DOCSLIB.ORG

German Jewish Refugees in the United States and Relationships to Germany, 1938-1988

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text

Load more

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO “Germany on Their Minds”? German Jewish Refugees in the United States and Relationships to Germany, 1938-1988 A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in History by Anne Clara Schenderlein Committee in charge: Professor Frank Biess, Co-Chair Professor Deborah Hertz, Co-Chair Professor Luis Alvarez Professor Hasia Diner Professor Amelia Glaser Professor Patrick H. Patterson 2014 Copyright Anne Clara Schenderlein, 2014 All rights reserved. The Dissertation of Anne Clara Schenderlein is approved, and it is acceptable in quality and form for publication on microfilm and electronically. _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ Co-Chair _____________________________________________________________________ Co-Chair University of California, San Diego 2014 iii Dedication To my Mother and the Memory of my Father iv Table of Contents Signature Page ..................................................................................................................iii Dedication ..........................................................................................................................iv Table of Contents ...............................................................................................................v Acknowledgements ..........................................................................................................vii Vita ......................................................................................................................................x Abstract of the Dissertation .............................................................................................xi Introduction ........................................................................................................................1 Literature and Approaches ...........................................................................................13 Sources .........................................................................................................................27 Chapter Overview ........................................................................................................31 Chapter 1........................................................................................................................... 35 Prologue Leaving Germany ........................................................................................................35 United States of America—New York City .................................................................44 Chapter 2........................................................................................................................... 54 The German Jewish Refugees and the Americanization Process, 1935-1941 Introduction ..................................................................................................................54 Los Angeles.................................................................................................................. 57 Americanization in Practice .........................................................................................72 Language and Employment .........................................................................................75 Culture.......................................................................................................................... 89 Refugee Organizations within the American Jewish Organizational Landscape .........98 War .............................................................................................................................108 The Situation of Jews in Europe ................................................................................114 Chapter 3......................................................................................................................... 124 The Enemy Alien Classification Distress over the Refugees’ War Time Status in the United States ............................132 The Tolan Committee................................................................................................. 147 Practical Consequences of the Enemy Alien Classification .......................................155 The Enemy Alien Classification’s Effects on German Jewish Community Organizations—Conflict Around Leadership within the Jewish Club of 1933 .........164 Fighting the Legislation—Alleviating its Effects, Disputing its Application ............172 War Effort ..................................................................................................................177 Ongoing Inhibition of Americanization .....................................................................187 Chapter 4......................................................................................................................... 193 German Jewish Refugees in the U.S. Army Motivations for Joining the Army.............................................................................. 200 The Refugee Soldiers’ Position within the U.S. Army ..............................................206 Experiences in Battle and Encounters with German Soldiers ...................................216 Off the Battlefield: Full Reversal of Power ...............................................................220 The German Jewish Refugees as Occupiers: Encountering German Civilians .........229 v Holocaust ...................................................................................................................239 Conclusion .................................................................................................................246 Chapter 5......................................................................................................................... 248 German Jewish Refugees and the Discourse on Postwar Germany, 1942-1945 Introduction ................................................................................................................248 On the American Home Front.................................................................................... 250 Concern about Europe’s Jews ....................................................................................252 Punishment and Restitution .......................................................................................259 Tensions Between the Connection to Germany and Americanization .......................273 What Should Be Done With Germany After the War? ...............................................280 Conclusion .................................................................................................................292 Chapter 6......................................................................................................................... 294 Entangled Relations: German Jewish Refugees in the United States and the West German Foreign Office West German Foreign Policy Considerations and German Jewish Refugees in the U.S. .................................................................................................................................... 298 Restitution and Other Troubles ..................................................................................313 Rabbi Max Nussbaum, West Germany, and American Jewry ...................................330 Interpersonal Relationships........................................................................................ 351 Conclusion .................................................................................................................356 Chapter 7......................................................................................................................... 360 Entangled Relations II: German Jewish Refugee Travel to Germany and West German Municipal Visitor Programs Individual Travel to Germany in the 1950s and early 1960s: Attitudes ....................366 Germany as a Tourist Destination? Individual Trips in the 1960s .............................372 The Emergence and Development of German Municipal Visitor Programs .............383 Hamburg .....................................................................................................................385 Berlin.......................................................................................................................... 388 Refugees’ Influence on Visitation and Commemoration ...........................................396 German Supporters of Visitor Programs ....................................................................399 Invitations and Pre-visit Perspectives ........................................................................409 Berlin Program Structures.......................................................................................... 416 Reactions to the Visits................................................................................................ 418 Positive Experiences ..................................................................................................421 Negative Experiences................................................................................................. 423 Impacts—The Meaning and Value of the Visits ........................................................427
Recommended publications
  • Political, Moral and Legal Aspects of the Resettlement of German Population After World War II

    Political, Moral and Legal Aspects of the Resettlement of German Population After World War II

    POLISH REVIEW OF INTERNATIONAL AND EUROPEAN LAW 2018, Vol. 7, Issue 2 WOLLT IHR DEN TOTALEN KRIEG? Political, Moral and LEGal Aspects of the Resettlement of German Population After World War II Jerzy Kranz* Abstract: Germany had started the Second World War in an intentional and conscious manner, obviously being aware that every action can have unpredictable and unwanted consequences. The Potsdam decisions were taken by the Great Powers after assuming supreme authority in Germany. They constituted a manifestation of the Allies’ rights and responsibilities. The territorial changes of Germany and the transfer of population were part of the general regulation of the effects of the Second World War. These decisions were not a simple matter of revenge. They must be perceived in a wider political perspective of European policy. The resettlement by Germany of ethnic Germans to the Reich or to the territories it occupied constituted an instrument of National Socialist policy. This German policy turned out in 1945 to be a tragic irony of fate. The resettlement decided in Potsdam must be perceived in the context of German legal responsibility for the war’s outbreak. The individual perception of the resettlement and individual guilt are different from * Professor, Department of International Law and European Union, Kozminski University 9 Jerzy Kranz the international responsibility of the state and from the political-historical responsibility of the nation. In our discussion we made the distinction between the individual and the collective aspect as well as between the legal and historical/ political aspect. We deal with the guilt of individuals (criminal, political, moral), the international legal responsibility of states, and the political and historical responsibility of nations (societies).
  • Revisiting Zero Hour 1945

    Revisiting Zero Hour 1945

    REVISITING ZERO-HOUR 1945 THE EMERGENCE OF POSTWAR GERMAN CULTURE edited by STEPHEN BROCKMANN FRANK TROMMLER VOLUME 1 American Institute for Contemporary German Studies The Johns Hopkins University REVISITING ZERO-HOUR 1945 THE EMERGENCE OF POSTWAR GERMAN CULTURE edited by STEPHEN BROCKMANN FRANK TROMMLER HUMANITIES PROGRAM REPORT VOLUME 1 The views expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) alone. They do not necessarily reflect the views of the American Institute for Contemporary German Studies. ©1996 by the American Institute for Contemporary German Studies ISBN 0-941441-15-1 This Humanities Program Volume is made possible by the Harry & Helen Gray Humanities Program. Additional copies are available for $5.00 to cover postage and handling from the American Institute for Contemporary German Studies, Suite 420, 1400 16th Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036-2217. Telephone 202/332-9312, Fax 202/265- 9531, E-mail: [email protected] Web: http://www.aicgs.org ii F O R E W O R D Since its inception, AICGS has incorporated the study of German literature and culture as a part of its mandate to help provide a comprehensive understanding of contemporary Germany. The nature of Germany’s past and present requires nothing less than an interdisciplinary approach to the analysis of German society and culture. Within its research and public affairs programs, the analysis of Germany’s intellectual and cultural traditions and debates has always been central to the Institute’s work. At the time the Berlin Wall was about to fall, the Institute was awarded a major grant from the National Endowment for the Humanities to help create an endowment for its humanities programs.
  • Eastern Europe

    Eastern Europe

    NAZI PLANS for EASTE RN EUR OPE A Study of Lebensraum Policies SECRET NAZI PLANS for EASTERN EUROPE A Study of Lebensraum Policies hy Ihor Kamenetsky ---- BOOKMAN ASSOCIATES :: New York Copyright © 1961 by Ihor Kamenetsky Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 61-9850 MANUFACTURED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA BY UNITED PRINTING SERVICES, INC. NEW HAVEN, CONN. TO MY PARENTS Preface The dawn of the twentieth century witnessed the climax of imperialistic competition in Europe among the Great Pow­ ers. Entrenched in two opposing camps, they glared at each other over mountainous stockpiles of weapons gathered in feverish armament races. In the one camp was situated the Triple Entente, in the other the Triple Alliance of the Central Powers under Germany's leadership. The final and tragic re­ sult of this rivalry was World War I, during which Germany attempted to realize her imperialistic conception of M itteleuropa with the Berlin-Baghdad-Basra railway project to the Near East. Thus there would have been established a transcontinental highway for German industrial and commercial expansion through the Persian Gull to the Asian market. The security of this highway required that the pressure of Russian imperi­ alism on the Middle East be eliminated by the fragmentation of the Russian colonial empire into its ethnic components. Germany· planned the formation of a belt of buffer states ( asso­ ciated with the Central Powers and Turkey) from Finland, Beloruthenia ( Belorussia), Lithuania, Poland to Ukraine, the Caucasus, and even to Turkestan. The outbreak and nature of the Russian Revolution in 1917 offered an opportunity for Imperial Germany to realize this plan.
  • John F. Kennedy and Berlin Nicholas Labinski Marquette University

    John F. Kennedy and Berlin Nicholas Labinski Marquette University

    Marquette University e-Publications@Marquette Master's Theses (2009 -) Dissertations, Theses, and Professional Projects Evolution of a President: John F. Kennedy and Berlin Nicholas Labinski Marquette University Recommended Citation Labinski, Nicholas, "Evolution of a President: John F. Kennedy and Berlin" (2011). Master's Theses (2009 -). Paper 104. http://epublications.marquette.edu/theses_open/104 EVOLUTION OF A PRESIDENT: JOHN F. KENNEDYAND BERLIN by Nicholas Labinski A Thesis submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School, Marquette University, in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts Milwaukee, Wisconsin August 2011 ABSTRACT EVOLUTION OF A PRESIDENT: JOHN F. KENNEDYAND BERLIN Nicholas Labinski Marquette University, 2011 This paper examines John F. Kennedy’s rhetoric concerning the Berlin Crisis (1961-1963). Three major speeches are analyzed: Kennedy’s Radio and Television Report to the American People on the Berlin Crisis , the Address at Rudolph Wilde Platz and the Address at the Free University. The study interrogates the rhetorical strategies implemented by Kennedy in confronting Khrushchev over the explosive situation in Berlin. The paper attempts to answer the following research questions: What is the historical context that helped frame the rhetorical situation Kennedy faced? What rhetorical strategies and tactics did Kennedy employ in these speeches? How might Kennedy's speeches extend our understanding of presidential public address? What is the impact of Kennedy's speeches on U.S. German relations and the development of U.S. and German Policy? What implications might these speeches have for the study and execution of presidential power and international diplomacy? Using a historical-rhetorical methodology that incorporates the historical circumstances surrounding the crisis into the analysis, this examination of Kennedy’s rhetoric reveals his evolution concerning Berlin and his Cold War strategy.
  • Guides to German Records Microfilmed at Alexandria, Va

    Guides to German Records Microfilmed at Alexandria, Va

    GUIDES TO GERMAN RECORDS MICROFILMED AT ALEXANDRIA, VA. No. 32. Records of the Reich Leader of the SS and Chief of the German Police (Part I) The National Archives National Archives and Records Service General Services Administration Washington: 1961 This finding aid has been prepared by the National Archives as part of its program of facilitating the use of records in its custody. The microfilm described in this guide may be consulted at the National Archives, where it is identified as RG 242, Microfilm Publication T175. To order microfilm, write to the Publications Sales Branch (NEPS), National Archives and Records Service (GSA), Washington, DC 20408. Some of the papers reproduced on the microfilm referred to in this and other guides of the same series may have been of private origin. The fact of their seizure is not believed to divest their original owners of any literary property rights in them. Anyone, therefore, who publishes them in whole or in part without permission of their authors may be held liable for infringement of such literary property rights. Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 58-9982 AMERICA! HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION COMMITTEE fOR THE STUDY OP WAR DOCUMENTS GUIDES TO GERMAN RECOBDS MICROFILMED AT ALEXAM)RIA, VA. No* 32» Records of the Reich Leader of the SS aad Chief of the German Police (HeiehsMhrer SS und Chef der Deutschen Polizei) 1) THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION (AHA) COMMITTEE FOR THE STUDY OF WAE DOCUMENTS GUIDES TO GERMAN RECORDS MICROFILMED AT ALEXANDRIA, VA* This is part of a series of Guides prepared
  • PICASSO Les Livres D’Artiste E T Tis R a D’ S Vre Li S Le PICASSO

    PICASSO Les Livres D’Artiste E T Tis R a D’ S Vre Li S Le PICASSO

    PICASSO LES LIVRES d’ARTISTE The collection of Mr. A*** collection ofThe Mr. d’artiste livres Les PICASSO PICASSO Les livres d’artiste The collection of Mr. A*** Author’s note Years ago, at the University of Washington, I had the opportunity to teach a class on the ”Late Picasso.” For a specialist in nineteenth-century art, this was a particularly exciting and daunting opportunity, and one that would prove formative to my thinking about art’s history. Picasso does not allow for temporalization the way many other artists do: his late works harken back to old masterpieces just as his early works are themselves masterpieces before their time, and the many years of his long career comprise a host of “periods” overlapping and quoting one another in a form of historico-cubist play that is particularly Picassian itself. Picasso’s ability to engage the art-historical canon in new and complex ways was in no small part influenced by his collaborative projects. It is thus with great joy that I return to the varied treasures that constitute the artist’s immense creative output, this time from the perspective of his livres d’artiste, works singularly able to point up his transcendence across time, media, and culture. It is a joy and a privilege to be able to work with such an incredible collection, and I am very grateful to Mr. A***, and to Umberto Pregliasco and Filippo Rotundo for the opportunity to contribute to this fascinating project. The writing of this catalogue is indebted to the work of Sebastian Goeppert, Herma Goeppert-Frank, and Patrick Cramer, whose Pablo Picasso.
  • Kunsthändler Und -Sammler Art Dealers and Collectors

    Kunsthändler Und -Sammler Art Dealers and Collectors

    Kunsthändler und -sammler Art dealers and collectors Die Eigentümergeschichte der Kunstwerke aus dem Bestand des Museum Berggruen bildet das Leitmotiv der Ausstellung. Die Namen derer, die mit e history of ownership of the artworks from the collection of the Museum den Werken in Berührung kamen oder deren Eigentum sie waren, lesen sich Berggruen is the leitmotif of the exhibition. e names of those who came wie ein „Who is Who“ der Kunstwelt der ersten Häle des 20. Jahrhunderts: into contact with the works or who owned them read like a "Who's Who" of Kunsthändler wie Alfred Flechtheim, Paul Rosenberg, Daniel-Henry Kahn- the art world of the rst half of the 20th century: Art dealers such as Alfred weiler oder Karl Buchholz, die Klee-Enthusiastin Galka Scheyer sowie die Flechtheim, Paul Rosenberg, Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler or Karl Buchholz, Sammler Alphonse Kann, Douglas Cooper und Marie-Laure Comtesse the Klee-enthusiast Galka Scheyer as well as the art collectors Alphonse de Noailles. Kann, Douglas Cooper and Marie-Laure Comtesse de Noailles. Die Kunstwerke rufen damit nicht nur ihre Besitzer und Eigentümer in e artworks do not only remind us of their owners and proprietors, whose Erinnerung, deren Lebensgeschichte in historische Ereignisse eingebettet biographies is embedded in historical events. eir provenances also express ist. Ihre Provenienzen drücken auch die Vielfalt der emen aus, welche die the variety of themes that shape the history of 20th century art: the popula- Geschichte von Kunst im 20. Jahrhunderts prägen: die Popularisierung der risation of Modernism, the development of the international art market, the Moderne, die Entwicklung des internationalen Kunstmarktes, die Emigra- emigration of art dealers and collectors and the translocation of artworks, tion von Kunsthändlern und Sammlern und die Translokation von Kunst- the art policy and the art looting of the National Socialists between 1933 werken, die Kunstpolitik und der Kunstraub der Nationalsozialisten and 1945.
  • Amtsblatt 2012 Nr. 02

    Amtsblatt 2012 Nr. 02

    Amtsblatt für den Landkreis Schaumburg --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Ausgegeben in Stadthagen am 29.02.2012 Nr. 2/2012 Inhaltsverzeichnis: Seite A Bekanntmachungen des Landkreises Schaumburg --- B Bekanntmachungen der kreisangehörigen Städte und Gemeinden Hauptsatzung der Stadt Bückeburg 15 3. Satzung zur Änderung der Satzung über die Erhebung von Gebühren für den Besuch 16 von Tageseinrichtungen für Kinder in der Stadt Rinteln Bauleitplanung der Gemeinde Bad Eilsen; 1. Änderung des Bebauungsplanes Nr. 2 A 16 "Am Harrl", Gemeinde Bad Eilsen Bauleitplanung der Gemeinde Bad Eilsen; Teilaufhebung des Bebauungsplanes Nr. 14 17 "Sondergebiet Kurklinik" 24. Änderung zur Satzung über die Erhebung von Beiträgen, Gebühren und Kosten- 17 erstattungen für die Abwasserbeseitigung (Abgabensatzung für die Abwasserbeseiti- gung) vom 05.12.1983 in der Fassung der 23. Änderung vom 22.11.2010. (Samtge- meinde Lindhorst) Hauptsatzung der Gemeinde Lindhorst 18 Satzung über die Gewährung von Aufwandsentschädigungen, Verdienstausfall und 19 Auslagenersatz der Gemeinde Lindhorst Hauptsatzung der Samtgemeinde Nienstädt 19 Satzung über die Gewährung von Aufwandsentschädigungen, Verdienstausfall und 21 Auslagenersatz der Samtgemeinde Nienstädt Hauptsatzung der Gemeinde Helpsen 22 Satzung über die Gewährung von Aufwandsentschädigungen, Verdienstausfall und 23 Auslagenersatz der Gemeinde Helpsen Hauptsatzung der Gemeinde Hespe 24 Hauptsatzung der Gemeinde Nienstädt 25 Haushaltssatzung
  • Zur Kontinuität Des Groß- Und Weltmachtstrebens Der Deutschen Marineführung

    Zur Kontinuität Des Groß- Und Weltmachtstrebens Der Deutschen Marineführung

    Dokumentation Gerhard Schreiber Zur Kontinuität des Groß- und Weltmachtstrebens der deutschen Marineführung Kontinuität als geschichtswissenschaftliche Kategorie fragt zum einen, ob und wann ein historisches Kontinuum möglich ist, und sie beschreibt zum anderen — allgemein gesehen — eine geschichtliche Einheit, die auf der weitgehenden Identität der Mo- mente beruht, die in einem zeitlichen Längsschnitt zueinander in Beziehung gesetzt werden. Mit Kontinuität ist somit weder Kausalität noch Determiniertheit der histori- schen Entwicklung gemeint, sondern die Ähnlichkeit und die Erklärbarkeit des Späte- ren mit dem Früheren1. Mit einem derartigen Vorverständnis stellt die vorliegende Dokumentation die Frage nach der Sichselbstgleichheit der Machtpolitik im preußisch-deutschen Nationalstaat, dem Deutschen Reich zwischen 1871 und dem Ende des Zweiten Weltkrieges2. Das eigentliche Untersuchungsfeld soll dabei — quasi idealtypisch — auf eine konservative Führungselite, die Marineführung3, eingeengt werden. Zur Diskussion steht die These, daß es zwischen den imperialistischen Zielsetzungen der Marine, wie sie späte- stens mit dem Beginn des Großflottenbaus zutage traten, und den Überlegungen zu einer deutschen Weltvorherrschaft, die im Dritten Reich in diesem Wehrmachtteil an- gestellt wurden, eine ungebrochene machtpolitische Kontinuität gab. Die dem spezifi- schen Denksystem der Marineführung immanente ideologische Kohärenz konkreti- sierte sich in diesem Zusammenhang vor 1918, vor 1933 und bis 1945 in der einem ri- gorosen Navalismus oder
  • 75 Years Ago, World War II Came to an End

    75 Years Ago, World War II Came to an End

    75 years ago, World War II came to an end. On this occasion, the Swiss Museum of Games presents a selection of games from the period. The games are dispatched in different rooms of the exhibition. But you will easily recognize them by their label showing the icon above. The games from the collection of the Swiss Museum of Games are historical sources. Illustrative, eloquent and sometimes disturbing, they inform us about the events and topics that interested people, their views and opinions, their tastes and values. The games that appeared in the years before and during the war were often misused for propaganda purposes, especially by publishers close to governments. These games were aimed at the general public, but also at soldiers. Soldiers and prisoners of war produced games as well as, in Switzerland, internees. The games certainly helped them to survive these difficult times. In 2014, we organized a special exhibition to mark the 100th anniversary of the beginning of the World War I. The war was already a theme in the games in 1914-18 and became one again in 1939-45. We wish you an enriching visit. Please, give us feedback in the guestbook or on our Facebook page. Ulrich Schädler, Director Swiss Museum of Games, Dossier « 75 years ago… » MSJ 5048 Schach, Dame und Mühle: «Ein Gruss aus der Heimat» Combi-Spiele, Hannover 1940-45 Game collection with chess, draughts and Nine men’s morris. Box, game board and counters are made of cardboard. The counters bear chess symbols on one side. Such game collections were intended for the soldiers at the front.
  • Central Europe

    Central Europe

    Central Europe West Germany FOREIGN POLICY AND STATUS OF BERLIN OUBJECTS discussed during British Premier Harold Wilson's offi- cial visit to Bonn from March 7 to 9 included the maintenance of the British Rhine Army in Germany, the continuation of German currency aid for the United Kingdom, and a new approach to German reunification. When East German authorities tried to interfere with the meeting of the Bundestag in Berlin on April 7 by disrupting traffic to and from the former capital, the Western Allies protested sharply. In his opening speech Eugen Gerstenmaier, president of the Bundestag, emphasized the right of the Fed- eral parliament to meet in West Berlin and denied that the session was an act of provocation. During the Easter holidays 300,000 West Berliners were permitted to visit relatives in the Eastern zone of the divided city. About a million Berliners crossed the Berlin Wall and spent Christmas with their relatives, after the renewal of an agreement in November. Queen Elizabeth II of England and her consort the Duke of Edinburgh made an official visit to West Germany and West Berlin in May, and were cheered by the population. Attempts by Foreign Minister Gerhard Schroder to bring about an improvement in relations with the United Kingdom during this visit were viewed skeptically by Franz-Josef Strauss, chairman of the Christian Social Union (CSU), representing the pro-French wing of the coalition. French President Charles de Gaulle's talks with Chancellor Ludwig Erhard in Bonn in June were described as "positive," but did not lead to an agree- ment on a conference to discuss the reorganization of the Common Market and other matters pertaining to the European community.
  • The Kpd and the Nsdap: a Sttjdy of the Relationship Between Political Extremes in Weimar Germany, 1923-1933 by Davis William

    The Kpd and the Nsdap: a Sttjdy of the Relationship Between Political Extremes in Weimar Germany, 1923-1933 by Davis William

    THE KPD AND THE NSDAP: A STTJDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN POLITICAL EXTREMES IN WEIMAR GERMANY, 1923-1933 BY DAVIS WILLIAM DAYCOCK A thesis submitted for the degree of Ph.D. The London School of Economics and Political Science, University of London 1980 1 ABSTRACT The German Communist Party's response to the rise of the Nazis was conditioned by its complicated political environment which included the influence of Soviet foreign policy requirements, the party's Marxist-Leninist outlook, its organizational structure and the democratic society of Weimar. Relying on the Communist press and theoretical journals, documentary collections drawn from several German archives, as well as interview material, and Nazi, Communist opposition and Social Democratic sources, this study traces the development of the KPD's tactical orientation towards the Nazis for the period 1923-1933. In so doing it complements the existing literature both by its extension of the chronological scope of enquiry and by its attention to the tactical requirements of the relationship as viewed from the perspective of the KPD. It concludes that for the whole of the period, KPD tactics were ambiguous and reflected the tensions between the various competing factors which shaped the party's policies. 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE abbreviations 4 INTRODUCTION 7 CHAPTER I THE CONSTRAINTS ON CONFLICT 24 CHAPTER II 1923: THE FORMATIVE YEAR 67 CHAPTER III VARIATIONS ON THE SCHLAGETER THEME: THE CONTINUITIES IN COMMUNIST POLICY 1924-1928 124 CHAPTER IV COMMUNIST TACTICS AND THE NAZI ADVANCE, 1928-1932: THE RESPONSE TO NEW THREATS 166 CHAPTER V COMMUNIST TACTICS, 1928-1932: THE RESPONSE TO NEW OPPORTUNITIES 223 CHAPTER VI FLUCTUATIONS IN COMMUNIST TACTICS DURING 1932: DOUBTS IN THE ELEVENTH HOUR 273 CONCLUSIONS 307 APPENDIX I VOTING ALIGNMENTS IN THE REICHSTAG 1924-1932 333 APPENDIX II INTERVIEWS 335 BIBLIOGRAPHY 341 4 ABBREVIATIONS 1.