed many lives in Syria very recently. A family which was travelling through sea to escape this attack, got drowned and a three year old child Allan Kurdi’s body was found on ocean shore. His Photograph s went viral on social media.

Terrorist A ttack Mumbai Terrorist A ttack World Trade centre in America 128

Thus, these terrorist organizations filled with religions insanity have become a dangerous problem for the entire world. They are misleading the youth in name of Jehad which is a matter of concern and challenge for the world.

7.5.4 Solution for T errorism 1. Terrorism has always registered its presence in world in some form or the other but it was always limited to a geographical area. It is also true that never before, in such a large number, people and countries have been affected by terrorism like today. T oday, the entire world wants to get rid of it. A powerful nation like America is also struggling with this problem and is taking all steps to deal with it. At this time, the UN also needs to take a bold and successful step against terrorism. 2. It is also important to impart lessons of love for nation and patriotism among the citizens so that the terrorist organizations would not mislead the youth and they will not form a second line of attack. It would be a major strategy to uproot them. 3. Unemployment e nhances poverty and it leads to terrorism. The unemployed youth is easily trapped into temptation given by the terrorists. Therefore, the developing countries need to provide means of employment and should initiate the scheme of unemployment allowance. 4. The way Russia in Chechenya and America in Afghanistan have taken stern military actions against the terrorists, other nations need to follow this line of action for e.g. recently Indian army crossed the LOC for a surgical strike in POK (Pak Occupied Kashm ir) to destroy camps of the terrorists. It is a praise worthily step of the army. As a result of such stern action, music is freely heard in Afghanistan and girls are fearlessly persuing education. 5. Along with these efforts, all the peace loving nations must understand the implications of tension and harm from terrorism and make a common plan against terrorism. Fake currency, smuggling of arms and illegal trade of drugs should be crushed to strike at income sources of these organizations so that the probl em is crushed once for all.

7.5.5 Problem of Pollution: - Safety of environment has become a prominent issue in world community Developed nations on one hand are causing damage to environment by over exploiting the resources, on the other hand, the develo ping nations seem to fall in line with them. Therefore, it becomes necessary today that effort to preserve environment should be made in the same way as countries of the world are uniting against terrorism. For this, ancient Indian tradition ought to be fo llowed which is sensitive towards man and nature as well as man and animal world and considers it a responsibility to protect them.

7.5.6 Modern Efforts: - In modern context, where economic benefits are a major concern among nations of the world importance should be given to environmental conservation as well. Conclusions drawn through various reports world wide about dangers of insecure environment reveal many shocking facts and the world community has become thoughtful about solution of this ser ious problem. The UN took initiative by calling a conference in Stockholm in 1972 and all the members of the UN approved of its UN environmental programme. After this, due to efforts of the UN, all nations started collective efforts to prevent desertisatio n and depletion of ozone layer.

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7.5.7 Earth Summit 1992 Twenty years after the Stockhome Conference first ‘Earth Summit’ was called in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) in 1992, in which more than 150 nations participated and had serious discussions related to va rious issues of environmental protection. The meet gave earth the name of home of humans and considered it a duty of the nations to protect it. The nations agreed to bring down consumption of dangerous gases responsible for Green House effect while conclu ding a treaty on environmental change till 2000 C.E. and bring down it to the level of year 1990 C.E. A document of 800 pages called ‘Agenda - 21’ was also released, which outlined the factors causing harm to environment. The developed nations like Britain,

EarthSummit 1992 America, China, Russia, Japan etc. accepted that release of dangerous gases in their countries was more than as compared to developing nations. Therefore, they pledged to reduce emission of these gases. Till today, one five percent of world population reside in America but it is consuming 25% energy of world. On the other hand, Bharat, whose population is 16 p.c. of world population consumers only 3 p.c. of world energy. Similarly, whereas America emits 22 p.c. carbondio xide into the atmosphere, emission by Bharat is only 3 p.c.

7.5.8 Kyoto Conference, Japan 1997 A conference was called in Kyoto city of Japan in 1997 on world environment and green house effect which held discussions on global warming. This summit is imp ortant as many nations of the world decided to cut back emission of gases from 2008 to 2012. to prevent global warming. European nations have agreed for 8 p.c. America for 7 p.c. and Japan for 6 p.c. reductions in these gases. Till now, 144 countries have been signatories to this Kyoto protocol. Another Earth summit was held in 2002 in Johenesberg in South Africa which deliberated upon several issues and progress of Kyoto protocol was analysed. In continuation, ‘UN climate change in 2005 in montreal (Cana da) and in 2009 in Copenhagen (Denmark) was held. About 134 countries participated in Paris climate change conference of November - December 20015 which agreed for reducing temperature of the earth.

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7.5.9 World Environmental Conference, New Delhi (25 - 26 Ma rch 2017) Recently, the National Green Tribunal organized a world environmental conference in Delhi on 25 - 26 March 2017 which: 1. Shared experience and information along with exchange of views on issues of environment. 2. Declared that the Directive Principle s in Bharat lay the responsibility of preserving environment on States. Thus, the states were inspired to take adequate steps. 3. Agreed that change of environment is due to Green House gases. 4. Discussed that countries of world have agreed to reduce global wa rming upto 2 p.c. under the Paris Agreement and for this, to reduce carbon emissions. 5. Confirmed that Indian government has agreed to base 40 p.c. electricity production on non - fossilised fuel. The 5 th of June, every year, is celebrated as world Environmental day to make people aware of environment which is an unprecedented effort of the UN. Efforts are made to make common people aware about issues of environment, for e.g. in 2015 the theme for the day was ‘One world, one environment’ and that of 2016 was ‘Go Wild for Life’. It is to be accepted that countries of the world will have to work collectively to make adequate efforts which will reduce calamities like green house effect and global warming, othe rwise the world will not escape the grave results for serious imbalances of environment.

7.5.10 Questions for exercise: 1. The terrorist attack on World Trade Center was on (a) 11 th September 2001 (b) 11 th September 2003 (c) 11 th September 2004 (c) 1 1 th September 2005 2. Rio - de - Janeiro is the capital of (a) France (b) Brazil (c) Indonesia (c) Japan 3. What is the problem of terrorism? 4. What efforts are necessary to keep environment safe? 5. Define cold war. 6. Discuss various stages of cold war. 7. What do you understand by NAM? 8. What are the causes of global terrorism? 9. Write an article on ‘Environment and World.

7.6 Answers - Multiple choice 7.3.10 Development of Modern World and Challenges 1. (b) 2 (c) Diplomatic war 7.4.3 NAM 1. ( a) India Egypt and Yugoslavia 2 (c) Vice President. 7.5.10 Cold War 1. (a) 11 th September 2001 2 (b) Brazil Very Short type questions 1. What is meant by cold war? 2. Where was the first Conference of NAM held? 3. When and where was the seventh conference of NAM held? 131

4. When and where was the 17 th conferenceof NAM held? 5. Name any two terrorist organizations. 6. Where was the first Earth summit held? 7. When was Kyoto conference organized? Answers Very Short Answer T ype: 1. Ideological Warfare, 2. Belgrade 3. New Delhi 4. Venezuela 2016 5. Lashkar - i - Toiba, Hijbul Mujahiddin 6. Rio - de - Janeiro (Brazil) 7. 1997

7.7 Glossary: - 1. Non alignment - To maintain independent existence without joining any ideological group. 2. Polarisation - To enhance power of any state by joining it. 3. Imperialism - To extend one’s empire by ignoring interests of other states and imposing own commerce, laws, laws and finally gaining control over them. 4. Disarmament - To stop manufacture of arms. 5. Jehad - Communal fight. 6. Global Warning - Continuou s increase in temperature of earth due to local pollution. 7. Green House effect - Increase in temperature due to continuous and excessive of carbon dioxide and chloro floro gases.

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State Open Board Rajasthan Jaipur

Part - 2

Glorious Past of Bharat

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Chapter - 8

Glorious Past of Bharat and Sources of History

8.0 Aim 8.1 Introduction and Preface 8.2 Magnificent past of Bharat 8.2.1 World expansion of Indian culture. 8.2.2 Naval Power of ancient Bharat 8.2.3 Paleolithic culture of Bharat 8.2.4 Rock Painting of Prehistoric Bharat. 8.2.5 Historical Consciousness in ancient Bharat. 8.3 Sources of Indian History 8.3.1 Literary Sources 1. Religious (i) Brahmin Literature (ii) Buddhist Literature (iii) Jain Literature 2. Secular Literature (i) Historical Works. (ii) Pure Literary works. (iii) Regional literature (iv) Foreign Accounts. 3. Genealogics (Vanshawalies) 8.3.2 Questions for Exercise 8.3.3 Archeological Sources. (i) Inscriptions (ii) Monuments and Buildings (iii) Coins and Seals (iv) Material from excavations (v) Sculpture, Rock art and others. 8.3.4 Summary 8.3.5 Questions for Exercise 8.4 Answer - Multiple choice and very short questions 8.5 Glossary.

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8.0 Aims  You will know from this chapter:  What was the attitude of Indians of past towards history.  What were the features of glorious past of ancient India.  What are the sources for knowing Indian history.  After reading this chapter w e expect you to gain information about our ancient glorious traditions and system as well as archeological and literary sources and reveal it to others as well.

8.1 Introduction and Preface: - We see a world wide influence of Indian culture based on archeological evidences and culture. History of Bharat and its culture was magnificent since times immemorial. As mentioned in old text, Bharat was known as “Bharatvarsha” mrja; r Hkkjrkuke~ fgeknz’pSo nf{k.ke~A o"kZrn~&Hkkjruke~ Hkkjrh ; = lUrfrA fo".kqiqjk.k i.e. Area situated in N orth of ocean and South of snowland is called Bharatvarsha and we all Indians are its descendents Bh arat . In Ag n i Purana, it is mentioned as Jambudweep. A majority of its area is Tropical in nature. Himalayas lie s in N orth which includes mounta i nous chains of Balkh, Badkhkan, Jammu - Kashmir, Kangra, Tihari, Garhwal, Kumaun, , Sikkim Bhuta n , Assam and Himalaya. The mounta i nous region of , Safedkoh, Turkeman and Kirthar in west, spreading from north to south separat it from western region.

8.2 Magnificent Past of Bharat Indian territory beyond oceans was known as Dipantar. It included nine is lands (Navdweep) Arabian geologist Masudi in his book ‘Midas of the Gold’, mentions that Bharat extended both in land and ocean during ancient times, its boundaries extending upto Jabag (Sumatra Java) . Thus Boundaries of undivided India extended from Afgan istan to entire south - east Asia. Indians reached Brahmadesh, Shyam, Indonesia Malasia, Australia, Berneo, Philipines, Japan and Korea throug powerful naval fleets and established political and cultural teritory . Sailors and tourists from islands of Pacific Ocean reached Mexico ] Handur a s in America, Peru, Bolivia and Chili in South America and established their colonies. Similarly, Dravid tourists and sailors from po r ts of were successful in establishing their colonies from Somaliland to South Af rica. Another branch of Aryans proceeded towards north en East of Himalayas and founded around 100 small states in various states of south Russia like, Tibet, Mangolia, Sinkyan N orth China, Manchuria, Siberia and China and established influence of Indian cu lture. One another branch of Aryans proceeded from western gate and unfurled the flag of Indian culture in Gandhar, Persia, Iran, Iraq, Turkistan, Arab, Turkey and south Russia as well as P hilistine. Thus, Aryans reached to almost all countries of world th rough land and sea. They civilized the natives by spreading their religion, culture and civilization and materialised their ideal of ‘Krinvantovishvamaryam’ d`.oUrksfo’oek;Ze~

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8.2.2 Naval Power of Ancient Bharat Scholars mention ships in Indus River about 6000 years back in Indus region . Jalyan word is used as ‘Nav’ in Sanskrit and this art was known as ‘Navgati’ Later on, this word became synonym of Naav, and the English term ‘Navigation’ is its transformation. It is revealed from ancient books that about 1000 years before Columbus was born, the ships made in Bharat were so powerful, that they could carry 1000 passengers through stormy Indian Ocean and Pacific ocean Famous Buddhist tourist Fa Hien travelled from South India to China in one such ship, which he mentions in his travelogue. He travelled from Lanka to Java and the n to China. Indians were always inquisitive about what lay beyond the ocean. They desired to make all peoples of world cultured “Aryas” (Noble) Kaundinya formed the Funan culture , Kambu reached Cambodia, Hindu states were formed in Champa and Anam, Shri Vijay ruled a glorious reign in Sumatra, Ashvavarman reached Berneo and our adverturous ancesto g s reached up to the banks of America. There were developed ports even 5000 - 6000 yea rs back. The port of Lothal in Sourashtra, discovered in excavations, was constructed purely on classical lines. Trade with Egypt, Mesopotamia, Iran etc. was carried through this p o rt. Cargo ships measuring upto 756 feet long, 126 feet broad and 75 ton hea vy reached till the banks. To park them a wall about 1400 feet long from east to west was constructed. Sopara and Bhrigukachcha in were also famous p o rts. Periplus in 1 st century C.E. has mentioned parts of Chola, Dabhol, Raj a pur, , , Kattayam, K o n a rk, Mach ali pattam, and Kaveripattam in his work. Arabian sea was known as Ratnakar and Bay of was known as Mahodadhi in ancient times. The Jatak stories mention ships which carried ten travelers. Many sea l s and utensils of Indus - Sara swati civilization carry pictures of ships. The architecture of Bharat and Sanchi depict paddle boats and ships with cabin. Some Arabian travelers mention use of ‘L ouh Matsya Ya n tra ’ by Indian sailors for knowledge of directions. Magasthenese also mention s an organization of 9 groups of ships. When a group of ships would sail in the ocean, a chief would guide them as main official. Head of every ship was known as kar n adhar or Mahasartha. Sailing was managed by ‘Niyamak . ’ There were separate officials for m anagement of ships. These adventurous and courageo u s people spread Indian philosophy, science, a o strology, mathematics, architecture, war art, diplomacy, music and Vedic literature in world. Hundreds of Sanskrit texts are found from Indonesia, Combodia, I ndo - China, Berneo etc. Shaka calendar is still followed in Java Shiva. Vishnu and Baudh temple here represent Indian culture. The grand architecture of Borubudur and Angkorvat resemble Ajanta Ellora. Names of cities like Champa Anam Pandureg, Indrapur Bali , Kalinga and names like Rama Varma represent their inseparable connection with Indian culture living style, traditions, modes of worship, culture of l e arning, behavior strongly reflect Indian tradition.

8.2.3 Stone Age Culture of Bharat Scholars have divided ende a vour of humans into two parts, a time period when man started to read and write till now is known as history and the span before this is known as prehistory. During the last century, scholars have found many places in excavations where primev al man lived. Things used by them, utensils and bones of animals have been discovered in excavations. Most of the equipments of early man were made of stone. Therefore, we call human beings of that era as Stone Age men and the period in which stone equipme nts were used is known as Stone Age period. 136

According to historians man for a long time has used stone equipments. Stone equipments about 20 lakh years old have been discovered from mountain range of Shivalik. The Paleolithic age can be divided into thre e parts: 1. Paleolithic Age 2. Mesolithic Age, 3. Neolithic Age

Tools of Upper Paleolithic Neolithic Tools Neolithic Tool Tools of Paleolithic were made by man about 20 lakh years ago which were big and thick and are not refined. This age has also been classified into three stages of lower, middle and upper Paleolithic age. Size of the tools in middle Paleolithic age became small and came to be called as microlithic tool s. Dating received from Gujarat Rajasthan, U.P., M.P. Orissa and dates back them upto 12000 years. By this time, man started living as a hunter and a gatherer and progressed towards animal husbandry. He started living in round huts near banks of riv ers and lakes. He had started using mud utensils and started cooking food. During the Neolithic age, he was drawn to animal husbandry and agriculture. He started making tools which were helpful in these endeavors. It mainly included axes, grinding stone & pestle, hammer, adge, mortar etc. They were made of hard metal like Basalt which was made fine by scrubbing. Agriculture forced him to settle down at one place. A new era of economic and cultural development was started.

8.2.4 Prehitori Rock Art In his initial stages, man resided in natural shelters made in caves and rocks in river, mountain and valley areas which were known as caves. He painted various aspects of life on walls and roofs of these shelters which are known as rock paintings. He expr essed various dimensions of his life. These painting reveal cultural social and religious life of early man. Such abundant paintings are found in south east Rajasthan, north Rajasthan and areas, Bhimbetka in and Pachmadi are also

Barah singa Alnia] Kota Water Drnage System Ganeh Dungri Viratnagar, Jaipur 137

Rock Painting Pachmadi (M.P.) Animal and Human FigureKundal Rawathata important from this point of view Similarly, paintings of Ajanta, frescoes of forts and palaces along with rock paintings have divulged various aspects of life and have acquainted us with contemporary culture. Rock paintings are spread all over India in mountainous regions and vall eys. Bhimbetka, one of them is included amongst World Heritage Site. Rock paintings are also found in Pachmadi, Bhopal, Hoshangabad, Vidisha, Sagar in M.P. Mirzapur in U.P., Chambal Valley area, Baran, Alania, Vilasgarh, Darra, Ravatbhata, Kapildhara, Bund i, Virat Nagar (Jaipur), Harsaura () and Samidha in Rajasthan.

8.2.5 Historical Consciousness in ancient India : - Western scholars generally believe that ancient Indians did not have historical consciousness. But their opinion i s completely wrong. Though history writing in ancient India does not appear in a systematic and periodical manner, the Indians were aware of the concepts related to history. Their historical consciousness was different from today’s context. Chanakya , while describing the wide scope of history , included Puranas, Itivritta, Akhyan, Udaharan, Dharmashastra and into it. Daily routine of a ruler also included a lecture on history, Veda, Puran, Upanishad, Ramayan, and Mahabharat. r oyal seals, copper plates, epithets and gen ea logies are examples of love for history of Indians. uses the word ‘Itihasveda’. Separate attempts were made to write history . As such Chinese traveler Hieun Tsang in 7 th century mentions that a separate officia l was appointed to scribe down both good and bad events of everyday. Kashmiri historian Kalhan says that only that virtuous po e t deserves praise who expresses only truth, keeping aside prejudices. Here what Kalhan implies is a historian. Knowledge and Scie nce in Ancient Bharat: - An elaborate account of knowledge and science is found in our ancient texts and Vedas. The ancient Sanskrit texts of Bharat were, translated into Arabic, Latin, English later. We are all acquainted with Indian medical science.

Aryabhatt Bhashkaracharya Maharshi Kanad 138

The Sindhu Saraswati civilization has symbols related to numbers of mathematics Bharat was rich in information about mathematics. The Indians knew about zero and its uses. Will Durant wrote in his book ‘History of civilization’ that it is Bharat who taught us the techniques to express all numbers with a denomination of 10 in which every number has an absolute value as well as its unit value. Yajurveda contains names of numbers upto 10 12 . After the Vikram Samvat, Indians had the knowledge to express numbers upto 10 53 where as the Romans and Greeks could e xpress only upto 10 4 in 4 th Century C.E. after they discovered invention of Zero. The basis of revolutionary progress of math through decimal was Bharat. This knowledge reached the world after Arabic and Latin translation of Indian works. Aryabhatt, in 5 th Century C.E. knew concepts like square root, triangle, quadrangle, circumference of circle and exact value of pie upto four denominations (3=1476) Brahmagupta invented the formula for expansion of any power. Leelawati and Siddhanta Shiromani by Bhaskaracharya are important from the point of view of mathematics, algebra and geometry. They knew about calculus, Shulva Sutra of Baudhayan gives information about formulae of areas. A total of right angle triangle is equal to its two sides ; this theory in geometry was propounded by Baudhay an in ‘Chiti Prameya’ Pythagoras received it from Bharat. Square formulas are contribution of Baudhayan and Aapstamba. Katyayan explained the procedure to measure graph of a circle.

Astronomy and Astrology: - The Indians gathered knowledge about cosmos, s tars and sky and wrote the related books. The Indian ‘Panchang’ system which contains information & calculating about size and revolution of earth, solar eclipse, lunar eclipse, satellites and planets, speed of stars, 27 constellations are accurate in pres ent age. When the world was unaware of s hap e of the earth Aryabhatt, then promulgated the theory of revolution of earth. Shatpath Brahman contains description of speed of stars and planets. Theories established by Indian astrologers like revolution of moo n around earth, rotation of earth on its own exis and the resultant 12 zodiacs, 27 constellations, lunar month of 30 days, a year of 12 months and an extra month (purushottam Maas or Adik Maas) every third year to establish coordination between lunar and s olar month are still being followed. Physics and Chemistry: - Kanad Rishi was the propounder of molecular theory and author of Vaisheshik philosophy. Development of Physics in ancient Bharat i s derived from his work. He prop oun ed theory of matter, its cons tituents and atoms as well as concept of composition of atoms. The scholars and Rishis of ancient Indian gave concepts of physics like matter, power, motion, velocity. Laws of physics revealed to Europe in 14 th Century, are available in 5 th century works o f Padarth Dharma Sangraha of Prashastipad and Vyomvati of Vyom Shiva Charya. In short, we can say that India past was glorious. Culture of Rome Greece, Egypt, S u m e ria etc. rose and fell, but Indian culture and civilization flourished uninterrupted. Indian culture has not only affected Indian society but several other human societies as well. Bharat is extensive, rich in t radition, enriched with ancient literature, continuous history and culture. Many foreign inva sion s have resulted a blow on her culture an d religion, but the nature of her culture has remained intact Ancient Vedic literature reveal that people since ancient times had faith and respect ed Bharatmata Bharatvarsha or land of Bharat. It is a symbol of our nationality. There have been many stages of development of nationalism since ancient times. Concept of nationalism runs since Vedic times. Cultural nationalism has a special importance. 139

8.3 Sources of Indian History History is not only description of Kings and the battles fought by them. It is a factual study of the past. Infact study of history embraces history of entire mankind, including all aspects of life science, economy society, politics, religion and philosophy etc. Sources for the information of history can be divided as follows: 1. Literary Sources 2. Archaeological Sources. The literary sources can further be divided into three parts. (i) Religious Texts Brahmin, Buddhist & Jain (ii) Secular Texts - Historical, pure literary regional and foreign travelogues. (iii) Genealogies

8.3.1 Literary Sources: Religious Texts: The ancient religio u s texts of Bharat contain description of economic, social an d political condition, dynastic description of ruler along with analysis of religions and spiritual aspects. This description is a very important historical source. These texts can be divided as fallows: - (a) Brahmin Texts: (Brahmin Literature) Most important of these texts are Vedas which are addressed to as all pervasive, endless, god created and infinite. The oldest among them is Rigveda which contains 10 mandalas and 1028 Suktas (Verses) Most of the hymns (Chapters) of S amveda are derived from Rigveda. Atharvaveda contains information about religion, medicine, wellness and supreme knowledge each Veda has four parts - Samhita, Brahman, Aran y ak and Upnishad. Yajurveda is predominantly related to rituals and describes literatu re related to yajnas, Samveda contains hymns sung by the Aryas. Atharvaveda was conceptualized by Rishi A t harva. It contains diverse subjects like supreme knowledge, obligations towards society, use of medicine , suppression of enemies, cure of diseases, ta ntra - (Soceric Knowledge) etc. The last three Vedas i.e. Yajurveda, Samveda and Atharvaveda contain information about Aryas of post – Vedic period. Apart from Vedas, information about ancient Indian History is also derived from Brahman texts, Vedang l iterature, Upaveda, Aran y ak and Upnishads. Various Rishis created Smriti literature among which Manusmiriti, Narad Smriti, Brihaspati Smriti, Katyayan Smriti and Yajnavalkya smriti are well known. Manu Smriti and Yajnavalkya S mriti are the main sources of present Hindu code of law. Justice and l aw are mentioned in Brihaspati, Katyayana and Narad Smriti, Manu Smriti i s the oldest of them all, dating back to 200 BCE to 100 BCE Puranas: - They are most useful for purpose of writing Indian history They are 18 in number among which Markandeya Brahman, Vayu, Vishnu, Bhagwat and Matsya are older. Matsya Purana is the oldest among them. Religious discourses, History and Sciences are given adequate representation in these puranas. Most of the information about cultura l is derived from these texts. Genealogy from pre historic time to king Parikshit, after Mahabharata is provided in these Puranas. Names of rulers from 6 th century B.C.E. to downfall of Satvahana rulers (Andhra) is provided in them. They a re divided into five major subjects - Sarg, Pratisarg, Manvantar, Vansha and Vanshanu Charita. The greatest flaw of these Puranas is absence of dates. Stories and imaginary events are also resorted to. Mahakavya: - was written by Maharshi V almiki and Mahabharata was written by Ved Vyas. These two epics are unfathomable source of information about Indian history. They provide us 140 information about society, religion and politics. Bhagwad Gita is a part of Mahabharata which elaborately mentions the spiritual and philosophical concepts of Indians. Its usefulness is recognised world wide. (b) Buddhist Texts: - The Buddhist and Jain texts contain knowledge in large amount Buddhist literature has played an important part in writing down history of anci ent Bharat. Early Buddhist literature is in Pali language but late r on, they were written in Sanskrit, Tibetan and Chinese language. The oldest among these texts is Tripitika. They are three in number Suttapitak , Vinay Pitak and Abhidhamma Pitak. They cont ain the rules and behaviour to be followed in Baudh Dharma. Vinay Pitak has three parts - Sutta, Vibhang, and Khandhak. It contains rules and regulations of a Buddhist monastry. Sutta Pitak contains teachings of Gautama Buddha. It has five parts known as Ni kaya Dirgh, Samy u kta, Majjhim, Angu tt ar and Khuddak Nikayas. Abhidham Pitak is about the philosophical aspect of Baudh Dharma. Another contribution of Buddhist texts is in form of Jataka literature. It contains stories of all the previous births of Buddha along with knowledge of contemporary social, religious and economic aspects. They are 549 in number. Divyavadan contains description of good and conrageous deeds to be performed and also information about Ashoka, his successors and Pushya mitra. The text a lso informs us about events prior to Mauryas to Harshavardhan. Other texts of Pali language are Milind Panho, Deepa Vansha and Mahavansha. While Milind Pandho is description of conversation between Greek invader Menander and Buddhist monk Nagasena, Depavan sha and Mahavansha describe history of Simhal dweep (Sri Lanka). Apart from Pali language, Buddhist texts are also written in Sanskrit language. Mahavathu is based on biography of Guatama Buddha, whereas Lalit Vistar transforms Buddha into a divine being and describes his miracles and extraordinary feats in his biography. Historical knowledge is also derived from Manju Shree Mulkalpa, Buddha Charita by Ashvaghosha and Saunderananda Kavya. Indian Buddhist texts were translated in central and western Asia, T ibet, China, Japan, Brahma, Srilanka etc. (c) Jain Texts: - Jain literature is also known as Aga m s. Like Buddhist texts, they also contain lo t s of historical information. The Agam literature contains 12 Angas, 12 Upangas, 10 Prakirna, 6 C heda S utra, 1 Sutra, 1 Anuyogadwar and 4 Mool sutra. These were structured through rel i gious councils and people during a long span between 4 th century BC E to 6 century CE . This literature is written in Prakrit language. Other Jain literature consists of Kathakosha, Pa rishista parva n , Bhadrabahucharita, Kalpa Sutra, Bhagwati Sutra etc. Acharang Sutra contains rules and regulations to be followed by the Jain ascetics. Parishishtaparvan contains information about relationship between various rulers and Jain monks; descrip tion of last days of Chandragupta Maurya, as well as life of is available in Bhadrabahu Charita. Historical rulers like Shronik, Bimbsar, Pradyot, Udayan, rulers of Nanda dynasty gupta Maurya, Bindusar, Ashoka, Dashrath, Samprati find me ntions in Jain literature. Other important texts were - K atha k osha, Lok Vibhag, Pragyapti, Avashayak S utra, Kalika purana etc.

2 . Secular Texts: - It includes literature which consists information other than religion like historical semi historical, pure literary works, plays and stories poetry etc. (a) Historical Texts: - Rajtarangini by Kalhan is purely a historical work which was composed in 1150 C.E. It contains history from ancient times till 12 th century . Another historical work i s by Vi shnugupta Chanakya or Kautilya. It contains detailed information about contemporary 141

administration, economy, social and religious life. Kautilya included Purana, discourses, Itiv r itta, examples, religious texts and economics under the purview of history. Apart from these, biographi es are also available including Harsh Charita by Banabhatta , Gaudvaho of Vakpati, Vikramankdev Charita of Vilhana , K umarpal C har i ta of Jai Singh, Hammir Mahakavya of Nayanchand, Navsahasank Charita of Padmagupta, Bhoja C harita of Bullat and Prithiviraj Vijay of Jayanaka. Ballal charita of Anand Bhatt reveals information about Sena dynasty of Bengal and Bihar, and Prithviraj Vijay contains heroic stories of the ruler. Vishnugupta Chanakya (b) Pure litera ry works - Many plays, works on grammar, commentaries, poetry, prose and vocabularies were composed which inform us about contemporary rulers, social and economic life. Ashtadhyahi of Panini, Mahabhashya of , Gargi Samhita, Malvika Agnimitra of dasa, Mudra Rakshasa of Vishakhdutta, Mrichchakatikam of S hudrak, Mitakshara of Gyaneshwar and Nitisara of Kamandak are important historical texts. Panchtantra of Vishnu Sharma, Vrihat Katha of Gunodhya, Vrihat Katha Manjari of Kshemendra, Katha Saritsagar of Somdev Amarkosh of Amar Singh are important texts from the point of view of literary works which provide information of contemporary society. (c) Regional literature: - Abundant historical information is available in texts of regional languages. Ancient Tam il literature was known as Sangam literature which gives elaborate information about the Chola , chair and Pandye rulers. This literature was inspired by Rishi. The Telgu work K rishnadeva Rai Vijayam by Dhurjati provides information about achievements of Krishnadev Rai ruler of Vijay Nagar. Among other works, Prithvi Raj Raso by Chand Bardai (Rajasthani). Kanhadev Prabandha by Padmanabh, Rao Jaitsi Ro Chand by Beethu S u ja, Vansha Bhaskar by Suryamal Mishran, Nainsi ri Khyat by Nainsi Banki Das ri Khyat are popular. (d) Foreign Travelogues: - Description of India written by foreign travelers is also important from historical point of view. Some foreigners, however, never visited Bharat, but wrote about her by collecting, information about her. The cultural and economic achievements of Bharat have always attracted the world . Bharat had trade relations with the countries of world. People from abroad came here to acquire knowledge about religion and philosophy and to study. Therefore, foreign writers too were attracted towards Bharat and have provided adequate description about Bharat But it is important to use this information carefully as much of the account is misleading. Greek Account: Account of Tesius, Herodotus, Niarchus, Miletas, Aristobulas, O nekrates, Strabo, Ju s tin, Curtius, Arian Umenis are important for information about Indian history Most important work of all is ‘Indi c a’ written by Magasth n ese a Greek ambassader in court of Chandra Gupta Maurya. The Greek accounts inform us about adminis tration, social and economic condition of Chandra G upta Maurya. Among the Greek works, Geography of Ptolemy, Natural history by Pliny the elder, ‘ History of the W ar ’ by Aristobulas Christian Topography of the U niverse by Plutus 142

G eography by Strabo are wort h mentioning. Peripl u s of the Eri y thr a ean Sea mentions an elaborate description of ports and trade. Chinese Account: - Among the Chinese writers, Sumachin was the first Chinese who provided information about Indian history. Accounts of Fahien, Sung u an, Hieu n Tsang and Itsing are important. Fahien visited Bharat during the reign of Chandragupta II (Gupta Dynasty) He gave a detailed account of administration of provinces and social system during Gupta period. Hieun Tsang is known as the prince of Travelers. Hi storians agree that without his description, the Indian history of 7the century would have been unclear. He received education in Nalanda University. He arrived during the reign of Harsha Vardhan, a period ranging from 629 to 644 CE and described history o f Bharat in his book Siyuki. He stayed for 10 years in Nalanda. The book reveals information about Nalanda and Vikramshila University along with Indian culture and society. Other Foreign accounts: - Names of Tibetan, Arabic and middle Asian writers are wort h mentioning in this category. The Kangyur and Tangyur scriptures of Taranath are taken as useful. Arabic travelers and geologists have also given information about Bharat. Masudi in his book Midas of Gold has mentioned Bharat. The Chachanama, history of S indh and Silsilat ul Tawarikh by Suleman Navi mentions Pal - Pratihara rulers. Alberuni is most important among the Arabic writers who learnt Sanskrit language and studied original sources. His book Tahkik - i - Hind (Tarikh - i - Hind) contains elaborates descripti on of Indian society and culture and is used by later historians adequately. His interest in Indian philosophy and art of Indian is worth mentioning. 3 - Genealogies as sources of History: - Tradition of writing genealogies has held an important place in In dian history . It is a system of preserving history of man in a pure form. The writer scribes down history from origin of universe to historical social, economic and religious events of an individual’s ancestors and compiles entire information in manuscript s. We know about our ancestors through these genealogies. These writers are mainly Badwa, Jaga, Ravji and Bhat, priests of holy places, Barot etc. These genealogies are significant as follows: - - Genealogies or bahis made by these writers are recognized as legal in courts. Family matters are written down in order to keep their record forever. Symbol are also used with

Vanshawali Writing Inkpot of Vanshawali Writers letter. Definitely, they are legal documents in the Indian Evidential Law of 1872; the systematic genealogies are accepted as legal facts. In Jadgish Prasad V/s Sarvan kumar case AIR 2003 & P&H, the court accepted the entries made in Bahis as evidence. (a) Th ese writers of genealogies can also be accepted as Folk historians. These genealogies were an important historical source in writing ancient and medieval Indian history. The Puranas were written with genealogies as their main basis. 143

(b) Through them, history w riting of every caste and every person has been accomplished. It has also provided information about social history. This tradition was started by Vedic Rishis to keep the society systemic and organized. (c) Development of economic life and occupation of peopl e have also been mentioned in them. (d) The most authentic sources to know about ones tradition, culture, original habitat, extension, family, kula and its traditions and names of ancestors are genealogies. (e) Through genealogies, differences and mutual b itterness between Hindus and converts can be minimized. It can be used to enhance communal cooperation and harmony. The five subjects (Lakshana) mentioned in Puranas includes construction of genealogies as one of the prominent subject lxZ’p izfrlxZ’p oa’k ksa euoUrjkf.k pA oa’kkuqpfjre~ pSo iqjk.ka iap y{k.ke~AA i.e. creation of universe, calamity, construction of genealogies, measurement of time and discussion about genealogies. Thus, we can say that important facts can be obtained through genealogies. Eve n today, its writers recite them at each individuals place. 8.3.2 Questions for exercise 1. How many Vedangas are there? (a) 18 (b) 12 (c) 4 (c) 6 2. Name of famous work of Kautilya is (a) Ar th a s hastra (b) Mudra s hastra (c) Mahakavya (c) Geography 3. Name two Puranas. 4. Mention work by Panini. 5. What did Pliny write? 6. Name famous work of Kautilya. 7. Who was the author of ‘Midas of the Gold’? 8. What are Tripitak? 9. Define Brahmin Granthas. 10. What do you know about Agam? 11. Which s ystem was evolved by Kanad in Physics? 12. Name two scholars who contributed towards mathematics in ancient Bharat. 13. Narrate importance of Mahakavya of Patanjali. 14. Describe importance of Vedic literature as historical source. 15. Define contribution of Jain and Buddhist literature towards knowledge of history. 16. Which foreign literature is useful for information of Indian History? 17. Mention major characteristics of Neolithic Age. 18. What is the importance of genealogies from historical point of v iew?

8.3.3 Archaeological Sources New facts about information of history are presented to us through archeological sources and presented facts are verified through these sources. Most trusted sources of history of ancient Bharat are archeological sources Archeology means study of activities of man through remains of the past. Information about Kalinga ruler Kharvela is derived by Hathi Gumpha inscription. The physical 144 evidences of history lie in these sources. Excavations, at Harappa - Mohenjodero reveal in formation about Indian civilization and culture. These sources can be categorised as follows: - 1. Inscriptions, 2. Monuments, 3. Coins and Seals, 4. Material from excavation, 5. Statues, Rock Painting and Others. 1. Inscriptions: - They hold the most important place in archeological sources of India. Their importance increases due to their dating and because they are contemporary. The time period and achievements of a particular administration is derived from inscriptions. They skip unnecessary information due to lack of space. Mostly, the name of ruler or concerned person, his genealogy, date, accomplis h ment and contemporary events are inscribed, for e.g. inscriptions of Ashoka, of Kharvela, Nasik inscription of Gautamiputra Satkarni and Prayag Prashasti of Samudra Gupta. Without them, information about Indian history is incomplete. Inscriptions of Ashoka are in Kharoshthi and Brahm i script. We find inscriptions, pillar inscriptions as well as cave inscription s by him . They are an epitome of artistic beauty. They are inscribed on long - artistic pillars and rocks. The Rudradaman inscription of Junagarh is much famous. The Iron Pillar inscription of Chandra at Mehrauli, Bhittari Pillar inscription of Skand Gupta, Prayag Pillar inscription of Samudra Gupta are also important. The copper plates provide us information about Guptas. The copper plate of Prabhavati Gupta deserves special mention. Among the cave inscriptions, the Barabar cave inscription of Ashoka, Naga rjuna cave inscription of Dasharatha, Nasik and Na n aghat ca v e inscriptions of the Satvahanas are useful. Inscriptions on the fore or back of statues have also been inscribed the rulers. They are known as statue plates. Important events during reign of vari ous rulers, factual information along with social, economic, religious and political facts are known through these inscriptions 2. Monuments and Buildings: - All remains, Stupas, chaityas, viharas, math, temple, palaces, forts and buildings are included among the archeological sources. They present to us culture, art and political life of that era. The remains of Harappa and Mohenjodaro inform is about their culture and civilization. Devgarh and Bhitarigaon temples inform us about religious and cultural conditi on of Gupta age. Information about spread of Indian culture in South East Asia is derived only from monuments. Monuments of Angkorvat in Cambodia, temples of Borobudur of Java speak of imperialist and cultural expansion of Bharat. Remai n s of temples and st upa found in south East Asia and central Asia, inform us about spread of Indian culture abroad. Among such places, Java, Camboj, Malaya, Siam, Borneo, Cochin, China Combe are prominent. Borobudur is the evidence that Mahayana seet of Buddhism had become ve ry popular here in 9 th century CE . 3. Coins and Seals: - They have also contributed significantly towards knowledge of ancient Indian history They inform us about names of rulers, dates, pictures, genealogy, religion, accomplishments, interests of rulers etc. Gupta coins provide us important information Veena V adak and Vyaghra Nihauta coins of Samudragupta depict his love for art and his courage. Similarly, coins of Kumargupta to confirm that he was a S haiva. The extent of empire, economic standard, religious faith , art and foreign trade are revealed t hrough coins. Earliest coins were of silver and copper. They contain only pictures and are known as punchmarked Ahat coins, After Mauryas, the Indo - Greek rulers issued inscribed coins which contained name of the ruler, royal insignia and date. Some importa nt events are also known from 145

coins. The coins of Samudra Gupta contain pictures of horse and sacrificial pillar and Ashwamedha Parakram written on it, which informs us of this feat of Samudra Gupta. One coin depicts him playing a veena. A hoard of coins i s discovered from Bayana (Rajastahn) and Jogalthambi (Nasik). The lat t er provides information of conflict between the Shakas and Satvahanas. Gautam putra Satkarni reissued the Shaka coins after inscribing his name on them. Seals were also prevalent which c ontained signatures and names of ruler, feudals, officials, traders or a particular person. About 274 clay seals are discovered from Basadh (ancient Vaishali). Coins reveal about dates, religious belief, art economic and commercial status, boundaries of an empire, new facts and information about interests of rulers. 4. Material from excavations: - Excavated remains are the main source of History of stone age culture and civilization. We can comprehend the journey of man through revealed tools and clay utensils. Information about Sindhu - Saraswati civilization is obtained only through excavations. Earlier stone equipments and later utensils were discovered in large number. Roads, drains, buildings, bronze and copper things, utensils, ornaments are discovered only f rom excavations which reveal contemporary human society and culture. 5. Statues, Rock paintings and other artifacts: - Various statues, artifacts of have been discovered in excavations which inform us about religious, social and cultural life Paintin g is an effective medium to express human life in an authentic way. The rock paintings in prehistoric times have been done by the contemporary people. Various aspects of life have been expressed through this art which divulges information about cultural, s ocial and religious life of early man. Rock paintings of such kind have been abundantly discovered from south - east Rajasthan, north Rajasthan and Shekhawati area. The paintings at Ajanta, f rescoes of forts and palaces also express early history of ancient Bharat.

8.3.4 Summary: - The ancient literary sources in ancient Bharat indicate that Indians were aware of their history. Literature from Vedic text till Rajtarangini gives information about process of Indian history writing. Historical information is rev ealed in ancient religious texts. By 11 th and 12 th century, history writing had taken its roots. Religious literature includes Brahmin, Buddhist and Jain literature. Foreign accounts from China, Tibet, Arabia and Greece were also helpful in informing about Indian history. Later on, regional literature also tells us extensively about history. Apart from literature, coins, movements, seals, material from excavations statues and rock paintings are also helpful in studying history. Inscriptions on coins also im part knowledge of history but lack present day continuity and dates.

8.3.5 Questions for Exercise: - 1. From where the cave inscriptions of Ashoka have been discovered? (a) Ajanta (b) Ellora (c) Nagarjuna (c) Rampur 2. Information about which rul er is revealed from coins of Jogalthambi? (a) Gautami Putra Satkarni (b) Pushyamitra 3. Which evidence gives information about love of music of Samudra Gupta? 4 In which country are monuments of Agakorvat situated? 5 In which countries of South - Eest Asia did Indian culture spread? 146

6 Which ruler is identified in Hathigumpha inscription? 7 What historical information is revealed from coins? 8 Explain stra t i t ication of Stone Age. 9 What do you know about Rock paintings? 10 Describe importance of inscriptions of Ashoka.

8.4 Answers of Multiple choice & Very short Answer Type Questions 8.3.2 Glorious Past and literary sources 1 (d) 6. 2 (a) Arthashastra 3. Markandeya, Vishnu, Brahmand, Vayu, Garuda 4. A s h tadhyayi 5. Natural History 6. Masudi 7. Arthashastra 8. Tripitak - A c ollection of principles, rules and behaviou r of B u ndha dharma. 9. The Vedic texts are interpreted in Brahman granthas. 10. Jain literature is known as Aga m . 11. Propounder of Atomic theory and creator of Vaisheshik Pl i losophy. 12. Aryabhatta, Brahmagupta, Bhaskara Charya 8.3.5 Archeological Sources: - 1. (c) Nagarjuna 2 (a) Gautami Putra Satkarni 3. Veena Coins 4. Combodia 5. Java, Comboj, Malaya, Siam, Borneo, Cochin, China, Combay etc. 6. Kalinga ruler Kharvel

8.5 Glossary:  Inscriptions - script over stone or copper metal  Archeology - branch of research of old places.  Poen written in praise for someone  Contemporary - which exist in one particular period of time.  Monument - Structure or pillar of building or its remains which represent its time.

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Chapter - 9

Golden Pages of Indian History

9.0 Aim 9.1 Introduction and Preface 9.2 Mauryan Age 9.2.1 Sources of Mauryan History 9.2.2 Chandragupta Maurya. 1 . Early Life 2 . Expansion of empire 3. Administrative System. 9.2.3 Emperor Bindusar 9.2.4 Emperor Ashoka - Dharma of Ashoka and efforts for expansion. 9.2.5 Society and culture of Mauryan period. 9.2.6 Summary 9.2.7 Questions for Exercise 9.3 9.3.1 Historical Sources. 9.3.2 Major Rulers. 9.3.3 Causes of downfall of Gupta Empire. 9.3.4 Religion, Education, Literature, Science and Art during Gupta period. 9.3.5 Economic Development during Gupta period. 9.3.6 Summary. 9.3.7 Questions for Exercise. 9.4 Bharat During Harsha 9.4.1 Emperor Harsha Vardhan 9.4.2 Historical Sources 9.4.3 Wars and Expansion of Empire. 9.4.4 Administrative System. 9.4.5 Society and Culture. 9.4.6 Education and Literature 9.4.7 Evaluation of Harsha. 9.4.8 Summary 9.4.9 Questions for Exercise. 9.5 South India 9.5.1 Sangam Literature 9.5.2 . 9.5.3 Rashtrakuta Dynasty 9.5.4 Pallava Dynasty. 148

9.5.5 Chola Dynasty 9.5.6 Summary 9.5.7 Questions for Exercise. 9.6 Vijayanagar Empire: - 9.6.1 Major Dynasties 1. Sangama Dynasty 2. Saluva Dynasty 3. Tuluwa Dynasty 4. Aravidu Dynasty. 9.6.2 Administration of empire of Vijay Nagar. 9.6.3 Bharat during Vijay Nagar Empire. 9.6.4 Summary 9.6.5 Questions for Exercise 9.7 Answers Multiple choice and very short type questions. 9.8 Glossary.

9.0 Aim: - The present chapter aims to acquaint you with  Achievements of various rulers of Bharat during Mauryan period.  The nature of administration during Mauryan period  The progress of society, religion, literature and art during Mauryan period.  Establishment of large empire by important rulers of G upta age through their military accomplishments.  Unprecedented progress in areas of religion, art, culture, literature, knowledge and science in Gupta age.  Rule of Harsh Vardhana as an important an ruler of Hindu dharma in ancient Bharat.  Religious social and cultural condition of age of Harsha.  Political achievements of important dynasties in far south of ancient Bharat.  Art, culture and literature of south Bharat.  Achievements of Vijay Nagar empire among dynasties of south Bharat.  Administrative system a nd important cultural achievements of Vijay Nagar Empire.

9.1 Introduction and Preace Mauryan dynasty is considered to be an important dynasty of ancient Bharat. There were some important rulers in this dynasty among whom Chandragupta Maurya is first to be cited. Mauryan Empire was a large empire of ancient Bharat whose boundaries touched Kashmir in north Iran in West, Assam in east and present central Maharashtra in south. A strong centralized administration was founded by the Mauryan rulers. Significant ly, Ashoka laid an impact on entire world through his Buddhist policy. Gupta age carries a great name in history of ancient Bharat. Kushana Empire was ended by the Gupta rulers who provided political stability to north Bharat. For about 200 years, the Gup ta rulers gave political unity to entire north Bharat and north - west areas, liberated Bharat from foreign rule, destroyed small dynastic, aristocratic and democratic states and reimbibed establishment of the idea of an empire. Efficient and powerful Gupta rulers one after the other unified entire north Bharat into one knot, influenced the policies of Vakataka and Pallava rulers of south Bharat and forced them to accept its influence and superiority. The Gupta rulers protected Bharat from invasions of barbar ious Hunas. 149

The most illustrious ruler among the Vardhana emperors was Harsha Vardhana. His area of rule was Thaneshwar. At that time, Shashank, a powerful ruler ruled over Bengal in east part of Bharat who had conquered the entire east Bharat. Condition of Thaneshwar was deplorable when Harsha ascended the throne. He had to face initially important political difficulties but founded a large empire through his ability. There were some important dynasties in South Bharat among whom the Sangam dynasty is c onsidered to be the first and authentic. Sangam dynasty is an important social, religious and cultural foundation of South Bharat. Apart from this, important dynasties like Chalukya, Cholas, Rashtrakutas, and Pallavas etc. gave a new direction to South Bha rat with their art, culture and literature. The dynasties of south Bharat played in important part in maintaining their cultural traditions in history of ancient Bharat as a result of which evidences of art and architecture are still to be seen today. Vij aynagar empire was as important dynasty of south Bharat,. Two brothers, Harihar and Bukka, were subordinate in service of Kakatiyas of Warangal. Later on, they joined the services of Kampilya state. They were forced to embrace Islam during the reign of Muh ammad bin Tuglaq, which the two brothers refused to. They revolted against Tughlaq and founded Vijaynagar Empire taking advantage of favourable circumstances.

9.2 Mauryan Period 9.2.1 Sources of history of Mauryan period: - Brahmana literature - Light is thr own on names of Mauryan rulers, the period of their rule, contemporary events and social and economic conditions by different Puranas and their commentaries. Buddhist Literature: - Among the Buddhist scriptures, Deepavansha and Mahavansha, Mahabodhivansha, Atthakatha, Milind Panho, Divyavadan, Manjushri Mulkalp etc. hold important place. Jain Literature: - Jain Scriptures which included Kalpasutra of Bhadrabahu, Parishishta Parva by Hemchandra. Secular Scriptures - Kautilya’s ‘Arthashastra’ holds an important p lace in secular literature. Foreign travelogues: - Major work is ‘Indica’ by Magasthenese. Archaeological Sources: - Various inscriptions and clay pottery, statues found in excavations help to provide information about history of Mauryan times.

9.2.2 Chandr agupta Maurya (324 - 300 B.C.E.) - The founder of Mauryan dynasty was Chandragupta Maurya. 1. Early Life: - The oldest epigraphic evidence of ‘Chandragupta’ is found from Junagarh inscription of Rudradaman. 2. Expansion of Empire: - Herat, Kandhar and Kabul possibly along with Baluchistan was under his possession. Thus, entire modern Afghanistan and Baluchistan was under his hold and boundaries of his empire touched Persia (Iran) According to Jain legends, during the last years of hi s life, Chandragupta left the worldly life, became a recluse and migrated to Mysore with the Jain saint Bhadrabahu. There he ended his life according to Jain tradition of fasting. The mountain on which he spent his last days is known as Chandragiri and a t emple Chandragupta Basti built by him is situated there. 3. Administrative System: -  Theory of Kingship: - Till Mauryan age, the post of ruler had become hered itary and was supported on the p rinciple of ‘Divine Theory of Kingship.’ 150

 Ruler of Emperor; - King was the head of the state. He was the creator of laws, implementer of laws and highest authority to dispense justice.  Council of Ministers: - According to Kautilya, there were two institutions to advice the ruler - one, assembly of ministers and second, council of ministers.  Major central administrative officers: - The Mauryan administration was based on a very systematic and centralized bureaucracy. The highest category of officers is called ‘Tirth’ in Arthashastra.  Provincial administration: - There were two types of provinces in Mauryan empire. One, which belonged to subordinate rulers and second, which were formed as unit by dividing Mauryan empire into various parts. The four provinces which find mention during Ashoka’s time were (1) Uttarapath with Ta kshashila as capital (2) with Ujjayani as capitral (3) Kalinga with Tosali as capital (4) Dakshinapatha with Suvarnagiri as capital. The fifth part of the empire was Prachi from where the emperor ruled from his capital Patliputra.  Town administratio n - The administration of town was very sound. The city was divided into wards for administration whose official was called ‘Sthanik’.  Spy system - The spy system of Mauryan rulers was excellent. There were two types of spies - first, sanstha - who collected i nformation while staying at one place, second, ‘Sanchara’ who moved around and collected information.  Judicial Systerm : - The penal code of Maurya rulers was strict Fines were imposed for common offences and punishment for adultery was dismemberment of organ s.  Economy: - The main source of income of the state was land revenue which was commonly 1/6 of the product.

9.2.3 Emperor Bindusar (300 - 273 B.C.E.) After Chanbdragupta, his son Bindusar ascended the throne. Greek Writers call him Amitrochedes.

9.2.4 Emp eror Ashoka (273 - 236 B.C.) Bindusar’s successor was Ashoka who is considered an unparalleled and a great emperor in ancient Bharat. H.G. Wells has called him as the greatest of emperors. The reason of his greatness lies not in his large empire but in his character, his ideals and those principles which formed basis of his administration. H.G. wells states, “Every age and every nation cannot produce such a king. Ashoka cannot be compared to anyone in the world” Thus, Ashoka’s place is greatest not only in B harat but is first among greatest rulers of the world.

Dhamma of Ashoka and E fforts for its P ropagation Initially, Ashoka was a follower of Brahmin dharma. According to Mahavatthu, he used to feed 80000 brahimins every year and worshipped many gods and g oddesses. According to Rajtarangini of Kalhan 151

he was a worshipper of Shiva. But after the Kalinga war, he adopted Buddhism. Interpretation of dharma or its philosophy is very broad. Ashoka built his own Dhamma on this broad basis. The Dhamma he propagated had following characteristics: - 1. He laid emphasis on practice some moral principles which begin with family. Every person should behave properly towards other members of the family. Respect for elders, mutual love, devotion for teacher, good behaviour towa rds friends,welcome , Shravanas and the ascetics, compassion for slaves poor and disabled, charity, all these are duties of a human being. 2. In his second and seventh pillar inscription, Ashoka laid emphasis on compassion, charity, truthfulness, pur ity and righteous behaviour. 3. He laid a lot of emphasis on non - violence. He was against rituals and animal sacrifice. A person should be kind not only to humans but to animals as well. He was thus, against murder or sacrifice of animals. He propagated this in his dharma. 4. He asked people to shun jealousy, anger, ego and cruelty. 5. He asked people to adopt Dhamma - Mangal, Dhamma - dana and Dhamma Vijay and leave all rituals. 6. He asked to transform all the above personal virtues into social virtues. 7. He favoured mutual tolerance between all sects. In his 12 th inscription, he wrote that people should live together, have amicable conversation, make hearts pure, do not indulge in bickering, not praise only their own sact, respect religious texts of each other and follow non - violence in their personal, social, nat ional and international lives.

9.2.5 Mauryan C ulture and C ivilization: - 1. Social condition: - Caste system and Varnashram was fully developed in Mauryan age and ties of caste were strong. Greek ambassador Magasthenese divided Indians into seven castes: - ( i) Philosophers (ii) Farmers (iii) Hunters and cattlemen (iv) Traders, crafts men and poat makers (v) Warriors (vi) Spies (vii) Ministers and Amtya. But this classification was a result of wrong impression. He had divided castes on the basis of various occ upations which were otherwise only four in number at that time - 152

Brahmans, Kshtriyas, Vaisyas and . Apart from them, Arthashstra include some Varna - Sankar (mixed castes) like Ambashta, Parshav, Sut Vedeharak, Rathkar, Chandal etc. 2. Economic conditi on: - Mauryan age was an age of prosperity. The country was rich due to agriculture trade and industries. The economic activities of the country were abundant. State claimed ownership of land Magasthenese; Strabo Arian etc. have stated the ownership of all land in Mauryan age in hands of the state. Three types of lands are mentioned in Arthashastra of Kautilya (i) Krishta Bhoomi (ploughed) (ii) Akrishta bhoomi (unploughed) (iii) Sthal Bhoomi (elevated). The land revenue in Mayryan age was 1/6 or 1/4. 3. Reli gious condition: - In Mauryan age, (Bhagwat, Shaiv) , all the three were prevalent. Emperor Chandragupta, Bindusar and Ashoka themselves were followers of Hindu dharma initially. No doubt, ancient Hindu dharma had rival ry with these newly enunciated Bhandha and Jain dharma. Kautilya himself strongly criticized these two new dharmas. But later on, this rivalry must have been limited to intellectual debates which can be predicted. Conversion of Chandragupta to Jain dharma and Ashoka to Baudha dharma later is a symbol of an atmosphere of tolerance. Ashoka emphasized on tolerant behavior by all religions. 4. Literature: - Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali were the major languages of that time. Chandragupta and Bindusar gave encourage ment to Sanskrit. Arthashastra of Kautilya, Kalpasutra of Bhadrabahu, Grammar of Panini and works of Katyayan were major works of that age. The Sanskrit language gained its modern form due to them. Subandhu wrote a play ‘Vasaudatta Natyadhara.’ Buddhist bo ok ‘Kathavastu’ was written and nature of other Jain and Buddhist works was changed. Some works of Sangam age (council of Sangam Scholars) in Tamil literature were also considered to be of this age. Thus, there was an adequated literary progress in this ag e. 5. Art - Mauryan art finds place among the oldest arts of Bharat . After the artistic remains found in Sindhu valley, good specimen of art are found only in Mauryan age and that too from the time of Ashoka when stone began to be used for architecture. Ma inly architecture developed during this age though crafts manship also progressed to some extent. The major specimens include the stupas and pillars built by Ashoka. Apart from this, caves constructed for ascetics are also found. Towns and unparalleled pal aces were built in Mauryan age. Greek scholars have compared the palace of Chandragupta to Persian palaces. The Chinese traveler Fahien, who travelled many centuries later, was also surprised to see the palaces of Patliputra. But now out of this city and p alaces, only a big room with 100 pillars is found. The caves of Barabar, Nagarjuna, Sudama and Karna mountains built by Ashoka and his grandson Dashrath for Bawdh or Ajivika ascetics are also a good example of art. Their shining walls are incomparable. The best examples of Mauryan art are various pillars built by emperor Ashoka. Though their exact number cannot be guessed, but possibly Ashoka built 30 - 40 pillars. Thus, architecture and craftsmanship developed during Mauryan age and it holds not only a speci al place in Indian but in the world art as well.

9.2.6 Summary In summary, it can be said that Chandragupta Maurya raised a large empire during Mauryan period. The social, economic and religious condition of Bharat was highly developed during his time. M auryan emperor Ashoka established a large and important administrative organization in Bharat through his policy of patronizing art, dharma, culture and non - violence which is definitely a sound basis of glorious Bharat of ancient times. 153

9.2.7 Questions fo r Exercise: Multichoice Type Questions 1. Who was the founder of Mauryan dynasty? (a) Ashoka (b) Bindusar (c) Chanakya (c) Chandragupta Maurya

2. Who wrote Arthashastra? (a) Panini (b) Vedvyas (c) Chanakya (c) Chandragupta Maurya

Very Short Answer Type questions 1. Which Buddhist scriptures are there to know about history of Mauryan times? 2. How was the espionage system during Mauryan period? 3. What was highly stressed upon in Ashoka’s Dhamma? Short Answer Type Questions: - 1. Write a comment to know t he sources of history of Mauryan dynasty. 2. What do you understand by Dhamma of Ashoka? What were its characteristics? 3. Comment on social condition of Mauryan times. 4. Explain Mauryan art. Essay Type Questions : - 1. Write an essay on administration of Chandragupta Maurya. 2. Describe the culture and civilization of Mauryan age.

9.3 Gupta Empire 9.3.1 Historical Sources: - Sources to know history of Gupta age are found adequately. Among these sources like Vayu Purana, Matsya Purana, Brahmana Purana, among the religious texts like Narad Smriti, Brihaspati Smriti and Niti , among plays like Kaumudi Mahotsava and Chandra Guptam and among other works like Raghuvansha of Kalidasa. Harsha Charita of Bana, Kavya Mimansa of Raj Shekhar Katha Sarit Sagar of Somdeva, Vrihatkatha Manjari of Kshemendra, Rajtarangini of Kalhana, Jain source - Kuvalaya Mala gave important information about Gupta age.

9.3.2 Important rulers: - Sri Gupta (240 - 280 C.E.) – He was the first independent ruler of this dynasty who adopted the title o f ‘Maharaja’. It is believed that he must have expanded his empire as well. Chandragupta - I (320 - 335 C.E.) The most important even of his time was his marriage with princess Kumardevi of L ichchavi dynas ty. His son and successor Samudragupta was the result o f this marriage. On one of his gold coins, Chandragupta and his wife, Kumardevi is inscribed on one side and ‘Sri Laxmi’ on a lion with words ‘Lichchaveyah’ is inscribed on the other. It is clear that Kumardevi was his chief queen and Lichchavi dynasty was respected in his rule. Thus, entire Bihar, Bengal and some part of included in Gupta Empire during his time, Chandragupta adopted the title of 154

Maharajadhiraj. He no doubt ushered in the greatness of the Gupta Empire. It is also believed that he started Gupta calendar from February 319 C.E. from the time of his coronation. Samudragupta (340 - 380 C.E.) – The main source to know about Samudragupta is Prayag (Illahbad) inscription which was written by his minister Harishena. We get information to know about his wars and victories from it and whatever other information gathered from it is enough to prove that Samudragupta was a great emperor. He first of all conquered north Bharat, mainly the states of - . He also attacked south Bharat.He successfully defeated all emperors of South East costal territories. They were 12 in numbers. The rulers the re were king Mahendra of Kausal (south Kausal), king Vyaghraraj of Mahakantar, king Mantraj of Kosal, King Mahendragiri of Pishitapur, king Swamidutt of Kotur, King Daman of Erandpalla, King Vishnugopa of Kanchi, King Nilraja of Avamukta, King Hastivarman of Vengi, King Uragasen of Palaska, King Kuber of Devrashtra and king Dhananjaya of Kusthalpur. He defeated almost 18 rulers of forest and forced them to accept his sueayainty. These states were spread from forest areas of Gajipur district of U.P. to Jabal pur district of M.P. Five states of north and north - east accepted his authority. These states included the oceanic state of east Bengal, Devak (Assam), Kamrup (Assam), Jalandhar, Kartpur (districts of Kumayun, Garhwal and Ruhelkhand) and Nepal. Nine rulers of north - west states accepted him as a ruler which were , Arjunayan, Yaudheya, Madrak, Aabhir, Prarjun, Sankanik, Kak and Kharpatik.

Prayag Pillar Inscription Amrawati Art Samudrag upt was an able person and administrator. He was a scholar and was called ‘Kaviraja’ which is proved by one of his coins. On one coin he is displayed playing Veena. It is clear that he was fond of music and knew it himself. It is described of him, ‘Apart f rom being an able commander and diplomat, he had several other qualifications of mind and heart which were more essential to attain peace in life.’ He not only arranged security for his kingdom as a ruler but also participated in its progress. Coins circul ated during his time are a symbol of progress of contemporary art. Literary activities also progressed during his time. He granted patronage to scholars, The Brahmana dharma had established its superiority during his time. But in spite being a supporter of Brahman dharma, he was liberal and tolerant. He allowed the ruler of Shri Lanka to build a Buddhist Vihar in Gaya. He distributed alms with free hand. It is proved that he donated thousands of cows. Thus, the age of Samudragupta was a progress from point of view of expansion, administration, art, religion etc. All historians praise Samudragupta. Dr. Smith writes. Samudragupta was a man of unparallel personal virtues and full of uncommon qualifications. The progress which took place in times of Samudragupt a made Gupta age worthy of being called the golden period of ancient Bharat. No doubt, his son Chandragupta II also contributed to it but all the initiative was taken by Samudragupta. 155

Ram gupta - Ramgupta based on ‘Devichandraguptam’ of Vishakhdutta and Harsha Charita of Banabhatt and Kavya Mimansa of Rajshakhar based on it, various scholars believe that after Samudragupta, his son Ramgupta ascended the throne whose wife was Dhruvdevi. Chandragupta II (380 - 413 or 415 A.D.) - Chandragupta II was the son of q ueen Dattdevi of Samudragupta. Chandragupta is known variously as Devgupta, Devshri and Devraj. As person and an administrator, Chandragupta was able. Apart from expansion of empire, there was progress in economic prosperity, literature art, religion and a ll other spheres. Credit goes to Samudragupta and Chandragupta for greatness of Gupta Empire. Samudragupta worked for building every sphere and Chandragupta carried his works to the best. His coins are evidence of progress of every field and his power. Alo ng with gold coins, he also circulated silver and copper coins. On one of his coins, he is depicted killing a lion instead of a leopard. This is live picture of his life. Samudragupta is shown as killing a leopard as lions were not available within limits of his empire. With the conquest of Saurashtra, he must have been able to kill a lion. He is also known as Singh Vikran. In another coin, he is depicted with a flower in hand instead of Veena, which symbolizes the emotion that Chandragupta had more interes t in natural beauty than music. In this coin he is represented in royal dress with his hand on hilt of the sword and another person stands beside him with umbrella. In another coin, he is standing in front of statue of Vishnu and accepting ‘Prasad’. In sti ll another coins he is depicted as sitting on a horse fully dressed which gives impression that he had interest in war and hunting. All coins are examples of glory and progress of that time. Progress of trade through expansion of state and foreign trade d efinitely enhanced money, honour and power in his times and a superior and liberal administration contributed towards religion, art, literature etc. People forgot Samudragupta in his time. No doubt, the reason behind it was that whereas Samudragupta built a great structure, Chandragupta made it grand and beautiful. Dr. R.C. Majumdar writes, “Samudragupta who was a winner of hundreds of battles, was a hero of history. Chandragupta II who brought naturily to an age of political greatness and cultural renaissa nce, secured a place in hearts of common people.” Kumargupta I (415 - 455 A.D.) - After the death of Chandragupta, his son Kumagupta became the ruler. His time was of peace. He made some administrative reforms. His ability is proved by the fact that he was a ble to uphold the honour and pride of the empire for a long period of 40 years. Kumargupta also performed Ashwamedha Yajna. Skandgupta (455 - 467 A.D.) – Skandgupta was a great warrior. He defeated Pushyamitras of South. He had strife with Vakataka kings. Taking advantage of his engagement with the Hunas, the Vakataka king Narendra Sen occupied Malwa. But apart from that, Skandgupta secured the boundaries of his empire. His great achievement lay in defeating the white Huns. The Huns who had terrorized entir e Asia and Europe were defeated by Skandgupta in 460 C.E. on the northern of Ganges at some place so badly that they did not dare to attack Bharat for the next 50 years. Ever after that, when their invasions began, their power had declined by that ti me. Therefore, credit for defense of Bharat from barbarous Hunas goes to Skandgupta and that too at a time when the former was formidable in power. Praise for his success against the Huns is found in Junagarth inscription. He adopted the title of ‘Vikramad itya’ for which he was worthy of. His Bhitari and Kahom inscriptions tell us that several hundred rulers accepted his authority, Thus, Skandgupta was successful in protecting the empire inherited from his father although serious dangers had begun to erupt from north - west and south on Gupta Empire. Skandgupta is considered as one of the greatest rulers of Gupta Empire. He was the last of these great rulers. 156

9.3.3 Causes of downfall of Gupta Empire : -  Struggle amongst the members of royal family for throne.  Invasion of Huns is considered to be the basic reason for the downfall.  Weakening of central power.  Mutual discord in Gupta dynansty, weakness of inefficient emperors later.  Inclination of Gupta rulers towards Buddhism is also cited as one of the reasons of downfall.

9.3.4 Religion, Education, Literature, Science and Arts during Gupta period. 1. Religion: - Hindu Dharma - Formation of Pauranic dharma or new Hindu dharma which is the basis of modern Hindu dharma accurred in Gupta era. The Gupta emperors g ave patronage to Hindu Bhagwat dharma. They called themselves ‘Param Bhagwat’. They were worshippers of Vishnu and Laxmi and Garuda, vehicle of Vishnu was marked on their flag. They gave charity Brahmans, performed Ashwamedha Yajnas and constructed temples . Apart from royal patronage, providing format of book by Vyas muni as Mahabharata, writing of Mimansa, Brahma Sutra, Nyayasutra, Yogasutra etc. Various puranas and their compilation helped in propagating Hindu dharma. Baudh Dharma - Baudh dharma was also a major dharma of Bharat in Gupta Age. No doubt, it could not become the dharma of majority. Inspite of efforts by Ashoka, Jain and Hindu dharma did not decline in Bharat. Hindu dharma was resurrected. Jain Dharma - Jain dharma also progressed during Gupta period. Two assemblies of Jains were held in Mathura and Vallabhi in 313 C.E. and 453 C.E. respectively. 2. Education and Literature: - The literary, artistic and scientific progress of Gupta period proves that there must have been a complete and superior sy stem for education which could not have been possible without a concrete and elaborate education system. Patliputra, Vallabhi, Ujjaini, , Avarpur, Vatsagulm, Kashi, Mathura, Nasik, Sanchi etc. were good centres of education. Land, money etc. were donated by kings and rich man to these educational institutions. Merit was the basis for admission into good schools. After admission, his education, stay and food were responsibility of the school. In 6 th century, Nalanda had become prominent among the un iversities and students from far away came to acquire education here. Veda, , Purana, Mimansa, Vyakaran, Nyay, Ayurveda etc. along with religious and secular education was imparted. Many works were written in literature and there were many famous sc holars of this age. Subandhu wrote Vasavdatta, Bhatti wrote Ravana Vadh, Bharvi wrote Kirat , Vishakhadutt wrote Mudra Rakshasa, Devichandragupta Shudrak wrote Mrichchkatikam, Dandin wrote Dash Kumar Charita. Amarsingh who wrote Amarkosha, Vatsyayana who wrote Kamasutra, and many scholars of science, math, astrology belonged to this age. Poet Harishena who was the author of Illahbad pillar inscription of Samudragupta was a great scholar. But the most illustrious name in Sanskrit literature was Kalidas a. He authored many works among which Samhar, Meghadut, Kumar Sambhav, Raghuvansha, Malvika Agnimitra, Vikram Urvashiya and Abhigyan Shakuntalam are important and he is compared with English author Shakespear. But now the scholars believe that as a wr iter, Kalidasa is better than Shakeshpeare. 3. Science, Math, Medicine and Astrology: - Aryabhatta was considered as a great scientist and 157 mathematician of his age. He revealed that it was not sun but the earth rotates on its asix and the cause of lunar and solar eclipses was not Rahu or Ketu but changing position of earth and moon. He made discoveries in math, algebra, geometry and trigonometry. It is also believed that the Hindus invented decimal system. It is not clear as to who propounded it but Aryabhatt and Varhmihir mention it in their works. Aryabhatta worked in the areas of constellations, math, astrology etc. His main work is famous as Aryabhattya. Bhaskar I wrote commentaries on principles of Aryabhatt and there were independent works too among whic h Mahabhaskarya, Laghubhaskarya and Bhasya arre prominent. Varahmihir was a great astrologer of his times. His works, Panch Siddhantika and Lagh uj atak were famous. Brahmagupta was also a great astrologer who wrote ‘Brahma Sphistiya Siddhanta.There was a gr eat progress in medicine too. Ashtang Sangraha, Ashtang Hridaya Samhita and Navneetkam are famous Aryurvedic books of this age. Lot of work was done in veterinary science as well. Hasti Ayurveda and Ashwashastra are books related to treatment of animals. A nother great scholar of medicine and chemistry was Nagarjuna. Probably, Dhanvantari also belonged to this age. Apart from this, there was progress in metallurgy , craftsmanship etc. The iron pillar of Mahrauli near Qutub Minar in Delhi is an excellent examp le of metallurgy of that age. Its lasting polish and rustless structure is a matter of surprise. Thus, Gupta age was an age of unparalle le d development in fields of education, literature science etc and new inventions. 4. Coins: - The gupta emperors circulate d beautiful gold and s ilver coins. Chandragupta I and his queen Kumardevi were inscribed on coins with their names on one side and goddess Durga seated on lion on the other side. Some coins also bear the name Lichchavi. Among the coins of Samudragupta, some depict Samudragupta playing Veena, hunting leopard, queen Datt devi, ashwamedha yajana’s horse. Samudragupta carrying a parshu with goddess Laxmi sitting in the background etc. 5. Music, drama, acting and art: - Music, drama and dance too progressed unparallel. Description about it is found in various books. Gupta emperors were patron of arts. Inscription of Samudragupta with Veena on a coin proves his knowledge of music. Presence of Ganika, Nagar Vadhu and Devdasi prove that citizens had love for dance, music etc. and women were specially imparted education f or it. 6. Pillars: - The best specimen is the iron pillar at Mehrauli near Qutub Minar. The Gupta emperors also built stone pillars and used them for their inscriptions. 7. Architecture: - Construction of Stupas, Chaityas, Viharas and caves remained as earlier. Th e architecture was highly developed in that age. Specimen of contemporary literature and painting prove it. 8. Painting – Specimens of paintings of Gupta age are found from Ajanta and Bagh caves of . The frescoes of cave number 16 and 17 of Ajanta are considered to be of Gupta age. A dying princess in cave 16 and mother and son (possibly Yashodhara and Rahul) are important.

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Devg a rh Dashavtar te m ple Bhitarigaon Laman te m ple Coins of Saudra Gupta 9. Sculpture: - Gupta age has special importance from sculptural point of view. For a long time, it was believed that Gandhar art holds an important place in Indian sculpture and has influenced all other styles of sculpture in Bharat. Greek influence was accepted on the Gandhar style and it was believed that foreign influence was prominent in development of Indian sculpture.

9.3.5 Economic development during Gupta Age: - Economic life was prosperous during Gupta period. Due to vast empire and efficient administration all the aspects of economic life like agriculture, animal husbandry, industries and craftsmanship trade and commerce progressed in an unparalleled way. 1. Agriculture: - Information about agriculture is found from smritis, Brihatsamhita, Amarkosh etc. Iron was used in plough. Brihat Samhita mentions ways to increase quality of seeds and power of fertility of land. Farmers were mainly dependent on rains but an effort was made by Gupta rulers to provide facility of canal. According to Junagarh inscription of Skan dgupta, he repaired the Sudarshana lake on Girnar Mountain through Chakrapalit, son of his Saurastra governor Parnadutta. Persian wheel was used in irrigation. Amarkosh mentions various produces like wheat, rice, sugarcane, millet, peas, cereals, sesame s eeds, mustard, flex seeds, ginger, black pepper etc. Vrihat Samhita mentions three crops - one which got ready in month, second in Vasant and third in Chaitra or Vaishakh. According to Hieun Tsang, sugarcane and wheat were grown in north - west Bharat and rice in and its eastern parts. Amarsingh in his book Amarkosh mentions land of 12 types. About five types of lands include kshetra bhumi, vastu bhumi, charagah bhumi, sil and Aprahat bhumi. 2. Animal husbandry: - Animal rearing was another main source of income. According to Kamandkiya Nitisar rearing cows is the occupation of Vaishya. Amarkosh counts cow apart from horses, buffaloes, sheep, donkey, dog, cats as domesticated animals. Oxen were used to plough the farms and carry burden. 3. Indust ries and Craftsmanship: - The re was d evelopment of expertise in industries and crafts in Gupta period. On the other hand a marked development is also seen in technology and technical expertise. Metallurgy cloth making ornament making, carpentry along with stone work ivory work showed special progress. There was an extraordinary lead in metallurgy, an example of which is iron pillar of Meharauli (Delhi) which stands unrust after centuries. Another excellent example of Gupta copper craftsmanship was a huge co pper statue of Bhuddha found from Sultanganj (distt. Bhagalpur, Bihar) which is now placed in Burmingham museum in Britain. Gupta metallurgy can also be viewed from coins of this time. Seals on copper plates of this age are also an excellent example. 159

Thous ands of gold coins of Gupta period have been found which are not only pure but artistic as well. They are an example of economic prosperity, artistic beauty and technical expertise. Among the Gupta emperors, first of all Chandragupta I issued coins. In the age of Chandragupta II, apart from gold, silver and copper were used for seals Kumargupta I issued maximum coins. These gold coins are called dinars in inscriptions. Fahien states that common people for these daily needs traded in barter of used Kowris. Cloth making was also a major industry of Gupta period. Amarkosh mentions that very fine cloth is weaved for rich people. The entire process of weaving silk is analysed in this work. Cloth had an important place in north - south trade of Bharat and they were much in demand abroad too. Silk, lilen, cotton woolen and muslin were more in demand. The craft of making ornaments was also in high stage in Gupta period. Apart from gold and silver, various precious stones were used for making ornaments. Vrihat Samhita mentions 22 types of precious stones. Literary sources reveal that carpentry was also quite developed. Two seals of ivory have been discovered from Bhitari near . 5. Shreni - Ornganisation: - Craftsmen, industrialists and traders were organized and had created their own sanghas/organizations. These were known as ‘Shrenis’, Nigam’ or ‘ganas’. These shrenis played an important role in areas of commercial industries and building. To conduct thei r business, they had their own rules and funds. They worked like modern banks. They levied interests on loans and paid interests on deposits. Cloth industries and banking were more prominent in shrenis. They were financially very strong and performed many social works of utility like building halls, resting house with drinking water facilities for travelers, building water bodies, gardens temples etc. An inscription from Kumargupta’s era from iniforms us that there is a shreni of Tantubahas (weaver s) in Dashpur (Mandsaur) who built sun temple. They were independent in their internal matter. The head of the shreni was known an Jayeshthak and the post was hereditary. Seals of shrenis, Sarthvahas and Kulikas of Gupta age have been found from Nalanda an d Vaishali. During Gupta age, there was a larger institution than shrenis. The shrenis of craftsmen were its members. It was known as Nigamas i.e. commercial committees were known as Nigamas. There were different shrenis for craftsmen. They carried the rig ht to punish those who violated their rules and traditions. Person leading the caravan was known as ‘sarthvaha’. The chief of Nigam was known as Shreshthi.

5. Trade and industries in Gupta period: - Internal Trade - Trade and commerce in Gupta period was a t its height. Internal trade was carried through roads and rivers. Long lasting political stability and atmosphere of peace in Gupta period and prevalence of ample gold coins issued by Gupta emperors gave a lot of impetus in development of trade. Almost al l articles of daily use were included in internal trade which was sold in markets of towns and villages. Whereas articles of luxury included articles from far off countries. Sarth were traders constantly on move and who carried a very important place in ur ban life. Traveling was safe and secure during Gupta era. Chinese traveler Fa - Hien never experienced any insecurity during his travel in Bharat. Ujjain, Bharoach, Pratishthan, Vidisha, Prayag, Patliputra, Vaishali, Tamralipti, Mathura, Ahichhatra, Kausamb i etc. were important commercial towns. Most important of them was Ujjain because routes from all over Bharat came to Ujjain. Peshwar, Mathura, Ujjain, Paithan were important trade and industrial centres. Foreign Trade: - Indian ports had permanent relation s by sea with many countries. These countries were China, Sri Lanka, Persia, Arab, Eithiopia, Byzantine Empire and Island of Indian Ocean. Trade with 160

China flourished a lot during this period. Chinese silk famous as ‘Cheenan shuk’ was very popular in India n markets. The western foreign trade which weakened after fall of Roman Empire gained momentum after establishment of Byzantine Empire . Silk and spices were the main articles of export. Bhrigukachcha (Bharoach) was famous port on Western Ocean. Cambay, So par and Kalyan too were ports. Among the ports of eastern banks were Ghantshala, Kadura and Tamralipti on banks of Ganges. Tamralipti was the biggest center of oceanic trade in Eastern Bharat. Ships of China, Indonesia and Sri Lanka visited here. Raghuvan sha and Dash Kumar Charita mention a prosperous oceanic trade from Tamralipti. Bharat imported silk from China, ivory from Ethiopia, and horses from Iran and Bactria. Trade was carried on from Tamralipti, Broach ports with south - east Asia, China and west S pices, pearl, cloth, ivory and indigo were exported while metal, chinanshanku, horses etc were imported. 6. Sources of revenue: - Land revenue was the major sources of income. Various types of taxes are mentioned in literature.  Bhaga - 1/6 part of produce take n by king.  Bhoga - Daily tax to king in form of fruits, flowers and vegetables.  Uparikar and Udrang: - They were a form of land revenue. Land revenue in Gupta period could be paid through cash (Hiranya) or kind(Meya). At this time, land precious stones, mines and salt were other major sources of revenue. Land revenue was 1/4 to 1/6 of the total produce. Gupta age is known as golden age of ancient Bharat. Fa - Hien mentions religious tolerance, simple penal code, absence of locks in houses and non consumpti on of garlic - onion which indicate absence of criminal mind, security of property, non violent and pure nature of people. Values which were propagated by Ashoka for people to imbibe, were non visible clearly. After Mauryas political unity and stability was established. Economy was monetized. Trade and commerce were advanced. Ajanta cave paintings of Bagh, temples of Devgarh, Bhitari village, and statues of Vishnu, Buddha, and Mahavir etc. were pinnacle of sculpture in this age and which reflect social prosperity and harmony. In literature, Ka lidasa, Harishena, Vishnu Sharma etc. produced many works of high quality. Aryabhatt, Varhmihir, Nagarjuna etc developed various branches of science. No doubt, Gupta age was an age of commencement of arts, architecture, sculpture, crafts, painting literat ure and scientific tendencies, their enrichment Place of Gupta age holds a high position in ancient Indian history for political unity, illustrious emperors, economic grandeur, religious tolerance, assimilation of foreigners into Hindu dharma, resurrection of Hindu dharma, progress of Indian culture, development of fine arts and propagation of Indian culture abroad.

9.3.6 Summary It can be summarized that Gupta age was an age of glory and grandeur of ancient Bharat, All round development took place. Polit ical unity, illustrious rulers, economic grandeur, religious tolerance, assimilation of foreigners into Hindu dharma, resurrection of religion, advancement of Sanskrit literature and astrology, emergence of math were a contribution of Gupta dynasty. Important rulers united the entire Bharat into social religious and political unity through their conquests.

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9.3.7 Questions for Exercise: - Multiple choice Questions 1. Who was the founder of Gupta Empire? (a) Chandragupta I (b) Ghatotkach (c) Samudra gupta (c) Srigupta

2. To which ruler is Allahabad inscription is related? (a) Chandragupta I (b) Ghatotkach (c) Samudragupta (c) Srigupta 3. Which ruler conquered Hunas? (a) Skandgupta (b) Chandragupta II (c) Samudragupta (c) Srigupta Very Short answer Type questions 1. What is inscribed over coins of Chandragupta I? 2. What was the great achievement of Skandgupta? 3. What progress took place in science in Gupta age?

Short Answer Type Questions 4. Describe literary sources of Gupta age. 5. Comment on literary progress of Gupta age. 6. Write five lines on Gupta coins. 7. Write four reasons of downfall of Gupta dynasty. Essay Type Questions. 8. Describe achievements of Chandragupta II. 9. Analyse the conquests of Samudragupta. 10. Describe developme nt of religion, education, science, medicine, astrology and art in Gupta age. 11. Comment on progress of economic life in Gupta age.

9.4 Bharat during Harsha Age 9.4.1 Emperor Harsha Vardhana (606 - 647) - After the disintegration of Gupta Empire , Pushyabhut dynasty of Thaneshwar of Haryana was founded. According to Harsha Charita, Prabhakar Vardhan was the fourth ruler of this dynasty. Among the Vardhana emperors, Harsha Vardhan was the most illustrious and renowned ruler. The real information of e mpire of Harsha is found from his inscriptions, Harsha charita and account of Hieun - Tsang Harsha conquered almost entire north Bharat and expanded the empire. Heiun - Tsang mentions his conquest of panch Bharat Harsha ascended the throne in 606 C.E. First of all, he took action against the Gaurs of Bengal where Shashank was the ruler. Harsha aligned with Bhaskar Verma, ruler of Kamrup which further circumscribed Shashank. Between 630 C.E. to 633 C.E., Harsha defeated Dhruvsen II Baladitya of Vallabhi. Later o n, Harsha made matrimonial alliance with Vallabhi. Harsha made his capital.

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9.4.2 Historical Sources: - Our main source to know about history of Harsha’s period is Harsha Charita by Banabhatt and account of Yuvang Chwang, a Chinese traveler, though some help is derived from inscriptions of Nalanda, Madhuban, Sonipat and Banskhera and contemporary coins. Banbhatt was a scholar in Harsha’s court and Yuvang Chwang was given honor and patronage by Harsha.

9.4.3 Wars and Expansion of empire: - After bec oming emperor, Harsha conquered the five parts of Bharat in merely six years. He had vowed to re venge his brother’s death from Bengal ruler Shashank. Therefore, his first expedition was against Shashank. After bringing back his sister Rajyashree from fore st, he attacked Bengal. After six years of his rule, he occupied Kannauj. His advancement towards south Bharat was resisted by Chalukyan ruler Pulakesin II who was trying to become a sovereign in south Bharat. Their contest took place on banks of Narmada a round 630 - 634 C.E. Harsha could not win and had to retreat. In 643 C.E. Harsha captured Kongoda of

Ganjan district but only after the death of Pulakesin II. Thus, it is believed that Harsha made efforts to establish a powerful rule in north Bharat.

9.4.4 Administrative System His administration was alike other Hindu emperors. Emperor was the head of the administration. All the executive, legislative, lawmaking and judicial powers of the state were concentrated in his hands. He was the supreme comman der of armies. Harsha adopted titles like ‘Param Bhattarak’ and ‘Maharajadhiraj’. There was a council of ministers to assist him which was adequately influential. Council of ministers was active both in internal and foreign policies. The decision to make H arsha an emperor was taken by the council of ministers. Apart from ministers, there were many officials in 163

the state. Every administrative department had many big and small officials. Among the non military posts, one high post belonged to Kumaramatyas. Of ficial called Avanti was the head of war and treaty. Commander was called Singhanaad. ‘Kuntal’ was head of cavalry. ’Skand’ was chief of elephant army. ‘Samant - Maharaj’ held a record of administrative works. The foreign official was called ‘Mahasandhi Vig raha dikrit’ and messangers were called ‘Deerghadhawaj’. For administrative convenience, entire state was divided into small units like provinces, districts and villages. A post called ‘Samant Maharaja’ or ‘Mahasamanta’ was used in Harsha’s time. Possibl y, it was used for those rulers who were though subordinate, were independent in their internal administration. The main authority of provice was ‘Uparik’, that of district was ‘Vishayapati’, of village was ‘Gramik’, superintendent of all departments was S arvadhyaksha, caretaker of correspondence was ‘Pustapal’ and scribe was called ‘Karnik’. During Harsha’s reign, all the bit administrative officers were given, ‘Jagir’ instead of cash salary. As a result, feudalism received impetus. One fourth of kings lan d was secured for big administrative officers and another 1/4 part was kept aside for other expenses and religious works. The main source of income of ruler was land revenue which was 1/6 of the produce and was taken in kind. Hiranya, Bali , custom, sale t ax were other taxes. Apart from them, the state also earned from presents and gifts. Among the expenditures, public constructions, charity were important. He organized religious gathering in Prayag six times in his reign. On every occasion, he would donate his entire property accumulated during the last five years.

9.4.5 Condition of Bharat during Harsha’s reign Social condition: - The Varnashrama System had by then been completely established. Various sub - castes were also formed. Though inter caste marriage and dining was possible but there was some conservatism by now. Position of women was not bad but was towards decline Sati system had become more prevalent as compared to past. There was no purdah system but several restrictions were imposed on be havior of women. The moral character of people was good. Their food and clothes were pure and simple. Meat, garlic, onion and alcohol were not much in use. Economic Condition: - Generally, the country was prosperous. Good produce, various industries and for eign trade were the basis of its prosperity. The cities of Peshawar, Takshshila and those of north - west had been destroyed due to invasions of the Hunas and condition of Mathura and Patliputra was declining but Prayag, Banaras and Kannauj were prosperous c ities. Capital Kannauj was a large, safe and glorious city. It contained beautiful and huge buildings, gardens and ponds. Very rich, aesthetic, civilized and scholarly people resided there. People had interest in literature and arts. Religious Condition: - H indu, Baudh and Jain, all the three dharmas were popular in Bharat. Hindu dharma was progressing and Prayag and Banaras were its centres. Vishnu in his various incarnations and Shiva were popular gods of the Hindus. Large Hindu temples were built at variou s places. In the Baudh dharma, Mahayan sect was more popular than the Hinayana. Kashmir, Jalandhar, Kanyakubja, Shvetpur, Gaya etc. were major centres of Baudh dharma. Nalanda was famous across the boundaries and it had become a major centre of Buddhist ed ucation and knowledge. Jaina dharma was also prevalent among the various parts of Bharat.

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9.4.6 Education and Literature: - Harsha was a scholar himself and had given patronage to the learned. Sanskrit language progressed during his time. He authored plays like ‘ R atnavali’, Priyadarshika’ and Nagananda’. He aided the University of Nalanda and patronized Chinese traveler Yuvan Chwang and many other lea r ned men. It is said that he spent 1/4 of his income on scholars and education. Banabhatta was his courtier w ho wrote Kadambari and Harsha C harita Apart from him, Mayur, Divakar, were also in his court. Nalanda, Vallabhi and the school of Divakar in forests of Vindhyas were major centres of education at that time.

9.4.7 Evaluation of Harsha - Harsha was the last emperor of Hindu era and all efforts of re e stablish political unity in north Bharat after him failed.. He was an able, scholar and tolerant ruler. People were happy during his time and he worked hard for them. Continuous tours and giving away his enti re money in charity in assemblies of Prayag were his qualities. He also conducted many welfare works. According to Hieun Tsang, he constructed shalas on highway passing through villages and cities which facilitated free stay, food and medicine for th e poor. It proves both his ability and liberality. He was a patron of education and scholars. He donated income of 80 villages of Orissa to contemporary scholar Jayasena. He also gave honour and money to Chinese traveler Heiun Tsang. Many scholars resided in his court. He was religiously tolerant. Initially, he was a worshipper of Shiva. In Banskheda and Madhuvan inscriptions, he is addressed as ‘Para m Maheshwar’. He worshipped Rudra Shiva before commencing any war. It was possibly in 643 CE that Hieun Tsan g initiated him into Mahayana sect. But he continued in express his faith in Hindu dharma. He gave a new life to Mahayana sect under his patronage. The Nalanda University was transformed into a major centre of education and Baudh dharma. Harsha is therefor e, called as an able ruler and has been assigned a respectable place in Indian history of Hindu period.

9.4.8 Summary - In s ummary, it can be said that Harsha was an able and efficient ruler among the Indian rulers. He founded a large empire, extended his empire upto river Narmada in south Bharat, laid a strong foundation for an organized administration. A superior administrative system was founded in his reign. The farmers were freed from burden of taxes. There was social, religious and economic progress during h is reign. He is definitely one of the great rulers of Hindu era.

9.4.9 Questions for Exercise Multiple choice questions 1. Which of these was Harsha’s capital? (a) Kannauj (b) (c) Delhi (c) Ujjain 2. Who wrote Harsha Charita? (a) Harishena (b) Banabhatta (c) Katyayana (c) Kalidasa. 165

Very Short Answer Type Questions: - 1. What are the sources of knowing history of reign of Harsha? 2. What were the major units of administration of Harsha? 3. Name three books authored by Harsha. Short Answer Type Questions : - 1. Describe historical sources of Harsha’s time. 2. Comment on literary progress of Harsha’s time. 3. Comment on religious condition of Harsha’s time. 4. Explain the expansion of empire of Harsha’s time. Essay Type Questions: - 1. Write an essay on administrative system of Harsha. 2. Analyse the social, economic and religious condition of Bharat of Harsha era.

9.5 South Bharat 9.5.1 Sangam Literature: - The conferences of the learned men in Madurai under the patronage of ancient Pandyan rulers in far south was called as Sangam,. They were first referred to in introduction to the Bhashya of Erainar Agpporul of 3 rd century. All the three Sangams were organized with a good interval of time. According to Agapporul, 8, 598 poets participated in these sangams and 197 Pandyan rulers gave them patronage. Cher State - The first prominent name among the Cher rulers is Udiyanjeral. His son Nepuljerol Adan was an illustrious ruler who adopted the title of Adhiraj. Shenguttuvan was also an illustrious ruler who also maintained a navy. He is described as a courageous warrior and a patronage of art and literature. Worship of one’s wife began in his age which leads to the assumption that the matriarchal society was slowly covering to patriarchal society due to influence of Aryan c ivilization. Sugarcane farming also started in south in this era. The last rulers of Cher mentioned in Sangam dynasty were King Kudakkoilinjeral Iranporai and Mandar Jeral Iramporai who fought wars with Chola and Pandyan rulers respectively. Chol Kingdom - A mong the early Chola rulers, Karikala holds an important place in Sangam literature. His era is said to be about 190 C.E. He fought many wars. In one of them he defeated a group of 11 rulers and conquered place called Venni and yet in another battle defeat ed joint armies of 9 rulers. He won the entire Tamil land. At some places, he established his direct rule and yet at other places allowed his subordinate rulers to administer. He performed public welfare works, arranged for irrigation, increased agricultur al land, encourage agriculture and trade and arranged for peace and prosperity in the state. Many poets have sung praise of his glory. Many hearsay also spread about him which have been mentioned in literature of 11 th and 12 th century. It is said of Karilk ala that he performed many yajanas. It proves that by 3 rd century, Aryan civilization had become adequately popular in far south. Pandyan state: - The early Pandyam rulers mentioned in Sangam literature include Nedion, Palshalha Mudukudumi and most of all N edunjelian. He gave life to Pehruti River and started worship of ocean. Palshalah Mudukudumi was also an illustrious ruler. He performed many yajnas, Nedunjelian was however, the most illustrious of them who defeated many enemies, imprisoned Cher rulers an d expanded his state. He was an able administrator and helped in expansion of agriculture and trade.

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9.5.2 Chalukya dynasty: - Chal u kyas of Badami built an extensive empire from middle of 6 th century to middle of 8 th century in about 200 years in Dakshinapath (area between Vindhyachal mountain and Krishna river which included, Maharastra in west and Telgu language speaking area in east. Pulakesin II (610 or 611 C.E. to 642 C.E.) - Pulakeshin had acquired throne after wa r with his paternal uncle, Mangalesh. That is why the beginning of his rule was full of struggle and difficulties. He defeated Kadambas in south, forced the Gang of Mysore and Alup rulers to accept his suzerainty, defeated Mauryas of Kaunkan and occupied t heir capital Rajpuri, forced the Lat, Malav and Gurjars in north to accept his suzerainty, defeated Kalingi in east and made his brother Vishnu Vardhan the governor of Pishtapur after conquering it. But his most praiseworthy win was against emperor Harsha due to which Harsha could not enter south Bharat. Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi - Vishnuvardhan I (615 - 633 C.E.) was its ruler followed by Jai Singh (633 - 663 C.E.) Indravarman (633 C.E.), Vishnu Vardhan II (663 - 672 C.E.) Sarvakokasarai (672 - 696 C.E.), Jaisingh II (696 - 709 C.E.) Kokul Vikramaditya (709 C.E.) Vishnuvardhan III (709 - 746 C.E.) and Vijayditya I (746 - 764 CE.) respectively. Achievements of Chalukya dynasty - An important feature of Chalukyan age in area of architecture was building of large temples by carving mountains and rocks. Various Hindu caves and temples along with Chaitya halls were constructed. Emperor Manglesh constructed the cave Vishnu temple of Vatapi. In 634 C.E. Shiva temple of Meguti was also constructed which contains eulogy of Pulkasin II written by Ravi Kirti. The Vishnu temple of Aihole which contains inscription of Vikramaditya II, is a good example of Chalukya art. Emperor Vikramaditya constructed Vijayeshwar temple in Bijapur district which is now known as Sangameshwar temple. His sister got a constructed in Bijapur district/Laksameshwar . Wife of ruler Vikramaditya got a Shiv temple constructed called Lokeshwar at Pattukal, now known as Virupaksha temple.

9.5.3 Rashtrakuta Dynasty: -  Dantidurga (733 - 758) Dantidurga, suc cessor of Indra defeated weak Chalukyas and laid the foundation of empire of this dynasty. He ascended the throne in 733 C.E.  Krishna I (758 - 773 C,E. ) After Dantidurga, his son Krishan I became the ruler. After him, Govind II (773 - 780 C.E.) Dhruva (780 - 793 C.E.) and Govind III (793 - 814 C.E.) became rulers.  Amoghvarsha (814 - 878 C.E.) Amoghvarsh was himself an able commander. He defeated Chalukya rulers of Veng. But he was more successful in administration. He established peace in his kingdom, founded the tow n of Manya Khet, patronised scholars and remained tolerant towards all religions. He was a scholar and wrote ‘Kaviraj Marg’ It was a work in Kannad Language. He also patronized Jinsen author of Adipurana, charita author of Ganitsar sangraha and Sa ktayana, author of Amoghvrithi on his court.  Krishna II (878 - 914 C.E.) Krishna got success against Chalukya rulers of Vengi but he was defeated at the hands of Pratihar ruler Bhoja and Chola ruler. Bhoj was successful in snatching away Malwa and Kathiawad. 9.5.4 Pallava Dynasty: -  Singha Vishnu (575 - 600 C.E.) 167

 Mahendra Verma (600 - 630 C.E.) Mahendra Verma was a lover of literature and fine arts. He was himself a poet and a singer. He wrote ‘Matta Vilasa - Prahasan’ and Bhagvadjjukiyam, in Sanskrit language.  Narsingh Verma I (630 - 668 C.E.) Mahendra Verma’s son Narsingh Verma was a great ruler. His son Mahendra Verma II (668 - 670 C.E.) ruled only for two years. After him, his son Parmeshwar Verma I (670 - 695 C.E.) ascended the throne. Narsimha Verma II (695 - 722 C .E.) (i) Achievements of Pallva dynasty - Pallava rulers were followers of Hindu dharma. They performed many yajnas and consecrated many idols of Vishnu, Shiv, Brahma, Laxmi etc n temples. They completed the task of expansion of Aryan culture in south Bhara t by providing patronage to Sanskrit literature and Hindu dharma. Literature progressed during reign of Pallava emperors. The university of Kanchi cooperated in this progress. Famous Buddhist scholar Dignag stayed in Kanchi university for few years. Some Pallava rulers were scholars and all of them patronized scholars. Emperor Mahendra Verma I composed ‘ Matvilasa Prahasana’. Emperor Singh Vishnu invited the contemporary scholar Bharvi to his court and scholar Dandin received patronage. Apart from Sanskrit, Tamil literature too made progress. The Pallava rulers started stone architecture in far south and many temples were carved out of rocks of mountains and idols were consecrated of Hindu gods and goddesses like Vishnu, Shiva, and Brahma etc. The beautiful temples of Mammalapuram were built under this style. The ‘rath’ temple of Mammalapuram, temple of five and Varali temple are excellent specimen of this time. Thus, the Pallava rulers contributed significantly towards civilization of south Bharat from the point of view of administration, religion, literature and art. The Pallava dynasty shares a major part in carrying and developing Arya or Hindu civilization to far south.

Vrahadraj Temple Mahabali Temple

9.5.5 Chola Dynasty - Major rulers Vijayalaya (850 - 871 C.E.) He was the founder of Chola dynasty. Aditya I ruled from 871 to 907 C.E. and Parantaka I ruled from 907 to 953 C.E. Rajaraja I the g reat from 985 - 1014 C.E. The credit to reestablish the power and prestige of Chola goes to Rajraja who was a great ruler of Chola dynasty. He defeated western Gangas, Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, Pandyas of Madura, Cheras of Kalinga and Kerala and expanded h is empire in far south. 168

Rajendra I (1014 - 1044 C.E.) Rajendra carried forward the work started by his father and carried theChola power to its peak. He won over the Pandyas and Chera states and merged them into his empire. He also conquered Sri Lanka and me rged it into his empire. Rajadhiraj (1044 - 1052 C.E.) and Rajendra II (1052 - 1063 C.E,) were also famous Chola rulers. Chola Administration: - Central and Provincial administration: - The head of central administration was the ruler and he was adorned with res pectable titles. Tanjore, Gangai kondacholpuram, Mudikodan and Kanchi at different times were capitals of different emperors. There were various ministers and other hight officials of state to assist the ruler. The Chola emperors formed a large army and an excellent navy. The main source of income of state was land revenue. During the period of Rajraja I, the revenue was 1/2 of the produce. Entire nation was divided into Mandals, Nadu, Kurram or Kattam, every kurram contained many villages which were the sm allest unit of administration. Social condition: - The society of Chola period was organized on caste system. All the castes lived a cooperative life. Both anulom and pratilom marriages were prevalent as a result of which various subcastes were formed . Religious Condition: - Chola rulers were supporters of Shaiva and Vaishnav dharma. They were liberal even after they supported Hindu dharma. Almost all the rulers respected all the religious. Literature: - The administration of Chola period was the golden pe riod of Tamil literature. Mainly poetry was composed Jain scholar Tirutkdev ar wrote ‘Jeevan Chintamani’, Tola mokti wrote Shulmani, Jaigodar wrote ‘Kalingattupani and Kamban wrote ‘Ramavataram’.

9.5.6 Summary – It can be summarized that mention of three d ynastres is found under Sangam literature in South Bharat who periodically organized various sangams. These dynasties were Cher, Chola and Pandya. There were two branches of Chalukya dynasty - Chalukyas of Badami and eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, whose achieve ments are important. The rulers of Rastrakutas and Pallava have also attained an important place through their art and culture. The rulers of Chola dynasty gave an important contribution of Bharat through local self government.

9.5.7 Questions for Exercise Multiple choice questions 1. How many dynasties are mentioned in Sangam literature? (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (c) 4 2. Which of the dynasties is not mentioned in Sangam literature? (a) Pallava (b) Chola (c) Cher (c) Pandya 3. Who founded Chola d ynasty? (a) Aditya I (b) Aditya II (c) Vijayalaya (c) Parantak I Very Short Answer Type Questions: - 1. Name two rulers of Cher dynasty? 2. Name two temples of Chalukya period. 3. Name two scholars contemporary to Amoghvarsha. Short Answer Type Questions: - 1. Define Sagam Literature. 169

2. Write achievements of Chalukya Dynasty. 3. Comment on Rashtrakoot emperor. 4. Comment on Pulakesin II of Chalukya dynasty. Essay Type Questions: - 1. Write an essay on Chola administration . 2. Describe achievements of Pallava dynasty.

9.6 Vijayanagar Empire 9.6.1 Major Dynasties: - The Vijaynagar was founded by two brothers. Harihar and Bakka in 1336 C.E. (i) Sangam dynasty (149 years) Harihar I (1336 C.E.) founders. (ii) Saluv dynasty (20 years) Saluva Narsing (1486 C.E.) (iii) Tulev dyunasty (65 years) Vir Narsingh (1205 C.E.) founder. (iv) Aravidu dynasty (89 years) Tirumal (1570 C.E.) founder. (i) Sangam Rulers: - Harihar I (1336 to 1356 C.E.) - Harihar was the founder of the Sangam dynasty . Bukka I (1356 - 1337 C.E.) . After the death of Harihar, his brother Bukka ascended the throne. Though he did not adopt any title, but was given honorary title of ‘Vedmarg Pratishtapak. Harihar II (1377 to 1404 C.E.) - for the first time, Harihar II adopted titles like Maharajadhiraj and Rajparmeshwar Devrai I (1406 to 1422 C.E.) In the war of succession fought, the three sons of harihar II - Bukka II, Virupuksha II and Devrai I, Devrai I emerged victorious. Devrai II (1422 to 1446 C.E.) - After the death of Devrai I, for some time, two rulers Vir Vijay and Ramchandra ruled. Then, Devrai II became the ruler. He was a great ruler of his dynasty. Mallikarjuna (1446 to 1465 C.E.) - He was the son of Devrai II He is also known as ‘Praudh Devrai and like his father, he too adorned the title o f ‘Gajabatekar’. Virupaksha II (1465 - 1485 C.E.) - He ascended the throne after Mallikarjuna and was the last ruler of Sangam dynasty. (ii) Saluva dynasty - Saluv Narsing occupied the throne. Before his death, he appointed his commander Narsa nayak as regent of hi s minor so ns. Immadi Narsing (1491 - 1505). s on of Sal uv became his successor. Vir Narshing, son of Narsa Nayak murdered Immadi Narsing taking advantage of circumstances and laid the foundation of third dynasty Tuluv dynasty. This change of authority is know n as ‘Second usurpation’. (iii) Tuluva dynasty - Krishndevarai (1509 - 1529 C.E.) Krishnadevrai was not only an able ruler of Tuluva dynasty but of entire Vijaynagar Empire. He had several titles like Andra Bhoj, Andrapitamaha, Abhinav Bhoj and Kirshnarao Makakan. His era was the golden era of Telgu literature. He was himself a scholar of highest stature and an author. Krishna wrote a book ‘Amukta Malyada’ in Telgu about politics and administration. Apart from this, he wrote a book in Sanskrit called ‘Jamvatikalyan. ’ His court was adorned by 8 Tamil scholars who were known as Ashtediggaj or Andra Bhoj. Amongst them, Peddan was the court poet. Description of these scholars is as follows: -

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Poet/Writer Works

Pedan Manucharitam, Harikatha, Sahasrahama

Timam Parjat Parivaham

Made Rajshekhar Charitam

Dhurjati Kalhasti Mahatmya

Suroni Kadhara Pandiyam, Pribhriti, Prabhyudaya

Tenalirama Panduranga Mahatmya

Achyut Raju Ramchandra Katha Sarsangraha

Achyuta Deva Rai (1529 - 1542 C.E.) Venkat I (1542 - 1543 C.E.) Sadashiv Rai (1543 - 1567 C.E.) During his time, battle of Talikot also known as Bannihathi, Karan and Rakshas Tangadi on 23 January 1565, in which the states of Golconda, Bijapur, Ahmadnagar and Bidar was fought against Vijaynagar.

(iv) Arvidu dynasty -  Shri Ranga I (1572 - 1585 C.E.)  Venkat rai II  Sri Ranga II

9.6.2 Administration of Vijay Nagar Empire: - Central Administration - The administrative structure of Vijaynagar empire was monarchical. The king was the highest policy framer of the state. Commonly, he w as called as ‘Rai’ like Devrai, Krishna dev Rai. The foundation of kingship of Vijaynagar empire was of welfare rule i.e. welfare of subjects was supreme for the ruler. Crown Prince was important after the ruler. Usually, the eldest son was selected for th e post and was installed through coronation (Yuvraj pattabhi shek). There were two types of high level councils in central administration - one the royal council and the other common council. Provincial administration: - The Vijaynagar empire was divided into various provinces. Though Domingo Pious, the Portuguese traveler, has mentioned the number of these provinces as 200, but they exceed this number. Province was known by different names like Reya, Mandalam, Pathak, Chavadi. The governors were known as Amar - nayak, Dandnayak and Nayak. Nayankar System - Attached to the province was the system to Nayankar which was infact feudal system in which the nayakas were given special land grants by the system known an ‘Amaram and the collector was known as amarnayak.. Lo cal Administration - The Sabha and Nadu institutions of Chola period were in existence in Vijaynagar Sabha was also known as Mahasabha, Mahajan or Ur. 171

Revenue Administration - Land revenue was known as Shishta and the collector department was called Athave. T he revenue was usually 1/5 part, athough Nuniz estimates this rate as 1/10. Judicial System: - There was an organized judicial system in Vijaynagar. Punishment was of mainly four kinds - fines, confiscation of land, divine examination and death penalty or dis memberment of organs.

9.6.3 Bharat during Vijaynagar Empire: -  Social condition: - Like north Bharat, the Brahmanas were supreme among the Varnas. They held an important place in society. Apart from their traditional occupation (worship, teaching) they also held political posts. The brahmana commanders were also in large number. They could not be granted death penalty under any circumstance. The brahmanas who performed coronation were called Vipural.  Condition of Women: - The condition of women was even though not superior, it was not inferior as well. The position of high class society was good. They were given highclass education. Women were married in young age. Ganikas had lot of importance in Vijaynagar. They are ment ioned along the four varnas. They held a respectable place in society and were major tax payers as well.  Dress, Ornaments: - Men wore dhoti, shawl on shoulder and a head wear (pagadi). People also wore shoes. Women of high class wore pavar (Petticoat), Sha wl (dupatta) and blouse (choli). Sari was also in fashion, ornaments were largely in use.  Education and Entertainment: - Main centres of education were temples and . They were also patronized by the state. History, philosophy, maths, poetics, music e tc were main subjects.  Vijaynagar Art: - The temples of Vijaynagar style sprawled from Tungabhadra to south. But their most beautiful and special group is found in Vijaynagar itself. Tmeples of Vitthala and Hajara Ram are important apart from several other temples. Hajara Tmeple Hummpy 9.6.4 Summary - It can be said that Vijay Nagar was an important state of South Bharat on which mainly four dynasties ruled. But rulers of Sangam dynasty were most important. Krishnadevrai of Tuluv dynasty made unparallel progress in art and culture for which he was also known as Andra Bhoj. He was an illustrious and famous ruler of this dynasty.

9.6.5 Questions for Exercise Multiple choice questions 1. When was Vijaynagar Empire founded ? (a) 1333 C.E. (b) 1336 C.E. (c) 1338 C.E. (c) 1345 C.E. 172

2. Who is addressed to an Andra Bhoj? (a) Harihar (b) Bukka (c) Devrai II (c) Krishnadev Rai Very Short Answer Type Questions: - 1. Who founded the Vijay nagar empire and when? 2. What was Nayankar System? 3. What is called the Athanve department? Short Answer Type Questions: 1. Comment on Krishnadev Rai 2. Explain Nyankar System. 3. Comment on Social condition of Vijay Nagar Empire? 4. Explain provincial administration of Vijay Nagar. Essay Type Questions: - 1. Write an essay on administration of Vijay Nagar empire. 2. Write an essay on social condition of Vijay Nagar empire.

9.7 Answers Multiple choice and Type Questions: -

9.2.7 Mauryan dynasty 1. (d) Chandragupta Maurya 2 (c) Chanakya 1. Major Buddhist Scriptures - Deepvansha, Mahavansha and Mahobodhi vansha. 2. Spy system was excellent. There were 2 types of spies - one Sanstha, second, sanchar. 3. Extreme emphasis was laid on nonviolence in Ashoka's Dh amma.

9.3.7 Gupta Empire 1. (d) Shrigupta 2. (c) Samudragupta 3. (a) Skandgupta. 1. Images of Chandragupta I and his wife Kumardevi along with word 'Lichivaya' is in scribed on his coins. 2. The greatest achievement of Samudragupta is his victory over the Hunas. 3. Aryabhatt discovered the speed of rotation of earth while Brahmagupta discovered math and geometry.

9.4.9 India during Harsha. 1. (a) Kannauj 2. (b) Banbhatta. 1. Harsha Charita of Bana Bhatta and account of Chinese traveler Heiun Tsang. 2. Province, district and villages. 3. Nagananda, Priyadarshika and Ratnavali.

9.5. 7. South Bharat - 1 (c) 3. 2. (a) Pallav dynasty 3.(c) Vijayalya. 1. Dujelian and Shengutvan. 2. Vishnu temple of A:hole and Shiva temple of Meguti. 3. Jinsen and M ahavira Charya

9. 6 .5 Vijaynagar E m pire - 1 (b) 1336 C.E. 2. (d) Krishadevrai 1. In 1336 C.E. Harihar and Bukka, two brothers. 2. A system accosiated with province where Nayakas were alloted special lands by the centre. 173

3. Right to collect land revenue. 9.8 Glossary  Ved Marg Pratishthapak - Title of Bukka I  Yuvraj - crown prince or son of king  Amaram - Land given to feudals.  Shishtt - A kind of land revenue.  Andra Bhoj - Title of Krishnadeva Rai  Mantri Sabha - Advisory body to the king.  Tirth - High officials during Maurya period.  Sthanika - Official of the ward.  Huna - Barbarious fighting tribe of central Asia.  Maharajadhiraja - Title of Chandragupta I  Vikramank - Title of Chandragupta II  Vallabhi - An import Jain meeting was held here and situated in Gujrat  Aryabhatt - a sch olar of Math and astronautic.  Ganikas - Women who entertained others by song & dance.  Kuntal - Head of Cavalry.  Karnik - Clerk under Harsha's reign.  Gramik - Chief Official of village.  Parambhattarak - Title taken by Harsha.  Banabhatt - Court poet of Harsha.  Sangam - Assemblies of Tamil - Scholars.  Mamallapuram - Ratha temple carved out of stone.  Mandal - State of Chola time.  Kurram - group of villages of Chola period.  Dakshina path - Land between Vindhyachal and Krishna river.

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Chapter - 10

External Invasions and Assimilation (Greeks, Shakas, Hu n as and Kushanas)

a. Aims b. Preface c. Greek invasions 10.2.1 Attack of Alexander. (i) Greek invasion and political condition of Bharat (ii) War with Porus. (ii) Retreat of Alexander. 10.2.2 Impact of invasion. 10.2.3 Bactrians or Indo - Greeks 10.2.4 Questions for exercise 10.3 Kushnas 10.3.1 Kanishka 10.3.2 Wars and conquests of Kanishka (i) War with Parthia (ii) Conquest of Magadha (iii) Conquest of Kashmir (iv) War with Shaka Kshatrapa.(v) Conquest of middle A sia.(vi) Attack on China. 10.3.3 Empire of Kanishika. 10.3.4 Administration 10.3.5 Kanishka and Baudha Dharma 10.3.6 Patron of Art, Literature 10.3.7 Evaluation of Ka n shika 10.3.8 Literature, Science and Art 10.3.9 Gandhar Art. 10.3.10 Questions for Exercise 10.4 Shaka dynasty. 10.4 .1 Rudradaman I (i) Conquests and extent of empire (ii) Administration (iii) Personality 10.4.2 Questions for Exercise. 10.5 Hunas. 10.5.1 Torman 10.5.2 Mihirkula 10.5.3Influence 10.5.4 Questions for exercise 10.6 Answer - Multiple choice and very short questions 10.7 Glossary.

10.0 Aims 1. To know about foreigners who arrived from central Asia and settled here. 2. To describe achievements of major foreign rulers 3. To describe characteristics of literature, sculptu re science and art. 175

4. To understand impact of foreign invasions

10.1 Preface: - History of Bharatvarsha from decline of the Mauryas till rise of the Guptas has been the history of imperialism of the Greeks, Shakas, Hunas and Kushanas. Invasions of Greeks , Shakas and Hunas and political contact with central Asia during the Kushanas gave rise to a cultural synthesis between the two geographical areas. Gradually, these foreigness lost their identity due to assimilative power of the Indian culture and emerged as Kahsktriya class by merging into Indian religion, culture and society. Many of them adopted different religions prevalent here. They became a part of this land, their characteristics became a part of the mainstream.

10.2 Greek Invasion 10.2.1 Invasion of Alexander: 1. Greek invasion and political conditions of Bharat - Alexander, apart from a great conqueror, also contributed towards expansion of Greek culture and civilization. India could not remain aloof from Greek expansion. To satisfy his ambition t o conquer the world Alexander attacked Bharat after conquering west Asia, Egypt, Iran, Balkh etc. and crossing Hindukush. There was powerful empire of Magadha in east of Bharat but its north - western borders was ruled by 25 states. There were many Janapads, monarchies and republics in this area which chiefly included Ashyak, Neesa Assekenoj, Kapisha, Shudrak, Takshashila, Malav, Amboshtha etc. Divided by mutual distrust and hatred, they could not face any invader unitedly. The monarchies wanted to end the re publics whereas the latter could not bear the presence of monarchies. Due to absence of unity and cooperation of greedy and treacherous rulers, Alexander entered the North West boundary of Bharat. King Ambhi of Takshashilas, Shashi Gupta, Sanjay and many s mall rulers befriended Alexander and helped him. 2. War with Porus: - Kingdom of Porus was situated between Jhelam and Chenab rivers. Alexander sent his envoy to Porus to accept submission which was against pride of Porus. He challenged Alexander for war wh ich was an open challenge for Alexander Armies of Alexander and Porus faced each other on western and eastern banks of Jhelum respectively. The battle ground was muddy due to rains. Alexander knew that it was difficult for him to cross the river and attac k a powerful and careful ruler like Porus from the front. Arian writes that, Alexander divided his army into many parts to divert attention of his enemy. He wanted to impress upon Porus that he would wait for a calmer river too cross. This trick was affect ive and Porus became apathetic. Alexander sent his 11000 soldiers towards north from where they crossed the river. The Greek camp projected recreation in their camp. Porus courageously faced this sudden attack but his chariot army could not do much due to rains. His injured elephants trampled their own army which led to stampede in his army. Porus continued to lead his army from an elephant inspite being injured. The Greek army arrested Porus and presented him before Alexander. Alexander asked Porus, “How s hould you be treated?” to which Porus replied, “As a 176 king treats another King.” Alexander was impressed with his self respect & boldness and pride of Porus and returned the latter his kingdom, thus turning a foe into a friend. 3. Return of Alexander: - Afte r this war, Alexander had to fight with various tribes which weakened the morale of his army. It refused to proceed beyond the B y as River, Alexander decided to return via Jhelum route. After shunning the ambition to rule the world, Alexander started for Gr eece in 32 5 BC E but died in Babylonia in 323B.C.E

10.2.2 Impact of invasion: - There was no permanent or direct impact of invasion of Alexander . Small kingdoms of Bharat were powerless which made task of Chandragupta easier. He conquered them and made them as part of his empire. The year of attack of Alexander on Bharat (326 B.C. E. ) made dating easier in Bharat. Commercial relations between Bharat and western countries became stronger. Naval routes along with land routes were now open for communication. Cult ural exchange between Bharat and Greece became stronger. After his death, a civil war followed between his major commanders for division of his empire. A long struggle ensued between Selucus and Antigonus for Asian empire of Alexander. Selucus emerged vic torious and he capture d the entire Asian empire. He was courageous as well as ambitious. He also nursed the ambition to conquer world like Alexander. The eastern border of his empire touched the Indian borders. By 306 B.C.E he became the lord of entire Asi an empire and attacked Bharat in 305 BCE to recapture the conquered land. Chandra Gupta Maurya not only successfully resisted him but it becomes evident from terms of the treaty that Chandragupta was victorious. Selucus confirmed this friendship treaty by sending his ambassador Magasthenese in court of Chandragupta Maurya. The Magadha kingdom now extended upto Hindu Kush Mountains. Magasthenese in his book ‘Indica’ mentions about geographical condition , castes in society, marriage, sati system, education, crops, industries, ruler, and Patliputra.

10.2.3 Bactrians or Indo - Greeks: - Chandragupta Maurya had established his control over north western parts of Bharat and Afganistan after defeating Selucus. For one century, friendly relations prevailed between the Greek and Indian rulers. But conditions changed during weak rule of later Mauryans. After the downfall of the Mauryan Empire, foreign invaders restarted to invade Bharat. The Greek rulers of Bactria (Balkh) were the first among them. They conquered some areas of Bharat. These Indian - Greek rulers are known as Indo - Greek rulers. Among the Greek rulers, Demetrius struggled against Pushyamitra Shunga. The most successful and illustrious Indo - greek rule r was Menander (150 - 130 BC). He ruled over a large territory which also included probably north Afghanistan and Gandhar. His coins were prevalent till Kabul valley, Mathura, Sindh, Gujrat, Kathiawar and western U.P. His coins bear the symbol of ‘Dharmachak ra’ which proves that he was a devout Buddhist. Famous Buddhist work ‘Mi l ind Panho’ states that his capital was Indo - Greek Rular Menander Sakal (Sialkot). He is introduced as ‘Mi l ind’ in Milindpanho who asks questions to Nagasena, author of the work. We gather information that after being impressed by the answers given by Nagasena on religion, Milind accepted Baudh Dharma.

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Coins of Menander For two centuries, Indians and Greeks had cultural relations which affected both sides of Indian culture due to its strong influence and assimilating power, the victorious Greeks merged into Indian culture . M any cultural and religious ideals of Bharat were adopted by the Greeks. Innumerable Greeks became followers of different religious of Bha rat. On one hand Menander became a Buddhist, on the other hand Heliodours became a ‘Bhagwat’ according to ‘Besnagar’ inscriptions. The Greeks adopted Indian life style. Finally, Greek characteristics joined the mainstream of Indian culture.

10.2.4 Questio ns for exercise: Multiple Choice Questions : 1. The year of Alexander’s invasion was (a) 326 C.E. (b) 326 BC E (c) 386 C.E. (c) 328 BC E 2. Which Greek ruler adopted Buddhism after being, impressed by Nagasena? (a) Damatius (b) Alexander (c) Menander (c) Selucus.

Very Short Questions: - 1. Name any two Indian rulers who supported Alexander in his Indian invasion. 2. On Banks of which river was the battle between Alexander and Porus fought? 3. Who was the ruler of Takshashila when Alexander invaded? 4. W hose court did Magasthenese attend? 5. Which Indian ruler had a conflict with D e m e t r iu s ? Short Questions: 1. Write a short note on battle between Alexander and Porus. 2. Give reasons why Alexander retreated from Bharat? 3. Comment on and assimila tion of the Greeks. Essay Questions: 1. Mention the political condition of Bharat and its impact at the time of Greek invasion.

10.3 Kushanas Kushanas were the most prominent of all the foreign invaders in Bharat. It is believed that they were related to Yu - Chi tribe of Kansu province of China. Driven out by Hunas around 165 B.C.E. they reached Tahia (Bactria) where they defeated the Shakas. Later on, the Yu - Chi tribe got divided into five branches. The Kushana branch was the most powerful of them all. Fou nder of this branch or dynasty was K u jul Kadphises. His successor Vim Kadphises extended his empire to Indian regions. Information about history of the Kush a na dynasty is gained from archeological material, inscriptions, statues and 178

Chinese history texts. ‘Dharma thidus’ and Dharmathit are inscribed on his coins on copper coins of Kujul which has led some scholars to believe that he had adopted Buddhism. Coins of Vim carry images of Shiva, Nandi and Trident which confirms that he was a Shaivite.

Pinnacle of Kushana Power: -

10.6.1 Kanishaka, the great (78 - 101 A.D.) Among the Kushana kings, Kanishaka was the greatest. His name is glorified in Buddhist legends. According to majority of scholars, the year of his coronation was 78 C.E. He founded a new era ca lled the Shaka S amvat.

10.6.2 Wars and Conquests of Kanishka He was the most illustrious of all Kushana rulers. The Kushana power had reached its height during his reign. He was a great Statue of Kanishaka with out head conqueror, an able administrat or and art loving ruler. When he ascended the throne, he had inherited a small kingdom comprising of Afghanistan, a large part of Sindh, Parthia, Bactria and some portion of the Punjab, His ancestors had faced defeat at the hands of Chinese rulers and the Kushana kingdom became anarchic and paralyzed due to anarchy after the death of Vim. Kanishaka was one of the Kushana leaders who tried his fortune in Bharat. 1. War with Parthia: - Chinese lite rature inform us that ruler of Parthia wanted to capture Bactria, which was significant commercially and recapture Asian territories which was earlier under the Parthians Dr. Smith holds that Kanishaka defeated the Parthian rulers. As a result of this war, Parthia became a part of Kushna Empire. 2. Conquest over Magadha - The Chinese and Tibetan Chronicks tell us that Kanishka attacked and conquered Saket (Ayodhya) and Patliputra and carried away a wooden begging bowl of Mahatma Buddha and famous Buddhist Schola r Ashvaghosh from Patliputra. According to some scholars, credit goes to Kanishka for end ing rule of Satvahanas from Magadha Empire. Kushana seals found from Bengal and Orissa imply Kanishkas authority over them. But view of D C. Sarkar appeals to be more logical that due to commercial exchange these seals were be found in far off lands. 3. Kashmir Conquest - Rule of Kanishka over Kashmir is authenticated by various proofs. The ancient historian of Kashmir, Kalhan, has described Kanishika as ruler of Kashmir in his book Rajtarangini. Kanishka summoned the Fourth Buddhist Council in Kundalvana, Kashmir in which famous scholar. Ashvaghosh played an important role. Many viharas were constructed by Kanishka in Kashmir and he founded ‘Ka ni shk a pur’ 4. War with Shaka Ksht rapa - It resulted in establishing supremacy of Kamshika over Shakas and some parts of Malwa came under his control. 5. Conquest of Central Asia; - In 90 CE Kanishka sent a powerful army against Pan Chao, commander of Han dynasty. After victory, areas of Kashga r, Yarkand and Khotan of central Asia came under Kanishkas control 179

6. Attack on China: - Chinese historical sources and description of Hieun Tsang tell us that Kanishka sent a powerful army to attack China from north of Pamir under general ‘Si’ with 70000 caval ry. Due to bad weather, a large part of his army was destroyed and the rest of the army was defeated by the Chinese. Heiun Tsang states that this defeat was r a venged after some time. According to Hi e u n Tsang, empire of Kanishka extended upto Khotan, north of mountain Lin, Koshgar and Yarkand. The tribes residing west of yellow river (the Chinese) were scared of him and sent their two princes in his court as hostages. According to Vincent Smith, it was a great victory of Kanishka as a conqueror.

10.3.3 Extent of empire of Kanishka - His empire extended from central Asia to Varanasi of Uttar Pradesh, Kaushambi and Sharasvati and . Political importance of his kingdom is revealed from the fact that he made north India as well as middle Asia a par t of his inseperable empire. It was an international empire. Purushpur (Peshawar) was its capital.

10.3.4 Administration: - Not much is known about his administration. Probably, the empire was divided into numerous small parts and each was governed by a M ahakshatrap (commander) who was assisted by a Kshatrap. The administration was military in character and was not too stable.

10.3.5 Kanishka and Baudh Dharma: - He is known as a great patron of Baudh dharma in history. He is referred to as another Ashoka in Buddhist literature whose patronage resulted in wide spread propagation of the religion. Most of the historians are of the view that Kanishka was initiated into Buddhism by famous Buddhist scholar Ashvaghosh after being influenced by him. He followed th e foot steps of Ashoka, the Great, for promoting Baudh Dharma. Many stupas and Vihars were contructed by him and he sent Buddhist monks to Central Asia, China, Tibet, Japan etc. for propagation of the religion. He summoned the Fourth Buddhist council in Ku ndalvana (Harvan near J& K) under Vasumitra. Ashvaghosh was specially invited from Saket to attend it. In this council, Baudh Dharma was divided into two seets - Hinayan and Mahayan. Kanishka made efforts to spread Mahayana sect. Though he had turned a Buddh ist, he was tolerant towards other religion. Images of Greek, Hindu, Zarathustri and goddesses apart from Buddha are found on his coins.

10.3.6 Patron of Art and Literature: - Kanishka was not only a great conqueror, but also a patron of art and a great s c holar. He exhibited his love for art by constructing Buddhist Viharas and stupas. His most important contribution was in the field of sculpture and architecture. Three major styles developed during his reign - Mathura, Amravati and Gandhar. With the sprea d of Mahayana sect, the sculpture art took a new form. Now the statues of Buddha displayed Greek influence and thus came to be known as Indo - Greek art. But since these statues of Buddha were built in Gandhar area, they came to be known as Gandhar Art. New style of art, the rise of Gandhar art, was a big achievement of reign of Kanishaka.Philosophers, the scientists and scholars of high rank adorned Kanishkas court like Ashvaghosh who wrote t he epic ‘Buddhacharita’. Nagurjuna, 180 propounder of Shunyavad’ and ‘S apekshavad’ was not only a philosopher but a scientist as well who propounded the theory of sapekshavad in his work ‘Madhyamika Sutra’, Charak, the royal physician of Kanishka who wrote Charak Samhita, the oldest book on medicine, V asumitra, Parshva and S a ndhraksha were other famous scholar .

10.3.7 Evaluation of Kans i hka: - anishka was a great warrior, empire builder and a patron of artists and scholars. Along with a propagator of Baudh dharma, he was a lover of knowledge, His seals, specially gold seals, reveal the prosperity of Bharat. Bharat and Rome had flourishing trade relations, Development of sea and land routes during Kushana period further gave a fillip to the trade. India became a financially strong country. Kush a nas controlled the famous ‘Silk R oute’ which started from China and reached Roman Empire through Central Asia. The Indian traders were connected with areas of South Arabia and Red Sea. They exported silk from China, ivory goods, spices, medicines, cotton & silk clothes and fine Musli n fro m India to Rome and earned gold in return. Apart from China and Rome, Bharat also traded with Burma, Java , Sumatra Champa etc. Wide circulation of currency is an important contribution of this age. The coins became prevalent on a regular basis in trade & c ommercial . C oins started to circulate during Vim Cadphises period and by the reign of Kanishka, gold coins were minted in heavy number. They are excellent from the point of view of purity. Kanishkapur and Sirmukh towns were founded during this age.

10.3.8 Literature, Science and Art: - Literature, Science and Art were highly developed during Kushana period. All the styles of l iterature were promoted. Plays in Sanskrit language were written for the first time Ashvaghosh, Bhas, Shudrak were great scholars o f this art. Excellent works were written in Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit. Charak, Sushrut were great physicians and teachers of Ayurveda. Nagarjuna was a great scientist. Many new principles were formulated in Indian astrology and scientific authenticity of astronomy was enhanced. New techniques developed due to expansion of empire, for example copper coins which were a replicate of Roman gold coins.

10.3.9 Gandhar Art: - Gandhar was situated in north - west of Indian peninsula which was ruled successrully fo r centuries by Greeks, Mauryas, Hunas, Shakas, Kushanas etc. The art form which developed in this region is known as Greek - Roman, Indo - Greek or Greceo - Buddhist form. As it developed in Gandhar Art Gauam Buddha 181

Gandhar area, it was also known as Gandhar art. This style was developed by the Kushanas. The Mahayan sect emerged during Kanishka’s reign and Buddha statues were made which were mostly as combination of Indian and foreign influences. The artists depicted various events of Buddha’s life through these statues like his birth, Dharma Chakra Pravartan and Mahanirvana.The subjects of these statues were Indian or Buddhist. Buddha and Bodhistatvas began to be carved in Roman style. Use of mould in Indian sculptur e is a Greek contribution. Stones used for statues were brown or grey in colour. The chief characteristics of Gandhar style were muscular representation of human beings, full lips, elongated eyes, curly hair, long mustache and heavily draped, Gautam Buddha which tried to capture a real image. Buddha in penance, where his body is thin, is one of the finest specimens of Gandhar art.

10.3.10 Questions for exercise: Multiple choice questions: 1. What is the year of coronations of Kanishka? (a) 78 BC (b) 58 BC (c) 78 AD (c) 58 AD 2. Who write the epic ‘Buddha Charita’? (a) Nagarjuna (b) Kanishka (c) Charak (c) Ashvaghosha. Very Short type questions: - 1. After which conquest did Kanishka took away famous Buddhist scholar Ashvaghosh with him? 2. Where was the Fourth Buddhist Council held? 3. Which sect of Baudh Dharma was propagated by Kanishka? Short Questions: 1. Who were Kushanas? Give a brief description. 2. Mention Kanishka as a Buddhist preacher. 3. Explain characteristics of Gandhar sculpture. 4. Mention commercial progress of Bharat during Kushana period. Essay Question: - 1. Explain achievements of Kanishka.

10.4 Shaka Dynasty. The second foreign tribe which arrived after the Greeks from central Asia to Bharat were the Shakas. The word Shaka is the Hindi version for Sythian dynasty, which originally lived in Sythia area of Central Asia. After being defeated by their neighbours Yu - chi, they established their rule in north - western parts of Bharat organized into five branches. Takshashila, Mathura, Maharashtra, Ujjaini were the various places where various branches of Shakas ruled. We find evidences of two Shaka dynast ies in western Bharat (i) Kshaharat dynasty of Maharasthtra (2) Karda m aka (Chastan) dynasty or Shaka Kshatraps of Saurashtra and Malwa. The most popular ruler of K shaharat dynasty was Nahapana whose coins have been found from Ajmer to Nasik.

10.4.1 Rudradaman I (130 AD to 150 AD) Similar to the Kshaharat dynasty, another Shaka dynasty emerged in South Bharat known in history as Chashtan dynasty. It primarily ruled in Ujjain and Kath iy awar. Its most illustrio u s ruler was 182

Mahakshatrap Rudradaman. Only the S haka kingdom of western Bharat (Gujrat) could sustain for four centuries. The po r ts here provided economic prosperity. The most exemplary ruler of the shaka rulers was Rudradaman I (130 AD to 150 AD) Girnar o r Junagarh inscr i ption provides information about him. This account is regarded as the first royal account in Sanskrit language in ancient Bharat. He issued this inscription in Sanskrit language inspite being a foreigner which gives proof of developed form of Sanskrit at that time. 1. Re novation of Sudarshan lake - Girnar inscription mentions re novation of Sudrashan Lake by Rudra Daman which was very difficult and expensive. Rudradaman, for welfare of his subjects, spent the required amount from his personal fund and did not tax the people. 2. Conquest and Extent of empire: - He conquered Akar (eastern Malwa), Avanti (Western Malwa) Anoop (Maheshwar on banks of Narmada), Nivrata & Anarta(North Kathiawar and it’s capital Anandpur),Saurashtra(South Kathiawar), Shwabhra(Area of Sabarmati) Maru (), Sindhu (Western a rea of lower Sindhu vall ey), Sau veer (Area on eastern bank of Indus River (Kukur (Area of western Madhya Pradesh) , Nishad (Vindhyachal) Aparant (Northern ) and areas of Aravali mountain range Junagarh also mentions conflict between Shaka - Satvahana. He also defeated Y audhey as o f eastern Punjab. His empire included Sindhu, Sauveen, Malwa, Gujarat, Kathiawar, North Konkan, western Rajasthan and areas of Sindh. 3. Administration: - His large empire was divided into many provinces whose administration was under regional rulers. A co uncil of ministers assisted the rulers. The ministers who advised in the administration were known as Matisachiv’ and those who executed the royal order s and policies were called ‘Kar asachiv’. The ruler was not an autocrat inspite being powerful. The judic ial system and taxation were based on religion. 4. Personality: - Rudradaman was the owner of a multitalented personality. Spirit of Public welfare was the most important aspect of his character. He followed high ideals and loved his subjects. He was an expert both in arms and letters. His personality is an example that foreigner like Rudradaman was Indianised by this time Girnar inscription writes that he participated in many Swayamvars and married many princesses which proves that Shakas had assimilated in In dian society. Thus, Rudra Daman was a great conqueror, empire builder, liberal and popular ruler and a promoter of Hindu dharma and culture. Shakas came to Bharat as conquerors but Indian society assimilated them. Gradually, they became Indians, adopted In dian religions and adopted Indian names with time. The Kshatrapas of western Bharat like Jayadaman, Rudradaman, and Jeevdaman Rudrasen etc. are all Indian names.

10.4.2 Questions for exercise: - Multiple choice questions: - 1. Language of Girnar/Junagarh insc ription was (a) Sanskrit (b) Hindi (c) Pali (c) Prakrit.

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2. The most illustrious ruler of Kshaharat dynasty was ( a ) Chastan ( b ) Rudradaman (c) Nahapana (c) Jeevdaman. Very Short Answer Type Questions: 1. What is the major source of information of Shaka ruler Rudradaman? 2. Which lake was repaired by Rudradaman? Short Answer Type Questions: 1. What was the nature of administration of Rudradaman? Explain. 2. Write a short note on character of Rudradaman. 3. The receptive power of Indian culture assimilated Shak as into it own society. Clarify. Essay type questions: 1. The most remarkable ruler of Shaka ruler was Rudradaman. Illustrate.

10.5 Huna Dynasty Hunas were a nomadic and barbarous tribe of Central Asia. It left its original habitat in search of new lands due to population explosion and civil war. After conquering Bactria, it crossed the Hinduskush Mountains and entered Bharat. The fi r st attack by Hunas was made during the reign of Skandagupta (455 - 467 C.E. ) which was unsuccessful. But by 485 C.E. they acquired a large territory of Malwa and central Bharat . Pubjab and Rajasthan were also in their control. The most popular ruler of the Hunas was Torman.

10.5.1 Torman: - After Skandgupta died, the Hunas on ce again attacked the Ganges Valley. It was led by the most powerful ruler of Huna dynasty, Torman who extended the boundaries of his empire till Eran near Bhopal in central Bharat. Inscriptions and coins prove thet he ruled from Punjab to Eran. He assumed the title of Maharajadhiraj. The Huna authority s trengthened in Pavaiya, Sakal (Sialkot) Eran Malwa etc under his leadership and Magadha, Kashi and Ka u shambi came under his direct influence. Thus Torman was the first foreign ruler whose empire extended from central Asia to Central Bharat. He probably d ied in 515 C.E. but had declared his son Mihirkula as his successor during his life time.

10.5.2 Mihirkula - He was a barbarous and an oppressive Huna ruler. Kalhan ’ s Raj Tarangini gives an account of his barb a rous acts. He was a Shaivite and a staunch ap ponent of Buddhists. According to Kalhana, lie constructed a S hiva temple in Srinagar. Yashodharman of Malwa and Baladitya of Majadha atlast defeated him. After this defeat, power of the Hunas waned.

10.5.3 Impact: - Invasion of Hunas laid a deep impact on dai l y life of Indians. They gave a harsh blow to the declining Gupta empire Indian economy suffered deeply due to their loot and atrocities. Even after their downfall, political unity and economic security could not be achieved for centurics and areas a cquired by them were infected with chaos. Their suppression & atrocities promoted authoritarian tendencies and weekened republican spirit. Land and sea routes were obstructed after their control over north - western and western areas. Contacts with outer wor ld were severed. They damaged Indian culture, destroyed 184

Buddhist Vihara in large number, stupas which were a symbol of art and centre of devotion. But inspite of this, somewhere their assimilation also continued and they were attracted to one Indian religi on or the other. Later on , they formed marital relations with royal dynasties of Bharat and thus assimilated with Indian religion and culture.

10.5.4 Questions for Exercise: - Multiple choice questions: 1. The most tyrannical ruler of Huna dynasty was (a ) T o rman (b) Mihirkula (c) Jayadaman (c) Skandagupta Short Questions 1. The most powerful Huna ruler was Torman. Explain. 2. Describe the effects of Huna invasions on li ve s of Indians.

10.6 Answers Multiple choice and very short questions

10.2.4 Greek Invasions Multiple choice 1 (b) 326 BC 2. (c) Menander. Very short Questions 1. Ambi, Shashigupta 2. Jhelum 3. Ambhi 4. Chandragupta Maurya 5. Pushya Mitra Shunga

10.3.10 Kushans: Multiple Choice 1. (c) 78 AD 2. Ashvaghosha. Very Short Questions: - 1. Conquest of Magadha. 2. Kundalvana (Kashmir) 3. Mahayana

10.4.2 Shakas Multiple Choice Questions 1. (a) Sanskrit 2. (c) Nahapana. Very Short Questions 1. Girnar or Junagarh inscription 2. Sudarshan Lake.

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10.5.4 Hunas Multiple Choice questions 1 (b) Mihirkula

10. 7 . Glossary Swayamwar - An ancient hindu tradition in which a girl select herr lifepartner herself. Panigrahan - A ceremonyin Hidu marriage in which man accepts girl as his wife. Merge - To imbibe - accept from heart. Lore - Traditional stories.

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Chapter - 11

Muslim Invasions and Indian States

11. 0. Aim 11.1 .Introduction 11.2 .Arab Invasion 11.2.1 Attack on Sindh 11.2.2 Arab invasion and Nagabhatta. 11.2.3 Arab invasion and 11.3 . Turkish Invasion and Indian Resistance 11.3.1 . Mohammad Gori and Prithvi Raj Chauhan 11.3.2 . Hammir Dev Chauhan of Ranthambor and Alauddin Khilji. 11.3.3 . . Alauddin Khilji and Raval Ratan Singh of Mewar. 11.3.4 . Relations between Mewar and Malwa. 11.3.5 . Cultural Achievements of Maharana Kumbha. 11.3.6 . Questions for Exercise. 11.4 . Mughal Invasi on and Indian States. 11.4.1 . Maharana Sanga 11.4.2 . and Sanga 11.4.3 . Jodhpur and Mughals 11.4.4 . and Mughals. 11.4.5 . Maharana Durgadas Rathor of Marwar and Mughals. 11.5 . and Mughal conflict 11.5.1 . 11.5.2 . Peshwa a nd Mughals 11.5.3 . Questions for Exercise. 11.6. Answers multiple choice and Very short type questions. 11.7. Glossary.

11.0 Aim 1. To know about aims of various Muslim invaders. 2. To know about Arab, Turk and Mughal invasions 3. To know about achievements of major Indian rulers. 4. To know about impact of Muslim invasions in Bharat.

11.1. Introduction: - There was no political unity in Bharat in first half of the 8 th century. Bharat was divided into small states. The states were not organised for their defence also due to fear out of increasing influence 187 of Muslims in Arabia. When the Muslims of Arab could not make an impact on Sindh, they retreated and this, further, enhanced the number of small independent states in north Bharat. This trend continued till Turk - Mughal invasions. Due to prevalent complexities like narrowness, casteism, etc., it became easy for the invaders to attack Bharat and difficult for the Indians to face them.

11.2 Arab Invasion Causes of Invasion: 1. Intense desire to propagate Islam. 2. Spirit of imperialism 3. The Arabs were aware of economic prosperity of Bharat and wanted to acquire wealth. 11.2.1 Arab invasion on Sindh and war with D ahir Sen.: - In the beginning, Arab Invaders were limited to north western Bharat. In 711 CE ruler of Sindh, Dahir Sen, appropriately countered the attacks of Arabian (Iraqi) Khalifa and won. After this, the Khalifa Hajjaj sent an army to attack Sindh to take revenge for the incident of looting an Arabian ship. Initially, his commanders Ubai dullah and Budail had to face defeat and were put to death. Thereafter, Hajjaj sent his paternal cousin and son - inlaw, Muhammad - bin - Quasim a young lad of 17 years of age, to attac k, who after capturing the city murdered all people above 17 years of age. He imprisoned young boys and women. He loo t ed a large amount of booty from temples of which 1/5 th part was sent to Hajjaj and rest was distributed among the army. He surged forward and also captured Nir u n, Sehwan and Seesam . On 20the June 712, the Indian and Arabian armies clashed in the Battle of Ravar. Dahir reached the middle part of the Arabian army by slaughtering his enemies. The Muslim soldiers started throwing burning on Indian soldiers one of which fell on white elephant of Dahir. The elephant panick ed and rushed towards the sea. The army of Dahir thought that their king has fled from the field and it too retreated. However, when the elephant became calm, Dahir once a gain started the war but fell to an arrow. His wife Ladi Bai tried to defend the fort but committed Jauhar after she failed to. After victory over Ravar, Kasim attacked Brah m anbad from where he captured two daughters of Dahir Surayadevi and Parmal Devi. Bo th the ladies displayed bravery and laid down their lives to protect their honour. They hold an important place in history as an epitome of self respect. Ka sim then captured Aaror, capital of Sindh as well as . This was the last victory of the Arabs in Bharat. They got so much gold that they called Multan as Swarna Nagar. Sindh, for some time, became a part of Islamic empire but Indian philosophy, literature, science, math, medicine, astrology and art deeply impressed the Arabs. Arabian adopted many o riginal principles of Indian knowledge, numerical, decimal system, astronomy etc., got the scriptures translated into Arabic and adopted Indian theories of literature. The Europeans, in turn, learnt about Indian philosophy and literature through the Arabs. Thus, Indian knowledge successfully reached the west through the Arabs. In words of Dr. Ishwari Prasad, “The Arabs worked as a bridge to establish cultural contact between Bharat and Europe.”

Causes of Success of the Arabs: - (i) People of Sindh were disconte nted and Dahir could not muster their support. (ii) Feeling of non cooperation among the Indian rulers. (iii) Military activities were limited to , due to which military power was curtailed. 188

(iv) Capability of Md. Bin. Kasim, courage, leadership, spirit of prosely tisation taxation, last of money and support of Kalifa made the Arab invasion successful.

11.2.2 Arab invasion and Nagabhatta Nagabhatta I (730 - 756 A.D.)is considered as founder of Gurjar Pratihar dynasty of Kannauj, Jalor and Avanti. The Biloch and the Arabs invaded Bharat from the side of Sindh. He successfully resisted their invasion. According to Gwalior Prashasti and Nausari inscriptions, Nagabhatt I suppressed the Malechchas (Muslims) Nagabhatta II of the same dynasty also made Arab invasions unsucc essful. Gwalior inscriptions and Khuman Raso also give evidences of failure of Arab invasions

11.2.3 Arab Invasion and Mewar. Bappa : - In the first half of 8the century, foreign Muslim army attacked Chittor. King Manmori ruled over it at that time His feudal Bappal Rawal challenged the foreign invaders and uprooted them till Gazni. C.V. Vaidhya comments, “The tide of Arab invasion collapsed against the rocks of courage of .” He defeated rulers of Isfan Han, Kandhar, Kashmir, Iraq, Iran, Tura n, Afghanisthan etc. and established matrimo ni al alliances with them. It is believed that Pakistani city Rawalpindi derived its name from Bappa Rawal.

11.3 Turkish Invasion and Indian Resistance The Turks Attacked Bharat in last half of 10 th century after nearly two centuries of peace. The credit for spreading Islam goes to these Turks. They became so powerful in 9 th and 10 th centuries that they overthrew the rule of their master in Baghdad and Bukhara and made efforts to set up an independen t empire. Gazni, a small state of Afganistan, became the seat of power for them First Turkish invader was Subukt a gin. King Jaipal ruled over north - western part of p art of Bharat After a long struggle and deceit, Subukt a gin, was successful and he captured a reas from Laghman to Peshawar. After Subukt a gin, Mahmud Ghaznavi became the ruler. He was an ambitio u s ruler and attacked Bharat 17 times. In 1025 he attacked (Gujrat) and defeated its ruler, Bhimdev. Ghazni captured the city and massacred m ore than 50000 men and women. He damaged the idol of Somnath and its broken pieces were place d on st eps of mosques at Ghazni, Mecca and Madina. His last attack was in 1027 against the Jats of Sindh who had caused a huge damage to his home ward journey in 1 025 C.E . Ghaznavi received a large amount of money from these attacks from which he could maintain a huge army to protect and enhance his empire. Elephants of hi gh breed received from Bharat were a part of his army. He made Punjab a part of Ghazni empire w hich opened gates for future Muslim invaders. Security of the country was endangered. Sculpture and architecture of Bharat received a blow. Due to drainage of wealth, economic condition of Bharat became deplorable. Though Ghaznavi founded large empire he c ould not unite the diverse tribes residing within,. Therefore, his successors could not handle the empire, he left. Various tribes tried to break free from Ghazni. An ambitions ruler of Ghagni, of Ghor Tribe, Shahabuddin alias Muijudden Muhammad Ghori inva ded Bharat.

11.3.1 Muhammad Ghori and Prithviraj Chauhan (1177 - 1192 A.D.) - Muhammad Ghori captured Multan in 1175 CE and further conquered Gujrat, Sialkot and Lahore. Thereafter, he made attacks on Delhi which was then ruled by Prithviraj Chauhan III, famous as ‘Rai Pithora’ in history. Prithviraj wanted to annex Kannauj from Gaharwal ruler Jai Chand to 189

complete his mission of Digvijay. Jaichand was also ambitious and thus conflict between them was inevitable. According to hearsay, Jaichand even invited Gh ori against Prithviraj and assured hi m cooperation. Prithviraj Raso claims 21 victories and Hammir Mahakavya claims 7 victories of Prithviraj over Ghori. In 1191 AD, both the armies clashed at Tarain. From the beginning, the over powered the Musl im army and attacked it from both the sides. After some time, Ghori became unconscious and was escor ted to safety by a loyal soldier. The Muslim army fled with his departure, Prithviraj did not pursue the fleeing army. The first battle of Tarain was the pinnacle of military success of Prithviraj. It was however, equally insulting for Ghori. He could not forget his defeat and started preparations to take revenge. In 1192, he came back fully prepared, entered Bharat Prithiviraj Chauhan (11 77 - 1192 A.D.) with a large cavalry and stationed himself at Tarain Prithviraj too arrived with a large army. Ghori, scared by this army, decided to act diplomatically. He convinced Prithviraj that he had come only on orders of his elder brother and that h e was more interested in a peace treaty. He attacked the Ch a uhans before sunrise through treachery. The Rajputs could not face this sudden attack and were defeated. Ghori won decisively and Prithviraj was made a capture. According to Prithivi Raj Raso, Pri thviraj was taken to Ghazni wher e he killed Ghori with an arrow, whereas contemporary historian, Hasan Nizami informs that Prithvi Raj ruled over Ajmer as a subordinate of Ghori. Evidence of coins can be cited in favour of Nizami ’ s view which depicts Mohd. Bin sam and Prithviraj on its sides.

Cause of defeat of Prithvi Raj Chauhan: -  Belief of Prithviraj in judicious warfare.  Non - cooperation of neighbouring states.  It was a blunder not to pursue the fleeing T u rkish army after first battle of Panipat  Dependence on feudal syptem for raising an army.

11.3.2 Hammir Chauhan of Ranthambor (1282 - 1301 A.D.) Hammir expanded the boundaries of his empire by adopting a policy of Digvijay’. When Jalaluddin became sultan of Delhi, a conflict started between the two. Hammir and Jal al ud d in Khilji: - After becoming the sultan of Delhi, Jalaluddin Kilji made unsuccessful attempts conquer Ranthambor in 1290 and 1292 C.E. He faced failure due to successful resistance of Hammir. Hammir and Alluaddin Khilji - In 1296 C.E. Jalal uddin’s nephew Alauddin Khilji became the sultan of Delhi and completed his victory compaign against Ra n thambore. Causes of attack on Ranthambor: - - Alauddin’s ambitions and imperialistic nature and intention to revenge Jalaluddins defeat. - Strategic importan ce of Ranthambore. - Suppress increasing power of the Chauhans. - Immediate reason - Refuge given by Hammir to Mir Mohammad , the rebellious commander of Alauddin Khilji. 190

When Hammir refused to surrender the commander, Khilji sent Ulugh Khan, Alap Khan and N usrat khan to attack Ranthambor. Hammir and his army resisted for a long time. At last, Nusrat Khan was killed and Ulugh Khan had to withdraw. In 1301 C.E., Allauddin Khilji himself attacked Ranthambor. He laid a s i ege around the fort which created crisis of grains inside the fort Alauddin took over the support of Ratimal and Ranmal, the two commanders of Hammir. Hammir died while fighting. His wife Rangdevi along with other ladies, performed Jauhar. According to Dr. Dashrath Sharma, “Even if hammir had som e vice, they become negligible before his courageous fighting, protection of refugees and his sense of honour of family.” Literary works like Hammir Mahakavya by Nayanchandra Suri, Hammirayana by Vyas Bhand, Hammir Raso by Jodhraj, Hammir Bandhan by Amrit Kailash, Hammir Hath by Chandra Shekhar have established Hammir as a hero.

11.3.3 Alauddin Khilji and Rawal Ratan Singh of Mewar (1302 - 1303 A.D.) In 1302, Ratan Singh ascended the throne of Mewar and in 1303, Alauddin attacked . Causes of attack: - 1. To suppress increasing power of Mewar. 2. Imperialistic ambition of Alauddin Khilji. 3. Non - cooperation towards royal forces by ruler of Mewar during formers campaign against Gujrat. 4. Strategi c importance of Mewar. 5. Some historians also count Alauddin’s a mbition to gain , wife of Ratan Singh, as one of the causes. Alauddin laid a siege around Chittor. The army courageously resisted the Muslim army but due to prolonged siege, crisis of food grains developed inside the fort. Atlast, the Ra jput soldiers rushed out of the fort to attack the Mughal forces. Ratan Singh died while fighting while Padmini along with other Rajput women performed Jauhar. On 26 th August 1303, Alauddin captured Chittor and changed its name to Khijrabad. A historical r eferenceof the story of Padmini is found in Padmawat by Malik Mohammad Jayasi. Abul Fazal, Farishta , Col. Tod, Mu h no t Nainsi have also mentioned this story with slight variations. Some modern historians do not accept the historicity of this story.

11.3.4 . Mewar - Malwa Relations (143 - 1468 A.D.) Maharana Kumbha: - The immediate cause of war between Maharan Kumbha of Mewar and Mahmud Khilji ruler of Malwa, was refuge given by Malwa to some rebel li ous feudals of Kumbha. Murderers of Mokal, Kumbha’s father, Mohpa Panwar and his paternal uncle, Mera had found refuge with the Malwa sultan. When Kumbha asked Mahpa to be surrendered the Sultan refused. Therefore, Kumbha attacked Malwa. In the Battle of Sarangpur in 1437 A.D. Mahmud was defeated and he fled. The Sultan continuously attacked Mewar in 1443, 1446 and 1456 but failed every time. In 1456 Shams Khan, ruler of Nagor conspired with Qutubuddin, ruler of Gujrat to make a combined attack on Mewar. Later on, Mahmud Khilji, ruler of Malwa, also formed Malwa - Gujarat alliance to defeat Mewar. According to Firishta, Kumbha offered money to the invaders, while according to eulogy of Kirti Stambh and Rasik Priya, Kumbha defeated both the Sultans . D ue to his victory over the Muslim rulers, Kumbha gained fame as 'Hindu Surtan' (Hindu badshah)

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11.3.5 Cultural achievements of Kumbha: - Kumbha was not only one of greatest warriors but also a lo v er of art and literature. According to Eklinga Mahatamya, he was well versed in Vedas, Smriti, Mimansa, Upanishad, Vyakaran, polit ics and literature. According to Kirti Stambh he was expert in playing Veena. He authored works like Sangeeta Raj, Sangeet Mimansa, Sangeet Krama and Sood Prabandh According to Vir Vinod, out of total 84 forts of Mewar, 32 were constructed by Kumbh a. The rampart of fort, built by Kumbha, runs 36 Kilometers long and is considered as the second largest wall in the world, after China. Vijay Stambha: - Vijay Stambha, the nine storied structure, 122 ft. tall, was built by Maharana Kumbha to co mmemorate his victory over sultan Mahmud Khilji of Malwa. Due to a Vishnu statue installed on the main gate, it is also t e r m ed as Vishnu Dhwaja. It is considered as a priceless treasure of P a uranic Hindu Sculpture. Dr. Gopinath Sharma has termed it as a ‘S ystematic Museum of Hindu gods and goddesses’, while Gauri Shanker Hira Chand Ojha called it as a priceless treasure of P a uranic Gods.' Kumbha turned insane during his last days and was murdered by his son Uda in 1468 in Kumbhalgarh fort.

Chittorgarh Fort Kumbhalgarh fort

Maharana Kumbha Vijay Stambha

11.3.6 Question for exercise: - Multiple Choice Questions: - 1. Ruler of attack on Bharat in 712 AD was (a) Mohd Bin Tuglaq (b) Mohd. Bin Kasim 192

(c) Subuktagin (c) Mohd. Ghori 2. Ruler who invaded Bharat almost 17 times was - (a) Mohd. Ghori (b) Mohd. Bin Tuglaq (c) Mahmud Ghaznavi (c) Babur. Very Short Type questions: - 1. Who was the ruler of Sindh when Mohd. Bin Kasim attacked Bharat? 2. When did Mohmud Ga j navi attack Somnath (Gujarat)? 3. Which commanders of Hammir joined Alauddin Khilji? 4. Which ruler won the first Battle of Tarain? 5. Wh o was the ruler of Mewar during Alauddin’s attack in 1303? 6. Name the victory memorial built by Kumbha, on his victory over Mahmud Khilji, ruler of Malwa. Short Answer Questions: - 1. What were the reasons of invasion of the Arabs on Bharat? 2. What were the reasons of failure of Prithivi Raj Chauhan against Muhammad Ghori? 3. Name important reasons of attack of Alauddin Khilji over Ranthombor. 4. Cite the causes behind Alauddins attack on Chittor in 1303. 5. Comment on Indian invasion of Mahmud Ghajnavi. Essay Type Qu estions: - Evaluate political and cultural achievement of Maharana Kumbha.

11.4 .Mugh al Invasion and Indian Registance The in Bharat was founded by Babur in 1526 C.E. his ancestral state was Fargana. After 1494 C.E.. , He decided to attack Bharat to establish a permanent empire. There was political instability in Bharat at that time. The most powerful ruler of Bharat was Maharana Sanga of Mewar at that time.

1 1 .4.1 Maharana Sanga (Mewar): - Maharana Sanga was the most illustrious ruler of Mewar. He won the war of succession which ensued after the death of his father R aimal. With the help of Sarang dev, he became the ruler of Mewar in 1509 A.D. F rom 1515 C.E.. to 1520 C.E. Muzzaffar, ruler of Gujrat along with Mahmud, Sultan of Malwa tried to conquer Mewar, but was defeated by Sanga. Ibrahim Lodi successor to Delhi throne also fought with Sanga in 1517 C.E. at Khatoli (Kota) for control over Mewar, but was defeated. In 1518 C.E. once again Ib rahim Lodi and the royal army were defeated decisively in the battle of Badi (). Mahmud Khilji, sultan of Malwa was also at war with Sanga in 1519 C.E. The immediate cause of this war was refuge Maharana Sanga given to Medini Rai, a Hindu noble, by Sanga. Mahmud Khilji was defeated by in Battle of Gagron in 1519 C.E.. 193

11.4.2 Babar and Sanga: - Babur laid down the foundations of Mughal Empire by defeat ing Ibrahim Lodi in first battle of Panipat (1526 A.D.) But it was nece ssary for him to defeat the powerful and ambitious Sanga to gain sovereignty and establish an empire in Bharat. Therefore, his conflict with Sanga became inevitable. Following were the causes of their struggle: After being defeated in battle of Panipat, M ahmud Lodi (brother of Ibrahim Lodi) sought shelter with Rana Sanga. To destroy this Rajput - Afghan alliance, Babur decided to fight with Sanga. Sanga captured many areas and villages of taking advantage of defeat of Lodi. Babur became appr ehensive about Rajput courage after the defeat of Bayana. He prepared his army to fight with Sanga after many efforts. Babur reorganized his military power and stationed himself on grounds of Khanwa on 16 th March 1527 for a war. Rana Sanga was injured by a n arrow in this wa r and had to retreat from the battle ground. Ratna Singh Chundawat of Salumbar, Jhala Ujja and other Rajput warriors fought till their last breath but had to face defeat from Babur’s army. Babur accepted the title of ‘Ghazi’ after this vi ctory. Causes of defeat of Sanga: -  It was a blunder on part of Sanga that he gave Babur ample time for preparation and postponed war after Babur’s defeat in Battle of Bayana.  Another reason for the defeat was that Rajputs carried traditional warfare with bows, arrows and spears, while the army of Babur was well disciplined and had cannons.  There was lack of unity and coordination in Rajput army.  Cavalry of Babur was faster and efficient than the elephant army of Sanga. Injured and scared elephants of Sang a trampled their own men. Results of : -  Rajput sovereignty came to an end in Bharat . The Rajput alliance which was formed as a result of power and glory of Mewar was also dissolved.  Mughal Empire was founded in Bharat and Babur became a per manent Mughal emperor. Mughals put an end to independence of Rajputana and there was downfall of culture, art and knowledge of Rajasthan.

11.4.3 Jodhpur and Mughals: - Rao Chandra Sen and (1562 - 1581 A.D. ): - After the death of Maldeo, ruler of Jodhpur, his younger son Rao Chandra sen ascended the throne, His differences with his estranged brothers Ram, Udai Singh and Raimal gave an opportunity to Mughal ruler Akbar to interfere. Pt. Vishveshwarnath Reu believ es that the real motive of Akbar’s attack on Jodhpur was to revenge treachery by Maldeo towards his father, H u mayun. When H u mayun approached Rao Maldeo against Shershah, his soldiers killed a cow in Marwar state. Offended by it, Maldeo withdrew his help an d Humayun had to return empty handed. Rao Chandrasen retired to Bhadrajun where he was attacked by Akbar who had already won Nagore. Rao Chendrasen then went to Siwana. From 1572 to 1575 Akbar and his commanders, Shahkuli Khan, Jagat Singh, Keshavdas, Rai Singh. Jalal Khan etc. tried to capture Chandrasen but were 194 unsuccessful. At last, in 1575 CE Siwana was captured by the royal army under Shahbaz Khan. B ut Rao Chandrasen remained free till his death in 1581 C.E., He spent a tough life in dense forest, led an independent life, did not accept suzerainty of Akbar, continuously challenged the Mughals and accepted a long battle against the Mughals. Akbar reprimanded his Amirs for this failure. According to Jodhpur Rajya ki Khyat, an opponent feudal, Verisal poi soned him to death. Rao Chandrasen was the first hero of Rajasthan who challenged the powerful Mughal army for independence of his state and who battled with the Mughal army to upkeep traditional Rajput spirit. Most of the Rajput rulers, including his brothers gave preference to their individual comforts over freedom of motherland. Chandrasen was not disappointed by adverse circumstances inspite the fact that his opponent was fully resourceful and he lacked resources. The torch of independence lit by Ra o Chandrasen was carried forward by Maharana Pratap. Therefore, Chandrasen is also known as forerunner of Pratap or ‘Pratap of Marwar’. Historian Raghuvir Singh calls him a forgotten hero of Marwar as he did not receive adequate recognition. Another reason for forgetting was the fact that Pratap was succeeded by his sons and grandsons, to be remembered, whereas Chandrasen was succeeded by his brother Udai Singh. The gala of Chandrasen was soon forgotten.

11.4.4 Maharana Pratap of Mewar and Mughals (1572 - 15 97) Maharana Pratap ascended the throne with support of his feudals on 28 th February 1572 in after the death of Maharana Udai Singh. Chittor had come under the Mughals in 1568 C.E. After assu m ing the throne, Pratap chose the path of independence and struggle, unlike other Rajput rulers. It fell in line with the tradition of glory of dynasty and wonderful lineage. After he resolved to combat with the Mughals, Pratap started to prepare for future war. He organized a powerful army with coope ration of loyal sordars and tribal bheels. Akbar knew about Pratap’s intentions, but still offered a dialogue with him.He sent his courtiers Jalal Khan, Mansingh, Bhagwantdas and Todarmal as his emissaries but Pratap refused to surrender. Maharana Pratap Battle of : - Akbar sent Man Singh as commander to conquer Mewar on 3 rd April 1576. The royal army reached near the village of Khamnaur. It was the first occasion, when any Hindu (Mansingh) was made the chief commander of the royal army. Pratap decide d to fight in open area near Banas r ather than the Pass (Darra) of Haldighat i. In the beginning of the war the soldiers of Mewar devastated the left wing and the front row of the Mughals. According to Badayuni, ‘Shattered by this attack, the Mughal army fled like flock of sheep’’. Upon thus, Mihtar Khan came forward and announced arrival of the emperor with a large army. Situation changed after this and the Mughal army made a come back with new vigour. Amar Kavya, a Sanskrit text by Ranchod Bhatt, mentions that Pratap with speed attacked Mansingh with his spear. Mansingh bowed dow n to save himself but his mahawat got killed. Pratap’s favourite horse ‘Chetak’ was injured and it changed the fa te of the battle. Jhala Bid wore the royal dress after seeing Pratap in distress and continued the war. Pratap, thereby, got the opportunity to slip out of Haldi Ghati. When the battle was at its pinnacle Pratap changed the strategy of the war and turned its directions towards the 195 mountainous region. Thus, Man Singh could not either kill or capture Pratap as wished by Akbar and the military power of Mewar could not be crush ed . Upset by the results of the war Akbar restricted the entry of Man Singh and Asaf Khan into his court. All these evidences prove that Maharana Pratap was not defeated in the . After this battle, Pratap de cided to continue the war through gureilla warfare by hiding in the mountains and forests. After Haldighati, Akbar sent his Mir Bakshi Shahbaz Khan thrice to conquer Mewar. Shahbaz Khan devoted his entire energy against Pratap but could not succeed in his aim. Abdur Rahim Khan Khana was also unsuccessful in this mission. During this period, Pratap reogranised his army after receiving financial aid from and captured the Mughal Thana of D iver in 1582. Col. Tod called this war as ‘Marathon of Mewar’. After this battle, Pratap started his conquests and except for , gained control over entire Mewar. Last Expedition against Pratap: - On 6 th December 1584, Akbar sent Kachchawaha as subedar of Ajmer to conquer Mewar. But he could not achieve anything substantial and made an exit from Mewar This unsuccessful expedition made Akbar believe that it is impossible to capture or subvert Pratap. He was now engrossed with north western problems. Therefore, he closed down all operations against Pratap. Pratap was injured while fixing a bow and died on 19the Jannuary 1597. Pratap spent last years of his life in Chavand very peacefully. Chavand progressed during peacetimes. Artistic buildings and temples were constructed. Trade and commerce art l iterature and music were promoted. Chakrapani Mishra, Jeevandhar and other writers composed scriptures of various subjects. Nisardi (Nasiruddin) was a famous painter in Chavand in this age. Chakrapani Mishra authored three Sanskrit books - Rajayabhishek Padh athi, Muhurtmala and Vishvavallabh which were related to classical method of ascendency of throne, astrology and gardening respectively. Jeevandhar wrote ‘Amarsar’ by the pen name of Amar Singh. Hemratna Suri, inspired by Tarachand, brother of Bhamashah, c omposed’ Gora Badal Katha Padmini Choupai’ in poetry form in 1595 CE. Pratap was a tolerant ruler along with being a patron of Vedic religion and its follower. He invited H arivijay suri, a famous Jain scholar who was also a visitor to Akbar’s Ibadat Khana . Hakim Khan Suri, a Pathan commander who fought from Pratap’s side died during battle of Haldighati. He had friendly relations with Taj Khan, ruler of Jalor. In 1580, when Kunwar Amar Singh suddenly attacked the Mughal camp of Sherpur and imprisoned the f amily of Abdur Rahim Khan e Khana , Pratap ordered for their respectful release and secured transportation.

11.4.5 Durgadas Rathor of Jodhpur and the Mughals: - Durgadas was a son of a feudal of Jaswant Singh, ruler of Marwar. He was granted some villages of Marwar as Jagir by Jaswant singh who was happy with his services. In 1678, after the death of Jaswant Singh, Mughal emperor Aurangzeb declared Jodhpur as Khalsa and established control over Marwar area. He also imprisoned Singh, the newly born pos thumous son of Jaswant Singh. In these difficult circumstances, Durgadas made diplomatic efforts to free Ajit Singh and ensured his safe arrival to Marwar. Due to Mughal control over Jodhpur, he pleaded to Maharana Raj Singh of Mewar for security of Ajit S ingh. This request was accepted and the patta of Kelwa along with 12 villages Veer Durgadas Rathor 196

was granted to Ajit Singh. When Aurangzeb came to know about this, he demanded surrender of Ajit Singh from Raj Singh, which the latter ignored.

V ee r Durgadas Rathor: - Alliance with Prince Akbar - Durgadas tried to instigate Prince Muazzam against the emperor but failed. After this, Durgadas declared prince Akbar as emperor of Bharat and made preparations to fight against Aurangzeb. Aurangzeb resorted to deceit and devided the Rajput army and the war could not take place. In 1687, Akbar retired to Iran but continued his friendship with Durgadas for a life time. In 1701 C.E., Aurangzeb tried to kill Durgadas through prince Azam but was unsucce ssful. According to Khyat of Jodhpur, Ajit Singh came under the influence of other sardars after he became the ruler and did not treat Durgadas with respect. Hurt by this attitude, Durgadas went to join the services of Maharana Amar Singh II of Mewar and n ever returned to Jodhpur. Estimate of Durgadas: Durgadas proved to the worthiest son of his motherland. His loyalty and sense of duty was praised not only in Rajasthan but in the world as well. He continued efforts for independence of his motherland continuously and for a long period of time. Without his untiring efforts and struggle, it was not possible for Ajit Singh to acquire the throne. Military power of the Mughals could not deviate him from his aims. He participated in the battle of Dharmat wi th Jaswant Singh and account of his courage in found i n ‘Ratan Raso’ written by Kumbhkaran Sahu, a contemporary write r . Durgadas was an expert diplomat. He not only protected Ajit Singh but formed a ‘Rathor - Sisodia Allience’ with Maharana Raj Singh. He b efriended Prince Akbar for a life time and protected his family as well. Aurangzeb himself appreciated his courage and granted him a mansab. Col. Jame Tod has called Durgadas, ‘ U lysses of the Rathors’.

11.5 Maratha - Mughal Conflict 11.5.1 Chatrapati Shi vaji - Shivaji was the son of Maratha Sardar Shahji Bhonsle and Jija Bai. He was born in fort of Shivner near Puna. After his mother was left by his father, his childhood was spent under the patronage of Dada Kondadev and mother Jijabai. At the age of 12 years, he inherited the jagir of Poona. His initial military expedition was against Bijapur which was in turmoil. Here, shivaji enhanced his power and influence. Mughal emperor Aurangzeb sent Shaista Khan, Shahzada Muazzam, Jaswant Singh to curb the growing influence of Shivaji but they were unsuccessful. Lastly, he sent the diplomat Mirza Raja Jai Singh who surrounded Shivaji in the fort of Purandhar. In June 1665, Treaty of Purandhar Chatrapati Shivaji was signed between Shivaji and Jai Singh which included the following clauses: - 197

- Shivaji surrendered 23 forts to Mughals - He also promised to provided help Mughals against Bijapur - He was exempted from personal attendance in Mughal court. Inspite of these clauses, Jai Singh was able to convince Shivaji to visit in the Mughal darbar. In 1666 C.E. Shivaji presented himself in the Agra durbar but returned as he was not given appropriate honour. Aurangzeb imprisoned him in ‘J aipur Bhawan’ (Agra) and decided to kill him. Shivaji with his son Shambhaji, sneaked out of the jail in a basket of fruits. In 1667, a Mughal - Maratha treaty was concluded with the intervention of Jaswant Singh according to which Aurangzeb accepted him as an independent ruler and recognized his title Raja. Shivaji sent his son Shambhaji into the services of prince Muazzam. In 1674, Shivaji was coronated according to Hindu customs and adopted titles like Chhatrapati, Hindu Dharmodharak, in the fort of Rajga rh. Shivaji and Hind Swarajya: - 1. Emperor Shivaji was a strong, courageous, liberal and had a strong character. He had unbounding faith in Hindu religion. 2. According to historian Sardesai, he wanted to establish a Hindu empire in entire Bharat. Inspite bei ng a staunch Hindu, he was tolerant. He had granted full freedom to his Muslim subjects to pay namaz and hold independent views. He provided equal financial aid to Muslim taqs and ascetics. Muslim historian Khafi Khan is full of praise for Shivaji for his respectful attitude towardsMuslim women and children. He did not discriminate on religious basis in state services and appointed Muslims in army and navy. 3. Shivaji formed a Hindu nation at the time when Mughal Empire was on zenith of its glory and many forc es in South India were in competition. 4. No other Hindu in modern Bharat has been more vibrant than him. He proved by example that Hindu caste can make an empire, establishe d a state, defeat the enemies and could form its own navy. Historian J.N. Sarkar comments, “I consider him as the last great creative person and nation builder of Hindu caste. He proved that the tree of has not weathered away and can resurrect after centuries of political slavery, separation from administration and legal atro cities, new leaves and branches can emerge and it can again raise high in the sky. ”

11.5.2 Peshwa and Mughal After the death of Shivaji, Maratha power became concentrated into the hands of Peshwa (Prime Minister) due to insufficient and weak successors. Maratha ruler Shahu appointed Balaji Vishwanath (1713 - 20) as the first Peshwa. During Shahu’s reigh, the Sayyid brothers installed Farukhsiyar on the throne of Delhi but disgruntled by Farukhsujar, the Sayyid brothers concluded a treaty with Shahu and the Peshwa in 1719, according to which: - - Maratha areas won by Mughals (Swarajya) will be returned to Shahu. - Marathas retained the right to impose chauth and sardeshmukhi. - Family of Shahu, imprisoned in Delhi, will be freed. - Shahu and the Peshwa will assist Sa yyid brother to dethrone Farukhsiyar. The Sayyid brothers with the help of Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath removed Farukhsiyar and installed Ra fi - ud - Darjat on Mughal throne. This incident enchanced the prestige of Peshwa in north Bharat. 198

In 1720, after the death of Balaji Vishwanath, his son B a jirao I (1720 - 40) became the Peshwa. He made plan to expand Maratha Kingdom in north and drive out Mughals out of Bharat, keeping in view the weakness of the Mughal Empire. After he received support from Shahu, Bajirao commented 'It is the right time when can earn fame by driving out the foreigners from this country. We should strike on the roots of the tree dry branches will fall automatically. Bajirao made friends with Sawai Jai Singh, the mansab d ar of the royal famil y. A powerful ruler of Deccan, Nizam, wanted to curtail the enhanced power of Bajirao which led to a war between them. Bajirao defeated the Nizam as well his second son Nasir jung and forced the latter to sign the treaty of Mungi - Shivgaon, In 1740, Bajir ao died. Till 1740, Bajirao led a victory expedition over almost entire central Bharat and expanded the Maratha administration. Mughal rule of Delhi weakened with increasing power of the Marathas and with changing times, there was advent of foreign comp anies into Bharat which finally put an end to Mughal rule and a new era started with trade with East India Company.

11.5.3 Questions for Exercise: - Multiple choice questions: - 1. Where did Maharana Sanga defeat the army of Babar? (a) Bayana (b) Khanwa (c ) Khatoli (c) Haldighati 2. Person who persuaded Shivai to attend M ughal darbar was - (a) Jaswant Singh (b) Ram Singh (c) Ajit Singh (c) Jai Singh

Very Short type questions: - 1. Which courtiers were sent by Akbar to persuade Pratap to accept subjugation ? 2. When and between whom the Battle of Khanwa fought? 3. Which ruler is known as precursor of Pratap? 4. Whom did Akbar send to conquer Pratap? 5. Name that prince of Marwar f or whom Veer Durgadas led a strong struggle with Aurangzeb? 6. Where was Shivaji coronated and w hich tit les did he adopt? 7. Name two powerful Peshwas.

Short Questions: - 1. Describe struggle between Delhi Sultanate and Mewar during the reign of Rana Sanga. 2. What was the main cause of Battle of Khanwa? 3. Why is Chandra Sen known as precursor of Maharana Prata p? 4. Comment on Battle of Haldighati. 5. Mention the efforts made by Durgadas to protect Ajit Singh. 6. When and between whom was the treaty of Purandha r concluded? Mention its major clauses. 7. Write an articl e on Shivaji and Hindu Swarajya.

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Essay Type Question: - 1. Akbar could not gain his goal against Maharana Pratap. Explain.

11.6 Answers - multiple choice and very short questions.

11.3.6 Arab - Turks Multiple choice - 1 ( b ) Muhammad bin Kasim 2. (c) Mahmud Ghaznavi. Very Short Answer Questions: - 1. Raja Dahir Sen 2. 10 25 3. Prithviraj Chauhan 4. Ratipal and Ranmal 5. Ratna Singh 6. Vijay Stambha.

11.5.3 Mughals Multiple Choice 1. (a) Bayana 2. (d) Jai Singh Very Short Answer Questions: - 1. Jalal Khan, Man Singh, Bhagwant Das, Todarmal 2. 1527, Sanga and Babur 3. Rao Chandra sen 4. Mansingh, Shahbaz K han etc. 5. Ajit Singh. 6. 1674, , Chhatrapati, Hindu Dharmoddharak. 7. Balaj Vishwanath, Baji Rao I

11.7 Glossary: - Inscription - Texts inscribed on stone or metal like hard surfaces. Ja u har - Rajput women sacrificed their lives by jump ing into fire. When the defeat was certain, the men would surge forward for a war into death, whereas women would perform Jauhar to save their grace from the enemy ruler. Prashasti - Eulogy - Scripture or speech written in praise of a person or thing. Khalsa - Land under direct control of the Sultan whose income was exclusively for the ruler. Chauth - A tax imposed by the Maratha which was ¼ of the revenue, levied in 17 th and 18 th centuries. Sardeshmukhi - It was 10 % . of the income or the produce which was an extr a tax.

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Chapter 12

Imperialistic Invasions

12.0 Aim 12.1 Introduction and Preface. 12.2 Imperialistic invasions . 12.2.1 Origin and expansion of imperialistic powers in Bharat. (a) Portugal (b) Dutch (c) Denmark (d) British (e) French. 12.2.2 Political condition of Bharat in 18 th Century and attacks. 1. Mughal 2. Bengal 3. 4. Ma r atha. 5. Maysore 6. Jat State 7. Sikhs 8. Rajput States. 12.2.3 Third battle of Panipat 12.2.4 . 12.2.5 . 1 2.2.6 British and Marathas. 12.2.7 British and Mysore 12.2. 8 Attak on Punjab and its annexation 12.2.9 Lord Wellesley and Subordinate Alliance 12.2.10 Lord Dalhousie’s policy of Doctrine of Lapse. 12.2.11 Questions for exercise. 12.3 First freedom struggle of 1857: 12.3.1 Causes of freedom struggle 1. Political and administrative 2. Economic 3. Social 4. Religious 5. Military 6. Immediate 12.3 .2. Expansion of freedom struggle and its major heroes. 12.3.3 Causes of failure (1) Lack of able leadership (2) Eruption of Revolution before time. (3) Non cooperation of Rulers. (4) Apathy of Jagirdars and Traders. (5) Limited Resources (6) Favourable conditions for the British. (7) Lack of a fixed goal and ideal. 12.3.4 Results of freedom struggl e of 1857 1. End of Company’s rule 2. Reorganisation of Army 3. Other Effects. 12.3.5 Nature of Freedom struggle: - Major Views - Muslim revolt, P easant revolt, Peoples movement, National revolt, First freedom struggle. 12.3.6 Questions for exercise 12.4 Answers - Multiple choice and Very short questions 12.5 Glossary

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12.0 Aims: -  To know about rise and expansionof colonial forces in Bharat.  To know about political conditions of Bharat in 18t centuryandimperialistic invasions.  To know about expansion of British power.  To know about policies of Lord Wellesley and Lord Dalhouse.  To know about the reasons of freedom struggle of 1857.  To know about then extension of freedom struggle of 1857 and it’s heroes.  To analyse reasons of failure and natu re of freedom struggle of 1857 12.1 Introduction and Preface Bharat was called spiritual guru of the world and golden bird in ancient times. Cultural legacy, economic prosperity and spiritual progress of Bharat has always attracted the world. By the begin ning of 17 th century, Bharat’s attraction increased manifold for Europeans. During Industrial Revolution, when some European countries proceeded towards capitalism, policy of imperialistic expansion became directly related to the need of capitalist expansi on Aim of imperialist traders was not only to derive profit but also to enhance production by the use of their capital and technology. To fulfill these needs, the colonial powers forced the colonies to buy their products through company administration or t hrough direct intervention in administration. In a situation like this, competition to obtain more colonies began among the European countries.

12.2 Colonial attacks. 12.2.1 Rise and expansion of colonial forces in Bharat - During 17 th century, Bharat was among the richest countries of the world. Sections of armed powerful capitalists from Britain, France and other European countries reached Bharat. There was a scramble among them to obtain economic and political rights. The British capitalists were successful and gained control over Bharat. According to some British historians, the aim of Europeans was to make Indians civilized. But the fact holds true that their main aim was to obtain wealth, enhancement of trade and spread of Christianity which later on converted to imperialism. 1. Portug uese - There were three main routes for trade between Bharat and Europe 1. From Oxus river to Caspian and Black sea. 2. From Syria to Med iterranean Sea. 3. To Egypt via Red Sea and further to Europe through Mediterranean Sea In 1453, after capture of Constantinople by the Turks, these routes were closed. The Europeans, then, set out to search for new sea routes to obtain Indian spices, clot hes etc. The first European who discovered a direct sea route from Europe to Bharat was Vasco de Gama. He reached Calicut on 17 th May 1498 where the Hindu ruler Zamorin welcomed him and granted him some concessions. He stayed in Bharat for three months. In 1502 C.E., he came again and established commercial centre at Calicut, Cochin etc. De Almeda was the first and Alfanso de Albuquerque was the second Portugal Viceroy in Bharat. Portuguese power and reputation increased during their reign. In 1510, they ca ptured Goa and made it their centre. By the beginning of 17 th century, their power began to weaken and they remained confined to Goa, Daman Deev. In 1961 these areas broke free from Portugal and became an inseparable part of Bharat. 2. Dutch: - Dutch were inha bitants of Holland, Some traders founded Dutch U nited East India Company in 1602 AD. They had control over Nagapatta nam Madras and Chinsura in Bengal. 202

3. Denmark: - The inhabitants of Denmark founded their colony in Tanjor district to fulfill their interests b ut their position never became powerful. 4. British: - On 31 st December 1600, Queen Elizabeth granted a charter of rights to a C ompany of traders who traded with Eastern countries, called, “The Governor and company of Merchants of London trading into the East India.” In 160 8, a trading ship under captain Hawkins reached and the British later on gained permission to open a kothi in Surat. In 1615, Sir Thomas Roe reached durbar of Jahangir from where he obtained many concessions. Permission for settlements was obtained in Calicut (1616) Machchalipattam (1633) Madras (1640). In 1651, a Karkhana in Hugli, in 1699 another in Calcutta along with a Fort (Fort William) were built. In 1717, Mughal emperor, Farukhsiyar through a Farman exempted the company from cust om duties in lieu of Rs. 3000 annually and right to issue Dastaks. (special permission to be exempted from duties). The influence and trade of the company increased manifold. There was political turmoil in south India and under such circumstances, the Brit ish defeated the French (in three Carnatic wars) and established their superiority. 5. French East India Company: - After the establishment of French East Indian Company in 1664, the first commercial factory was founded in Surat by Francies Caran company’s di rector general. French colonies were also situated in Machchalipattam, Pondichery, Chandranagar, Balasor, Kasim Bazar etc. In 1742, Duple i x came to Bharat as Governor. At this time, three Carnatic wars took place between the British and the French to estab lish their supremacy in central Bharat. Defeat of the French ended their career.

12.2.2 Political C ondition of Bharat in 18the century and I mperialist attacks - The Mughal dynasty declined in the first half of 18 th century. Though this political void was filled by powers like Bengal, Awadh Punjab, Maratha dynasty etc. but these powers could not create an atmosphere of political stability which gave the power monger s .Europeans an opportunity to establish their power in Bharat. 1. Mughals: - Successors of Aurangzeb were generally inefficient, weak, power mongers and the Mughal court was divied into section of Amirs. With Nadirshah’s (1739) and Ahmad Shah Abdali’s (1701) invasions, Mughal empire had almost declined. Bah adur Shah Zafar was ruler only in name till 1857. 2. Marathas: - Matatha power expanded in north Bharat in 18 th century under the leadership of the Peshwas. Only Marathas possessed power, courage and diplomacy to protect the country but they were divided a mongst themselves due to British diplomacy. They were defeated in turn by the British. 203

3. Awadh: - Subedar of Awadh, Saadat Khan had founded an independent state in 1728 but did not severe his relations with the Mughal darbar. After Saadat Khan, his nephew Safdar Jang became the nawab and his son Shujaudaullah succeeded him. He concluded the Treaty of Allahbad in 1764 after his defeat in Battle of Buxar by the British. In 1801, Wellesley concluded a subsidiary alliance with Awadh and in 1856; Dalhousie anne xed it into the British Empire. 4. Bengal: - It was the most prosperous province of the Mughal empire. Murshid Quli Khan founded an independent state of Bengal and was succeeded by Shijauddin and Sarfaraz Khan (1739) respectively. Alivardi Khan, an officia l of Sarfaraj Khan, usurped the power and became the nawab. He was succeeded by S u ajuddaulah. In June 1757, the British defeated Siraj in the Battle of Plassey. The British gained sovereignty in Bharat through Bengal. 5. Mysore: - Hader Ali established his control over Mysore and became its ruler. After his death, his son Tipu Sultan succeeded. Both, father and son gave a strong fight to the British. 6. Jat Kingdom: - Badan Singh was the first ruler of Bharatpur. He constructed fort s in Deeg, Kumher, Bharatpur and Bair. After his death, Surajmal Jat became the ruler. He is known as Plato of the Jats owing to his intelligence and political wisdom. He granted power and prosperity to the Jat State and took it to its heights. With his de ath in 1763, the power of the jat state waned. 7. Sikh: - A powerful Sikh state had emerged in Punjab. The Sikh sardars divided it into 12 mis a ls and united these mis a ls to form an independent State. Maharaja Surajmal 8. Rajput State: - Some Rajput State tried to break free from Mughal empire owing to latter's weakness. Ajit Singh established his control over Marwar. Amer was another important state. Its ruler Sawai Jai Singh had in timate terms with Mughals and the Marathas. Terms between the Marathas and Rajputs soured on question of succession of Bundi.

12.2.3 The Third Battle of Panipat ( 14 January 1761) Ahmad Shah Abdali, ruler of Afghanistan considered his right over the Indi an areas annexed by his predecessor Nadir Shah. Some Ruhelas and Afghan Pathans also inspired him to attack Bharat. The Maratha power had extended in north Bharat, by then. In the last days of 1759, Abdali reached Delhi by defeating the Maratha representa tive in Punjab. Peshwa sent a huge army under his paternal cousin Sadashiv Rao Bha u and his son Vishwas Rao against Abdali which reached the plains of Panipat. Sadashiv Rao Bha u and Vishwas Rao attained martyrdon, the Peshwa could not bear their loss and d ied some time later . This war gave a huge blow to Maratha power in north India, Mughals turned weaker and Sikhs gained power. Road to establishment of power of the British became clear. European powers were in conflict to replace the declining Mughal power and obtain commercial monopoly. There were only two competitio r left now the British and the French. Both the powers started to interfere in internal matters and those of succession of the states and began to aid them. They received commercial favours in turn and gradually became a political power. Later on, conflict ensued between the two for political supremacy. The three Cornatic wars fought between 1746 to 1763 in south Bharat put an end to possibilities of establishment of French empire.

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12.2.4 Battle of Plassey: - Due to facilities given by Emperor Farrukh Siyar in 1717 in the province of Bengal, British interference increased. In 1756, political, economic and other differences b etween Nawab Sirajuddaulah and the British led to the Battle of Plassey in 1757. 1. Causes: - 1. Political - Opponents of Siraj, Ghasiti Begum Raj Vallabh, Shaukat jang, were conspiring to oust him out of power with support of the British. The British igno red the orders of the Nawab against fortification. 2. Rude attitude towards the Nawab: - The British did not present gifts nor registered their presence on occasion of coronation of the nawab which was expected according to Indian tradition. 3. Commercial conflict: - The British were misusing their rights of Dastak as received in 1717 by selling them to Indian traders, thereby creating financial loss to the Nawab. 4. Fortification and disobedience : - While the French complied with the orders of the Nawab to n ot to fortify, the British defied Nawab Sirajuddaulah this order and continued fortification. 5. Refuge to opponents of the Nawab: - When Nawab asked the British to surrender Raj Vallabh and his son Krishna Vallabh, the British refused. 6. On 6 th June 1756, Nawab Sirajuddaulah attacked the Kasim Bazar Kothi of the British and captured it. The British in reaction started conspiring and took over Durlabh Rai, Amichand and Mir nawab, to their side. The Battle of plassey on 23 rd June 1756 was only fought in name. According to the conspiracy, the army wing under Mir Jafar and Durlabh Rai remained inactive and as a result the Nawab had to face defeat . Results: - The battle of Plassey did not carry any strategic importance. It was a skirmish in which 65 people of the company and 5000 people of Nawab lost their lives. The victory of the British in this battle was pre - decided. It was not superiority of military power s but a conspiracy which led to victory of one party. The battle is only important for the forth coming events. As a result of this battle: - 1. Bengal came under the control of the British. 2. Mir Jafar was made the new nawab who was a puppet of the British. 3. Com pany received 24 parganas and a custom free trade. 4. Valuable gifts were given to officials of the company. The new nawab of Bengal, Mir Jafar, was dependent on the British for his defence and status. He was unsuccessful in fulfilling the increasing demands of company and its official. He was removed from his post in 1760 for not fulfilling demands of money and replaced by Mir Kasim with hope of financial favours. But differences grew between the British and Mir Kasim on financial issues and various facilitie s which resulted in Battle of Buxar.

12.2.5 Battle of Buxar: - 1. Causes: - The main causes included desire for sovereignty by the nawab, transfer of capital from Murshidabad to Munger, army training by other Europeans, manufacture of arms and differences with the British. 205

Misuse of commercial facilities by the company and exemp tion to Indian traders by the nawab were also causes of differences. After failed efforts for a compromise, war broke out between the two parties. In June 1763, the British sent army under Major Adams against Mir Kasim. After many battles, when ’s side was weakened, he went to . But the British captured Patna too, whereupon, Mir Qasim went to Awadh with some of his army, canons and money. Seeking help from Nawab Shujauddaulah of Awadh and Shah Alam, the Mughal emperor, Mir Kasim planned to dri ve out the British from Bengal. This combined army combated the British on 22 nd October 1764 in which the British were victorious. After this defeat, the prestige of the Nawab and power of Mughal emperor was lost. The Battle of Pla ssey was won not by effic iency, b ut by treachery . Here , superior military skill won. 2 Importance: In words of Smith “The Battle of Buxar finished the task of Plassey: It had more political and military importance. With the Treaty of Allahabad, the Company received diwani rights of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa along with control of area upto Allahabad. This battle transformed the company into an all India power. Now, the new nawab was its puppet, the was obliged and the Mughal emperor was a pensioner.

12.2.6 British and t he Marathas: - The third battle Panipat gave a huge blow to the Marathas. The British now gained the opportunity to enhance their power. After the death of Peshwa Madhavrao in 1772, a new struggle started for the post of Peshwa. Raghoba (Raghunath Rao) seek ed help from the British for this post and the British put forward their interests through the Treaty of Surat. 1. First Anglo Maratha war (1775 - 1782) - The changed position of Maraths after the Third Battle of Panipat, mutual discord among the Maratha sardars , ambition of the British to control new areas and Treaty of Surat made the conflict inevitable. The Marathas were initially defeated in the Battle of Ara but bounced back to defeat the British in 1778 and forced the alter to sign the humiliating Treaty of Badgaon (29 January 1779). The British were unhappy with the treaty. They were keen to take revenge and a new conflict soon began. Maratha leader Sindhia mediated for the Treaty of Salbai, (1782) between the Peshwa and the British. After this treaty, the first Anglo - Maratha war came to an end. Conquered territories were returned. This power play was indecisive. For the next 20 years there was peace. 2. Second Anglo Maratha War (1802 - 04) - This war was fought in two stages - First from 1802 - 1804 and second from 1 804 - 1805. Struggle for power began among the Marathas after the death of Nana Phadnavis. Sindhia influenced Peshwa Bajirao II towards his side whereas an estranged defeated the combined armies of Peshwa and Sindhia in 1802 and made Vinayak Rao the n ew Peshwa. Peshwa Bajirao sought British help to regain his post. After the death of Nana Padnavis in March 1800, there was no leader to unite the Marathas. Inefficiency of Peshwa Bajirao II and mutual discord of the Maratha leaders gave an opportunity to the British to interfere in Maratha politics. The British signed the Treaty of Bassein with the dethroned Peshwa on 31 st December 1802 and the latter regained the post of Peshwa under British tutelage, in 1803. This war was fought by the Marathas in north and south Bharat simultaneously. In south, Bhonsle signed the Treaty of Devgaon after being defeated by the British, whereas Sindhia in the north signed the Treaty of Surji Arjangaon after his defeat. The Treaty of Rajpur was 206

signed between the Britis h and Holkar in mid January of 1806. Holkar had to quit his claim over areas of northern part. 3. Third Anglo Maratha War (1817 - 18) - As the Peshwa was trying to establish his authority as leader of Maratha confederation on the advice of his minister Trayambak Rao, he was force by the British for a new treaty. As a result, the Peshwa had to quit the leadership of the confederacy. A new treaty was also concluded with Sindhia in which he promised not help the Pindaris. Compelled, the Peshwa tried to break free and attacked British residency at Poona. With that, the Third Anglo Maratha war began. Holkar and Bhonsle were on his side while Si ndhia and Gayakwad remained neutr a l. In February 1818, Peshwa was finally defeated in the Battle of Ashti. On 18 th June 1818 the British concluded a treaty with the Peshwa whereby the post of Peshwa was dissolved and he was sent to Bithur () as a pen sioner. Bhonsle was defeated in battle of Sitabadi while Holkar was de f eated in battle of Mahidpur. With Treaty of Mandsor with Holkar, British established their supremacy in Bharat.

12.2.7 British and Mysore: - Chikka Krishna Raya II of Mysore was only a ruler in name. The entire power was concentrated in the hands of his ministers, Devraj and Nandraj. Haider Ali gained power and reputation in this court. In 1761, Haider Ali usurped the authority from Nandraja and became all powerful. This rise of HaiderA li was objectionable to the British. 1. First Anglo Mysore war (1767 - 69) The British were antagonized due to friendship between Haider Ali and the French e nemity between Haider Ali and Nawab of Carnatic and capture of a large part of Malabar by Haider Ali. The British formed a Triple Alliance with Marathas and the Nizam against Haider Ali but Haider with his diplomacy turned the Marathas neutral and won over the Nizam. in 1767, the combined army of Haider Ali and the Nizam were defeated b y the British in Carnatic. Nizam concluded Haider Ali Tipu Sultan treaty with the British. Haider Ali defeated the British in Manglore and the area under its control. In 1769, he laid s i ege of Madras which compelled the British to sign treaty of Madras on 4 th April 1769. Both the parties returned the conquered areas and promised mutual cooperation. Thus, the first Mysore war came to an end. 2. S econd Anglo - Mysore War (1780 - 84) - The main reasons of the war were violation of Treaty of Manglore by the British, feeling of revenge by the British and annoyance of Haider Ali over British occupation of . This time, Haider formed a triple alliance against the British which included Marathas and the Nizam besides h imself. In 1780, Haider All attacked Arcot and surrounded it. While he was just being successful, he unfortunately died in 1782. His son Tipu Sultan continued the war. 20 7

In March 1784, both the parties concluded the Treaty of Manglore being t i red of the war. The conquered areas were returned and the British promised non interference in Mysore. 3. Third Anglo Mysore War (1790 - 92) - Treaty of Manglore was a forced treaty for both the parties. Cornwallis attacked Mysore with a huge army Tipu could not resist fo r long and signed the Treaty of Shriranga pattam in 1792 by which half of his kingdom was taken over by the British and their supporters. Tipu accepted to pay Rs. 3 crores as indemnity and his two sons as hostages. 4. Fourth Anglo Mysore War (1799) Tipu wante d to revenge the insulting treaty and division of his empire. He gave the French honours and high posts which offended the British. Lord Wellesley wanted to force Tipu to sign Subordinate Alliance. In February 1799, Wellesley declared war on Tipu with a la rge force. Tipu fought courageously but was killed. His empire ended with his death. The British signed Subordinate Alliance with the new ruler and made him subordinate.

12.2.8 Attack o n Punjab and its annexation: - Sikhs had divided their state into 12 m isl Each misl had its own leader. They continuously fought with each other and lacked unity Ranjit Singh of Sukerchekia misl made an attempt to collect the scattered Sikh states into an organized empire. In April 1809, Treaty of Amritsar was signed between the British and Ranjit Singh, whereby Sutlej was accepted as a boundary and Ranjit Singh was allowed to expand his empire in north - west of Sutlej. It was accepted that both shall remain friends and violation of any clause of the treaty would suspend the t reaty. But the British expanded their supremacy till the Sutlej. On 27 th June 1839, Ranjit Singh died of paralysis. 1. First Anglo Sikh War: - After the death of Ranjit Singh, on one hand the British expanded their military power to fulfill their imperial istic ambition, o n the other hand, an atmosphere of groupism and political anarchy prevailed in the Punjab due to ambitions and selfish interests of various Sardars after the death of Ranjit Singh. In 1843, after the Sindh conquest, it became necessary for the British to win the Punjab. On 13rd December 1845, Hardinge announced war in which the Sikhs were defeated. The war ended with Treaty of Lahore by which the ruler and his successors gave up their rights over areas beyond Sutlej, paid Rs. 50 lakhs as in demnity, curtail ed the army of the Sikhs and stationing of British army in Lahore. Power of the Sikhs weakened considerably and through the Treaty of Bhairowal (Dec . 1846) the British became masters of one part Maraja Ranjit Singh of the Punjab. 2. Second Anglo Sikh War (1848 - 49) - There was discontentment among the Sikhs and soldiers due to treachery of their own leaders. The British were also interfering in the internal matters of Sikh states. Imprisonment of Rani Jindan on charges of conspi racy, interfering in matrimonial issue of Maharaja Dilip Singh and extracting more revenue from governor Mulraj forced the Sikhs to raise arms against the British. The battles of Ramagar (22 November 1948) and Chillianwala (13 th January 1849) were indecisi ve. The Sikh was defeated in battle of Gujarat (near Chenab River) on February 1849 due to non cooperation of the ruler. The war came to end on 13 th March 1849 Lord Dalhousie annexed the Punjab 208 on 29 th March 1849 through proclamation. Dilip Singh and his r egency council surrendered the Kohinoor diamond and the state of Punjab to the British.

12.2.9 Lord Wellesley and Subordinate Alliance: - The British adopted new way to establish their supremacy in Bharat by alliance with the native states which is known as Subordinate Alliance. Credit for it goes to Wellesley. Major c lauses of Subordinate Alliance 1. States accepting this alliance were forced to maintain an English army for security and peace. 2. This British army was controlled by British officials while its expenses were borne by the States. 3. No European could be employed without the permission of the company. 4. A Resident was to be place in such state. 5. The signatory state could not form any foreign relations without the permission of company. 6. In turn, Company t ook the responsibility of security of the State and assured of non interference in its internal matters. The Indian states became weak and dependent on the company. Major states to accept this Alliance were (1798), Mysore (1799) Awadh (1801) and Peshwa (1802).

12.2.10 Doctrine of Lapse policy of Dalhousie : - To establish British supremacy in Bharat, the means to annex the princely states on pretexts of war, maladministration, corruption and issues of succession was known as Doctrine of lap s e. 1. The issueless Indian rulers oftern adopted a child from near relations to make them successor in absence of real successor. These sons had all powers of a real successor. Dalhousie stopped them from adopting sons as he believed that in absence of successio n; these states would easily from a part of British Empire. Satara (1848) was the first state to be annexed according to this policy. Sambhalpur (1849), Jansi (1853), (1854), Jaitpur (1849) Baghat (1850) Tanjore (1855) soon followed. 2. Mal administ ration: - Dalhousie accused Wazid Ali Shah, the nawab of Avadh of mal administration and violation of treaty and declared annexation of Awadh 13 th February 1857 into English empire. Thus between 1757 to 1856 the boundaries of company touched Tibet Chinese border in north, in south east and Passes of north - west through warfare, deceit and diplomacy.

12.2.4 Questions for exercise: - Multiple choice questions 1. First European country which discovered a direct sea route from Europe to Bharat was: - (a) Portugal (b) England (c) Denmark (c) Spain 2. In which province were the East Indian Company given facilities by Mughal emperor Farukh Siyar? (a) Bengal (b) Awadh (c) Punjab (c) Mysore

Very Short Tipe answers Q uestions: - 1. Between whom was the B attle of Buxar (1764) fought? 2. Where and when did Vasco de Gama arrive in Bharat? 209

3. Which governor implemented the policy of ‘Doctrine of Lapse? 4. Who is known as Plato of Jats? 5. Name two states which were merged into British Empire under the policy of Doctrine of Lapse? 6. Which Treaty ended the first Anglo Maratha war? 7. Name two states who accepted Subordinate Alliance. 8. Name the participants of the Triple Alliance formed against Haider Ali in First Anglo - Mysore War.

Short Answer Type Questions: - 1. What was the aim o f Europeans for coming to Bharat? 2. Comment on Doctrine of Lapse of Dalhousie 3. Cite major clauses of Subordinate Alliance. 4. Write an article on Third Battle of Panipat. 5. Write a note on expansion of European countries in Bharat.

Essay T ype Q uestions: - 1. Describe political condition of Bharat in 18 th century. 2. Explain Anglo Maratha conflict. 3. Describe conflict of Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan with the British. 4. The Battle of Buxar finished the work of Plassey. Interpret this statement. 5. Write a note on Anglo - Sikh relatio ns.

12.3 Freedom Struggle of 1857 The main aim of East India Company was to gain money and expand its empire. It started interfering into political matters and exploiting economically as it stepped into Bharat. Fear and discontentment grew among the Indi ans. Gradually, there were revolts in various parts like Vellore (1806), Barrackpore (1824), the Santhals (1855 - 56) etc. Owing to various political economic and social reasons, the discontentment brewed into the freedom movement of 1857.

12.3.1 Causes of Freedom struggle of 1857: Political and Administrative causes: - Subordinate Alliance of Wellesley, Doctrine of Lapse of Dalhousie, insulting behavior towards Indian zamindars and confiscation of their lands, insults shown to the Mughal emperor, , which included discontinuity of his post after his death, removal of his names from the coins etc. created discontent among the Indians. The rampant corruption and loot in British administration and judicial system along with the violation of a ssurance of equal appointment in public services (given through Charter of 1833) w ere the cause of increasing discontentment. Economic Causes: - Characteristics of a self sustained rural economy were destroyed due to British policy of exploitation. These la nd revenue system became the cause of exploitation for the farmers. Goods produced in Bharat were loaded with heavy export duty where as export duty was light on exported raw material. In a situation like this, Indian industries due to commercial policy of the British could not complete with machine loaded British industries. As a result, handicrafts were destroyed . O n 210 the other hand, due to drain of wealth from Bharat, the British became riche r and the Indians became poorer . Social Causes: - The attitude of the British towards the Indians was insulting and of hatred which was inspired by social theory. They eliminated social ills prevalent in Indian Society like Sati s ystem, female infanticide etc. and implemented Widow Remarriage Act. The Ind ians watched it o n apprehension. Modernisation in progress of rail, post telegram was considered as onslaughts on culture by the Indians. The Indians were denied to travel in first class and participation in social festivals. The English education devasted Indian Education System and laid stress on English education and importance of Bible by declaring Hindu traditions as defective. Religious Causes: - A systematic campaign was run by the Christian missionaries through financial temptations and other means. A converted Christian would receive opportunity in Govt. service and other facilities. Both Hindus and Muslims felt their religion was in danger. After the missionaries were given right to proselytize through the Act of 1813, Christian missionaries schools were established, clergies were appointed in army and Christian literature began to be read in cantonments. Properties of mosques and temples were taxed. In such a situation doubt arose among the Indians that the English have set upon to destroy their reli gion and culture. Military Causes: - There were sepoy revolts (1764), in Vellore (1806), Barackpur (1824), 22 nd NI (1849) , 66 th N.I. (1850), 38 N.I (1852) against the British. Number of Indian sepoys till 1856 was on rise. There were 2, 33,000 Indians as com pared to 45, 322 European sepoys. The Indian soldiers were discriminated against in matters of posts, salary and allowances. All these factors inculcated the spirit of revolt against the British. Immediate Cause: - In 1856, it was decided to replace old rifle with the new Enfield rifle in Indian army. It was mandatory to open the cartridge with teeth. It was re u oured that the fat of cow’s and pig’s f at was used to grease the cartridge. Caw was holy for the Hindus where as pig was prohibited among the Musl ims. The soldiers got agitated and there was a firm belief among them that the British were firm upon defiling their religion. This incident incited the spark and the explosion which resulted in shaking the foundation of British Empire.

12.3.2 Expansion of the Revolution and Major heroes: - Many European historians consider it as a sudden incident whereas several others believe that it was a result of well planned strategy. The revolution was led by different leaders which mainly included Nana Sahib, Bah adur Shah Zafar, Rani Laxmi Bai, , Ranga Bapuji Gupte etc. The revolution was to begin on 31 st May 1857 at all places but it was pr e poned due to the incident of greased cartridges. When, on 29 th March 1857, Bahadur Shah Zafar in Barackpore cantonment refused to open greased cartridge with his mouth, he was arrested and hanged. About 85 sepoys in were imprisoned when they refused to use the cartridge. On 10 th Ma y 1857, the sepoys revolted, freed the imprisoned and moved toward Delhi.

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Rani Laxmi Bai Tantya Tope Kunwar Singh Delhi : The revolutionaries attacked and captured Delhi on 12 th May and declared Bahadur Shah Zafar II as emperor of Delhi. The revolt soon spread to north and central Bharat. Taking advantage of coordination between the Indian rulers and leaders, the British soon suppressed the revo lt and regained Delhi within five days. The emperor was imprisoned and sent to Rangoon where he died in 1862. Awadh: - On 4 th June, Begu m Hazrat Mahal in Luckhnow declared her minor son as nawab and started struggle against the British. Z amindars, p easants and sepoys cooperated and set the British residency on fire. Sir C olin Campbell recaptured with the help of Gorkha Regiment. Kanpur: - with the support of Tantya Tope and Ajimullah Khan freed Kanpur on 5 th June from control of the British. Under the leadership of Sir Campbell the British recovered it. Tantya Tope escaped to Jhansi. Jhansi: - In the beginning of June, the sepoys revolted in Jhansi as well. Hugh Rose recaptured it. Defeated Laxmi Bai reached Kalpi and captured Gwalior with support of Tantya Tope. But the British soon recovered, Laxmi Bai attained martyrdom after putting up a courageous fight. Bihar: - The Zamindar of Jagadishpur, 80 year old Kunwar Singh led the revolution. On 26 th April 1858 he fought a battle with the British but was unsuccessful. Rajasthan: - In the freedom struggle of 1857, the rulers of , Jaipur, , Alwar, , , Kota - Bundi, Jaisalmer, Sirohi and Shahpura sympathized with the British. But there was still no dearth of freedo m lovers in Rajasthan. K h ushal Singh the thakur of A u wa led the revolution along with British cantonment of N asirabad , Neemuch and Erinpura Common men also proved their unprecedented courage but due to lack of right leadership the revolt could not succeed. Ruhelkhand: - Here, Khan Bahadur Khan led the movement, whereas in , a peasant called Sadaruddin was the leader of the movement. Jalandhar, Ambala, Panipat were other major centres of the revolution.

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Freedom S truggle in South Bharat: - New researches prove that the impact of the revolution reached upto Goa, Pondicherry along with far off south of Bharat. In Maharashtra Ranga Bapuji led people’s army against the British. There was revolution in Satara, Pandharpur, Nasik, Ratnagiri and Bijapur. Though t he number of revolutionaries in south Bharat was comparatively lesser than those in north Bharat, yet many revolutionaries died and were imprisoned. Major leaders of South India include Ranga Bapuji Gupte, Soniji , Rangarao Pange, Maulvi Sayyed Alaud din, Gulam Gaus and Sultan Baksha (Madras), Mul Bagal Swami ( Co i mbatore), Mul l a Sali Kenji Sarkar and Vijay Kundarat along with Kunji Mama (Kerela).

12.3.3 Causes for failure of the Revolution: - It was the last armed effort by the Indians to drive out the British. Indian military forces in number exceeded than that of the British and they also had peoples support. Still the British were successful in suppressing the revolution and the Indians faced defeat. 1. Absence of efficient and able leadership: - Baha durshah was an old and weak ruler. Nanasaheb, Laxmi Bai, Kunwar Singh were firm on their aims but lacked mutual coordination and leadership skill. 2. Preponement of the revolution: - The revolution was planed on 31 st May 1857 at all the places . B ut it broke ou t in Meerut on 10 th May 1857 before schedule. The British were successful in suppressing the revolution which occurred at different places in different time. 3. Non - cooperation of Indian rulers : Most of the rulers sided with the British for their vested inte rests. W.H. Russel wrote: “Only if the Indians had opposed the British with enthusiasm and courage, the British would have been extinct. If the rulers of and Jind were not our friends and no peace in the Punjab, our control over Delhi would not hav e been possible.” 4. Limited Resources: - The European army was braced with modern arms and was disciplined whereas there was lack of discipline, military organization, money, ration, arms etc. in the Indian army. 5. Conditions became favourable for the British wh en a new army was constituted of the soldiers who reached Bharat after Crimean and Chinese wars. Communication and transportation system was also favourable for them. 6. Apathy of Zamindars, traders and educated class was also a reason for failure. 7. There was no specific aim. L ack of nationalism, mutual discord, lack of a n all accepted leadership and diplomacy of the British were other reason for failure.

12.3.4 Result of Revolution of 1857: - The results of the revolution turned out to be unprecedented, inva sive and permanent. It forced the British to make policy changes. 1. End of rule of company: - On 1 st November, 1858 through a Proclamation by the Queen, the British government took over the administration of Bharat and surrendered it to the British C rown (Thr ough the Act of Indian Government 1858, the post of Governor - General was changed to Viceroy). 2. Reorganisation of army: - To prevent unity among the sepoys, reorganization of army was necessary as the revolution had started with a sepoy revolt. The number of B ritish soldiers was increased and 213

major posts were reserved only for the Europeans. It was taken care that soldiers of same area or sect were not stationed together. 3. Policy towards Princely States: - The Indians rulers were assured their rights, honour and respect with permission of adoption. The policy of geographical expansion came to an end. 4. Apprehensive of communal harmony during the revolution, the British now encouraged the tendencies of communalism, casteism, regionalism and other narrow policies. Now the basis of their policy was ‘Divide and Rule’. 5. The British now diverted their attention towards obtaining wealth rather than expansion and there was drain of wealth of Bharat. 6. National movement received impetus. The leaders of revolution like Bahadur Sh ah Zafar, Kunwar Singh, Tantya Tope, Rani Laxmi Bai, Rangaji Bapu Gupte now became motivators and as precursors of National movements.

12.3.5 Nature of the Revolution: - Historians differ regarding nature of Revolution of 1857. Some European scholars regard it as a Sepoy revolt or conspiracy of the M uslims. Some call it a religious war against the Christians or a war for racial superiority between the black and the white. Major Theories: - 1. Sepoy R evolt: - Lawrence and Seeley consider it as a sepoy revolt. According to Charles Rykes it was basically a sepoy revolt though it displayed a character of people s ’ movement at some places. It is absolutely true that the revolution started as a sepoy revolt but every section of society participated in it. Therefore, this view can’t be considered as absolutely true. 2. Revolt of the Muslims: - For Outram and Taylor it was a Muslim conspiracy and an attempt to reestablish Muslim rule behind the shield of Hindu grievances. This view also does not hold truth as Hindu participated more in number. 3. Peasant R evolt: - Some scholars considered it as a peasant revolt due to important part played by them. This view does not hold truth as the peasants also revolted against the Zamindars and increasing number of Taluqdars along with the company Government. 4. Peoples’ Movement: - The great speed with which the revolt spread proved that it wa s a strong support of the people. At various places, people cooperated with the revolutionaries Malleson has called this revolt as an organized effort to drive out the British out of Bharat John Bruce Narton has called it a peoples’ movement. 5. National Revo lt: - The western scholars do not call it a national revolt by implying parameters of nationalism of 20 th century for definition of nationalism. Dr. Satya Rai in his book ‘Colonialism and Nationalism in India’ writes that European definitions should not be implement ed in Indian contexts. All the sections of people, inspired by nationalism, made a collective effort to drive out the British without any differences which brings it under the category of national revolt. Ashok Mehta, in his book ‘The Great Rebell ion’, has tried to prove that the nature of the revolt was national. Vir Sawarkar has also called it as a ‘well planned national struggle’. 6. First Freedom Struggle of Bharat : - It was the first collective and nation wide struggle to free Bharat from the Bri tish. Dr. S.N. Sen wrote that the war started with aim to protect religion and soon it gained the form of freedom struggle and there is no doubt that the Indians wanted to end 214

British rule Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru in his book ‘Discovery of India’ writes that the revolt which started as a sepoy revolt was not confined here but soon became a peoples’ movement and freedom struggle. V.D. Savarkar in his book ‘First war of Indian Independence’ calls it the First Freedom Struggle. There were anti - British resentment in entire Bharat during the Revolution of 1857 common men and all the revolutionaries had only one aim to drive out the British. This aim became inspiration for collective struggle s. Therefore, it would be right to call it as first announcement of Indian independence as it has all nationalistic elements.

12.3.6 Questions for Exercise: Multiple Choice Questions: 1 The fixed day to start the Revolution of 1857 according to plan was (a) 10 may 1857 (b) 31 st May 1857 (c) 10 th June 1857 (c) 31 st January 1857

2 The basis of annexation of Awadh in British empire was (a) Through War (b) Doctrine of Lapse (c) Mal administration (c) Approval of the State

3 The revolution in Jagdishpur was led by - (a) Kunwar Singh (b) Hajrat Mahal (c) Ranga Bapu ji Gupte (c) Kushal Singh 4 The most important result of Revolution of 1857 was (a) End of Company rule (b) Independence for Bharat (c) End of British rule (c) Independence to princely States.

Very Short Answer type questions: - 1. Name two revolts against the British before the Revolution of 1857 2. Name two women who led the Revolution of 1857. 3. Name four centres of south Bharat which were the centres of Revolution of 1857. 4. Name the immediate cause of revolution of 1857. 5. Name two major centres of revolt in north Bharat and the leaders of these centres.

Short Answer Type Questions 1. Explain the social causes of Revolution of 1857. 2. What were reasons behind opposition of Indian sepoys for greased cartridges? 3. Explain two causes of failure of Revolution of 1857. 4. Mention two important results of Revolution of 1857. 5. Why was the Revolution of 1857 is called National Revolt.

Essay Type Question: - 1. Describe the major causes of Revolutions of 1857. 2. Write a n article on expansion of Revolution of 1857. 215

3. Explain in detail the failure and results Revolution of 1857. 4. Interpret the nature of Revolutions of 1857.

12.4 Answers Multiple Choice and Very Short Answer type questions

Multiple Type questions 12.2.11 Colonial attacks. 1. (a) Portugal 2. (a) Bengal Very Short Questions: - 1. Mir Kasim, Shujauddaulah, Shah Alam and b etween the British. 2. 1498 in Calicut. 3. Lord Dalho u sie 4. Surajmal Jat 5. Nagapur, Jansi, Jaitpur etc. 6. Treaty of Salbai 7. Hyderabad, Mysore, Awadh etc. 8. British, Nizam, Maratha.

12.6.6 Freedom struggle of 1857 Multiple Choice Questions 1 (a) 31 st January 1857 2. (c) On basis of Maladministration 3 (a) Kunwar Singh. 4. (a) End of Company rule.

Very Short Answer type questions : - 1. 180 6 in Vellor, 1824 in Barrackpore. 2. Rani Laxmi Bai and Hajrat Mahal. 3. Goa, Pondicherry, Satara, Nasik 4. Greased Cartiridges. 5. Kanpur - Nana Saheb, Jhansi queen Laxmi Bai 12.5 Glossary: - Colonialism: - Form of establishing sovereignty: Establishment of colony by peop le of one geographical area over the people of another geographical area is know as colonialism. - Drain of wealth - It is a process whereby wealth of one nation continuously flows into another nation but nothing is received in return. - Charter Act - They were passed in 1793, 1813, and 1833. Birth of East Indian Company on last day of 1600 A.D. by Queen Elizabeth I was a result of Charter issued by her. - Dastak - According to Farman by Farrukh S iyar in 1717, company had the right to issue Dastak (Free p ass) which gave right to companie’s authorities to trade within the province without custom duties.

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Chapter - 13

Freedom Movement of Modern Bharat

13.1 Aim 13.2 Introduction and Preface 13.3 Social Movement 13.3.1 Brahma Samaj 13.3.2 Ram Krishna Mission and Swami Vivekenand. 13.3.3 National outlook of Swami Vivekanand. 13.3.4 13.3.5 . 13.3.6 Young Bengal Movement 13.3.7 Theosophical Society. 13.3.8 Aligarh Movement. 13.3.9 Questions for Exercise. 13.4 Revolutionary Movement. 13.4.1 First Phase 13.4.2 Second Phase 13.4.3 Questions for Exercise 13.5 Political Movement 13.5.1 First Phase (Moderates 1885 - 1905) 13.5.2 Second Phase (Extremists 1909 - 1919) 13.5.3 Third Phase (Gandhian Age 1919 - 1947) 13.5.4 Questions for Exercise. 13.6 Answers. 13.7 Glossary

13.1 Aim - After studying this chapter you will understand about  Information abou t reform movements of 18 th century.  Suppressive laws and policy of exploitation passed by the British government.  Rise of national movement, efforts to proselytise by the Christian missionaries and reformative nature of Indian Society as a reaction to it.  And prepare list of revolutionary movements against British government in Bharat.  Political and Indian national movement of 19 th and 20 th centuries.

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13.2 Introduction: - In present chapter we will try to know how resentment grew in the hearts of Indians against the policies of English rule. Christian priests and preachers who came to Bharat started to convert the Indian into Christians along with propagation of western education. Since, the lower class of Indian society had feeling of insecurity due to ca steism, superstitions and useless pretensions, it started to adopt Christianity for money and respect. At the same time, as a result of Indian social reformers, means of communication, newspapers, rise of new middle class and development of nationalism pro test which raised against British authority and their suppressive rule, is known as modern freedom movement.

13.3 Social M ovements Social and religious reform movement started from east i.e. Bengal because the British had first of all occupied Bengal. As a result of revival of ancient , religion, art, the feeling of pride for past and spirit to reform by removing superstitions and evil practices arose. Social reformers were impressed by liberal and humanitarian outlook. The educated middle class was in the centre of this movement. The intellectual class tried to reform the country by finding out reasons of backwardness and deplorable condition of the country. Efforts to reform society and religion were made through socia l movements like Brahma Samaj, Arya Samaj, and Ram Krishna Mission etc. Following are the major causes of rise of social movements. 1. The Christian clergy and preachers started to come along with British traders in large number in Bharat. The Christian missi onaries started to convert the Indians into Christians by criticising Hindu dharma. Religious and Social movements seemed necessary to protect religion and culture. Efforts were made to stop Christianization by restricting ills of Indian society. 2. European scholars like William Jones, Max Muller etc. studied the history, religion and literature of Bharat and revealed that Indian civilization is one of the greatest civilizations of the world. The Asiatic society of Bengal translated many ancient Indian script ures into English. Spirit of self respect and honour developed in the hearts of Indians through knowledge of past. 3. Spread of western civilization filled the Indians with doubt. They tried to save Bharat from influence of western civilization. The social re formers inspired Indians to preserve their faith in Indian religion and culture and tried to end various old traditions. 4. Newspapers played an important role in renaissance in Bharat. News of British mal treatment began to be published. Social reformers cre ated awareness in society through newspapers - magazines. 5. An educated middle class came into existence. They spread the spirit of social equality and unity among the Indians on basis of study of western societies and social changes there.

13.3.1 Brahma Sama j: - Its founder was Raja who founded it on 20 th August 1828 Bengal. He was conversant in Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, English, French, Greek, Latin languages. He studied religious texts and was also influenced by western philosophy. Along with translation of Vedas and major Upanishads in Bengali, he emphasised on monism and logic and criticized idol worship, caste system and untouchability. He was a supporter of women rights and made efforts for their educational development. His most important contribution in this field was against sati system. He wrote against this ill to Governor General William Bentick as a result of which Sati was declared illegal in 1829 C.E. 218

He aso demanded independence and equality of women, improvement in condi tion of widow, property rights of women and opposed polygamy, purdah system and prostitution. He was against caste system and supported intercaste marriages. He wanted to end the staleness of knowledge of Indians by bringing them in contact of modern weste rn education, For this purpose, he helped David Hare in founding Hindu college in Calcutta on 20th January 1817 in Calcutta. Similarly, he founded College in 1825 in Calcutta where Indian philosophy along with western education was also imparted. A long with translation of Vedas and Upanishads and Bengali grammar, in 1821, he started Samvad Kanmudi, a weekly newspaper. He was a supporter of liberty, democracy and nationalism along with taking interest in international Raja Ram Mohan Roy events. He is therefore, known as father of modern Bharat. On 27 th September 1833 C.E., he died in England. After his death, the work of Brahma Samaj was carried forward by Tagore who formed Tatvabodhini Sabha in 1839. He appointed Keshav Chandra Sen as head of Brahma Samaj, by whose efforts Brahma Samaj gained popularity outside Bengal, all over Bharat. Later on, Brahma Samaj was divided into Adi Brahma Samaj and Sadharan Brahma Samaj.

13.3.2 Ram Krishna Mission and Swami Vivekanand: - Di sciple of Swami Paramhansa, Narendra Nath Dutt, who was given title of Vivekanand by ruler of , founded Ram Krishna Mission in 1897 in Calcutta In 1893, he delivered his famous speech in Parliament of Religion in Chicago which proved Indi an culture as the best culture of the world. Apart from being spiritual Vivekanand was a humanitarian too who supported to bring poor and backward into main stream. He wrote ' only god in whom I believe is the sum total of our souls and my first god are le prosy affected poor of all castes.' He supported education for all selections of society and brought to light the achievements of Hindu dharma and culture. Founder of Ram Krishna Mission, Swami Vivekanand was born on 12 th January 1863 in Calcutta. His chi ldhood name was Narendra Nath Dutt. His father was Vishwanath Datt and mother was Bhuvneshwari Devi. He was a graduate of Calcutta University. Due to his religious and spiritual curiosity, he came into contact with Ram Krishna Paramhansa, who was a priest in Dakshineshwar temple in Calcutta. Ramkrishna had deep faith in Hindu dharma. He laid emphasis on selfless devotion to God and believed in fundamental unity of all sects. Influenced by his thoughts, Vivekanand became his follower. Vivekanand became an as cetic after the death of Paramhansa in 1886. He toured various parts of Bharat and studied religious texts deeply. With cooperation of ruler of Khetri, he went to America in September1893, Swami V ivekanand to participate in world Religion Parliament. He started his speech by ‘Dear brothers and sisters’. Through his speech, he presented the importance of Indian culture and dharma in a very effective way before the world. He proved the intellectual, spiritua l and religious richness of Bharat. New York 219

Herald reported, “Vivekanand is the best orator of Chicago religious conference. After listening to him it proves how erroneous is to send Christian missionaries into a developed nation like Bharat.” After this , Vivekanand propagated Hindu dharma and culture by touring America and England. In 1896, he established ‘Vedant Society’ in New York.

He opposed the prevalent ill practices and narrowness in contemporary Indian society. He talked of equality by opposing discriminations of caste. He was of the view that socio - religious traditions and rituals should be accepted only when they appear legitimate. He talked of reforms in favour of women. He wanted to end poverty and ignorance. He said, “Till crores of people a re hungry and fall of ignorance, I consider that every person is a traitor who receives education of their expenses and does not care of them. To make Vivekanand’s views successful, Ramkrishna Mission gave much importance to social service and welfare work s. It became very popular for its humanitarian outlook. Ram Krishna mission founded many schools, orphanages, hospitals etc and performed social welfare works through them.” Swami Vivekanand had tremendous faith in Hindu dharma and philosophy. It put forwa rd the originality and characteristics of Hindu dharma and culture before people. It believed that all religious are one fundamentally. They all are mere a means to reach God in their own way. One form of worshipping God was service to the poor and unhappy . Ramkrishna Mission considered service of humans and service to God. ‘Nar , Narayan Seva’ was their motto.

13.3.3 National perspective of Swami Vivekanand: - Swami Vivekanand contributed significantly towards development of nationalism. Vivekanand an d the mission developed spirit of self confidence and self respect among the Indians. His spirit encouraged young men towards Indian freedom struggle, provided a new direction to the young by talking aobut liberty, equality and independent thinking. He sai d, ’Wake up, rise and do not rest till you have achieved the goal.’ He was distressed by backwardness, downfall and poverty of Bharat. He was against blind following of the west and stressed on spiritual progress. He wanted individual to become a human bei ng and considered it to be the foundation of a wholesome development. Vivekananda performed a great feat by propagating Hindu dharma and philosophy in entire world. He presented the ancient pride of Bharat before the world. He supported an education system which would build character. He talked of a strong and manly personality. He wrote Maharaja of Khetri, ‘every work has to pass through three stages - mockery, rejection and admittance. A person who thinks ahead of his times is definitely misunderstood by pe ople. Therefore, we readily accept opposition and atrocities. But I should be firm and pure and keep unfathomable faith in God, then all these will disappear.” He worked for spiritual, moral and physical progress of Indians in a true measure.

13.3.4 Arya Samaj : - Arya Samaj was founded by Swami Dayanand Saraswati in Bombay in 1875. They considered Vedas as the best scriptures and believed in rein carnation and karma theory. Rise of Arya Samaj was a reaction to rise of British Empire and influence of wester n ideology. The movement was different from contemporary social reform movements. It basically worked for reforming in Hindu dharma and society. Its main aim was is reestablish the ancient Vedic dharma in its purest form by putting an end to age old preten sions. Founder of Arya Samaj, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, was born in 1824 in Brahmin family in Tankara near Maurvi in Gujrat. His childhood name was Mul Shankar. His father Amba Shankar was a scholar of Vedas. Since his childhood Swami Dayanand was contempl ative. In 1860, he 220 met Swami Virjanand in Mathura. Swami Dayanand became his disciple after being inspressed by his ideas. As a religious reformer and social reformer Dayanand toured various parts of the country and debated with scholars. On advice of social reformer of Bengal Keshav Chandra Sen, he started to write down his thoughts in Hindi instead of Sanskrit and wrote ‘Satyartha Prakash’. He founded Arya Samaj in 1875 in Bombay and framed its laws and regulations. In 1877, the principles of Arya Samaj were re - edited. Working on social reforms, Arya Samaj talked of social equality and equanimity. It redefined the Varna system on the basis of occupation and not birth, opposed caste system and intouchability, tried to ameliorate condition of women, founded many widow homes, talked of gender equality, worked for women education etc. He explained on the basis of Vedas that Shudras and women too have to the right of Yajnopaveet. He said all those rituals; traditions Swami Dayanand Saraswati which were not approved by the Vedas should be shunned. He not only t ried to reform the defects of Hindi dharma which had crept over in centuries, but also exposed the short comings of Christianity and Islam. He regarded Vedas as the real basis of Hindu dharma and gave the slogan, ‘Back toVedas’. He regarded Vedas as inspired by God and was of the view that interpretation of Vedas should be done on touchstone of logic. He was of the view that since language of Vedas is very old the commentaries are written on them may not contain the truth. He did not believe in polytheism, and idol worship, sacrifice of animals etc. He opposed superstitions and rituals and regarded God as for formless, omnipotent and omni - present. Through ‘ Movement’, he bro ught back the converted Hindu into their original dharma. Talking about (Self Rule) he said that howsoever pleasant the foreign state may be, it can’t be beneficial. Worst of self rule in better than best of foreign rule. The word ‘Swaraj’ was firs t used by Dayanand Saraswati. He talked of Swadeshi, Swaraj, Swabhasha and Swabhiman Arya Samaj did a creditable job in the field of education. After his death in 1886, Anglo Vedic School was established in Lahore which transformed into Dayanand Anglo Vedi c College in 1889. Anglo Vedic institutions were spread all over Bharat. A difference later, arose on question of imparting education through western knowledge to implement Vedic System of education. Gurukul was established in Kangri, Haridwar in 1902 C.E. Both the institutions created self respect in hearts of Indians by elaborating achievements of Indian culture. An effort was made to reform religion and society through these institutions. Apart from this, Saraswati tried to establish Hindi as national la nguage. Discarding Puranas as unauthentic, Dayanand declared Vedas to be the source of all knowledge and inspired by God. He criticized idol worship, polytheism, animal sacrifice. Shradh, false rituals, untouchability, casteism, child marriage and purdh sy stem. He gave his support to widow remarriage and female education. In social field, he led the Shuddhi movement in which the Hindus converted to Christianity, non - Hindus, the and the untouchables were drawn back to Hindu Dharma by initiation. Arya Samaj was against subjugation of Bharat and supported freedom which spread nationalism in society.

13.3.5 Prarthana Samaj: - In 1867, Prarthana Samaj was founded by Dr. Atmaram Pandurang in 1867. M.G. Ranade was the principal reformer of this Samaj who fo unded in 1884. He established widow 221 remarriage institution in Maharastra. He is known as Socrates of Maharashtra. Prarthana Samaj was a reformative organization inside Hindu dharma who supported justice and equality for the untouc hables, dalits and the sufferers.

13.3.6 Young Bengal Movement: - . Intellectuals in Bengal under the leadership of Henry Vivian Derojio gave birth to a revolutionary ideology which became famous as young Bengal movement. It was inspired by Rousseaus’ concept of liberty, equality and fraternity. Youth associated with this movement worked for social reforms through debates, writing and intellectual ideas and opposed superstitions. It founded ‘Academic Association’ and ‘Society for Acquisition of General M.G. Ranade knowledge,’ Debating Clubs etc. 13.3.7 Theosophical Society: - It was founded in 1875 by Madam Blavatsky and Col. Alcott in America. In 1882, its headquarters was established in Adyar (Madras) in Bharat and Annie Beasant became its president. They believed in theory of Karma and incarnation and considered Sankhya and Upanishads as authentic. They accepted Hindu dharma as national dharma. It encouraged social reforms, educational development and national consciousness Annie Beasant founded Central Hindu School which was transformed into Hindu Univ ersity in 1915 by the efforts of Madan Mohan Malviya. 13.3.8 Aligarh Movement: - A movement under the leadership of Sir Syed Ahmed for Muslim society and religious reforms in 19 th century in known as Aligarh Movement. In the beginning. Syed Ahmad was a sup porter of national movement, but later on acquired communal tones under British influence. He opposed convervatisim in Muslim society and supported scientific thinking. In 1870 C.E. he published an magazine Tehzeeb ul - Akhlakh. In 1875, he founded Moha mmden Anglo Oriental College which later on became famous as Aligarh Muslim University. Thus, these intellectual removed superstitions of Indian society, brought out the pride of the past, paved way for development of social renaissance, new mentality, reg ional languages, middle class and nationalist spirit. 13.3.9 Questions for Exercise 1. Childhood name of Dayanand Saraswati was (a) Narendra Nath (b) Mool Shankar (c) Devendranath (c) Dayashankar 2. Who wrote Samvad Kaumudi? (a) Dayanand Saraswati (b) Vivekanand (c) Raja Ram Mohan Ray (c) M. G. Ranade 3. Which social reforms were taken up by Vivekanand ? 4. Mention major teaching of Arya Samaj. 5. What do you know about Raja Ram Mohan Roy? 6. Social reform movement was an important catalyst to na tionalist - spirit. How?

13.4 Revolutionary Movement In the first half of 20 th century, revolutionary movement in Bharat began as a result of discontent among the educated Indian youth against autocracy and dictatorship of British rule, policy of racial discrimination of the British, droughts, plague and unemployment. They adopted t he path of armed 222 struggle, collected arms by making secret societies and murdered the British and the traitors. Their activities concentrated mostly in Maharashtra, Punjab and Bengal.’ 3.4.1 First Stage: - In the first stage, the revolutionaries were filled with nationa l spirit and they were encouraging the youth for violent measures like murder of British and police officers and a manufacture of bomb. They clearly believed that British government can’t be uprooted by constitutional movement. Maharashtra - Ri se of revolutionary movement is said to have begun from Chitpavan Brahmins when in 1895, the shot dead plague commissioner Mr.Rand and Amherst when the latter was committing atrocities over plague affected people in Poona. In this case, C hapekar brothers were hanged. At the same time, Bal Gangadhar Tilak was raising nationalism through his newspapers Maratha and . In 1899 C.E. ‘Mitra Mela’ was founded to celebrated Ganapati Utsav in Nasik. In 1904, from this Mitra Mela raised the rev olutionary organization. Abhinav Bharat’ under the leadership of Vir Savarkar. Its aim was to free Bharat from foreign authority. This organization sprad revolutionary spirit among people through Ganapati Utsav and Shivaji Utsav which were started by Tilak . This organization prepared the youth to fight against the British by training them in mountaineering, horse riding, running, cudgel fight and sword fight. Its branches were established in many schools and colleges in Poona and Bombay and extended upto Madhya Pradesh and Karnatak apart from Maharashtra. Abhinav Bharat arranged for arms from abroad. Vinayak Damodar Savarkar sent arms from London. Pandurang Mahadev Bapte was sent to foreign country to learn the art of making bo mb by Abhinav Bharat. Bapat obtained a copy Russian book 'bomb Manual' and translated it into English. Abhinav Bharat established relations with many secret revolutionary societies of Bengal and other parts of Bharat. Vir Savarkar was trialed in Nasik cons piracy case on charges of murder of district magistrate Jackson and was awarded life imprisonment. In 1906, Savarkar went to London. In London, he incited the spirit of partiotism amont the youth by organising symposiums and anniversaries of great men in ' ' founded by Shyanij Krishna Verma. He called the revolution of 1857 as First war of Independence and wrote' Freedom Movement of Bharat'. Similarly, revolutionary organisations were estbalished in Bombay, Poona, Nasik, Kolhapur, Satara, Gwalior, Baroda, Nagpur etc. Bengal - In 1903, '' was founded by and Bhupendra Nath Dutt in Bengal, Revolutionary movement here gained momentum after partition of Bengal. Along with it, Samaj, Samiti, Yugantar Sam iti etc. were also founded who filled the youth with enthusiasm and conducted revolutionary activities. Armed revolution was propagated through magazines like Bhawani Mandir, Yugantar and Sandhya. These organisations worked for culturing hatred towards Bri tish rule in educated society, patriotism among people through biographies and plays of martyrs, making arms, bomb, collecting money through donations and dacoity. A factory in Maniktala for manufacturing bomb was opened and Prafful Kumar con spired to kill Kings Ford the magistrate disfamous for flogging, but the bomb blasted on another vehicle in which two English women were killed. After this, Prafful Kumar committed suicide while Khudiram Bose was trialed and hanged. Bengali youth pasted po sters of Khudiram Bose in streets and designated him as a martyr. This was sympathy for these revolutionaries all over the country. Their sacrifice and self annihilation raised patriotism among the youth of the country. 223

Lala Lajpat R ai Bal Gangadhar Tilak Vipin Chandra Pal Punjab - A revolutionary movement began in the Punjab against imperialist bill under Ajit Singh and . They propagated revolutionary ideology through literature. The British government made many suppressive laws to crush the movement like Explosive M aterial Act, Press Act etc. In 1907 C.E., Lajpat Rai and Ajit singh were arrested and sent to Mandlay prison (Burma), but they had to be freed due to strong opposition by the people. In 1909 C.E. Madan Lal Dhingra shot dead Sir Curzon Wylle in Amritsar Lat er on, he was hanged. Due to such incidents, feeling of hatred & wrath emerged among the youth against the British and they plunged into the fire of revolt in great number.

13.4.2 Second Phase: - Despair following the failure of Non - Cooperation Movement ( 1920 - 22), restarted the revolutionary movement. In 1924 in Kanpur Shachindra Nath Sanyal, Ramprasad Bismil, , Sukhdev, Bhagwati Sharan Verma formed a revolutionary organisation called Hindustan Republican Association (HRA). It main aim was to loot the British treasury, collect money and buy arms. It also aimed at carrying out direct action till the announcement of independence and formation of a federal republic in Bharat. In 1925 C..E. a train carrying British treasury was looted at . The British enquired in to the case in which and Ashfaqullah Khan were hanged. In 1928 C.E. under the leadership of Chandra Shekhar Azad, Hindustan socialist Republican Association was formed in Delh i. This organisation hastened the revolutionary activities. In 1928 C.E. Bhagat Singh and Raj Guru, who were associated with this organisation, shot dead police commissioner Saunders in Lahore as the latter had ordered a lath charge on the protestors oppos ing and in which Lala Lajpat Rai received fatal injuries. In 1929 C.E. Bhagat Singh Bhagat Singh Chandra Shekhar Azad and threw bomb on empty benches of central assembly to awaken the Bri tish government and then surrendered. Bhagat Singh, at this time, gave the slogan of 'Inqalab Zindabad'. In 1930 C.E. looted the government armory of Chatgaon in Bengal and carried forward the 224 movement by organising Indian Republican Army. Surya Sen also formed an interim government in Chatgaon under his own leadership.

Rajguru Ashfaqullah Khan Sukhdev

The British government made suppression stronger and imprisoned many innocent people. A Bengali boy Jatin Das went on a hunger strike against misbehaviour in the Jail. After 63 days he died and when his dead body was brought to Culcutta, lakhs of people gathered on railway station and opposed the British. On 23 rd March 1931 under the Lahore conspiracy Case, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru were hanged. Similarly, Chandra Shekhar Azad achieved martyrdom in a police skirmish in Allahabad in 1931. Surya Sen was also hanged in 1933. Though the British Suppression g ot severe, but the revolutionary movement and martyrdom of the revolutionaries filled Indian people especially the youth with extreme love for the motherland as a result of which this movement continued till 1947.

13.4.3 Questions for Exercise: - 1. 'Mitra Mela' was founded by (a) Vir Savarkar (b) Bal Gangadhar Tilak (c) Bipin Chandra (d) Lala Lajpat Rai 2. Who murdered Curzon Wyille? (a) Shyamji Krishna Verma (b) Madan Lal Dhingra (c) Bipin Chandra (d) Ajit Singh 3. Write major causes of revolutionary movement. 4. What do you know about Vir Savarkar? 5. What was Kakori conspiracy Case and Lahore conspiracy case? 6. Name major revolutionary organizations. 7. Revolutionary movement played an important part in freedom of Bharat. Elaborate.

13.5 Politica l Movements After the first freedom struggle of 1857, spirit of revolt against British authority and efforts for a free nation began in minds of Indians. On the other hand, development of press, education policy, development of means of transport and comm unication, postal system, knowledge of a glorious past etc. contributed towards efforts to gain freedom. In the initial years, Land Holders' Society, British Indian Society, Madras Native Association, Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, Bombay Association were establi shed for demand of rights. Slowly, it dawned upon people to form an organisation which could demand political 225 rights from the British and oppose the discriminatory policy.The movement waged for these demands was called the national movement which was compl eted in three stages - 1. Moderate Phase - 18885 - 1905 C.E. 2. Extremist Phase - 1905 - 1919 C.E. 3. Gandhian Era - 1919 - 1947 C.E.

13.5.1 Ist Phase 1885 - 1905 C.E. - Leaders of this phase were liberals. They presented their demands through petitions, memoranda, before the British government. Therefore, it is known as liberal phase. One British officer, A.O. Hume thought of forming an organisation and in 1885, he founded the organisation, Indian National Federation which was called on advice of Dada Bhai Naoroji. Educated class joined this organisation. There are differences about the aims of establishing this organisation because some historians believe that it was the brain child of Lord Dufferin. He wanted to use it as safety valve. By appeasing th e aristocratic class which was attached to this organisation, he wanted to crush nationalism and for this, he designed to hand over leadership of Bharat to them and use them as defense against revolt of common people. According to another ideology, Hume es tablished this organisation against the possible attack of Russia on Bharat. Whatever may have been the aim, foundation of Congress spearheaded the way for movement of constitutional freedom and it got established as a party of national leadership. 1. Indi an National Congress: - It first session was proposed in Poona, but due to prevalence of plague, its venue was changed to Bombay and it was held on 28 th December 1885 in Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College in Bombay under the presidentship of Vyomesh Chandra Bannerji. It was attended by about 72 people including Dada Bhai Naoroji, Firozshah Mehta, Dinshaw Wacha, Badruddin Taiyabji etc. Aim: - Initially, Congr ess did not aim for independence as its maximum members were English educated people who did not regard British rule as evil. As Coupland said, “Birth of Congress in India was not as an enemy rather as a friend.” Aims in first session were thus decided: - 1. T o f oster friendship between people engaged in interests of country and her progress. 2. To develop spirit of national unity above feelings of provincialism, religion and caste. 3. To clearly put forward views of the educated class on political and social questi ons. 4. To draw outline of the forthcoming political programmes. Moderates demanded for administrative reforms which prominently included appointment of Indians in public services, Indianisation of public services, separation of executive and judiciary. Durin g this period, the moderates continued to raise demands of reforms in legislative assemblies through constitutional means. The British government passed the Act of 1892. Through this Act, number of Indian members in Central and Provincial legislative counc ils was increased. Indirect election was provided for. Members were given the right to ask questions and debate. Indians were not satisfied with this Act and they demanded more rights. They remained effortful for liberty of free speech, liberty of expressi on, forming organisations. Congress could not achieve much success during this period. Still they made people conscious of their common political, economic and cultural interests, trained men in political work and conveyed to people concepts of democracy, civil liberty and nationalist ideas 226

. Thus, till now there was no issue of opposing unconstitutional laws of British government and government policy. The leaders of Congress were not in a position to struggle and therefore, common men did not lend any s upport to Congress. Only educated middle class was associated with it. In the initial phase, issues like representation in legislatures, debate on questions and budget, administrative reforms were raised. Most of their demands were rejected and the moderat e leaders were successful only in passing the Act of 1892. Thus, it can be concluded that from 1885 to 1905 C.E. during working period of 20 years, Congress was confined as an organisation which would put forward its demands before viceroy through peaceful means Tilak commented "An annual gathering like frogs will not achieve anything'. But the organisation led the Indian politics in its initial phase which paved the road to freedom.

13.5.2 Second Phase 190 5 - 1919 C.E. - The Indian youth had little faith in moderate leaders of I.N.C. because now they wanted to get rid of British administration, whereas leaders like Dada Bhai Naoroji were still in favour of constitutional freedom under British rule. At this time, revolution ary ideology was in full swing which was led by Lal, Bal and Pal, i.e. Lala Lajpat Rai in Bengal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak in Maharashtra and Vipin Chandra Pal in Bengal were providing leadership. They had no faith in moderate thinking and they called the annua l session of the congress an annual fair. Tilak even called it a political begging. They believed that Bharat 227 can be freed not through peaceful submissions and delegations but through extremist means and support of arms. Some international events like vict ory of Abyssinia over Italy and defeat of Russia by a small country like Japan proved that the British were not invincible. Lord Curzon took the decision of partition of Bengal and the spark of revolutionary ideology was spread through the entire nation. 1 . Partition of Bengal 1905 C.E. - In 1905 C.E. Lord Curzon partitioned Bengal (which was the largest province of Bharat at that time and which included Bengal, Bihar, Orissa) into two parts - east and . There was Muslim majority in east Bengal whil e Hindu majority in West Bengal. Curzon gave the logic that this partition is made from administrative point of view as to control such a big province. But the main aim of this partition was to create animosity between the Hindus and the Muslims and encour age communalism. Therefore, thouh entire Bharat and specially leaders associated with revolutionary movement opposed it. A major newspaper of Bengal, Bengali called it a national calamity. Voice to boycott foreign goods rose and this event gave rise to rev olutionary movement which soon spread all over Bharat. 2. - Along with partition of Bengal feeling of Swadeshi and Swaraj gained strength in Bengal. Slogan of boycott was given which meant total discard of foreign good and acceptance of Sw adeshi goods. Participation of students was maximum for the first time, women also participated in this movement. Foreign goods were burnt. On 7 th August, a large meeting was organised in Town Hall of Calcutta where pledge was taken to boycott foreign shoes, paper, medicines, cigarette sugar etc. With this swadeshi movement started. Rabindra Nath Thakur, Vipin Chandra Pal and Arvindo Ghosh were its main leaders in Bengal. Another aspect of Swadeshi movement was social reform under which Ashivin Kumar Dutt formed ‘Swadeshi Bandhav Samiti’ in Barisal for development of villages. Wide effort were made to end ill practices like untouchability, child marr iage, purdah system, dowry system and alcoholism. 3. Muslim League: - Popularity of Swadeshi Movement and revolutionary leadership was gaining grounds and achieved faith of people. Therefore, the Muslims tried to form their own political organisation. For t his purpose, a delegation of 36 Muslims under leadership of Agha Khan met Viceroy Lord Minto in Simla on 1 st October 1906 C.E. They convinced the viceroy of their total allegiance towards British government. The British took it as a golden opportunity for it would create a parallel organisation to Congress and would fulfill the British aim of Divide and Rule and ignite communal hatred. Therefore, with the consent of Minto, Nawab Salimullah founded 'Muslim League in Dhaka on 30 th December 1906. Its main aim was to enhance loyalty of the Indian Muslims towards British government. 4. First Split in Congress - In 1907 C.E. the annual session of Congress was held in Surat. In this session, the extremists put forward the demand of inclusion of boycott, Swadeshi and Swaraj into main demands of the Congress and forwarded candidature of Lal Lajpat Rai for the president. Moderates discarded these demands and exterminated the extremists from Congress for seven years. It was the first split of Congress into Moderates and Extremists. 5. Morley - Minto Reforms 1909 C.E. - Two persons, the then Governor General Minto and Secretary for India John Morley contributed to form this Act. Indians were dissatisfied with the Act of 1892. Congress demanded for expansion of councils and en hancement of powers of its members. The movement against partition of Bengal in 1905 encouraged revolutionary activities. To keep down the impact of the extremists, the government wanted to satisfy the moderates by bringing in some reforms. The government wanted to divide the Indians by granting more concessions to a few groups. Following were the main characteristics of this Act. 228

1. Central legislative and provincial legislative assemblies were expanded. The number of their members increased. For the first time, non governmental members gained prominence in provinces. 2. Rights of various councils were enhanced. Members were granted rights to debate on budget as well as questions on major issues. They could present proposals on budget and other matters. The y were also given the right to ask supplementary questions. 3. Election System based on separate communal electorate was started. A separate electorate was established for Muslims, Zamindars, traders etc. 4. The Governor General could now appoint one India n in his executive. (S.P. Sinha was the first Indian to be included in executive of the Governor General). 5. Qualifications for the contestants and voters were decided. The Act is criticised for the fact that system of indirect election was adopted in it . Number of voters was very limited, their qualification for voting was also kept too high,. A separate electorate system for Muslims on communal basis was very harmful. It paved way for communal politics. Muslims were given more representation, They had r ight not only to vote for their separate electorate, but also to vote as general voter. Though non government members dominated in provincial legislatures, yet government members were still in majority in Central Legislature. Parliamentary institutions wer e established but parliamentary system of government was not aimed at. 6. Delhi Durbar: - Extremists made their movement faster after separation from the Congress and entire Bharat accepted their leadership and supported Swadeshi movement. Under their press ure, the British government annulled the partition of Bengal in 1911. At the same time capital of Bharat was shifted from Calcutta to Delhi and a Delhi darbar was organised on this occasion. When the then Viceroy Lord Harding entered Delhi with his paraphe rnalia, a bomb was thrown on him in Chandani Chowk by Zorawar Singh Bharat, a revolutionary from Rajasthan in which Harding was injured. The plan was hatched by Ras Bihari Bose. Therefore, both Barhat and Bose were trialed under . Whil e Bose fled to Japan, Barhat went underground. 7. Home Rule Movement: - Political atmosphere was charged up under Tilak in 1914. Tilak founded Indian Home Rule League on 28 th April 1916 in Belgaon. too joined the movement. Its main aim was elec tion of members chosen by people in local institutions and legislative assemblies, incite nationalist feeling among people and inauguration of a constitutional movement for this purpose, Tilak through his newspaper, Kesari and Maratha and Anie Beasant thro ugh 'New India and Commonweal' tried to bring awareness. 8. L u khnow Pact (1916) - The Lukhnow session of Congress was important for two reasons. First, the moderates and Extremists were reunited and second a pact was reached between congress and Muslim lea gue when Tilak was released from prison in 1914, he started to make efforts for an agreement between the Moderates and the extremists. Atlast with the efforts of Annie Beasant, an agreement was reached. This Lukhnow session was headed by Charan maju mdar. On the other hand, Congress accepted the League demand of communal electorate and made an agreement with the league. Seats for Muslims in provincial legislatures were reserved. Thus 50% in Punjab, 40% in Bengal, 30% in U.P., 33% in Sindh - Bombay, 15% in Central provinces, 25% in Bihar and 20% in Madras were reserved for the Muslims. It proved to be debacle in future. and the British tried to dismember the integrity of Bharat. 9. - Sir Sidney Rowlatt presented an Act to suppress revolutionar y movement in 1919. According to it the British government could arrest any person without prior notice. It was opposed in entire Bharat and was called an Act without appeal and without Dalil. It was termed as 'Black law'. 229

10. Jalli an Wala Bagh Tragedy: - D r. Satyapal and Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew were arrested on 10 th April 1919 while they were opposing Rowlatt Act in the Punjab and were sent to an

Jallin Wala Bagh Tragedy unknown destination. People gathered peacefully in Jallian wala Bagh to oppose their arrest on 13 th April 1919 which was Viashakhi festival. The assembly included several people who had come to participate in Vaishakhi festival. About 20 000 people gathered here which also included females and children. At 5 o'clock in the evening, General Dyer surrounded the garden with 100 soldiers. The bagh was surrounded by buildings on three sides and had only one exit. Without any warning, Dyer ordered firing on the crowd through rifles and machine guns. The unarmed crowd were fired upon till the bull ets were exhausted. According to statistics, 379 people were killed and many were injured. But the actual number of the dead was more than 1000 people. General Dyer left the dead and the injured. This incident is also known as ‘Jallianwala Bagh’ massacre. Entire country was left shocked. Martial Law was imposed in entire country after this incident. Government carried on suppression People of Amritsar were subjected to atrocities. Measures of punishment such as public flogging, crawling in streets, salutes to the British etc . were adopted. Military courts gave discriminatory punishments. 11. Act of 1919: - (Montague - Chel m sford Act): - After the first world war, the Indians were hopeful of some concessions inform of self rule. After the Lukhnow pact, possibili ties emerged for cooperation between Congress and the League. Annie Beasant and Tilak demanded Home rule. Moderates began to dominate in Congress. Secretary for India, Montague announced on 20 th August 1917, that self rule institutions shall be developed t o establish responsible government in successive measures. All these reasons formed the background of the Act of 1919. Following were its main features: - 1. Dual government was established in provinces. The provincial subjects were divided into two parts - Reserved and Transferred. The reserved subjects were dealt by the provincial governor with advice of his executive. It mainly included police, jail, peace, law and order, judiciary etc. The transferred subjects were administered by the governor with the he lp of Indian ministers which included local self rule, health, public works etc. The executive of governor was not responsible to the legislative assembly but to the governor whereas the ministers were responsible to the assembly. The governor had the righ t to appoint and remove the ministers. The governor could dissolve the assembly and could veto the laws passed by it. 2. There was division of powers between the centre and the state. Centre had subjects like defense, foreign policy, Railway, communication , census, public loans, public service commission, currency, issues related to Indian states. Provinces had subjects like local government, health, education, public works, Forests, custom, irrigation, agriculture, jail, police etc. 230

3. For the first time, a dual house legislature was provided for in the centre. The upper house was State Council and lower house was called as legislative Assembly. 4. The separate electorate expanded on communal basis in provincial legislatures. Apart from Muslims, Sikhs, Eur opeans, Anglo Indians and Indian Christians were given the right to elect their representatives. 5. An Indian High commissioner was provisioned for issues like trade, education of Indians in abroad. The high Commissioner was appointed by the Crown on the advice of Indian government. The Act is criticised for its dual system of government. The division of subjects into reserved and transferred was impractical Education was a transferred subject. Industrial development was transferred but labour department was reserved. The axis of all administration was finance department which was reserved whereas departments like education, public works etc were with Indian ministers and which needed finance. There was lack of collective responsibility among the ministers . Therefore, dual government proved to be a failure on theoretical grounds. The governor general and his council was still responsible to Indian secretary and British Parliament. Governor general could discard the advice of his executive. Extension of ele ctorate on communal grounds was an attempt to prevent organization of Bharat on national basis.

13.5.3 Third Phase (1919 - 1947 C.E.) Mahatma Gandhis name was Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. He was born on 2 nd October1869 at Porbandar in Gujrat. His father Karam Chand was the diwan of Rajkota. His mother’s name was Putlibai. He received his primary education in Rajkot. He got married to Kasturba In 1887 he went to England to receive higher education and came ba ck to Bharat in 1891 after graduating in Law. He practiced in Bombay. In 1893 C.E. he went to South Africa regarding a case of a Parsi firm ‘Dada Abdulla and Company. There he struggled against apartheid policy of African government. He founded Natal India n Congress, Tolstoy Farm and Phaoenex Farm there and published a newspaper ‘Indian Opinion’ In 1915 C.E. he came back to Bharat. After a tour of Bharat, he established his ashram at Sabarmati. (Ahemdabad). He had su ccessfully struggle against apartheid in South Africa, so he was asked to lead in Bharat as well. He conducted a successful in favour of farmers of Champaran in Bihar in 1917 and the success of Satyagraha in 1913 in Kheda (Gujarat) made him popu lar in Bharat. Now the national movement surged forward under his leadership. 1. Non Cooperation and (1920) - On 1 st August 1920 C.E., Non Cooperation Movement started under the leadership of Gandhiji. It is worth mentioning that Tilak expire d just a day before, Gandhi made ‘Tilak Kosh’ in which about one crore rupees was collected within a month. The British had promised during First World War to the Muslims that they would not dissect Turkey. But after the war, they declared liquidation of T urkey. Since the Muslim Khalifa resided in Turkey, Hakim Ajmal Kha, , Dr. Ansari, Mohd. Ali Jinnah started noncooperation and Khilafat movement on this question whose leadership was handed over to Gandhi ji. In this movement Hindus and Musli ms stood united against British government Both Tilak and Gandhi played an important role in this unity. Congress now made attainment of Swarjya as its aim and Gandhi gave the slogan of boycott. There were two forms of the movement - creative and destructive . The creative form included importance to Charkha, Swadeshi, propagation of weaving, preparation 231

of volunteers, establishment of national schools and national education, abolition of untouchability etc. The destructive programmes included giving up of gov ernment letters, resignation from local institutions, boycott of courts, opposition of government functions & boycott of foreign goods. This movement spread across Bharat rapidly. With this government suppression too became severe but people readily went t o jail, students left government schools, lawyers boycotted courts and an atmosphere was created in the country which shook the foundations of British government. On 5 th February 1922, a mob burnt down a police station which killed several policemen at Chauri Chaura () in Uttar Pradesh against firing on farmers. Gandhiji immediately supended the movement calling it to be a violent on. At the time when the entire nation had stood up against the British rule and the movement was suspended because of a small incident, I t filled the people with dismay Subhash Chandra Bose said, "It is nothing , but misfortune of a nation." Jawahar Lal Nehru, Lajpat Rai, M.L. Nehru, Chi tranjan Das were shocked by this move of Gandhiji. The British arrested Gandhi and imprisoned him for six years. According to Ayodhya Singh, 'For the benefit of a bourgeoisie section, Gandhi sacrificed the entire nation." After the suspension of movement, the Moplah farmers in Kerela started communal riots. On the other hand the league was also full of suspicion. With the end of Khilafat movement, League separated itself from Congress. 2. Swarajya Party : - National movement lost its momentum after failure of no n - cooperation movement and under such circumstances, CR Das and Moti Lal Nehru formed Congress Khilafat . They participated in elections of 1923 in which they gained success beyond expectation. But they could not gain any major success in elect ions of 1926 and after the death of C.R. Das this party was liquidated. 3. Simon Commission: - It was decided at the time of implementation of Act of 1919 that after 10 years as commission would be appointed to review, the progress of the Act. But due to progr ess of revolutionary movement, a commission under Andrew Simon was sent in 1927 C.E. There was no Indian in this seven member commission and the congress boycotted it. There were slogans of Simon Go Back' in entire Bharat and hartal was observed Police Com missioner Saunders charged Lala Lajpat Rai with lathi who was opposing Simon Commission in Lahore, Lala ji got injured and died later on. 4. Purna Swarjya: - Jawahar Lal Nehru chaired the Lahore session of Congress in 1929. The tricolor was unfurled on the ba nks of Ravi River o n 31 st December 1929 at midnight and 26 th January 1930 was declared to celebrate poorna Swaraj diwas. A demand for complete freedom was also put forward. 5. Civil Disobedience Movement 1930 C.E. - After his release from jail, Gandhiji reassu med the leadership of the movement. He started a new movement. On 12 th March 1930, Gandhiji started a walk from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi with his chosen 78 followers. He completed this 240 mile long journey in 24 days and reached Dandi. On 6 th April 1930, he picked a handful of salt and violated the salt law. It was a symbolic action denoting that the Indians were not now ready to follow British laws. Civil disobedience movement started with this incident. The people of the nation once again stood besides Gandhi and boycott became the major issue. Students boycotted schools, colleges, government officials left their jobs, labourers went on strike, farmers stopped paying revenue, and demonstrations began in entire nation. The British mercilessly opened fire on people 232

and imprisoned them. In 1930, Gandhiji got arrested. The movement spread like fire. The Garhwal regiment refused to fire on the demonstrators. In N agaland, Rani Gondileu revolted. Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan (Frontier Gandhi) formed Red Shirt (Khuda i Khidma t gar) party. The British government came under pressure duet to these incidents and talked of constitutional reforms. Forced by circumstances, the British government made a pact with Gandhiji. 6. Gandhi - Irwin Pact (5 th March 1931) An agreement was reached between Gandhiji and the then viceroy Irwin whose chief characteristics were as follows: - 1. Government accepted the demand of releasing all political prisoners. 2. Property confiscated during the movement shall be returned. 3. People who had resigned from gevernment jobs shall be reinstated. 4. Indians will be free to manufacture salt. Against these demands, Gandhiji decided to withdraw the movement. There was no provision of release of Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev and therefore, the Ind ian people felt dejected and Gandhi's working style was questioned. Congress was criticised widely and Gandhi was blamed for favouring the bourgeoisie class once again as in 1922. Still, the Pact was a victory for the people. 7. Round Table C onferences (1930 - 1932) - Three Round Table Conference were called from 1930 to 1932 in London to discuss the Simon Commission Report and to solve the constitutional problems of bharat The first Round Table Conference: - The first Round Table Conference began on 12 th November 1930 in London. Political Parties of Bharat, representatives of princely states and of British government participated in it. Prime Minister Ramsay Macdonald was a prominent representative. Among the Indian representatives were included Tej r Sapru M.R. Jaikar, C.Y. Chintamani, Agha Khan, Mohd. Ali Jinnah etc. The Indian states were represented by Bikaner, Baroda, Kashmir, Bhopal, Hyderabad and Mysore. The Congress did not participate. It was at that time running civil disobedience movement a gainst the British government and had been declared illegal by the Government. In this C onference, issues like Indian federation, formation of responsible government at the centre, full antonomy to provinces were discussed. Since the largest political part y of Bharat the Congress had boycotted it, the British government did not consider this C onference as complete. The C onference ended on 19 th January 1931. Second Round Table Conference: - It began on 7 th September 1931. Mahatma Gandhi participated in it as the s ole representative of Congress. Leaders like Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar, Pt. Madan Mohan Malviya etc also participated Decision on Communal problem was a tough job. Like Muslims, Dr. Ambedkar also demand ed a separate electorate. There was difference of opinion among the representatives regarding questions like distribution of rights between the centre and provinces and formation of a responsible government. In December 1931 Gandhi returned from the C onfer ence disheartened. 8. Communal Award of MacDonald (16 th August 1932.) - Three Round Table Conferences were organised in London to discuss constitutional rights of Bharat. In the first Congress did not participate, Gandhi participated in the second but as he c ould not get desired results, he came back. After this, the British Prime minister Ramsay Macdonald issued a Communal Award for reservation of the dalits of Bharat which contained the provision of reservation for them in provincial 233

legislatures. While Ambe dkar supported it, Gandhiji was against it as it was an effort to divide the Indian society. At last, Poona Pact was signed between Gandhi and Ambedkar in which the latter agreed not to accept the Award. The Congress in term, reserved seats for the dalits in Central and provincial legislatures. 9. Act of 1935 - This Act was an elaborative one. It was the last constitutional arrangement implemented by the British in Bharat; there were many reasons behind its implementation. The Montague Chelmsford reform of 1919 could not satisfy the Indians. The Indians had opposed Simon commission appointed to give recommendations about constitutional reforms about Bharat. The civil disobedience movement had accentuated anti British feeling. The Gandhi - Irwin Pact could not lead to any solution. After the three Round Table Conferences, the British government issued a 'White Paper' which mentioned new reforms. After a few corrections to it, the British parliament passed the Indian Administration Act of 1935 which had following mai n characteristics. 1. The dual government in the provinces came to an end. The provinces were given full autonomy. 2. A two house legislature was provisioned for in six provinces of Bengal, Madras, Bombay, United Province, Assam and Bihar. The upper house was le gislative council and lower house was legislative assembly. 3. An 'All India Federation' was provisioned for comprising of provinces governed by the governors and princely states. However, no announcement could be made in this context till the princely states were not interested in its establishment. 4. Dual government was established in the centre. 5. All the subjects were divided into three lists in this Act - the Central, the provincial and the concurrent lists. Subjects of federal list were with the centre, subje cts of provincial concern land with the provinces. Subjects of concurrent list were divided among the centre and the states. 6. A federal court was established in Calcutta. appeals against its decisions could be made in Privy council situated in England. 7. Thro ugh this Act, the India council established under Act of 1858 was abolished. In its place, an advisor to Secretary of State was provisioned for. 8. The communal electorate was expanded. A separate electoral system was made for the dalits. 9. A central bank was f ounded which came to be known as Indian Reserve Bank. 10. To control, construct, maintain and administer the railways, a Central Railway Board was provisioned for. 11. Burma was separated from Bharat. Two new provinces, Sindh and Orissa were created (After this, t here were 11 provinces in British Bharat) Responsible government was established in provinces but its powers were circumscribed by giving veto power to the governor. Due to the provision of adequate numbers of princely states in the federation, it could n ot be established. When the matter was discussed with the states, they raised some issues which could not be solved immediately Federal court was also not the last court and its decisions could be challenged in Privy Council. 10. Subhash Chandra Bose and Fauj: - In the Haripura session of Congress in 1938, Subhash Chandra Bose was elected as president of Indian National Congress. After this, he again proposed his candidature for presidentship of Tripuri session of Congress in 1939. but Gandhi supported Pattabhi Sitarammaiya against him. Subhash Bose was the most popular leader at this time 234

among the people and Sitarammaiya was defeated against him. After being reelected as president , Bose requested Gandhi to form a new executive which Gandhi refused. Agitated by the stubborn attitude of Congress, Bose resigned and founded Forward Bloc in 1939 C.E. The British government arrested him and interned him in his house in Calcutta. Revolutio nary Ras Bihari Bose, who was staying in Japan, planned to form Azad Hind Fauj and invited Bose. In 1942, Azad Hind Fauj was constituted of defeated Indian soldiers in Japan under Captain Mohan Singh. Bose escaped from Bharat and met Japanese Prime Ministe r in 1943. He further took on the leadership of Azad Hind Fauj and also formed an interim Subhash Chandra Bose government in . On 21 st October 1943. He gave slogans like ‘Dilli Chalo, ‘Tum Mujhe Khoon to, Main tumhe azadi doo nga’ and ‘’. He met Hitler, Chancellor of Germany and asked him to lend support for freedom of Bharat. Azad Hind Fauj, with support of Japanese army. captured Andaman and Nicobar island. He addressed the nation on Azad radio and for the first time addressed Gandhi as ‘Father of Nation’ (Rastrapita) In 1944 condition of Japan became worse in the second ‘World war and due to which Netaji had to leave Rangoon. On 18 August 1945 C.E. while taking flight for Takyo from, Taiwe airport, he disappeared in a suspicious manner. 11. (30 March 1942 C.E.) - A mission was sent under Sir to Bharat for making constitution which talked of granting dominion status to Bharat after the war. Congress rejected it and Gandhi called it a post dated cheque. 12. (8 August 1942) - The Wardha Session of Congress was held in the atmosphere of confusion and apprehension in the country, which talked of starting Quit India movement. On 7 th August, Gandhi ji announced the beginning of the move ment from Gwalia Tank Ground (Azad Maidan) of Bombay. He gave the slogan of ‘Do of Die’ i.e. either we make efforts to free the nation or will die in this effort. The British government arrested all the leaders as soon as the movement started Gandhi was im prisoned in Agha Khan Palace where he started fast into death. Revolts accured in various places of the country along with violent skirmishes. The British government retaliated strongly by using machine guns and firing from planes. About 10000 people were killed. People damaged the rail tracks, burnt down post offices and police stations. The British suppression became severe. 13. Cabinet Mission Plan : - Amidst strike of labourers, opposition, revolt of the navy etc, British prime minister Attlee sent a mission to Bharat to frame a constitution. On 24 March 1946, Secretary of State Patrick Lawrence, Stafford Cripps and A.B. Alexander reached Bharat as Cabinet Mission. The Mission put forward the following proposal 1. A federation of British Bharat and s shall be formed which will look into matters like foreign affairs, defense and communication. 2. The state list shall rest with the provinces. 3. The provinces were divided into A B and C categories. 4. The princely states were given the freedom to opt out of th e Indian federation. 235

5. It rejected Muslim leagues demand for Pakistan. 14. (16 th August 1946) The League organized ‘Direct Action Day’ in wake of refusal of the proposal for Pakistan and success of Congress in interim government in which commun al riots were sponsored. There were severe riots in Lahore. Amritsar and Calcutta. 15. Mountbatten plan (3 June 1947 ) Under the plan, Bharat was partitioned as Indian federation and Pakistan. On 4 th July 1947, Indian Independent Act was presented in British Parliament. On 18 th July 1947, with consent of the King Emperor, it was passed and was known as Indian independence Act of 1947. Under this Act, Bharat was freed from British subjugation. On 15 th August, two new nations were formed. Bharat and Pakistan. Mohd. Ali Jinnah became governor general of Pakistan and Liyakat Ali became prime minister of Pakistan, Lord Mountbatten became the governor general of Bharat and Jawahar Lal Nehru became the prime minister.

13.5.4 Question s for Exercise: - 1. The Indian National Congress was founded in (a) 1875 (b) 1895 (c) 1885 (c) 1905 2. Slogan ‘Jai Hind’ was given by (a) Bahgat Singh (b) Subhash Chandra Bose (c) Chandra Shekhar Azad (c) Surya Sen 3. What were the main characteristics of Act of 1935? 4. How did Indian national movement start? 5. What was civil Disobedience Movement? 6. Describe non - cooperation movement. 7. Write an article on Subhash Chandra Bose and Azad Hind Fauj. 8. Balgangadhar Tilak wa s a nationalist revolutionary. How? 9. Was partition of Bharat necessary? Comment? 10. What was the second stage of revolutionary movement? 11. What was partition of Bengal? 12. Write an article on Quit Indian Movement.

13.6 Questions for Exercise 13. 7 Very short Answer questions. 1. When was Bharmo Samaj founded? 2. Who was the guru of Vivekanand? 3. Who wrote satyatha prakash? 4. Who gave the slogan ‘Back to the Vedas’? 5. Who were Lal, Bal, Pal? 6. When was Muslim League formed? 7. When did Simon Commission come to Bharat? 8. When was ‘Direct Action Day’ followed by the Muslim League? 9. Among whom was the poona pact signed?

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13.8. Answers: - Multiple choice and Very short Questions. Multiple choices - 13.3.9 - 1 (b) Mulshankar 2. (c) Raja Ram Mohan Roy 13.4.3 1(a) Vir Savark ar 2. (b)Madan Lal Khingra 13.5.4 1 (c) 1885 C.E. 2. (b) Subhash Chandra Bose. Very Short Questions: - 1. 1829 C.E. 2. Ramkrishna Paramhansa 3. Dayanand Saraswati 4. Arya Samaj 5. Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Vipin Chandra Pal. 6. 1906 C.E. 7. 1927 C.E. 8. 16 August 1946 9. Mahatma Gandhi and then Viceroy Irwin

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Chapter 14

Rajasthan National Movement (1857 - 1947) and Integration (1947 - 1956)

14.0. Aim 14.1. Introduction and Preface 14.2. National Movement in Raja sthan (1857 - 1947) 14.2.1. National Movement of 1857 14.2.2. Other Events (i) Visit of Dayanand Saraswati in Rajasthan (ii) Spread of English Education (iii) Contribution of Newspapers and Scholars (iv) Role of Rajasthan Emigrants (v) Role of First World War (vi) Contribution of Revolutionaries. 14.2.3. National Movement and Peasant Movements (i) Bijolia peasant movement. (ii) and Shekhawati peasant movement. (iii) Begun peasant movement. (iv) Peasant movements of Bundi and Alwar. 14.2.4. National Movement and Tribal Movements 14.2.5. National Movement and Praja Mandal Movement (i) Marwa r Prajamanadal (ii) Jaipur Prajamandal (iii) Bikaner Prajamandal (iv) Kota Prajamandal. (v) Bharatpur and Prajamandal 14.2.6. Summary 14.2.7. Questions for Exercise 14.3. Integration 1947 to 1956 14.3.1. Various stages of formation of Rajasthan (i) First stage - Formation of Matsya state (ii) Second Stage - Formation of Former Rajasthan (iii) Third Stage - Formation of United Rajasthan (iv) Fourth Stage – Formation of Greater Rajasthan. 238

(v) Fifth Stage - United Rajasthan (vi) Sixth Stage - Merger of Ajmer (vii) Present Rajasthan. 14.3.2. Summary 14.3.3. Questions for Exercise.

14.0 Aims The present chapter aims:  To provide information about various movements and events of national movement of Rajasthan.  To provide information about integrations of Rajasthan and background of various princely states.  To acquaint with the problems of princely states o f Rajasthan and important facts about their merger.

14.1. Introduction and Preface: With downfall of the Mughals, Rajasthan became a centre of Maratha invasions. P i ndaris too, along with the Marathass entered Rajasthan both believed in plunder. When Indi an National C ongress was established in 1885, the British Government became alert. With foundation of Congress, national consciousness became strong in various parts of since the beginning of 20 th century, but it had not acquired a strong form in R ajasthan. In the fourth decade of the 20 th century, freedom fighters became active inspite against the wishes of rulers. During Quit India movement of 1942, they presented an exemplary form of nationalism. There were 19 princely states in Rajaputana at the time of independence. Amongst them, the oldest was Mewar and from the point of view of area, Jodhpur was the largest whose area was 45000 square km. It was decided in Haripura congress session (1938 - 39) that institutions of Prajamandal, Praja Parishad and Lok Parishad should be founded in States and that these institutions should try to form a responsible government under the a e gis of the respective rulers. Till now integration was not even thought of in these states. But during the session of All India States People’s Conference in Udaipur on 31 st December1945, decision was taken under the presidentship of Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru, to establish Rajputana Prantiya Sabha as a branch of All India State People Conference. Its Headquarter was based in Jaipur. I nfact it was the first step towards emotional integration of Rajaputana state.

Efforts of develop Rajaputana as a U nit: - An interim government was established under Pt. J.L. Nehru in centre in September 1946 which evoked new consciousness among the India ns. Seven days after its constitution Rajputana Prantiya Sabha declared on 9 th September 1946, by passing a resolution that no state of Rajasthan is eligible to join the Indian Union on its own. Therefore, the entire Rajasthan should merge into the Indian federation as a unit. After this resolution the politics of Rajputana took a new turn. It ended the concept of government under aegis of ruler and cultivated the spirit of integration among common men. Various 239

States decided to merge their artificial boun daries and form a united Rajasthan This resolution used the word Rajasthan in place of Rajputana.

14.2 National Movement in Rajasthan (1857 - 1947) 14.2.1 National movement of 1857: Most of the rulers of Rajasthan sided with the British in national movemen t of 1857. They provided men for help and granted refuge to families of the British Bikaner ruler Sardar Singh, in person, with 5000 cavalry reached Hansi, Sirsa and Hissar for their help. Jaipur ruler Ramsingh helped the British through men and money. Mah arana Swaroop Singh of Mewar sent his troop to crush the freedom fighters in Neemuch and Nimbahera. The Maharawals of Banswara and Dungarpur supported the British, Alwar ruler Bane Singh s ent his armoured core to rescue. British women and children from for t of Agra. Similarly, the rulers of Dholpur, Kota, Bundi, Jaisalmer, Sirohi and Shahapura too sided with the British. On 21 st August, the Indian sepoys of British army raised the banner of revolt in Er in pura. They reached Abu cantonment and killed Col. Hal l and other British, officials. They, then went to Auwa, a thikana of Marwar where the Thakur Kushal Singh led the revolt. Thikanedars of near by areas also joined him and their number reached upto 6000. This incident gravely disturbed Lord Canning. A revo lt also took place in Kota. The revolutionaries imprisoned Maharawal Ram Singh II who was freed by a force sent by Maharawal Madanpal of Karauli. Soldiers of Nasirabad cantonment too revolted. It becomes clear that during Revolt of 1857, national conscious ness prevailed in Rajasthan and it remained active even after the failure of 1857. Looking at the support by the feudals to the revolutionaries, the British government kept a stern control over rulers of Rajasthan.

14.2.1 Other Events: - (i) Swami Dayanand Saraswati and his visit to Rajasthan: - Saraswati was not only a religious reformer but also a precu r sor of nationalism. His main aim was to attain political independence. Infact, he was the first person to use the word swarajya. He came to Rajasthan in 18 61 and became guest of major rulers of Rajasthan. Between 1880 to 1890 he travelled in Bharatpur, Churu, Udaipur, Jodhpur, Jaipur, and came in contact with rulers. Jagirdars, noted citizens and common people. Every where he spread his message that self rule is the best rule. He explained the importance of swarajya, swadharma and swadeshi. He founded Arya Sama j on 7 th April 1875 in Bombay. (ii) Spread of English education: - There was development of education in Rajasthan since the beginning of 20 th century. Schools and colleges were founded and study of English language also began. Educated class started looking for employment but appointments on government posts were give n on the basis of family and political relations. Therefore, a majority of educated class went unemployed. It started criticizing British administration. Educated youth started demanding appointment on government posts on basis of equality and qualificatio n. They wanted to see liberalism of Europe, democracy and socialism in Rajasthan as well. Thus, these educated youth played an important role in creating national consciousness. (iii) Contribution of Newspapers and Scholars: - When popularity of newspaper i ncreased, political theorists and social reformers arranged for publication of newspapers at local level. Ajmer, first of all, became the centre from where newspapers like Desh Hitaishi, Rajasthan Kesari, Paropkar, Jaghitkarak, Rajasthan Samachar, Rajastha n Times and Rajasthan Gazette were published. These newspapers propagated the principles of Arya Sama j along with criticism of administrative system of the British government which was based on d uplicity . 240

(iv) Contribution of Rajasthanis: Rajasthanis outs hined in field of business, earned name and money through it and came in contact with the diplomatic British through trade. They realized that the British were heavily exploiting the co u ntry and could not benefit Rajasthan. They made their fellow citizens aware of economic exploitation of the British and informed them of anti British wave in the country. Thus they created national consciousness in people of Rajasthan and encouraged them to organize by providing financial help to them. Seth Jamna Lal Bajaj s tands foremost among people who promoted nationalism in Rajasthan. He made the movement active in Rajasthan through his labour and money. (v) Role of First world war: - Royal servants of the British, the rulers of Rajasthan, sent thousands of their men to E urope, where these men laid down their lives for safety of British. Those who survived, came back shared their experiences about discriminatory attitude of the British and experiences of war. They explained how British soldiers were provided top security a nd h ow the Indian soldiers always fought from the front so that maximum casualties would occur among the Indian soldiers. They were given unequal treatment. There was resentment among the people of Rajasthan and they decided to drive away the British from Bharat (vi) Contribution of Revolutionaries - Kesari Singh Barhat was an important revolutionary of Rajasthan. He was born in 1872 in village Devepura in Shahpura (). He was agitated due to partition of Bengal (1905) and agreed with views of Lokman ya Tilak. He wanted to establish secret revolutionary societies in Rajasthan like Bengal. He was a profound poet besides being a revolutionary. He was multi linguist and wrote in language. He created wave of patriotism and nationalism in the hearts of Rajasthanis with his inspiring poetry. In 1903, when Maharana Fateh Singh of Mewar proceeded to attend the Delhi Durbar, Barhat stopped him from attending the Durbar through his poem ‘Chetavani Ra Chungatia.’

14.2.3 National Struggle and Peasant Moveme nt. (i) Bijolia Peasant Movement : The credit for initiating an organized peasant movement in Bharat goes to Bijolia, which was a thikana of first grade in Mewar state. Its founder was Rao Ashok Parmar. The peasants were levied with 84 lag during reign of R ao Kishan Singh and had to pay half of th e produce to the Thikana as tax, a part from this , ‘Baith Begar’ was also charged from them. Due to this heavy fixation, condition of these hard working peasants deteriorated. Therefore, the peasants decided to oppose these extra taxes levied by the j agirdars after 1895. Vijay Singh Pathik and Bijolia Mo vement: - Credit goes to Pathik for initial success of Bijolia Movement. His earlier name was Bhoop Singh. He was born in G uthawal village in Bulandshahar district. In 1907, he came in contact with famous revolutionaries like Ras Bihari Bose and Sachindra Sanyal and was initiated into revolutionary activities. Bose sent him to Gopal Singh, the thakur of Kharwa, to organize a revolt in Rajasthan. He received important cooperation from Manikya Lal Verma, Ramdas, Premchand Bhil and Bhanwar Lal Suna r. Pathikji took advantage of news papers to make this movement nationwide and active. He started spreading the news of this movement to Bharat through the news paper ‘Pratap’ and to , Vijay Singh Pathik enhance intimacy with its editor , he sent 241 a Raakhi to Vidhyarthi. In 1919 C . E . Pathikji founded Rajasthan Seva Sangh. In 1920, its office shifted to Ajmer Pathikji now s tarted conducting the movement from there. In December 1919, he went to attend the Amritsar session of Congress and raised the matter of Bijolia. He wanted to make the movement a national issue. Therefore, he propagated the movement through Rajputana Madhya Bhar at Sabha.

(ii) Begun Peasant Movement: - Impact of Bijolia movement in nearby areas was indispensable and the neighbouring Jagir of Begun was also affected. Problems of peasants of Begun were similar to those of Bijolia. They were levied with many lag - bags (25 in number). Rates of land revenue were also high. Thus, the peasants of Begun organized a meeting at Bhairu Kund in Menal. Here, they decided to start a movement against excessive la g - ba g s, Begar and high land revenue. This movement was led by Ra m Narayan Chaudhary a member of Rajasthan Seva Sangh. The peasants refused to pay revenue without a new land settlement. After two years of struggle, the Thakur of Begun, Rawa l Anup Singh, accepted their demands and concluded an agreement in 1922. (iii) Pe asant Movement in Sikar and Shekhawati: - Sikar was the l argest “Thikana” of which included 436 villages. Half of it was under control of the Bhomiyas. Peasant movement here, continued for the longest period of time. Its causes were similar to o ther peasant movements like exce ssive lag, Begar increase in land revenue etc. In 1922, Thakur Kalyan Singh became Rao of Sikar. His Policy was to levy more land revenue. On advice of ruler of jaipur, he agreed to decrease the revenue, but did not take any concrete steps towards it. Rendered helpless, the peasants of Sikar founded ‘Rajasthan Jat Kshetriya Sabha’ in 1931 and made efforts to seek support from All India Jat Mahasabha. An agreement was made on 23 rd August 1934, according to which many lagats, interest of revenue and beggar were waved off. By the end of 1935, atrocities on Jat peasants faded and revenue were reduced. (iv) Peasant Movement of Shekhawati: - This movement was an extension of peasant move ment of Sikar. Agitation prevailed here due to atrocities of Jagirdars and passiveness of the administration. There were five major thikans of Shekhawati, viz. Bisau, , Malsisar, and Nawalgarh known as Panchpane. Mos t of the peasants here we re Jats. Apart from these five, Khetri, Alsisar Khand e la, Jakhara, Ismantpur were also amongst the affected areas. Therefore, this movement came to be called as Jat Movement. In March 1934, the Jagirdars committed atrocities on peasants for non payment of taxes. In 1934, All Indian Jat Mahasabha appealed to ruler of Jaipur to control activities of the Jagirdars and adopt liberal attitude towards peasants. Public opinion strengthend against Jagirdar system in Rajasthan and efforts began to earadicate jagird ari system after establishment of democratic system. ( v) Peasant Movement in Bundi and Alwar: - In 1926, the peasants of Bundi under Pt. Nayanuram started movement against Begar and lag - Bag. Women also joined this movement. Police acted sternly to suppress t he movement and it did not hesitate to open fire on them in Dab i . Nanakji Bhil lost his life in this firing People of Bundi still pay their homage to him through folk songs.

14.2.4 Fr e e dom S truggle and M ovements of Tribals: - Bhils are the foremost tribal of Rajasthan. They had played an important role in secur ity of Mewar and that in why the royal insignia of Mewar state contains a picture of Bhil carrying bow and arrow. This tribe i s first mentioned in ‘Katha Sarit Sagar’ by Gundhyaya. When they were exp loited during British regime, Shri Govind Giri inspired them to resist. Bhils did not want the ruler of Mewar to sign the Treaty of 1818 as they were against any British 242 protection. Shri Govind Giri was born in a family of in Bansia village of D un garpur state. He was made literate by the priest of his village. He founded ‘Samp Sabha’ in 1883 for service of the Bhils. In Rajasthan language, Samp means love or brother hood. He wanted to organize bhils by creating awareness among the Bhils of Mewar, D ungarpur, Idar, Gujrat Vijaynagar and Malwa. In 1903, he organized the first session of meeting of Bhils on hill of Mangarh in Gujrat. In this meeting, he urged the Bhils to quit liquor. Affected by his appeal, thousands of Bhil , Garasias promised to quit drinking and resolved to educate their children. He also asked them not to pay begar and unreasonable taxes. After this, yearly sessions of Samp Sabha were organized on Mangarh like on Ashwin Shukla . As a peasant, Giri tried to inculcate spiritual and moral values among his Bhil brothers. Another notable leader of the Bhils was Shri Moti Lal Tejawat who was born on Jayeshtha Shukla pratham in an Oswal family of Koliyari village of tribal area of Phalasia in Mewar in 1887. He became kamdar of Jhadol thikana by virtue of his education. In 1921, he inspired the Bhils for non payment of lag taken by Jagirdars of Jhadol, Kotra, Malvi. Gradually, this movement spread to Sirohi, Palanpur, Danta, Idar, Vijaynagar etc. Shri Tejwat organized a conference in V ijaynagar which terrified the Mewar Government. Thus, the forces of Mewar and nearby princely states reached Neemra to crush the movement. They opened firing on people and tried to crush the movement.

14.2.5 Freedom M ovement and Prajamandal Movement: - Na tional consciousness in Rajasthan was present since freedom movement of 1857 but was hampered by Rajpu t rulers and feudals. After the conclusion of Treaties of 1818, they became staunch opponents of nationalism and its main source, the Indain National Cong ress. They were encouraged by the British. Still, nationalism g ai ned moment um in first half of 20 th century. It took a broad f o r m with establishment of Prajamandals in 1938. The Haripura session of Congress in 1938, recognized formation of political organisations in princely states. As a result, the third decade of 20 th century in Rajasthan turned out to be an epoch making decade. Efforts began in almost all states towards formation of Prajamandals and the awareness which it created, finally resulted in formation of a Greater Rajasthan in 1949. Various other organizations were also formed before Prajamandals, viz. Rajasthan Seva Sangh, Rajasthan Madhya Bharat S abha , All India States Peoples’ Conference etc.

Formation of Praja Mandals: - (i) Mewar Prajama ndal - The Mewar Prajamandal was founded on 24 April 1938 and its leadership was taken up b y Manikya Lal Verma. He was at that time working constructively among the Bhils. Before this, he had also participated in Bijolia peasant movement under the leadershi p of Pathik and here he realized that with out change in political conditions change society is difficult to achieve. Therefore he handed over the mission of service of the Blils to Shri Bhogi Lal Pandya a n d returned to Mewar, where he pondered over establi shing a political institution on advice of Shri Balwant Rai Mehta. Thereafter, he invited Bhure Lal Baya, Bhawani Shankar Maniya Lal Verma Vaidy, Daya Shankar Kshatriya, Hira Lal Kothari, Ramesh 243

Chandra Vyas and Yamuna Lal Vaidya at the residence of Mehta. Decision was taken to establish Prajamandal in this meeting. The constitution of prajamandal was formed in this meeting and Balwant R ai Mehta was made its president while Vermaji assumed the post of minister. (ii) Marwar Prajamandal - Political consciousness began in Marwar in December 1918. Shree Chandmal Surana awakened people by forming Marwar Hit Karini Sabha in this year. In 1920, Jai Narayan Vyas tried to curb the arbitrary ruler of Marwar ruler by founding Marwar Se va Sangh. In 1928, the Jodhpur government banned Marwar Rajya Lok Parishad when it decided to hold its session. Vyas bitterly criticized this move through ‘Tarun Rajasthan’ which was published from Beawar. Jodhpur League was founded in Jodhpur at the time when civil disobedience movement in India had commenced. Workers of the League organized a large meeting to propagate khadi. Use of khadi was emphasized and intoxication along with use of foreign clothes was opposed. Strikes were observed in educational in stitutions. A session of Marwar Raja Lok Parishad was organized under the presidentship of Kasturba Gandhi in Pushkar. Colleagues and coworkers of Vyas were inspired by the Haripur session’s proposal on 6 th May 1938, and founded Marwar Lok Parishad, Subha sh Chandra Bose too visited Jodhpur and inspired people for freedom in January 1938. (iii) Jaipur Prajamandal - In Jaipur inspiration for freedom came from Shri Arjun Lal Sethi. He was offered a high post after his graduation from the Maharaja college by the Ja ipur government. Rejecting the offer, Sethiji remarked, If Arjun Lal accepts the government job who will drive out the British? Sethiji, by this time, had come under the influence of Ras Bihari Bose. After the partition of Bengal, he had become a follower of Lokmanya Tilak who was impressed by his services. When in 1920, Sethiya crossed , after being released from Jail, Tilak accorded a grand welcome to him on Poona railway station and said, ‘Maharashtra feels fortunate to welcome a recluse, patriot and great ascetic like Sethi ji’ In 1934 when Gandhi came to Ajmer, he himself paid a visit to Sethiji and became very emotional. Efforts were made to rejuvenate Jaipur Prajamandal in 1936 - 37 under the inspiration of Seth Jamna Lal Bajaj, the treasurer of Con gress. He founded ‘Charkha Sangh’ in 1927 and attracted attention of people towards swadeshi Khadi. By this time, Hira Lal Shastri had founded ‘Jeevan Kutir”, the present Banasthali Vidhyapeeth. He had recruited several followers through Jeevan Kutir. He m ade Chiranji Lal Misra president of Jaipur Prajamanda and himself became its secretary. Later on, he received services of Baba Harish Chandra Chiranji Lal Agarwal, Hans D. Rai and Laduram Joshi. They collectively made efforts to make this organization acti ve. Role of Peasant movement (Jat) of Shekhawati was very supportive in making Jaipur Prajamandal, a powerful organization. The Prajamandal in turn, cooperated with the demands of the p easants. As a result the organizers of the peasant movement joined hand s with Prajamandal. Several wrorkers of the Prajamandal like Sardar Har Lal Singh, Narottam Joshi Tarakeshwar came from Shekhawati. (iv) Bikaner Prajamandal : In October 1936, Shri Magharam Vaidya founded Bikaner Prajamandal in Calcutta. Raghubar Dayal Goyal to ok the initiative and founded Bikaner Praja Parishad on 22 nd July, the same year. (v) Kota Prajamandal - Prajamandal was founded in 1931 due to efforts of Pt. Nayanuram Sharma who quit the police services and started to spread the spirit of nationalism. In 1939, the founded the Kota Rajya Prajamandal with cooperation of Abhinna . The latter was a worker of high 244 category. The Prajamandal became active due to their sacrifices and hard work. It passed resolutions for eradication of illiteracy, providing means of irrigation to peasants and arranging food grains and requested the government to implement them. The first session of Kota Rajya Praja Mandal was held in Mangrol in 1939 under the presidentship of Pt. Nayanuram. (vi) Bharatpur and Karauli: - In Bharatp ur, the peasants were opponents of their ruler due to burden of heavy taxes. In 1924, when the peasants requested to lower down the revenue, Kishan Singh, the ruler, adopted the policy of repression, As a result, the peasant movement of Bharatpur became a ggressive. In September1937, a delegation met Nehru on Bharatpur railway station and on latter’s advice, Bharatpur Prajamandal was found. After the Haripur Congress session in 1938, Prajamandal was founded in Alwar under the leadership of Hari Narayan Shar ma and Kunj Bihari Lal Modi. (vii) Karauli Prajamandal : - Political consciousness in Karauli spread through Karauli Rajya Sevak Sangh who was founded by Munshi Trilok Chand Mathur. He founded a branch of provincial Congress committee in Karauli in 1938. When prajamandals were established in other princely states, the Congress branch of Karauli was converted to Prajamandal.

14.2.6 Summary The background to Freedom struggle in Rajasthan started with Revolution of 1857. Various incidents contributed to the free dom like contribution of newspapers, spread of English education, political ideology of prominent people. Peasant movements have played an important pa r t in freedom movement of Rajasthan, especially Begun and Bijolia peasant movement. Some tribal movements also generated political consciousness especially the Bhil movement. The Prajamandal movement too played an important role in creating political consciousness.

14.2.7 Questions for Exercise. - Multiple choice questions: 1. Khushal Singh was the thakur of: - (a) Nimraval (b) Alwar (c) Auwa (c) Erinpura 2. Who wrote Chetavani ra Chungatiya? (a) Arjun Lal Sethi (b) Kesari Singh Barhat (c) Mangi Lal Pandya (c) Vijay Singh Pathik

Short Answer Type questions: 1. When and where did the revolation of 18 57 break out in Raasthan? 2. What were the major areas of outbreak of the revolation of 1857 in Rajasthan? 3. Name two leaders of Bijolia peasant Movement.

Short Answer Type questions: 1. Write a short note on Bijolia peasant movement 2. Comment on Bhil movement. 3. Write five lines on Begun peasant movement. 4. Comment on Vijay Singh Pathik. 5. 245

Essay type questions: 1. Write on essay on Prajamandal Movement. 2. Analyse major causes of freedom struggle of Rajasthan.

14.3 Integration 1947 - 1956 14.3.1 Various stages of formation of Rajasthan (i) First Stage - Formation of United State of Matsya - Two small states of Karauli and Dholpur were in proximity with Alwar and Bharatpur. All these four states did not qualify the status of independent states according to parameters of Central government. Therefore, on 27 th February 1948, the Indian government advised these states to form a new state which these states accepted. On 18 March 1948, these four states merged to form Matsya State. This area was known as Matsya s tate in Mahabharata era too. It was inaugurated on 18 March 1948 by N.V. Godgil, a central minister of Bharat. Its area extended to 12000 square Kilometers and its capital was Alwar. Its population was 1.8 crore and its annual income was Rs 2 crores. Shri Shobharam Kumawat was made its Prime Minister and ruler of Dholpur Udaibhan Singh was made its Raj Pramukh. There were eight ministers in council of ministers.

United State of Matsya (ii) Second Stage - Formation of Former Rajasthan - The States Department formed United Rajasthan by merging the princely states of Kota, Bundi, Jhalawar, Dungarpur, Banswara, Pratapgarh, Tonk, Shahpura and . All these states constituted an area of 1680 sq. miles and a population of 2334220 people. Kota was the larges t state in united state of Rajasthan Therefore, its ruler Maharao Bhim Singh became Raj Pramukh of this new federation. This federation is also known as First United States of Rajasthan as there was another formation of United States of Rajasthan. It was i naugurated on 25 March 1948 by Shri N.V. Godgil minister of Indian and appointed Gokul Lal Asawa as Prime Minister.

(iii) Third Stage - Formation of United Rajasthan - The Prajamandal clearly stood in favour of merger of Mewar into Rajasthan. The leaders started to form public opinion in favour and impressed upon people that progress 246 of Mewar was only possible by ending its seclusion. The States Department, due to its p olicy, could not force Mewar for Merger. Three days after the inauguration of United Rajasthan, the ruler of Mewar informed that he was ready to join the federation. The Maharana, , sent his Prime Minister Sir Ram to Delhi to discuss the terms of merger with Shri V.P. Menon. Mohan Singh Mehta also accompanied him. It was decided that Udaipur would be the capital of this new federation; the Maharana would be the Raj Pramukh for life time. He would be granted Rs. 5 lakhs per annum apart fro m his privypurse of Rs 10 Lakhs and also Rs 5 Lakhs for charitable and religious purpose. The geographical position of Mewar was also compelling its merger into United States of Rajasthan. Under such circumstances, Mewar formally sent the proposal for merg er into United States of Rajasthan on 11 th April 1948. This Union was inaugurated by Pt. J.L. Nehru on 18 th April 1948. Maharana Bhupal became i t s Raj Pramukh and Manikya Lal Verma became its Prime Minister. (iv) Fourth Stage; - Greater Rajasthan - The major states of Jaipur, Jodhpur, Bikaner and Jaisalmer had not joined any Union till now. Jodhpur, Bikaner and Jaisalmer shared boundaries with Pakistan. Apart from this, a majority of their area was arid and backward from the point of view of transport and co mmunication. Therefore, the Home department of Indian government was interested in declaring them centrally administr ated area. But at the same time it wanted to take any final decision keeping in mind popular sentiments. The rulers of these three states w anted to maintain their independent status. Bikaner ruler Shri Sardul Singh had also expressed his intention in this direction. On the other hand, socialist leaders like Shri Jai P rakash Narayan and Ram Manohar Lohia had expressed their support for a ‘Grea ter Rajasthan’. The Indian government could not accept independent status of these states on Pakistan border. Therefore, Sardar vallabh Bhai Patel sent V.P. Menon, secretary to the Sates Department, to negotiate with these rulers.

With the efforts of Sar dar Patel and Shri V.P. Menon, in December 1948, rulers of Jaipur, Jodhpur, Jaisalmer and Bikaner agreed to merge into ‘Greater Rajasthan. On 14 th January 1948, Sardar Patel announced this decision in a huge public meeting in Udaipur. He inaugurated the Union of Greater Rajasthan on 30 th March 1949 in its new Capital Jaipur and Hira Lal Shastri was sworn as a Prime Minister along with his council of Ministers on 7 th April.

(v) Fifth Stage - United state of Greater Rajasthan - When the ten states of United Rajasthan, merged with Jaipur, Jodhpur, Bikaner and Jaisalmer to form Greater Rajasthan, independent status of Matsya state seemed 247 useless to Indian government. A meeting was called in this context on 13rd February 1949 in De lhi. They were asked for their choice for merger in Rajasthan or U.P. to confirm choice of the people, Sardar Patel constituted a committee under Shankar Rao Deo which stated in its report that maximum people of these states were in favour of merger into R ajasthan. Thus, accepting the communities recommendations the four states of Matsya Alwar, Bharatpur, Dholpur and Karauli were merged in to Rajasthan on 15 th May 1949 and this new Union was called United Greater Rajasthan Shastriji incorporated the PM of M atsya, Shri Shobharam into his ministry. In March 1948, when United Rajasthan was formed, the princely states under Gujrat States Agency were merged into Bombay. People of Sirohi opposed this and expressed their will to merge into Rajasthan. A delegation m et Pt. Nehru on 18 th April 1948 and requested to continue Sirohi as part of Rajasthan. On 1 st November 1956, Sirohi became a part of Rajasthan. (vi) Sixth Stage - Merger of Ajmer - The Problem of Ajmer was quite crucial. The Rajputana Prantiya Sabha of All Indian States Peoples ’ Conference demanded that not only all the states of Rajputana but Ajmer Merwar too be merged with Rajasthan. But the Congress leadership in Ajmer was not in favour of this proposition. After the general elections of 1952, Shri Hari Bha u Upadhyaya assumed the office of Chief Minister. The leadership presented the logic of viability of small states from administrative point of view. But the reorganization commi ssion did not approve of this logic and recommended its merger into Rajasthan. Thus on 1 st November1956, Ajmer - Merwara along with Sirohi became a part of Rajasthan. (vii) Present Rajasthan - Thus, our present Rajasthan was formed from 18 March 1948 to 1 st No vember 1956. During this interval of eight years, Rajasthan had to face many difficulties in the process of becomining a unit. It passed through six stages to complete its journey. Dreams of Maharana Sanga and Maharana Pratap of a united Rajasthan were thu s realised. Monarchies came to an end. It became the second largest state of Bharat. The office of governor replaced Maharaja Pramukh and Raj Pramukh. Credit for this great revolutionary change goes to the then Home Minister of Bharat, Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel. He was no longer alive to see this integration but was being praised every where for his wisdom. It was the result of his untiring efforts and diplomacy that monarchies came to an end in 565 princely states and a strong democracy was founded.

14. 3 .2 Summary: - The integration of Rajasthan was an important issue, Local rulers presented hurdles in integrating due to their personal ego and geographical and political differences. Integration of Rajasthan was completed in various stages. Almost after six stages, todays Rajasthan could be formed due to political diplomacy of Sardar Patel

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14. 3 .3 Questions for Exercise: - Multiple choice questions: - 1. Which state was not a part of Mastsya State? (a) Alwar (b) Bharatpur (c) Karauli (c) Kota 2. When was United Rajasthan formed? (a) April 1948 (b) April 1949 (c) March 1948 (c) March 1949

Very Short Answer Type Questions: 1. How many princely states were there in Rajasthan at the time of independence? 2. Which states were parts of Matsya Union? 3. During which time was the integration of Rajasthan completed?

Short Answer Type Questions: - 1. Comment on Matsya Sangh. 2. Write five lines on formation of United Rajasthan. 3. Explain the nature of present Rajasthan. 4. Write a comment on merger of Ajmer in Rajasthan.

Essay t ype questions: - 2. Write an essay on integration of Rajasthan.

Answer Multiple Choice & Very Short type questions .

14.2.7 National Movement in Rajasthan (1857 - 1947) 1. (c) Aa u wa 2. (b) Kesari Singh Barhat.

Very Short Answer Type questions . 1. Nasirabad 28 May 1857 2. Nasirabad , Neemuch, A u wa and Kota 3. Vijay Singh Pathik and Ashok Parmar

14.3.3. Integration of Rajasthan 1. ( d ) Kota 2. ( c ) March 1948

Very Short Answer Type questions . 1. 19 States 2. Alwar , Bharatpur, Dholpur and Karauli 3. 1 8 March 1948 to 1 st November 1956

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Glossary -  Rajasthan Kesari - Newspaper published from Ajmer  Dingal - A form of  Panchpane - Bisa u , D u ndlod, Malsisar, Mandawa and Nawalgarh peasant movement  Samp - Means love and fratermily in Rajasthan lang uage.  Matsya Sangh - Alwar Bharatpur, Dholpur, Karauli  Hadoti - Kota, Bundi and Jhalawar.

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