Notes

1 INTRODUCTION

1. Geoffrey Hosking, - People and Empire (London, 1996), passim. 2. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.74, 1.3; f.17, op.3, d.122, 1.2; f.17, op.2, d.46, 1.3; f.17, op.2, d.55, 1.5.

2 MARXISTS, AND THE NATIONAL QUESTION

1. Quoted in Richard Pipes, The Formation of the ; and Nationalism 1917-1923 (Cambridge MA, 1954), p.21. 2. Quoted in E.H. Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, 1917-1923 (3 Vols. Pelican Edition, 1986).Vol.I, p.415. 3. Ibid., p.415. 4. Nigel Harris, National Liberation (London, 1990), p.47. 5. Ibid., p.42. 6. Carr, Vol.I, p.419. 7. Harris, p.43. 8. Ibid., p.45; Carr, Vol.I, p.421. 9. Jonathan Frankel, Prophecy and Politics; , Nationalism and the Russian , 1862-1917 (Cambridge, 1984), p.220. 10. Ibid., pp.215-19. 11. Otto Bauer, 'The Concept of the Nation' in Tim Bottomore and Patrick Goode (eds),Austro-Marxism (Oxford 1978), p.107. 12. Otto Bauer, 'Socialism and the Principle of Nationality' in Bottomore and Goode, p.114. 13. Karl Renner, 'The Development of the National Idea' in Bottomore and Goode, p.120. 14. Bauer, 'Socialism and the Principle of Nationality', in Bottomore and Goode, p.117. 15. Quoted in Harris, p.57. 16. Rosa Luxemburg, 'The National Question and Autonomy' in Horace B. Davis (ed.), The National Question: Selected Writings by Rosa Luxemburg (New York, 1976), p.135. 17. Ibid., p.140. 18. Ibid., p.249. 19. Ibid., p.256. 20. Ibid., p.279. 21. R.H. McNeal (ed.), Resolutions and Decisions of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Toronto, 1974) Vol.I, p.42. 243 244 Notes 22. V.I. Lenin, Polnoe Sobranie Sochinenii (5th edn; , 1964), Vol.XLVIII, p.234. 23. Lenin, Vol.XXV, p.277. 24. Ibid., pp.274-5. 25. Lenin, Vol.XXIV, pp.294-5. 26. Lenin, Vol.XXIII, p.423. 27. Stephen F. Cohen, Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution: A Political Biography, 1888-1938 (Oxford, 1980), pp.35-7. 28. Speculation that Lenin himself wrote all or part of this article has, hopefully, been squashed by Erik van Ree, 'Stalin and the National Question', in Revolutionary Russia, Vol.7, No.2, December 1994, pp.214-38. 29. Harris, pp. 71-2; Pipes, pp.40-1. 30. I.V. Stalin, Sochineniia (Moscow, 1946ff), Vol.II, p.296. 31. For example, Stalin, Vol.IV, p.355. 32. Van Ree, p.223. 33. Stalin, Vol.II, pp.362-3. 34. Ibid., p.362. 35. Ibid., p.362. 36. Ibid., p.364. 37. Lenin, Vol.XXVII, pp.255-6. 38. Vos'moy s'ezd RKP(b) (Moscow, 1959), p.78. 39. Sed'maia (aprel'skaia) vserossiiskaia konferentsiia RSDRP (Moscow, 1958), pp.208-227. 40. McNeal, op. cit., pp.225-6. 41. Vos'moi s'ezd RKP(b), p.78. 42. Ibid., pp.107-10. 43. KPSS v rezolutsiiakh (Moscow, 1963), p.45. 44. Lenin, Vol.XXXVIII, pp.157-8. 45. Ibid., pp.111-12. 46. Stalin, Vol.IV, p.158. 47. Ibid., p.352. 48. See, for example, his report on the national and colonial questions to the Second Congress of the Communist International, Lenin, Vol.XU, pp.161-8. 49. Lenin, Vol.XLV, p.356. 50. Zhizn' natsional'nostei, No.3, 24th November 1918, p.2. 51. Zhizn' natsional'nostei, No.3, 24th November 1918, p.3. 52. Zhizn' natsional'nostei, No.4, 1st December 1918, p.7. 53. Stalin, Vol.IV, p.75. 54. Ibid., p.395. 55. Stalin, Vol.IV, pp.395-6. 56. Ibid., p.398. 57. Desiatyi s'ezd RKP(b), mart 1921 goda - stenograficheskyi otchet (Moscow, 1963), p.252. 58. Stalin, Vol.V, p.39. 59. Ibid., p.44. 60. Ibid., p.113. 61. Ibid., p.48. Notes 245 62. B.F. Sultanbekov (ed.), Tainy natsional'noi politiki TsK RKP - stenograficheskyi otchet sekretnogo IV soveshchaniia TsK RKP, 1923 g. (Moscow, 1992), p.31. 63. Dvenadtsatyi s'ezd RKP(b), 17-25 aprelia 1923 goda - stenograficheskii otchet (Moscow, 1968), p.654.

3 THE CASE FOR NATIONAL AUTONOMY

1. Sbornik ukazov i postanovlenii Vremennogo Pravitel'stva, Vipusk I (Petrograd, 1917), p.46. 2. Velikii Oktiabr (Moscow, 1987), p.123. 3. Velikii Oktiabr, p.138. 4. Pipes, p.247. 5. Velikii Oktiabr, p.139. 6. McNeal, op. cit., Vol. I, p.226. 7. For a more detailed account, although limited by lack of access to the archives, of the history and activities of Narkomnats, see Stephen Blank, The Sorcerer as Apprentice - Stalin as Commissar of Nationalities, 1917-1924 (Westport, 1994). 8. Stephen Blank, 'The Unknown Commissariat: the Soviet Commissariat of Nationalities 1917-1924' (unpublished PhD. thesis, Chicago, 1979), p.32. 9. Ibid., p.108. 10. Gosudarstvennii Arkhiv Rossiiskoi Federatsii (hereafter GARF) f.1318, op.1, d.1, 1.1. 11. GARF, f.1318, op.l, d.1, 11.52-56. 12. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.l, 1.8. 13. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.l, 11.10, 15, 25. 14. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.l, 1.29. See below, Chapter 6. 15. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.2, 1.104. 16. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.l, 1.102. 17. GARF, f.1318, op.I, d.2, 1.94. 18. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.2, 1.113. 19. Pipes, p.113; Blank, op. cit., pp.137-45. 20. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.1, 1.15. 21. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.1, 9th November 1918, pp.1-2. 22. Pertti Luntinen, French Information on the Russian War Plans 1880-1914 (Helsinki, 1984), pp.22-3, 64, 105, 178. 23. Stephen Blank, 'The Bolshevik Party and the Nationalities in 1917', Sbornik No.9, January 1983, p.13. 24. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.1, 1.15. 25. GARF, f.1318, op.l, d.1, 1.17. 26. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.21, 13 April 1919, p.3; no.26, 18 May 1919, p.4. 27. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.41, 3 August 1919, p.4. 28. Zhizn' natsional'nostei no.25, 11 May 1919, p.4. See below, Chapter 5. 29. Arthur E. Adams, Bolsheviks in the Ukraine, the Second Campaign 1918-1919 (New Haven and London, 1963), pp.25-61. 30. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.2, d.8, 1.1. 246 Notes 31. Jurij Borys, The Sovietization of Ukraine 1917-1923, (Edmonton, 1980), pp.235-6. 32. Ibid., p.238. 33. 'Iz arkhiva t.Sklianskogo' (Trotsky Archive), quoted in Borys, p.239. 34. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.2, d.16, 1.14. 35. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.2, d.15, 1.2. 36. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.2, d.16, 1.14. 37. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.2, d.17, 1.9-10. 38. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.9, 1.1. 39. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.10, 1.1. 40. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.2, d.23, 1.1. 41. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.2, d.48, 1.1. 42. Bertram D. Wolfe, 'The Influence of Early Military Decisions upon the National Structure of the Soviet Union', American Slavic and East European Review, Vol. 9, 1950, pp.169-70. 43. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.57, 1.1. 44. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.58, 1.3. 45. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.155, 1.6. 46. See below, Chapter 8. 47. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.2, 17 November 1918, p.7. 48. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.3, 24 November 1918, p.8. 49. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.6, 15 December 1918, p.7. 50. Blank, op. cit., pp.177-85. 51. Blank, op. cit., pp.57-70. 52. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.1, l.48. 53. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.1, 1.58. 54. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.1, 1.68. 55. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.l, 1.71. 56. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.1, 1.79. 57. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.1, 1.78. 58. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.1, 1.86. 59. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.1, 1.93; Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.10, 19 January 1919, p.7. 60. GARF, f.1318, op.l, d.l, 1.95. 61. GARF, f.1318, op.l, d.2, 11.94-5. 62. Chapters 5 and 8. 63. Helene Carrere d'Encausse, The Great Challenge: Nationalities and the Bolshevik State, 1917-1930 (New York, 1992), p.101. 64. Stalin, Vol.IV, pp.32-3. 65. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.2, d.l, 1.2. 66. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.62, 8 February 1920, p.2. 67. Stalin, Vol.IV, pp.49-50. 68. W.R. Batsell, Soviet Rule in Russia (New York, 1929), p.139. The rele• vant Narkomnats minutes were lost in the move from Petrograd to Moscow; GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.1, 1.2. 69. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.1, 1.11. 70. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.1, 1.17. 71. Alexander G. Park, Bolshevism in Turkestan 1917-1927 (New York, 1957), p.64. Notes 247

72. A. Aminov & A. Babakhodzhaev, Ekonomicheskiie i politicheskiie posledstviia prisoedineniia Srednei Azii k Rossii (Tashkent, 1966), p.128. 73. Sh. B. Batirov et al., Pobeda sovetskoi vlasti v Srednei Azii i Kazakhstane (Tashkent, 1967), pp.612-13. 74. Ibid., p.614. 75. Ibid., pp.614-15. 76. Ibid., p.617. 77. Ibid., pp.617-22. 78. Batsell, pp.165-6. 79. Jonathan D. Smele, Civil war in Siberia - the Anti-Bolshevik Government ofAdmiral Kolchak, 1918-1920 (Cambridge, 1997), pp.289-301. 80. GARF, f.1318, op.3, d.l, 1.1. 81. Smele, pp.300-1. 82. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.2, d.10, 1.3. 83. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.18, 23 March 1919, p.l. 84. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.68, 1.4. 85. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.58, 1.5. 86. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.61, 1 February 1920, p.2. 87. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.62, 8 February 1920, p.2. 88. Ibid. 89. Ibid. 90. Batsell, p.143. 91. RTsKhIDNI, f.1318, op.1, d.4, 1.43. 92. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.3, 24 November 1918, p.3. 93. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.59, 11January1920, p.1. 94. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.113, 30 July 1921, p.l. 95. GARF, f.1318, op.I, d.5, 11.61-2. 96. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.157, 1.1. 97. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.2, d.65, 1.1. 98. Batsell, p.142. 99. Ibid., pp.144-8. 100. Ibid., p.165. 101. Ibid., 172. 102. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.5, 1.112; ibid., d.7, 1.75. 103. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.5, 1.63. 104. Stalin, Vol.IV, p.401. 105. RTsKhIDNI, f.64, op.1, d.72, 1.10. 106. RTsKhIDNI, f.64, op.1, d.72, 11.6-9. 107. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.115, 3 September 1921, p.l. 108. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.7, 1.101; ibid., d.8, 1.104.1922. 109. A.I. Mikoian, V nachale dvadtsatikh ... (Moscow, 1975), pp.220-1. 110. Dvenadtsatyi s'ezd RKP(b), p.500. 111. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.174, 1.4. 112. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.8, 1.27. 113. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.8, 1.119. 114. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.116, 16September1921, p.1. 115. A.I. Afanas'eva, Istoriia Karelii v dokumentakh i materialakh - Sovetskii period (, 1992), p.55. 248 Notes

116. Velikii Oktiabr, p.205. 117. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.1, d.2796, p.4. 118. Discussed in Chapter 4. 119. Christopher J. Walker (ed.), Annenia and Karabakh - the Strnggle for Unity (London, 1991 ), p.83. 120. Ibid., pp.88-99. 121. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.1, d.2797; Gerard J. Libaridian (ed.), Le Dossier Karabagh - Faits et Documents sur la Question du Haut-Karabagh, 1918-1988 (Paris, 1988), pp.20-2. 122. S.M. Kirov, Stat'i, rechi, dokumenti - Tom 1 (Moscow, 1936), p.144. 123. Nagorniy Karabakh - lstoricheskaia spravka (Akademiya Nauk Armyanskoy SSR, Erevan, 1988), p.24. 124. Ibid., p.23. 125. Ibid., p.24. 126. Le Dossier Karabagh, p.28. 127. RTsKhIDNI, f.64, op.I, d.17, 1.18. 128. Walker,Annenia and Karabakh, p.100. 129. RTsKhIDNI, f.64, op.I, d.17, l.106. 130. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.1, d.2796, ll.1-2. 131. RTsKhIDNI, f.64, op.1, d.19, 1.9. 132. Nagorniy Karabakh, pp.24-5; Walker,Annenia and Karabakh, pp.101-2. 133. Nagomiy Karabakh, p.27. 134. Kirov, pp.231-2. 135. Le Dossier Karabakh, p.31. 136. Stalin, Vol.IV, p.414. 137. Nagomiy Karabakh, p.207. 138. Nagomiy Karabakh, p.35. 139. A.Sh. Mil'man, Azerbaidzhanskaia SSR - suverennoe gosudarstvo v sostave SSSR (Baku, 1971 ), p.234. 140. Walker, Armenia and Karabakh, p.106. 141. Nagorniy Karabakh, p.31. 142. Walker,Annenia and Karabakh, p.107. 143. Le Dossier Karabakh, p.23. 144. Nagomiy Karabakh, p.32. 145. Walker,Annenia and Karabakh, p.107. 146. Nagomiy Karabakh, p.33. 147. Le Dossier Karabagh, p.34. 148. Hrant Avdissian, quoted in Le Dossier Karabagh, p.34. The other two sources are Nagomiy Karabakh, p.33; Walker, Armenia and Karabakh, p.108. 149. See below, Chapter 4. 150. Discussed below, Chapter 7. 151. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.375, 11.2, 12. 152. G.K. Ordzhonikidze, Stat'i i rechi (Moscow, 1956), Vol.I, p.201. 153. Dvenadtsatyi s'ezd RKP(b), p.599. 154. Ibid., pp.618-19. 155. See below, Chapter 5. 156. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.4, 1.1. 157. Stalin, Vol.IV, p.359. Notes 249 4 BUILDING NATIONHOOD

1. GARF, f.13I8, op.3, d.34. 2. RTsKhIDNI, f.64, op.I, d.6I, 1.7. 3. RTsKhIDNI, f.64, op.I, d.61, 1.2. 4. RTsKhIDNI, f.64, op.l, d.61, 1.1. 5. RTsKhIDNI, f.64, op.I, d.52, 1.249. 6. RTsKhIDNI, f.64, op. I, d.75, 1.100. 7. RTsKhIDNI, f.64, op.l, d.61, 1.5 8. RTsKhIDNI, f.64, op.1, d.61, 1.13. 9. McNeal, op. cit., Vol.I, p.226. 10. Stalin, Vol.IV, p.67. 11. See below, Chapter 7. 12. RTsKhIDNI, f.64, op.1, d.52, 1.135. 13. See above, Chapter 3. 14. Walker, Armenia and Karabakh, p.106. 15. RTsKhIDNI, f.64, op.I, d.17, 1.13. 16. RTsKhIDNI, f.64, op.l, d.61, 1.7. 17. RTsKhIDNI, f.69, op.I, d.75, 1.100. I8. RTsKhIDNI, f.64, op.1, d.6, 1.13. 19. RTsKhIDNI, f.64, op.1, d.61, 1.4. 20. RTsKhIDNI, f.64, op.I, d.52, 1.249. 21. Nicholas P. Vakar, Belorussia, the Making of a Nation (Cambridge, Mass. 1956), pp.5-I 6. 22. Ibid., p.11. 23. Ibid., pp.5-8. 24. E.F. Karskii, Belorusi - iazik Belorusskogo naroda (Moscow, 1955), Vol.I, pp.447-8. 25. E.F. Karskii, Russkaia dialektologiia (Moscow, 1924), pp.79-82. 26. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.10, 19 January I919, p. l. 27. Kommunisticheskaia Partiia Belorussii v Rezoliutsiiakh i Resheniiakh s'ezdov i plenumov TsK, tom pervyi 1918-1927 (Minsk, 1973), pp.19-20. 28. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.2, d.8, 1.1. 29. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.12, 2 February 1919, p.4. 30. Vakar, p.109. 31. Pipes, pp.152-3; Carrere d'Encausse, p.86; Vakar, p.109; Jan Zaprudnik, Belarus - At a Crossroads in History (Boulder and Oxford, 1993 ), p. 70. 32. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.2, d.8, 1.1. 33. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.9, 5 January 1919, p.1. 34. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.9, 5 January 1919, p.3. 35. Ibid. 36. Pipes, p.153. 37. Vakar, p.109. 38. Carrere d'Encausse, p.87. 39. Zaprudnik, p.70. 40. T.S.Gorbunov et al, Istoriia Belorusskoi SSR (Minsk, I961), Vol.II, p.I26. 41. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.13, 16 February 1919, p.2. 42. Zaprudnik, p.19. 250 Notes 43. Vakar, pp.93-4. 44. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.13, 16 February 1919, p.3. 45. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.16, 9 March 1919, p.3. The possibility of Gome! becoming part of Russia contradicts the tone of the rest of the commentary, but no explanation is given. 46. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.24, 4 May 1919, p.3. 47. Op. cit. (n27), 95. 48. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.397, 1.10. 49. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.406, 1.2. 50. Zaprudnik, p. 78. 51. Edward Dennis Sokol, The Revolt of 1916 in Russian Central Asia (Baltimore, 1954), pp.15-17. 52. GARF, f.1318, op.l, d.1, 1.13. 53. Granitsi Rossiskoy Federatsii (available to me only in a preliminary photostat form, Moscow, 1995), p.59. See also Dina Amanzholova, Kazakhskyi avtonomizm i rossiia (Moscow, 1994). 54. Batirov, p.623. 55. Ibid., p.624. 56. Izvestiia VTslK, 17 July 1919, p.2. 57. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op,3, d.34, 1.1. 58. Pipes, p.173. 59. Sokol, pp.117-25. 60. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.48, 1.3. 61. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.59, 1.2. 62. GARF, f.1318, op.l, d.4, 1.88. 63. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.4, 1.104. 64. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.4, ll.65-73. 65. GARF, f.1318, op.l, d.4, 1.104. 66. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.7, 11.88, 107. 67. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.271, 1.1; d.291, 11.2, 7-8. 68. Although the delimitation of Central Asia in 1924-25 falls outside the period covered by this thesis, it is directly relevant to the topic discussed here and deserves a brief mention. For a fuller account, see Alexander G. Park, Bolshevism in Turkestan (New York, 1957), pp.88-98. 69. Park, p.93. 70. RTsKhIDNI, f.17,op.2, d.153, 11.123-4. 71. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.2, d.153, 1.127. 72. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.2, d.153, 1.130. 73. Park, p.98. 74. Carrere d'Encausse, The Great Challenge, pp.177-9. 75. Sokol, op. cit, passim. 76. F. Ksenofontov, quoted in Park, p.90. 77. GARF, f.1318, op.l, d.l, 1.5. 78. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.1, 1.8. 79. GARF, f.1318, op.l, d.l, 11.25, 59, 65-8. 80. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.5, 8 December 1918, p.7; No.19, 25 May 1919, p.4. 81. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.1, 1.21. 82. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No. 6, 15 December 1918, p.7. Notes 251 83. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.21, 13 April 1919, p.4. 84. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.331, 1.1. 85. Lenin, vol. XU, p.153. 86. GARF, f.1318, op.l, d.5, 1.112. 87. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.5, 1.64. 88. GARF, f.1318, op.l, d.6, 1.128. 89. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.7, 11.23-5. 90. GARF, f.1318, op.l, d.7, 1.20. 91. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.55, 1.3. 92. GARF, f.1318, op.l, d.5, 11.61-2. 93. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.140, 1.3. 94. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.6, 11.103, 138. 95. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.6, 11.95, 102, 108. 96. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.8, 1.80. 97. Park, p.168. 98. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.6, 1.154. 99. Dvenadtsatyi s'ezd RKP(b), p.514. 100. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.18, 23 March 1919, p.1. 101. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.18, 23 March 1919, p.4. 102. GARF, f.1318, op.3, d.l, 1.8. 103. GARF, f.1318, op.3, d.1, 11.6, 9. 104. GARF, f.1318, op.3, d.1, 1.29. 105. GARF, f.1318, op.3, d.1, 1.35. 106. GARF, f.1318, op.3, d.1, 1.73. 107. GARF, f.1318, op.3, d.1, 11.81, 86. 108. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.2, d.23, 1.1. 109. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.32, 1.2. 110. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.34, 1.1. 111. Pipes,pp.164-5. 112. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.59, 1.2. 113. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.71, 1.2. 114. RTsKhlDNI, f.17, op.3, d.68, 11.1-6. 115. Batsell, p.142. 116. For constitutions and decrees on the autonomous regions and republics, see Batsell, pp.139-78. 117. Park, p.121. 118. Baku Congress of the Peoples of the East (London, 1977), p.62. 119. Desyatii s'ezd RKP(b), pp.189-201; Park, p.168. 120. RTsKhlDNI, f.17, op.2, d.56, 1.3. 121. K. Khasanov, VI. Lenin i Turkbiuro TsK RKP(b) (Tashkent, 1969), pp.62-4. 122. Lenin, vol. LIII, p.105. 123. RTsKhlDNI, f.17, op.3, d.192, 11.5-6. 124. RTsKhlDNI, f.17, op.3, d.201, 1.2. 125. Lenin, vol. LIU, pp.189-90. 126. Khasanov, p.68. 127. RTsKhlDNI, f.17, op.3, d.215, 11.2-4. 128. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.247, 1.1. 129. Ibid. 252 Notes 130. For a full account of the conflicts within the Communist Party of Ukraine, see Jurij Borys, op. cit, passim. 131. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.2, d.55, 1.27. 132. USSR: Sixty Years of the Union, 1922-1982. A Collection of Legislative Acts and other Documents (Moscow, 1982), pp.115-18. 133. Ibid., p.119. 134. Ibid., p.119-20. 135. Ibid., pp.120-3. 136. Ibid., pp.136-9. 137. Helene Carrere d'Encausse, 'The National Republics Lose their Independence', in Richard Allworth (ed.) Central Asia - 120 Years of Russian Rule (Durham and London, 1989), pp.254-65. 138. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.192, 1.5. 139. Aminov and Babakhodzhaev, pp.138-9. 140. See below, Chapter 7. 141. Afanas'eva, pp.63-5. 142. Ibid., p.75.

5 NATIONAL COMMUNIST LEADERSHIPS

1. Nora Levin, The Jews in the Soviet Union since 1917 - Paradox of Survival (London, 1990), pp.1-7. 2. C. Abramsky, 'The Biro-Bidzhan Project', in L. Kochan (ed.), The Jews in Soviet Russia since 1917 (Oxford, 1978), p.66. 3. Sec Dimanshtein's article in Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.4, 1 December 1918, p.3. 4. Zvi Y. Gitelman,Jewish Nationality and Soviet Politics (Princeton, 1972). 5. Abramsky, in Kochan (ed.), op. cit., p.66. 6. Levin, p.55. 7. Zhizn' natsional'nostei, No.2, 17 November 1918, p.7. 8. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.4, 1.8. 9. Zhizn' natsional'nostei, No.2, 17 November 1918, p.7. 10. Zhizn' natsional'nostei, No.8, 29 December 1918, pp.2-3. 11. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.34, 1.1; d.37, 1.2. 12. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.78, 1.1. 13. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.75, 11.2-3. 14. S.W. Baron, The Russian Jew under Tsars and Soviets (New York, 1987), pp.181-6; Jonathan Frankel, 'The Dilemmas of Jewish Autonomism: the case of Ukraine 1917-1920' in Potichnyj and Aster (eds), Ukrainian• Jewish Relations (Edmonton, 1980), p.274; Levin, p.43; Gitelman, pp.161-5. 15. Zhizn' natsional'nostei, No.24, 4 May 1919, p.4; No.25, 11 May 1919, p.4; No.26, 18May1919, p.4. 16. Zhizn' natsional'nostei, No.12, 2 February 1919, p.6; Gitelman, pp.177-9. 17. Gitelman, pp.172-4. 18. Zhizn'natsional'nostei,No.17, 16March 1919,p.4. 19. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.78, 1.1. Notes 253 20. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.1, 1.10. 21. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.1, 1.74. 22. Zvi Halevy, Jewish Schools under Czarism and Communism (New York, 1976), p.161. 23. Gitelman, pp.218-23. 24. RTsKhlDNI, f.17, op.2, d.32, 1.2; Gitelman, p.225. 25. Modem Encyclopedia of Russian and Soviet History (AIP, 1979), vol.XII, p.37. 26. Gitelman, pp.513-15. 27. Ibid., p.230. 28. Pipes, pp.126-7. 29. Adams, p.115. 30. RTsKhlDNI, f.17, op.2, d.8, 1.1. 31. Borys, p.80. 32. Zhizn' natsional'nostei, No.17, 16 March 1919, p.4. 33. Pipes, p.147. 34. RTsKhlDNI, f.17, op.3, d.1, 1.1. 35. James E. Mace, Communism and the Dilemmas of National Liberation: National Communism in Soviet Ukraine (Cambridge, Mass., 1983), pp.57-8. 36. Mace, pp.55-7. 37. RTsKhlDNI, f.17, op.3, d.29, 1.1. 38. RTsKhlDNI, f.17, op.3, d.34, 1.1. 39. Adams, p.122. 40. See above, Chapter 1. 41. RTsKhlDNI, f.17, op.3, d.42, 1.2 42. RTsKhlDNI, f.17, op.2, d.25, 1.1. 43. RTsKhlDNI, f.1318, op.3, d.44, 1.1; d.48, 1.3. 44. Lenin, Vol.XXXIX, pp.370-1. 45. Lenin, Vol.XL, pp.44-5. 46. RTsKhlDNI, f.17, op.3, d.55, 1.3. 47. AV. Likholat, Razgrom natsionalisticheskoy kontrrevoliutsii na Ukraine 1917-1922 (Moscow, 1954), p.609. 48. Lenin, Vol.XL, p.122; RTsKhlDNI, f.17, op.3, d.61, 1.2. 49. RTsKhlDNI, f.17, op.3, d.50, 1.3. 50. Adams, pp.393-4; Orcst Subtelny, Ukraine - a History (Toronto, 1989), p.391. 51. Mace, p.61. 52. RTsKhlDNI, f.17, op.3, d.63, 1.1. 53. Lenin, Vol.LI, p.162. 54. Ibid., p.167. 55. Mace, p.62; RTsKhlDNI, f.17, op.2, d.29, 1.3. 56. Lenin, Vol. XL, p.266. 57. Dvenadtsatyi s'ezd RKP(b), p.572. 58. Andrew Wilson, Ukrainian nationalism in the 1990's - a minority faith (Cambridge paperback, 1997), p.16. 59. Alexandre A. Bennigsen and S. Enders Wimbush, Muslim National Communism in the Soviet Union - a Revolutionary Strategy for the Colonial World (Chicago, 1979), pp.218-23. 254 Notes 60. Baku Congress of the Peoples of the East, pp.76-9, 195. 61. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.2, d.154, ll.2-3. 62. Pipes, pp.256-8. 63. Aminov and Babakhodzhaev, p.121. 64. Bennigsen and Wimbush, p.25. 65. Batirov, p.623. 66. Bennigsen and Wimbush, pp.216, 220. 67. Ibid., p.25. 68. Seymour Becker, Russia's Protectorates in Central Asia: Bukhara and Khiva 1865-1924 (Cambridge, Mass., 1968), pp.301-5. 69. Azade-Ayse Rorlich, The Volga Tatars - a Profile in National Resilience (Stanford, 1986), pp.178-9. 70. Bennigsen and Wimbush, pp.20-2. 71. Rorlich, pp.126-7; Bennigsen and Wimbush, p.22. 72. Rorlich, pp.127-30. 73. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.1, 1.1. 74. Bennigsen and Wimbush, p.26. 75. Ibid., pp.26-9. 76. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.1, 11.13, 41, 69, 80. 77. Batirov, p.615. 78. Ibid., p.624. 79. Ibid., pp.626-7. 80. Ibid., p.631. 81. A. Babekov, 'Bol'shevistskie organizatsii vostochnogo Turkmenistana v godi grazhdanskoi voini i inostrannoi voennoi interventsii', in Sh. Tashliev (ed.), Grazhdanskaya voina i inostrannaia voennaia interventsiia v Srednei Azii (Ashkhabad, 1986), p.212. 82. Carrere D'Encausse, The Great Challenge, p.143. 83. Pipes, p.278. 84. S.A. Nazarov, Rukovodstvo TsK RKP(b) Partynim stroitel'stvom v Sredney Azii (Tashkent, 1972), pp.288-9. 85. Ibid., p.275. 86. Bennigsen and Wimbush, p.39. 87. Ibid., p.42. 88. Ibid., pp.43-6. 89. Ibid., pp.60-1. 90. Baku Congress of the Peoples of the East, pp.89-119. 91. See Chapter 8. 92. Bennigsen and Wimbush, pp.216-17. 93. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.175, 1.4. 94. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.192, 1.3. 95. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.13, d.384, 1.1. 96. M.Kh. Khakimov, Partiia i sovetskaia natsional'naia gosudarstvennost' - Rukovodstvo KPSS sozdaniem i razvitiem sovetskoi gosudarstvennosti narodov Srednei Azii i Kazakhstana (Tashkent, 1980), p.121. 97. RTsKhIDNI, f.1318, op.3, d.217, 1.1. 98. Nazarov, pp.276-7. 99. Leonard Schapiro, The Communist Party of the Soviet Union (London, 1970), p.347. Notes 255 100. Nazarov, p.282. 101. Zev Katz, 'Party-Political Education in Soviet Russia' (Unpublished PhD. thesis, University of London, 1957), p.58. 102. Katz, pp.117-18. 103. Ibid., p.118. 104. Ibid., p.364. 105. Nazarov, pp.278-80. 106. Schapiro, p.354. 107. Katz, p.383. 108. Ibid., p.380. 109. Ibid., p.384. 110. Ibid., p.365. 111. Ibid., pp.145-7.

6 'CULTURALAUTONOMY'

1. Stalin, Vol.IV, p.75. 2. Natsional'naia Politika VKP(b), p.273. 3. Khakimov, p.119. 4. Isabelle Kreindler, 'A Neglected Source of Lenin's Nationality Policy' in Slavic Review, Vol.XXXVI, No.1, March 1977, pp.86-100. 5. For more on the attitude of Lenin and the Bolsheviks towards the education of national minorities, see my article on the subject: 'The Education of National Minorities: the Early Soviet Experience', Slavonic and East European Review, Vol.LXXV, No.2, April 1997, pp.281-7. Much of the rest of this section is based on this article. 6. GARF, f.1318, op.l, 11.25, 27, 29. 7. Zhizn' Natsional'nostei No.3, 24 November 1918, p.8. 8. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.6, 15 December 1918, p.1. 9. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.2, 22 December 1918, p.7; Zhizn' natsional'- nostei No.5, 8 December 1918, p.7. 10. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.2, 22 December 1918, p.7. 11. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.6, 15 December 1918, p.7. 12. Ibid., p.1. 13. Ibid. 14. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.7, 22 December 1918, p.3; Zhizn' natsional'- nostei No.8, 29 December 1918, p.3. 15. GARF, f.1318, op.l, d.1, 11.46-7. 16. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.1, 1.86. 17. lzvestiia VTsIK, 31 October 1918, p.4. 18. lzvestiia VTsIK, 14 February 1919, p.2. 19. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.12, 2 February 1919, p.3. 20. Bohdan Krawchenko, Social Change and National Consciousness in Twentieth-Century Ukraine (London, 1985), p.88. 21. H. Niamiha, 'Education in Belorussia before the Rout of "National Democracy'', 1917-1930' Belorussian Review, No.1, 1955, p.38. 256 Notes

22. A.E. Izmaylov and M.N. Kolmakova, 'Stanovlenie i razvitie sovetskoy natsional'noy shkoli', in N.P. Kuzin et al. (eds), Ocherki istorii shkoli i pedagogicheskoy misli narodov SSSR (Moscow, 1980), p.145. 23. Ibid., pp.159-61. 24. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.113, 30 July 1921, p.l. 25. Izmaylov and Kolmakova, pp.148-9. 26. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.23, 27 April 1919, p.3; Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.24, 4 May 1919, p.2. 27. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.118, 3October1921, p.3. 28. Aminov and Babakhodzhaev, pp.162-3. 29. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.144, 5 May 1922, p.6. 30. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.147, 15 June 1922, p.14. 31. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.130, 10 January 192, p.4. 32. Carrre d'Encausse,The Great Challenge, p.189. 33. Krawchenko, p.91. 34. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.20, 6 April 1918, p.3. 35. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.8, 11.22, 27, 92, 97. 36. GARF, f.1318, op.l, d.4, 1.51; d.8, 11.27, 98, 101-2. 37. GARF, f.1318 ,op.1, d.4, 1.54. 38. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.9, 1.4. 39. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.118, 3October1921, p.3. 40. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.28, 1 June 1919, p.2. 41. GARF, f.1318, op.l, d.l, 1.12. 42. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.2, 1.97. 43. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.3, 27 November 1918, p.8. 44. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.22, 20 April 1919, p.4. 45. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.40, 24 August 1919, p.2; Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.41, 31August1919, p.2. 46. Izmaylov and Kolmakova, p.145. 47. Zhizn' natsional'nostei, No.59, 11January1920, p.1. 48. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.58, 4 January 1920, p.2. 49. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.60, 18 January 1920, p.3. 50. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.12, 2 February 1919, p.6. 51. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.20, 6 April 1919, p.3. 52. Krawchenko, p.87. 53. Ibid., pp.87-8. 54. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.6, 1.82. 55. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.4, 1.3. 56. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.4, 1.40. 57. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.299, 1.9. 58. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.385, 1.4; Carrere d'Encausse, The Great Challenge, pp.166-7. 59. Natsional'naia politika VKP(b), p.278. 60. Jzvestiia VTs!K, 31October1918, p.4. 61. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.2, d.31, 1.6. 62. Izmaylov and Kolmakova, p.158. 63. Halevy, p.132. 64. Lenin, vol.XXIV, p.295; Smith, The Education of National Minorities: the Early Soviet Experience', pp.283-6. Notes 257 65. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.4, 1.40. 66. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.6, 1.110. 67. GARF, f.1318, op.l, d.6, 11.9, 51, 220, 225. 68. Simon Crisp, 'Soviet Language Planning 1917-1953', in Michael Kirkwood (ed.), Language Planning in the Soviet Union (London, 1989), p.25. 69. E.F. Karskii, Ocherk nauchnoi razrabotki Russkogo Yazika v predelakh SSSR (Leningrad, 1926), p.95. 70. Crisp, p.32. 71. Shirin Akiner, 'Uzbekistan: Republic of Many Tongues', in Michael Kirkwood (ed.), op. cit., p.104. 72. Carrere d'Encausse, The Great Challenge, pp.178-80. 73. Paul M. Austin, 'Soviet Karelian: The Language that Failed', Slavic Review vol.51, no.1 (1992), pp.16-20. 74. Crisp, pp.36-7; Carrere d'Encausse sees language standardisation was a part of the Bolsheviks' 'divide and rule' tactic; Carrere d'Encausse, The Great Challenge, pp.177-8. Her views on this are discussed above, Chapter 4. 75. Khakimov, p.119. 76. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.44, 21 September 1919, p.4. 77. Crisp, p.37. 78. Lenin, Vol.XXIV, pp.293-5. 79. Letter from Brigadier B.S. Malik, military adviser at the High Commission of India in London, to Brian Pearce, 24 June 1992. 80. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.3, 24 November 1918, p.8. 81. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.7, 22December1918, p.7. 82. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.23, 27 April 1919, p.4. 83. GARF, f.1318, op.l, d.5, 1.65 84. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.5, 8 December 1918, p.7. 85. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.44, 21 September 1919, p.4. 86. Crisp, p.31. 87. Ibid., p.26. 88. Ibid,, p.28. 89. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.4, 1.10. 90. See the debate in Zhizn' natsional'nostei, Book I, 1924, pp.31-44, 164-7. 91. Crisp, pp.26-7. 92. Rorlich, p.151. 93. Zhizn' natsional'nostei, No.3, 27 November 1918, p.8. 94. For example,see Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.27, 25 May 1919, for cultural activities in Saratov guberniia and for Armenians in Kharkov. Other examples of cultural activities have been given above, Chapter 3. 95. Zhizn' natsional'nostei No.8, 29 December 1918, p.7. 96. Carrre d'Encausse, The Great Challenge, p.178. 97. Bennigsen and Wimbush, p.49. 98. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.2, d.44, 1.1; d.46, 1.3. 99. GARF, f.1318, op.I, d.4, 1.61. 100. Aleksandr Kamensky, Chagall: the Russian Years 1907-1922 (London, 1989), p.331. 101. Andre van Gyseghem, Theatre in Soviet Russia (London, 1943), pp.172-7. 258 Notes 102. GARF, f.1318, op., d.1, 1.79. 103. RTsKhIDNI f.17, op.3, d.215, 11.3-4. 104. Rorlich, pp.148-50. 105. James Forsyth, A History of the Peoples of Siberia: Russia's North Asian Colony 1581-1990 (Cambridge, 1994), pp.275-6. 106. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.4, 11.4, 12. 107. 3Arto Luukkanen, The Party of Unbelief" The Religious Policy of the Bolshevik Party, 1917-1929 (Helsinki, 1994 ), pp.88-9. 108. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.2, d.28, 1.19.

7 AND THE FORMATION OF THE SOVIET UNION

1. M.F. Vladimirskii, 'Osnovnie polozheniia ustanovleniia granits administrativno-khoziaistvennikh raionov', in G.M. Krzhizhanovskii (ed.), Voprosi ekonomicheskogo raionirovaniia SSSR (Moscow, 1957), p.58. 2. Pipes, p.272. 3. Lewin, p.51. 4. Plan elektrifikatsii RSFSR - doklad VIII s'ezdu sovetov gosudarstvennoy komissii po elektrifikatsii Rossii (2nd edn, Moscow 1955), p.185. 5. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.4, 1.12. 6. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.6, 1.82; d.7, 1.75. 7. 'Tezisy, virabotannie kommissiey pri VTslK po voprosu ob ekonomich• eskom raionirovanii Rossii', in Krzhizhanovskii (ed.), op. cit. pp.103-5. 8. GARF, f.1318, op.3, 1.53. 9. GARF, f.1318, op.1, d.9, 1.43. 10. I.G.Aleksandrov, 'Osnovi khoziaistvennogo raionirovaniia SSSR', in Krzhizhanovskii (ed.), op. cit. p.222. 11. Lenin, Sochineniia 5th edn, Vol.XLI, p.513. 12. Izvestiia TsK KPSS, 1991, No.4, p.175. 13. Lenin, Sochineniia, 3rd edn (Moscow, 1931), vol. XXV, p.624. 14. See below, Chapter 8. 15. lzvestiia TsK KPSS, 1991, No.4, p.171. 16. Lenin, Vol.XLI, p.164. 17. Pipes, p.270; Blank, p.169; Carrre d'Encausse, p.128. For the lasting impact of this interpretation of the Lenin-Stalin dispute, see e.g. H McNeal, Stalin, Man and Ruler (London, 1988), p.70; Geoffrey Hosking, The First Socialist Society (Cambridge, Mass., 1990), p.117. Tucker is aware that this dispute was over the future position of Germany, Poland, etc., but nevertheless concludes that 'Stalin's coming conflict with Lenin over nationality policy was foreshadowed in this exchange.' Robert C Tucker, Stalin as Revolutionary (New York, 1973), p.251. Prior to Pipes' work of 1954, the western historiography on Lenin and Stalin does not mention this dispute. 18. Lenin, Sochineniia, 3rd edn, vol.XXV, p.287. Notes 259 19. 2-oy kongress kommunisticheskogo internatsionala - stenograficheskii otchet (Petrograd, 1921), p.598. 20. Ibid., p.121. 21. The Communist International in Lenin's Time - Workers of the World Unite! - Proceedings and Documents of the Second Congress, 1920 (London, 1977), vol.2, pp.846-85. 22. L.D. Trotsky, Stalinskaia shkola fal'sifikatsii (Berlin, 1932), pp.77ff. 23. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.2, d.28, 1.11; Izvestiia TsK KPSS, 1989, No.9, p.195. 24. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.290, l.2; I.K. Gamburg et al., M.V.Frunze- Zhizn' i deyatel'nost' (Moscow, 1962), pp.292-4. 25. Pipes, p.270. 26. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.306, 1.1. 27. Lewin, p.47; R. Service, Lenin - a Political Life (London, 1995), Vol.III, p.276. 28. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.2, d.28, 1.5. 29. lzvestiia TsK KPSS, 1989, No.9, p.197. 30. Ibid. 31. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.2, d.28, 1.11. 32. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.2, d.28, 1.4. 33. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.2, d.28, 1.22; Frantisek Sil'nitskii, Natsional'naia politika KPSS v periods 1917-1922 (Munich, 1981), pp.268-72. 34. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.2, d.28, 11.4-10. 35. L.A. Fotieva, Iz zhizni VI. Lenina (Moscow, 1967), p.270. 36. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.2, d.28, 11.19-21. 37. Richard Pipes' preface to a new edition of The Formation of the Soviet Union reveals that such snippets are all he finds of value in the archives, while his cynical view of Bolshevik national policies remains unaffected. Richard Pipes, The Formation of the Soviet Union, 3rd edn (first paper• back edition) with new preface (Cambridge, Mass., 1997), pp. v-viii. 38. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.290, 1.2; d.291, l.1. 39. Fotieva, p.220. 40. Fotieva, p.220. 41. Lenin, Vol.XLV, p.211. 42. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.2, d.28, 11.13-14. 43. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.2, d.28, 11.23-4. 44. Lewin, p.53. 45. Lewin, p.53. 46. Pipes, p.273. 47. Ronald Grigor Suny, The Making of the Georgian Nation (London, 1989) p.215. 48. Pipes, p.266. 49. Lenin, vol.XLII, p.367. 50. Lenin, vol.XLIII, pp.198-200. 51. Stephen Jones, 'Georgian Social Democracy' (Unpublished PhD., London, 1984), pp.387-554. 52. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.247, 1.3; L.D. Trotsky, Between Red and White: a Study of some Fundamental Questions of Revolution, with Particular Reference to Georgia (London, 1922). 260 Notes 53. Lewin, p.45. 54. K. Khasanov, V.l. Lenin i Turkbiuro TsK RKP(b), (Tashkent, 1969), pp.63-65. 55. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.2, d.42, 1.1. 56. Quoted in Oleg V. Khlevniuk, In Stalin's Shadow - the Career of 'Sergo' Ordzhonikidze (Armonk, NY, 1995), p.14. 57. Ordzhonikidze, Vol.I, p.172. 58. Ordzhonikidze, Vol.1, 183-4. 59. Suny, p.212. 60. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.2, d.32, 1.6; Ordzhonikidze, Vol.1, 216. 61. Ordzhonikidze, Vol.1, 226. 62. Ordzhonikidze, Vol.1, 214. 63. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.2d.32,11.55-7. 64. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.2, d.83, 11.9-10. 65. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.2, d.83, 1.11. 66. Fotieva, p.291; RTsKhIDNI, f.64, op.1, d.61, 1.28. 67. Measures RTsKhIDNI, f.64, op.1, d.75, 1.251. 68. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.2, d.32, 1.61. 69. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.1, d.2796, 1.3. 70. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.2, d.621.2. 71. Stalin, Vol.V, p.88 ff. 72. Pipes, p.267; Lewin, p.44. 73. Ordzhonikidze, Vol.1, p.208. 74. Stalin RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.2, d.231, 1.2. 75. Lenin, Vol.XLIV, p.255. 76. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.237, 1.2. 77. RTsKhIDNI, f.64, op.1, d.61, 1.16. 78. Fotieva, p.289. 79. Lewin, p.54. 80. Suny, pp.214-15; Ordzhonikidze, Vol.1, p.226 ff. 81. Batsell, pp.401-6; Suny, p.215. 82. RTsKhIDNI, f.64, op.1, d.61, 1.9. 83. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.288, 1.13. 84. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.2, d.84, 1.1. 85. Fotieva, p.290. 86. Lenin, Vol.XLIV, pp.299-300; Pipes, p.274. 87. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.2, d.32, 1.57; Fotieva, p.290. 88. Pipes, p.281. 89. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.2, d.32, 11.49-50. 90. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.2, d.32, 1.54. 91. Dvenadtsatyi s'ezd RKP(b), p.590. 92. Fotieva, p.290. 93. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.2, d.32, 11.42-3. 94. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.2, d.32, 1.60. 95. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.2, d.32, 1.50. 96. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.2, d.32, 11.59-60. 97. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.2, d.30, 11.1-2. 98. Isaac Deutscher, Stalin -a Political Biography (Pelican, 1986), pp.249-50. Notes 261 99. Pipes, pp.281-2. 100. Fotieva, p.291-2. 101. Stalin had long since dropped his proposal that the separate Soviet Republics should be incorporated into Russia as autonomous units. 102. Lenin, Vol.XLV, pp.356-62. 103. Pipes, pp.276-81. 104. RTsKhIDNI, f,17, op.3, d.331, 1.1. 105. Pipes, p.287. 106. See Stalin's letter to Lenin on 22 September, 1922, RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.2, d.28, 11.19-21. 107. Fotieva, p.302; Izvestiia TsK KPSS 1989, No.9, pp.208-9; Lewin, pp.51-2. Fotieva dates these notes 1 February 1923, but Izvestiia TsK KPSS and Lewin place it at the end of September 1922. I have been unable to locate the document, but the contents of the notes as a whole would seem to support Fotieva's date. 108. Lewin, p.59. 109. Isaac Deutscher, The Prophet Unarmed: Trotsky: 1921-1929 (Oxford, 1970), p.73. 110. Fotieva, p.303. 111. Ibid., p.304-7. 112. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.2, d.32, 11.69-73. 113. Khlevniuk, pp.17-20. 114. Robert Service, Lenin: a Political Life, Vol. 3 - The Iron Ring (London, 1995), pp.290, 305. 115. Fotieva, p.313. 116. Trotsky, op. cit., p.81. 117. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.2, d.34, 1.15. 118. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.2, d.34, 1.3; Volodicheva's summary of Trotsky's reply has not been previously available, and consequently both Lewin and Deutscher speculate that Trotsky must have agreed to Lenin's request. Lewin, pp.155-6. 119. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.2, d.31, 1.1. 120. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.2, d.32, 11.5-17. 121. Izvestiia TsK KPSS, No.9, 1990, pp.151-2. 122. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.2, d.31, 11.6-7. 123. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.2, d.31, 1.5. 124. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.2, d.31, 1.8. 125. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.2, d.31, 1.11. 126. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.2, d.31, 1.9. 127. Izvestiia TsK KPSS No.5, 1991, p.154. 128. Izvestiia TsK KPSS No.9, 1990, pp.152-4. 129. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.2, d.34, 1.16. 130. Ibid. 131. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.2, d.34, 11.20-1. 132. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.2, d.34, 1.18. 133. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.2, d.34, 1.6. 134. RTsKhIDNI, f.5, op.2, d.34, 1.19. 262 Notes 8 THE TWELFTH PARTY CONGRESS AND SULTAN-GALIEV

1. Izvestiia TsK KPSS No.9, 1990, p.162. 2. Dvenadtsatyi s'ezd RKP(b), pp.164-6. 3. Pipes, p.293. 4. Dvenadtsatyi s'ezd RKP(b), pp.479-81. 5. Ibid., p.484. 6. Ibid., p.486. 7. See Chapter 2, above. 8. Dvenadtsatyi s'ezd RKP(b), pp.487-92. 9. Ibid., p.492. 10. Ibid., pp.492-3. 11. Ibid., pp.495-500. 12. Ibid., pp.500-1. 13. Ibid., pp.505-8. 14. Ibid., pp.608-11. 15. Ibid., p.602. 16. Ibid., pp.574-6. 17. Ibid., pp.585-90. 18. Ibid., pp.591-4. 19. Ibid., pp.582-5. 20. Ibid., pp.515-18. 21. Ibid., pp.601-8. 22. Deutscher, op. cit., p.98. 23. Dvenadtsatyi s'ezd RKP(b), pp.611-15. 24. Ibid., pp.615-19. 25. Ibid., pp.576-82. 26. Ibid., pp.502-5. 27. Ibid., pp.570-3. 28. Ibid., pp.595-8. 29. Ibid., pp.508-10; 567-9. 30. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.2, d.88, 1.1. 31. lzvestiia TsK KPSS No.3, 1991, pp.170-2. 32. Ibid., pp.172-3. 33. Ibid., pp.176. 34. Ibid., p.177. 35. lzvestiia TsK KPSS No.4, 1991, p.164. 36. Ibid., pp.164-5. 37. Ibid., p.163. 38. Ibid., pp.178-80. 39. Ibid., pp.158-61. 40. Ibid., pp.166-8. 41. Ibid., pp.168-9. 42. Cf. RTsKhlDNI, f.17, op.2, d.88, 1.1. 43. lzvestiia TsK KPSS No.4, 1991, pp.169-73. 44. lzvestiia TsK KPSS No.5, 1991, p.159; Dvenadtsatyi s'ezd RKP(b), pp.653-4. Notes 263 45. Izvestiia TsK KPSS No.5, 1991, pp.161-2; Dvenadtsatyi s'ezd RKP(b), p.654. 46. Izvestiia TsK KPSS No.5, 1991, pp.163; Dvenadtsatyi s'ezd RKP(b), p.654. 47. lzvestiia TsK KPSS No.5, 1991, pp.165-6; Dvenadtsatyi s'ezd RKP(b), p.654. 48. Izvestiia TsK KPSS No.5, 1991, pp.163-4; Dvenadtsatyi s'ezd RKP(b), p.654. 49. Izvestiia TsK KPSS No.5, 1991, p.166; Dvenadtsatyi s'ezd RKP(b), p.660. 50. Izvestiia TsK KPSS No.5, 1991, pp.168, 171; Dvenadtsatyi s'ezd RKP(b), pp.654, 655. 51. lzvestiia TsK KPSS No.5, 1991, p.171; Dvenadtsatyi s'ezd RKP(b), p.655. 52. Dvenadtsatyi s'ezd RKP(b), p.655. 53. lzvestiia TsK KPSS No.5, 1991, pp.166-71; Dvenadtsatyi s'ezd RKP(b), pp.657-60. 54. lzvestiia TsK KPSS No.5, 1991, pp.156-8. 55. Ibid., pp.173-6. 56. Dvenadtsatyi s'ezd RKP(b), p.653. 57. The final version of the resolution is given in Dvenadtsatyi s'ezd RKP(b), pp.691-7. Stalin's original theses are in Stalin, Vol.V, pp.181-94. 58. RTsKhIDNI, f.62, op.3, d.9, 1.134. 59. Bennigsen and Wimbush, p.87. 60. TainyNatsional'noipolitiki ... ,p.17. 61. Ibid., p.18. 62. RTsKhIDNI, f.17, op.3, d.358, 1.2. 63. Tainy natsional'noi politiki ... , p.15. 64. Ibid., pp.15-16. 65. Ibid., p.17. 66. Ibid., p.57. 67. Ibid., p.24. 68. Ibid., pp.48-9. 69. Ibid., pp.46-7. 70. Ibid., p.67. 71. Ibid., pp.63-4. 72. Ibid., p.59. 73. Ibid., pp.26-7. 74. Ibid., pp.32-3. 75. Ibid., pp.40-1. 76. Ibid., pp.52-4. 77. Ibid., pp.73-5. 78. Ibid., pp.76-80. 79. Ibid., p.81. 80. Ibid., pp.83-5. 81. Ibid., pp.85-6. 82. Ibid., p.281. 83. Ibid., pp.99-274. 84. Ibid., pp.282-6. 85. Bennigsen and Wimbush, p.86. 264 Notes 9 CONCLUSION

1. Quoted in Abramsky, p.69. 2. Evan Mawdsley, The Russian Civil War (London, 1987), p.282 (empha• sis in the original). 3. Some historians maintain, without evidence, that this is exactly what they did do; cf. Blank, The Sorcerer as Apprentice ... passim. Bibliography

ARCHIVES

Rossiiskii Tsentr dlia Khraneniia i Izucheniia Dokumentov Noveishei Istorii (RTsKhIDNI). Fond 5: V.I. Lenin's Personal Secretariat. Fond 17, opis 2: Plenary Sessions of the Central Committee of the Russian Communist Party (bolsheviks). Fond 17, opis 3: Plenary Sessions of the Politburo of the Russian Communist Party (bolsheviks). Fond 62: Central Asian Bureau of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Fond 64: Caucasian Bureau of the Russian Communist Party (bolsheviks ).

Gosudarstvennii Arkhiv Rossiiskoi Federatsii (GARF). Fond 1318, opis 1: Collegium of the People's Commissariat for Nationality Affairs. Fond 1318, op.3: The Bashkir Revolutionary Committee.

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Ronald Grigor Suny, The Making of the Georgian Nation (London, 1989). Tainy natsional'noi politiki TsK RKP - stenograficheskii otchet sekretnogo IV soveshchaniia TsK RKP, 1923 g., B.F. Sultanbekov (ed.) (Moscow, 1992). Valery Tishkov, Ethnicity, Nationalism and Conflict in and after the Soviet Union (Sage, 1997). V.T. Tormozov, Beloe dvizhenie i natsional'nyi vopros (Moscow, 1997). L.D. Trotsky, Between Red and White: a Study of some Problems of Revolution, with particular reference to Georgia (London, 1922). L.D. Trotsky, Maia zhizn - opit avtobiografYi (Berlin, 1930). L.D. Trotsky, Stalinskaia shkola fal'sifikatsyi (Berlin, 1932). Robert C. Tucker, Stalin as Revolutionary (New York, 1973). USSR: Sixty Years of the Union, 1922-1982. A Collection of Legislative Acts and other Documents (Moscow, 1982). 270 Bibliography Nicholas P. Vakar, Bielorussia, the Making of a Nation (Cambridge, Mass., 1956). Andre Van Gyseghem, Theatre in Soviet Russia (London, 1943). Velikii Oktiabr (Moscow, 1987). M.F. Vladimirskii, 'Osnovnie polozheniie ustanovleniia granits administra• tivno-khozyaistvennikh raionov' in G.M. Krzhizhanovskii (ed.), Voprosi eko• nomicheskogo raionirovaniia SSSR (Moscow, 1957). Vos'moi s'ezd RKP(b) (Moscow, 1959). 2-oi kongress kommunisticheskogo internatsionala - stenograficheskii otchet (Petrograd, 1921 ). Christopher J. Walker (ed.), Armenia and Karabakh - the Struggle for Unity (London, 1991). Christopher J. Walker, Armenia - the Survival of a Nation (London, 1990). Bertram D. Wolfe, 'The Influence of Early Military Decisions upon the National Structure of the Soviet Union', American Slavic and East European Review Vol.9, 1950. Jan Zaprudnik, Belarus - at a Crossroads in History (Boulder, 1993). Zhizn natsional'nostei (various years). Noi Zhordaniia, Maia Zhizn' (Stanford, 1968). Index

Abkhazian Soviet Socialist Republic (Azerbaijan Soviet (March 1921 ), 55 Socialist Republic, April 1920), Abkhazians, 55, 193, 216 4,55-64,66-7, 134, 136, 178, Adigamov, AK., 230, 233 215 adult education, 152-3 education in, 151 Adzharian Autonomous Soviet latinisation of script in, 166-7 Socialist Republic (July 1921), and Transcaucasian Federation, 55 186, 188, 198 Adzharians, 55, 216 Azeris (azerbaijanis), 55 Aga-Maly-Ogly, S.A., 182 Aginashvili, 196 backwardness of national minorities, Akhundev, R., 217 23-8,41,50,83, 104, 144,214-5 Alash Orda, 2, 78-9, 83, 128 Baku Commune, 2, 134, 135 alphabets, 165-7 Balkars, 53 Altais, 54 language, 164 Antonov-Ovseenko, V.A., 36-7 Baltic States, 19 Armenia (Soviet Socialist Republic Bashkiriia (Bashkir Autonomous of Armenia, November 1920), Soviet Socialist Republic, 4,33,56-64,68-70,85, 135, March 1919), 36, 42, 48, 49, 51, 215 80, 90, 94-9, 103, 125, 174, education in, 151 177-8,204,219,234, 241 and autonomisation, 182 schools in, 151 and Transcaucasian Federation, pre-school education in, 152 186, 188, 198 Bashkir National Council, 47 Armenians, 55, 64, 86 Bashkir Revolutionary Committee Atabaev, K., 132 (Bashrevkom), 47-50, 94-8, 101, Austro-Hungarian Empire, 10, 215 108 Austro-Marxism, 7, 8, 10-12, 15, 16, Bashkirs, 21, 47-50, 51, 126, 223 1~ 1~2~4~5~9~ 111, 14~ language, 164, 173 169, 171, 180,239,241 Basmachestvo, Basmachi, 100, 127, autonomisation project, 179, 134,231,235 180-9 Bauer, 0., 8, 11, 18 autonomous regions and republics, Belorussia (Belorussian Soviet 34,50-65, 156, 163, 170, 172, Socialist Republic, January 187,216,221,239 1919),27, 137, 191,242 autonomy,2, 13,65, 93-4, 175-80 Nationai Council in, 3 cultural, 7, 10-12, 15, 110, 111, soviet power in, 4, 32 125, 129, 169-70,241 borders of, 70-8 territorial, 19, 24-5, 30-1, 43-65, Jews in, 110 78,98, 130,241 education in, 150, 151 Avdeev, 222 culture in, 168 Aytakov, N., 132 Belorussians, 1

271 272 Index bilingualism, 52 Central Committee of the Russian Biro-Bidzhan project, 239 Communist Party (bolshevik), Blakytnii, V.M., 123 22,36,37-8,43,47,51,63,64, Bobinskii, 226 72-3,91,96,99, 108, 116, 135, Bolsheviks see Russian Communist 183-4, 187,204,211,225, Party (bolshevik) 226 borders, 66-84 and Georgia, 4, 189, 194-5, 198, Borotbists, 28, 116-25, 127, 134, 220 199,207-8,213 5th Congress of (March 1919), and Borotbists, 120 118 convenes commission on soviet Bosh, E., 15 republics, 180 Broido, G.I., 229, 230 and Sultan-Galiev, 229 Buddhism, 171 Central Executive Committee, Bukhara (Bukhara People's Soviet All-Russian (VTsIK), 30, 33, 38, Republic, September 1920), 84, 43,48,50,51,82,87, 88, 96, 97, 99, 101-3, 104, 127, 128,215 98 Bukharan Communist Party, 128 commission for the administrative Bukharin, N., 5, 15, 17, 20-1, 200, division of Russia, 172, 206,218-9,240 174-5 Bukhbinder, N., 114 Central Executive Committee of the Bund, Jewish, 2, 7, 15, 16, 28, 36, 93, USSR, 84, 188 110-15, 125, 127, 134, 144, 147 Chagall, M., 169 Buriat-Mongol Autonomous Chamber of Nationalities, 52, 215-6, Regions (April 1921), 156 220,221,223, 225,227 schools in, 151 Chartists, 9 Buriat-Mongols, 52, 171 Chechen Autonomous Region (November 1922), 53, 242 cadre policies, 52, 107, 108-43, 236 Chechens, 88 Caucasian Bureau (Kavbiuro) of the language, 164 Russian Communist Party, after Chemeriskii, A, 115 March 1922 Chervyakov, A.G., 182 Transcaucasian Regional Chicherin, G., 57-60, 63, 116 Committee (Zakkraikom), 53, China, 85 54,56,60-5,67, 70, 104, 135, Chuvash,23,34,40,50, 154 173, 180,216,217,218,237 Chuvash Autonomous Region and the Georgian Crisis of 1922, (June 1920), 50 189-204,207,209-10 Circassian language, 164 Caucasian Highlanders, Narkomnats Civil War, Russian, 240 Department for, 40, 131, 166 effect on schools, 145 Caucasus, 1, 13, 19 in Central Asia, 232 census, Russian of 1897, 71 colonisation, 85-7, 130 Central Asia, 1, 19, 85, 88, 126, 137, Comintern see Third International 191,218 Communist Bund (Kombund), Kokand government in, 3, 126 113-14 soviet power in, 4, 69 Communist International see 3rd internal borders of, 78-84 International 1916 revolt in, 80, 85, 87 Communist Party of Azerbaijan, 60, national 'delimitation', 83-4 61, 128, 180, 199 schools in, 151 and autonomisation, 182 Index 273 Communist Party of Belorussia, 113, Dagestan (Dagestan Autonomous 135, 181 Soviet Socialist Republic, 1st Congress of (December 1918), January 1921 ), 24, 25, 156 72 Dagestanis, 34 Communist Party of Georgia, 217 Dashnaks,2, 15, 16,57,60,64, 135 opposition in, 179, 189-204, 207, Denikin, General A.I., 120, 123 210, 215, 225, 229 Dimanshtein, S., 23, 33, 112, 146-7, and autonomisation, 181 153, 174 1st Congress (January 1922), 199 Dobkovskii, I., 114 2nd Congress (March 1923), Dzerzhinskii, F., 96, 97, 135 209-10 commission on Georgian crisis Communist Party of the Soviet 197,201,202-3,205,207,215, Union, non-Russian 219 membership of (1927), 140-2 criticised by Lenin, 203-5, 207, 208 Communist Party (bolshevik) of Dzhungar, 54 Ukraine, 36-8, 109, 113-14, 116-25, 135 Eastern Europe, 1 Gome! faction, 122, 124 post-World War II, 4 and autonomisation, 182 economic development of non• communist schools and universities, Russians, 23, 83, 104-7, 214-5 109, 136-40 education, 13, 23, 32-3, 52, 93, Communist University for Western 145-62,214,227,228 National Minorities, 115, 138 El'mets, R., 50 Communist University of Central Eliava, S.Z., 209, 217 Asia (until 1923 Worker• Enbayev, A.M., 230 Peasant Communist University), Engels, F. see Marx, K. 137-8 Enukidze, A.S., 201, 217 Communist University of Peoples of Ermakov, A., 81 the East, 137-9 Esperanto, 165 confederalism, 175-80 , 4 Congress of the Peoples of the East, Estonians, 1, 34, 40 all-Russian ethnic conflict, 54, 55, 216 2nd (December 1919), 48 ethnographic principle, 76, 81, 85 3rd (Baku, September 1920), 99, Evkom see Jewish Commissariat 127,232 Evsektiia see Jewish sections Constituent Assembly, 29, 117 Cossacks, 34, 53, 85, 88 Faizulla, K., 182 Council of People's Commissars of famine, (1921-22), 85, 87 the RSFSR (Sovnarkom), 22, Far Eastern Republic, 101 30-2,33,42,47,50,89, 128, 170, Farainigte see United Jewish 204 Socialist Workers Party Council of People's Commissars of federalism, 2, 7, 19, 175-80, 187, 225 the USSR, 188 Fenians, 9 Crimea (Crimean Autonomous , 1, 2, 19, 21, 35, 106, 176-8 Soviet Socialist Republic, independence of, 3, 22 October 1921), 43, 51, 68, 88, Grand Duchy of, 34 174 , 35 culture, 13, 144, 168-70, 171 language, 164 Czechoslovak revolt, 34, 40, 42 Firdevs, I.K., 230, 233 274 Index First International, programme of, 9 Hromada, 15 foreign policy, 63, 180, 184 Hummet, 57, 63, 128, 134 Fotieva, L.A., 183, 185, 207, 208, Hungary, 176-8 211-12 revolution in, 37 France, 7, 10 Frumkin, E., 115, 152 Ibragimov, G., 131, 167 Frunze, M., 39, 80, 97, 103, 135, 191, Ibragimov, Sh.N., 222, 234 204,206,223-4,225-6,234,236 Ikramov, A., 132, 234 heads 1922 commission on Il'minskii, N.I., 145 relations between republics, illiteracy, 144 173, 180 India, 9, 215 Ingush,88 Gegechkori, A.A., 202 language, 164 Georgia (Georgian Soviet Socialist Institute of Oriental Studies, 152 Republic, February 1921), 4, 32, Ioffe, A., 72-3, 100-1, 135, 191, 55,64,66-7,69-70,214,234 204 1922-23 crisis in, 134, 188, Irish, 9, 10 189-212,213,216-22,228 Islam, 80, 126, 133, 155, 170 education in, 150-1 Ittihad ve Tarakki (Union and culture in, 168 Progress), 229 relations with RSFSR, 173, 180 financial policy, 184 Jadids, Jadidism, Jadidists, 2, and Transcaucasian Federation, 109, 128, 129-30, 133, 144, 171, 186, 188, 198 232 Georgians, 55 Jengelis, 126 Georgian Socialist Federalists, 15 Jewish Commissariat (Evkom), 40, German minority, schools for, 160 108, 111-12, 114, 169 Germany, 176-7, 179 Jewish sections (Evkom ), 111-12, occupies Ukraine, 3 169 Giulling, E.A., 54, 106 Jews, 1, 13, 18,36,55, 71, 109-16, Glasser, M.I., 207 118, 239 God's Warriors, 39 schools for, 160 Gorbunov, N.P., 207 theatre, 169 Gori Republic (January 1921), 53 Gosplan see State Planning Kabakhidze A., 201-2 Commission Kabardi, 53 GPU see State Political language, 164 Administration Kabardino-Balkar Autonomous Grasis, K., 49 Region (September 1921), 53 Great Britain, 9, 10 schools in, 151 Great Russian Chauvinism, 5, 9, 15, Kaganovich, L., 206 18, 101, 120, 185, 189-90, 193, Kakabadze,202 197,205,209,214-5,218,222, Kalinin, M., 239 224,227,229,233,234,236 Kalmykia (Kalmyk Autonomous Grigorev, N., 117, 124 Region, November 1920), 52, 87 Grin'ko, 220 Kalmyks, 23, 156 schools for, 151, 154-5 Harbi Shura, 128 Kamenev, L.B., 120, 135, 185-6, 188, higher education, nativisation of, 200,205,208,209,211 151-2 Kamenskii, A.Z., 81-2, 116 Index 275

Karabakh, 56-63, 70 Kolchak, 36, 47, 222 Karachai-Cherkess Autonomous Kombund see Communist Bund Region (January 1922), 53 Komfarband, 113-14 Karachai, 52 Kami (Zyrians), 52, 163 language, 164 Komi Autonomous Region (August, Karaev, A., 58 1921),51,52-3 Karaim, 54 Krestinskii, N.N., 120, 206 Karakalpak language, 164 Krupskaya, N.K., 162, 206, 208 (Karelian Toilers' Kuibyshev, V., 181-2, 191, 206, 209, Commune, June 1920), 1, 50, 230-2,235,236 54, 106 Kun, B., 37 Karelian language, 164 Kurds, 56 Karimov, I., 167 Kursk, 33 Karklin, O.Ya., 42, 87 Karskii, E.F., 71, 77, 163 language, 16-17,52,93, 107, 162-8, Kashgar, 54 203,205,214,227 Kautsky, K., 13 , 4, 178 Kavbiuro see Caucasian Bureau Latvians, 40, 86 Kavtaradze, S., 202 schools for, 161 Kazakh Autonomous Soviet Socialist Lazarev Institute, 151-2 Republic (1924), 84 Lenin, V.I., 9, 28, 82, 100, 206 Kazakhs, 78,80,84 national policies, 6, 11, 15-18, 19, schools for, 160 90, 146, 177, 191,225,239-40 Kazan Socialist Committee, 130 and national self-determination, 7, Khalikov, M.D., 231, 233 20-2, 191, 192 Kharkov Red government, 3 opposes Rosa Luxemburg, 13-14 Khiva see Khorezm and internationalism, 22 Khodzhaev, F., 132 and Giulling, 54 Khodzhaev, N., 132 and Borotbists, 120-4 Khodzhanov, 222 on language, 145, 162, 167,203, Khorezm (Khiva) - Khorezm 205 People's Soviet Republic opposes Great Russian attitudes, (February 1920), 84, 101-3, 129, 147, 185 215 on education, 162 Khorezm Communist Party, 129 relations with Stalin, 173, 175, 203 Kiev, occupations of in 1918, 3 theses for the 2nd Congress of Kirghiz,21,23,34,40, 78,80,84 Comintern, 178-9 schools for, 160-1 and autonomisation project, 182-9 language, 164,222 and Georgia, 189-91, 193, culture of, 168 199-205,207-8,224 Kirghiz Autonomous Region (1924), and Ordzhonikidze, 192, 203-5, 84 207-10, 237 Kirghiz Revolutionary Committee private commission on Georgian (Kirrevkom), 79-80, 82 crisis, 194-5, 206, 207-8 Kirghizia (Kirghiz Autonomous and Transcaucasian Federation, Soviet Socialist Republic, 198 August 1920), 49, 50, 62, 68, 'testament' of, 203, 205, 207 78-83,87,89, 174,222 'notes on the question of Kirov, S.M., 57, 59-60, 61, 69, 135 nationalities ... ', 203, 210-12, Kokand government, 3 213, 217 276 Index

Letts, 1 Muslims, 1, 2, 34, 35, 51, 63, 78, Litbel Republic (1919), 74-7, 78 83-4,88, 99,235 Lithuania, 4, 13, 73-7 school for officers, 36 Lithuanians, 34, 71 national communists, 125-35, 170 Lukashev, V., 192 1st all-Russian Muslim Congress Lukashin, S.L., 63 (May 1917), 128, 130 Lunacharskii, AV., 153, 167 in party schools, 136 Luxemburg, R., 7, 12-14, 15, 16, 18, and education, 155 19,21,28 schools for, 160 supporters of, 239 2nd all-Russian Muslim Congress (July 1917), 170 Makharadze, F.I., 191, 193, 200, 202, Mussavats, 2, 56 206,208,217 Myasnikov, 70, 182, 187,209 Makintsian, P., 148, 153-4 Manatov, Sh., 131 Nagorniy Karabakh see Karabakh Manuil'skii, D.Z., 116, 123, 182, 201, Nakhichevan (Nakhichevan Soviet 232 Socialist Republic, August Mari, 34, 40 1920),56-64 Mari Autonomous Region Narimanov, N., 33, 57, 58, 61 (November 1920), 50 Narkomindel see People's schools in, 151 Commissariat for Foreign Marr, N.I., 165-7 Affairs Marx, K., 7, 8-10 Narkomnats see People's Marxism, 5, 110, 133 Commissariat for Nationality Mdivani, B., 54, 58, 70, 181-2, 200, Affairs 202,208-10, 213,216-7,221-2, Narkompros see People's 225,227,228 Commissariat for Enlightenment Mensheviks, 14 Narkomzem see People's in Georgia, 2, 3, 190, 193, 202, 206, Commissariat for Land Affairs 209 national communism, 23, 99, 109, migration, 85-90 111, 125, 135, 137, 142,229,236 Mikoyan, A.I., 58, 192, 224 national engineering, 241 Mill, J., 11 national liberation, 9, 10 Milli Firqa, 2, 126 National Minorities, general, 5 Milli Idare, 128 nationalism, 8, 214, 223, 227, 235 Milli Shura, 128, 130 nationalist deviation, 134, 135, 143, Mitskevich-Kapsukas, V.S., 201 213,223,231,234 Molotov, V.M., 182, 187, 206 New Economic Policy (NEP), 27, 90, Mukhitdinova, E., 130 99,222 Mukhtarov, K.G., 232, 233 NKVD see People's Commissariat Musaev,222 for Internal Affairs Muskom see Muslim Commissariat nomads,62,80,89 Muslim Commissariat (Muskom), North Causacus, 2, 50, 53-4, 85, 88, 23,41-5,49,93, 108, 109, 166, 163,216 169-70 Muslim sections of the Russian Okudzhava, M., 201, 209 Communist Party (bolshevik), Ordzhonikidze, G.K. (Sergo), 4, 57, 48 61,63, 104, 173, 181-2, 187,206, Muslim socialist committees, 130 217-9,237,240 Muslim War Collegium, 38 sketch of, 191-4 Index 277 blamed by Lenin, 203-5, 207-10, Piatakov, I., 15, 17-18, 20-1, 116, 206 237 Pilsudski, J., 4 and Georgian Crisis of 1922-23, plenipotentiaries, system of, 135, 188, 189-204,209-10,213 191-2,204 rejects Dashnaks, 135 Poale Zion, 40, 110, 112-15 dictatorial methods of, 180 pogroms, 55, 110-11, 113 Orenburg,81,82,95 Poland, 1, 12, 19, 68, 70, 76-7, 176-7, Ossetians, 34, 55, 88, 193, 216 179 languages, 164 revolts against Russian Empire, 2, 35 pan-Turkism/pan-Islam, 23, 83, 126, Poles, 1, 9, 13,34,40, 71, 111 133 schools for, 160 Pasha, E., 126-7 Polish-soviet war, 4, 75 peasantry, 73, 118, 119, 124 Politburo see Political Bureau of the People's Commissariat for Russian Communist Party Education see People's Political Bureau (Politburo) of the Commissariat for Russian Communist Party Enlightenment (Bolsheviks), 38, 39, 48, 49, 51, People's Commissariat for 54,59,60,63, 79,83,86,88,89, Enlightenment (Narkompros), 96, 97, 99-101, 103, 112, 114, 33, 146-50, 153-4, 161, 162 135, 136, 190 and language, 165-6 and Borotbists, 118-23 of Ukraine, 118 and Enver Pasha, 127 People's Commissariat for Foreign and Dashnaks, 135 Affairs (Narkomindel), 56-7 and education, 156 People's Commissariat for Internal and Transcaucasian Federation, Affairs (NKVD), 32, 86 198 People's Commissariat for Land and Georgia, 201, 205, 209 Affairs (Narkomzem), 86, 89 and Sultan-Galiev, 230 People's Commissariat for pre-school education, 152 Nationality Affairs Preobrazhenskii, E.A., 206 (Narkomnats), 22-4, 27, 30-4, proletkult, 146, 169 35,39,42,45,47,48, Provisional Government, 29 51,54,62,64, 785-6,88-9, 108, Prussia, 9, 10 128, 131, 170, 172, 174,204,240, 241 Radek, K., 17-18, 63, 127, 135, 218-9 national commissariats and Rafes, M., 115 departments of, 39-41, 131 raionisation project, 172 and education, 146-7, 151-2 Rakhimbaev, A, 132 Chuvash department of, 154 Rakovskii, Kh. G., 5, 104, 116-17, publishing department of, 156 118, 122-3, 135, 176-7, 181-2, commission on languages and 185, 191,205,206,219-21,223, scripts, 163 225,227 and language, 165-6 Red Army, 95, 97, 102, 111, 113, 116, and Latinisation programme, 167 120, 129, 156,220 People's Commissariat for War, 34, occupies Ukraine, 3 35,86 national units in, 34-9, 126 Pestkovskii, S.S., 32, 79 refugees, 32, 85-6 Petrov, 233 religion, 25, 93, 145, 170-1 Petrovskii, G.I., 182 Renner, K., 8, 11 278 Index Riga, treaty of, 70, 77 administrative division of, right of nations to self• 172-5 determination, 7, 20-2, 27, 192, relations with other Soviet 214,240 republics, 180-9 Rittikh, A, 71, 77 Russians RSFSR see Russian Soviet in non-Russian areas, 71, 88 Federative Socialist Republic as settlers, 85, 87, 89, 90 Rudzutak, I.E., 84 as benefactors of non-Russians, Rukhimovich, M.L., 36 214-5 Russian Communist Party Rykov, A.I. in Georgia, 201, 203 (bolshevik) (see also Central Ryskulov, T., 89, 132, 233 Committee; Political Bureau), 4,6, 17,22,30,69, 103, 172, 183, Sabashvili, 209 188,204,209,210,218 Safarov, G., 99-100, 192 12th Congress (April 1923), 5, Said-Galiev, S., 28, 48-9, 220, 226, 28,39,63, 156, 176-8,208, 232,233-4 209,211-2,213-28,232,236, Sarts, 82 237 Schleswig, 9 8th Congress (March 1919), 20-1, separation of church and state, 156, 225,240 170 10th Congress (March 1921), Serebryakov, L.P., 206 25-7,99, 192,225 Shakhtakhtinskii, B., 55-6, 58, 61, 1917 programme, 43 135, 198 in Central Asia, 46 shariat law, 25, 170 7th Conference (April 1917), 68 Shaumian, S., 15, 17 Organisational Bureau ( Orgburo ), Shumskii, 0., 118-9, 123, 125, 150 83, 181,230 Shushi, 56, 61 Jews in, 109, 111, 113 Siberia, 1, 20, 81, 87, 90 8th Conference (December 1919), Siberian Revolutionary Committee 120 (Sibrevkom), 82, 83 9th Congress (March 1920), 123 Skoropadski, P.P., 36 Great Russian tendencies in, 126 Skrypnik, M., 125, 220, 233 Muslims admitted to, 128 Smilga, I.T., 39 Central Control Commission, Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs) 229-30 (see also Ukrainian Socialist Russian Empire, 1-2, 4, 10, 12 Revolutionaries), 15, 16, 121 disintegration of, 20 Sokol'nikov, G.I., 100-1, 135, 181, Russian Orthodox Church, 145, 171 191 Russian Social Democratic Labour Sokolov, 82 Party, 2nd Congress (1903), 14 Sol'ts, A.A, 208 Russian Soviet Federative Socialist South Ossetian Autonomous Region Republic (RSFSR) (see also (April 1922), 55 Central Executive Committee Sova-Stepniak, 42, 170 (VTsIK); Council of People's Soviet Constitution of 1918, 29 Commissars), 5, 48, 52, 70, 75, Soviets, 10th all-Russian Congress of 94,96,97, 102, 103, 106, 188, (December 1922), 229 196, 198,219,225 Sovnarkom see Council of People's constitution, 29 Commissars of the RSFSR Index 279 Stalin, I.V., 17-18, 39, 53, 54, 57, 60, Tashkent Soviet, 46, 131 62,68,97, 100, 132, 135,217 Tatar (Kazan) Communist national policies, 6, 18-19, 22, University, 137, 139 24-8,64,240 Tatar Autonomous Soviet Socialist as Commissar for Nationality Republic (May 1920), 48, 51, Affairs, 22, 31, 33, 34, 130 174, 178,232,242 and autonomy, 23, 43, 65, 171 schools in, 151 and Tsaritsyn Group, 36 Tatar-Bashkir Soviet Republic, and Tatar-Bashkir republic, 44-5, proposed,44-5,48-50 48 Tatars, Crimean, 34, 51 at the 12th Congress of the Tatars, Volga, 23, 50 RCP(b ), 63, 213-27 schools for, 160-2 theses to 12th Party Congress, 210, Third International (Comintern), 213-6, 218 217 attacked at 12th party Congress, and Borotbists, 119-22 221-7 2nd Congress (July 1920), 175-9 and deportations, 90 Tiuryakulov, A., 132 on Jews, 109, 239 Tomskii, M.P., 99, 192 and Borotbists, 120 Transcaucasia, 19, 68, 137, 189, 205 and purges, 143 soviet power in, 4 on national culture, 147, 169 autonomy in, 55-65 relations with Lenin, 173, 175, 203, borders in, 66-70 205,207-12 ethnic conflict in, 161 and autonomisation, 180-9 Bolsheviks in, 193 and Ordzhonikidze, 192 Transcaucasian Federation, 70, 186, visits Tift.is, 198 188, 195, 198-9,200,209,215, and Georgia, 200, 205-6, 210-12 216,218-9,221 and Krupskaya, 206 Transcaucasian Lenin Communist and Sultan-Galiev, 230, 232, 235-6 University in the Name of the State Commission for the 26 Commissars, 138 Electrification of Russia Transcaucasian Regional (GOELRO), 105, 172, 173-4 Committee see Caucasian State Planning Commission Bureau (Gosplan), 174 Trotsky, L.D., 5, 97, 120, 179, 206, State Political Administration 234,236 (GPU), 229-30 and Red Army, 35-9 Sturua, I.F., 217 and Georgia, 4, 190, 200, 205, 208, Sultan-Galiev, M., 23, 42, 47, 51, 81, 210, 237 130-1, 143, 170,213,221,222-3 and Orzhonikidze, 192 on proletarian nations, 133-5 and Lenin's notes on the national appointed editor of Zhizn' question, 211-12, 224 Natsional'nostei, 134 at the 12th party Congress, 224-5, prosecution of, 228-37 226 Sverdlovsk University, 139 Tsaritsyn Group, 36 Tsintsadze, K., 182, 197, 202, 210, Tadzhik Autonomous Soviet 217 Socialist Republic (1924), 84 Tsiurupa, A.D., 81 Tadzhiks,21, 78,82,84 Turkbiuro see Turkestan Bureau 280 Index Turkestan (Turkestan Autonomous Union of Jewish Warriors, 40, 112 Soviet Socialist Republic, April Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, 1918),2,21,45-47,49,68, 78-9, 5,28,52, 104, 187, 188, 195,210, 80-3,84,86-90, 103, 104, 127, 239,240 163, 173, 174, 191-2,219,222 constitution of, 213, 227, 230, 236, 1921 dispute in, 99-101, 108, 204 237 5th Congress of Soviets of United Jewish Socialist Workers (April 1918), 46 Party (Farainigte ), 110, 113-15 6th Congress of Soviets of University of Tashkent, 151 (October 1918), 46 Urazbaeva, 220 language in, 145 Ush-Zhuz, 126 Turkestan Bureau of the Russian Ustabaev, D., 132 Communist Party (Turkbiuro ), Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic 100, 135, 192, 204 (1924), 84 Turkestan Commission Uzbeks,21, 78,82,84 (Turkkomissiia), 80, 82, 88, 89, schools for, 161 99, 128 language, 163-4 Turkestan Communist Party, 131, 132, 228 Vaisites, 126 Turkey,57,60-3,69, 127, 177 Vaisov, I., 126 Turkkomissiia see Turkestan Vakhitov, M.N., 23, 34, 42, 130, 131 Commission Validov, Z., 47, 48, 98, 126, 230, 231, Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic 233,235 (1924), 84 Vatsetis, I.I., 36 Turkmens, 21, 23, 34, 84 Vladikavkaz Polytechnic, 151 schools for, 161 Vladimirskii, M.F., 172 Volga Germans, 47, 52, 173 Udmurts, 40 Volga region, 1, 20, 68, 109 Ufa gubrevkom, 95 Voroshilov, K.E., 36 Ukraine, 1, 6, 19, 36, 68, 70, 75, 85-7, Votiaks, 34, 40 101, 103-4, 116-25, 137, 174, schools for, 154 191,218,234 VTsIK see Central Executive revolution in, 3 Committee, All-Russian relations with RSFSR, 31, 37-8, 97, 173, 177-80, 184 War Communism, 90, 174 Jews in, 110, 117 Whites, 3, 20, 88, 111, 113 1919 law on schools, 150 Workers' Opposition, 5 education in, 150, 151, 155, 220 culture in, 168 Yakovlev, V., 220 Ukrainian Central Rada, 3, 77 Yakutia (Yakut Autonomous Soviet Ukrainian communists see Socialist Republic, April 1922), Communist Party (bolshevik) of 218 Ukraine Yakuts, 54 Ukrainian Directory, 3, 112 Yeltsin, B., 242 Ukrainian Peasants' Union, 117 Young Bukharans, 103, 128 Ukrainian Socialist Revolutionaries, Young Khivans, 103, 128-9 2,37, 117 Ukrainians, 1, 71, 220, 221 Zakkraikom see Caucasian Bureau Ulianova, M.l., 211 Zangezur,56-64,69 Index 281 Zhizn' Natsional'nostei, 23, 39-40, Zinoviev, G.E., 6, 120, 201, 208, 217, 48-9,50,51,90, 146-7 218,225,226 Sultan-Galiev appointed editor, 134 Zionism, 23, 109-13, 169 Zhordania, N., 190 Zyrians see Komi