Università Degli Studi Del Piemonte Orientale Amedeo Avogadro Dipartimento Di Studi Umanistici

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Università Degli Studi Del Piemonte Orientale Amedeo Avogadro Dipartimento Di Studi Umanistici Università degli Studi del Piemonte Orientale Amedeo Avogadro Dipartimento di Studi Umanistici Corso di dottorato di ricerca in Scienze storiche Ciclo XXVII L'EVOLUZIONE POLITICA, PROGRAMMATICA ED IDEALE NEL SOCIALISMO EUROPEO DEGLI ANNI CINQUANTA. I CASI DEL LABOUR PARTY INGLESE, DELLA SOCIALDEMOCRAZIA TEDESCA E DEL PARTITO SOCIALISTA ITALIANO SSD: M-STO/04 Dottorando Jacopo Perazzoli Coordinatore dottorato Relatore Prof. Claudio Rosso Prof. Maurizio Vaudagna Esame finale anno 2015 INDICE Abbreviazioni 1 Introduzione 2 Parte I – Revisionismi a confronto 22 I CAPITOLO GLI ANTEFATTI. SPUNTI REVISIONISTI NELLA LUNGA STORIA DEL SOCIALISMO EUROPEO Eduard Bernstein e il «primo revisionismo»: tra rifiuti e condivisioni 23 Spunti innovatori a cavallo tra le due guerre 33 II CAPITOLO PRIMI CENNI REVISIONISTI Gli albori del «nuovo revisionismo» 38 L'avvio della trasformazione 65 III CAPITOLO UNA ROTTA ONDIVAGA La sinistra europea e le tracce della sindrome della tela di Penelope 87 Semi per il futuro prossimo 101 IV CAPITOLO MODELLI REVISIONISTI Il momento della svolta 115 Bad Godesberg e i suoi significati 116 I laburisti inglesi e Clause IV 126 L'apice dell'autonomismo nenniano 140 Brevi spunti sugli «anti-revisionisti» 150 Parte II – Un approccio comparato tra Welfare State e politiche innovatrici 168 I CAPITOLO SOCIALISMI E WELFARE STATE Un inizio in chiaroscuro 169 Tra conferme e spunti innovativi: i primi anni Cinquanta come fase di passaggio 179 Le politiche sociali come strumento per cambiare la realtà circostante 194 Welfare policies, Sozialstaat e «sicurezza sociale»: assonanze e differenze nelle 214 politiche sociali di laburisti inglesi, socialdemocratici tedeschi e socialisti italiani fino ai primi anni Sessanta II CAPITOLO SOCIALISMI E MODERNIZZAZIONE TECNOLOGICA-INDUSTRIALE Una lunga stagione di trasformazioni 237 Che fare di fronte alla «rivoluzione tecnologica»? 239 La ricerca scientifica come pietra angolare dell'agenda socialista 258 Da Arbeiterpartei a Volkspartei: alla ricerca dei nuovi elettori 278 Ragionamenti conclusivi 296 Fonti 307 ABBREVIAZIONI ACS, f. PN Archivio Centrale dello Stato, Roma, fondo Pietro Nenni ACS Min. Int., CPC Archivio Centrale dello Stato, Roma, Ministero dell'Interno, Casellario Politico Centrale ADSD Archiv der Sozialen Demokratie, Bonn AFGF, f. RP Archivio della Fondazione Giangiacomo Feltrinelli, Milano, fondo Raniero Panzieri ALP, Int. Dep. Archives of Labour Party, Manchester, International Department FSSFT, f. Psi-Dir., s. Sez. Int. Fondazione Studi Storici Filippo Turati, Firenze, fondo Psi-Direzione, serie Sezione Internazionale HAEU, f. DPA Historical Archives of European Union, Firenze, fondo Deposits of Private Archives IISG, f. SI International Institute of Social History, Amsterdam, fondo Socialist International MRC-CP Modern Records Centre, Coventry, Papers of Richard Crossman UCLA-GP University College of London Archives, London, Papers of Hugh Gaitskell b. busta c. contenitore ed. edited by (a cura di) f. fondo fasc. fascicolo Hg. Herausgegeben von (a cura di) nl. nachlass (materiale) s. serie segn. segnatura 1 INTRODUZIONE Karl Popper, ragionando sulle condizioni della civiltà occidentale negli anni a lui contemporanei, individuò nell'abuso dell'«ingegneria sociale utopica», ossia la necessità di fare tabula rasa di una società per edificarne sulle ceneri una nuova ad immagine e somiglianza dell'ideologia di coloro che l'hanno distrutta, la causa principale degli sconquassi politici, economici e militari che avevano contraddistinto la prima metà del Novecento.1 Tuttavia, proseguiva il filosofo, gli orrori e le miserie toccate con mano dagli europei tra il 1914 e il 1945 si sarebbero potuti evitare se i responsabili delle leve di comando avessero agito sulla base di quella che definì «una specie di ingegneria gradualista»,2 ovvero un'azione mirata a far funzionare in modo corretto ed equilibrato la società. Richiamandosi direttamente alle osservazioni popperiane, Giovanni Bernardini ha giustamente evidenziato che nell'Europa uscita dalla seconda guerra mondiale la missione di rendere stabile l'intero sistema sociale non sarebbe che potuta cadere sui partiti politici e, tra questi, sarebbe stato fondamentale il ruolo delle socialdemocrazia. Esse infatti godevano dei presupposti politici per coniugare stabilità e richiesta di cambiamento, un binomio che diventava sempre più evidente dinanzi al miglioramento delle condizioni economiche a livello continentale.3 Non a caso, Tony Judt descrisse gli anni successivi al secondo conflitto mondiale nelle vesti di stagione delle socialdemocrazie. 4 Ma non fu così da subito. Se si accetta la definizione di Judt a detta della quale per dopoguerra si devono intendere i quattro decenni successivi fino, indicativamente, alla caduta del Muro di Berlino, si dovrà giocoforza assentire al fatto che, al di là di alcune significative eccezioni come ad esempio il governo laburista in Gran Bretagna tra il 1945 e il 1951, gli anni compresi tra la caduta del regime di Hitler in Germania e di Mussolini in 1 Cfr. K. R. Popper, 1: Platone totalitario (edizione originale The Spell of Plato, Routledge&Kegan, London, 1952), A. Armando, Roma, 1973, p. 16. 2 Ivi, p. 233. 3 Cfr. G. Bernardini, Ideologia e transizione. La socialdemocrazia europea alla prova della «stabilizzazione dissolutiva del dopoguerra», in P. Pombeni, H.-G. Haupt (a cura di), La transizione come problema storiografico. Le fasi critiche dello sviluppo della modernità (1494-1973), Il Mulino, Bologna, 2013, p. 306. 4 Cfr. T. Judt, Postwar. A History of Europe since 1945, Vintage Books, London, 2010, pp. 360 e sg. 2 Italia e l'arrivo dei «folgoranti» Sixties non furono affatto segnati dalle politiche socialdemocratiche, visto che i governi dei tre Paesi in questione erano saldamente nelle mani dei conservatori. Una buona chiave interpretativa degli anni Cinquanta può essere proprio vista nella stagione di splendore dei Tories inglesi, della Cdu/Csu tedesca e della Dc italiana. La prosperità elettorale di queste forze politiche era strettamente connessa ad un aspetto di politica internazionale: agli occhi dei cittadini europei i conservatori parevano essere più adeguati nel gestire il ritrovato benessere economico favorito dallo European Recovery Program,5 ossia quello strumento concepito dagli USA per garantire le necessarie prospettive di crescita, senza le quali «i paesi europei avrebbero potuto benissimo voltare le spalle alla soluzione liberista».6 Certo, come ha spiegato lucidamente Giuseppe Berta, non si trattava affatto di un ritorno del laissez-fare, quanto piuttosto di un «capitalismo laburista», che, Italia esclusa,7 sembrava aver «interiorizzato elementi di una regolazione socialista dell'economia e della società».8 Innegabilmente favorite dal Piano Marshall, le nuove condizioni economiche in cui si trovava l'Europa occidentale venivano apprezzate dalla maggior parte dei cittadini, che potevano iniziare a godere di una nuova forma di potere, aperta a tutti, ovvero, in base ad una pertinente riflessione di Donald Sassoon, «il potere di scegliere e comprare una quantità sempre crescente di beni di consumo».9 Tutto questo nonostante Hannah Arendt sostenesse che l'economia del secondo dopoguerra aveva assunto le caratteristiche tipiche dell'«economia di spreco in cui le cose [dovevano] essere divorate ed eliminate con la stessa rapidità con cui [erano] state prodotte».10 Le cause di una trasformazione così profonda sul piano socio-economico erano da ricondurre ad una cesura importantissima che, come hanno dimostrato Paolo Pombeni e 5 Cfr. L. Niethammer, La nascita e la caduta delle prospettive socialiste nell'Europa del secondo dopoguerra, in Il Piano Marshall e l'Europa, Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana, Roma, 1983, pp. 101-108. 6 R. L. Filippelli, Il piano Marshall e la ricostruzione postbellica in V. Castronovo (a cura di), Storia dell’economia mondiale: 5. La modernizzazione e i problemi del sottosviluppo, Laterza, Roma-Bari, 2000, p. 28. 7 Al contrario degli altri Stati europei, l'Italia optò, su input del Ministro dell'Economia Luigi Einaudi, per una tesorizzazione degli aiuti economici derivanti dal Piano Marshall. Su questi aspetti si veda anzitutto G. Podbielski, Storia dell'economia italiana 1945-1974 (ed. or. Italy: Development and Crisis in the Post-War Economy, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1974), Laterza, Roma-Bari, 1975, pp. 5-10. In secundis si veda anche G. Sapelli, L'Europa del Sud dopo il 1945. Tradizione e modernità in Portogallo, Spagna, Italia, Grecia e Turchia, Rubbettino Editore, Soveria Mannelli, 1996, pp. 152-157. 8 G. Berta, Eclisse della socialdemocrazia, Il Mulino, Bologna, 2009, p. 13. 9 D. Sassoon, Cento anni di socialismo: la sinistra nell'Europa occidentale del 20 secolo, Editori Riuniti, Roma, 1997 (ed. or. One Hundred Years of Socialism: the West European Left in the twentieth century, I. B. Tauris, New York, 1996), p. 223. 10 H. Arendt, Vita activa. La condizione umana (ed. or. The Human Condition, The University of Chicago, 1958), Bompiani, Milano, 1991, p. 95. 3 l'intero gruppo di lavoro dell'Istituto storico italo-germanico di Trento da lui diretto, sta alla base dell'attuale epoca storica.11 Del resto, il cambiamento cui sarebbe andato incontro il Vecchio Continente a partire dal 1945 lo esplicitò Stalin in una famosa dichiarazione: chiunque avesse occupato un territorio, a differenza di quanto accaduto con la prima guerra mondiale, vi avrebbe imposto «il proprio sistema sociale».12 Benché garantissero sul piano teorico a ciascuna
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