The Americas: a Separate World, 40,000 B.C.–A.D

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The Americas: A Separate World, 40,000 B.C.–A.D. 700

Connect History and Geography

The earliest civilizations of the Americas emerged in the jungle lowlands of southeastern Mexico and in the rugged Andean highlands of Peru. As the map to the right indicates, the Olmec and Chavín civilizations were only the first of a number of advanced cultures that arose in the early Americas. Use the map to answer the questions.

1. Where were the Olmec and Chavín civilizations located? 2. What early city in Mexico was not part of Olmec culture? 3. Why is it likely that the Nazca and Moche civilizations were aware of each other? 4. How were geographic conditions different for the Olmec and Chavín peoples?

For more information about early Mesoamerican civilizations . . . CLASSZONE.COM

This miniature warrior is one of many treasures uncovered from the Moche culture, which arose around A.D. 100.

10,000 B.C. Last Ice 7000 B.C. Age ends; land bridge Agriculture begins to Asia disappears. in central Mexico.

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American Civilizations 1200 B.C.– A.D.700

75°W60°W 45°W

30°N NORTH AMERICA Gulf of Mexico

Tropic of Cancer

Yucatan Chichén Itzá Peninsula A TLANTIC El Mirador OCEAN San Lorenzo La Venta Monte Albán

15°N 15°N

PACIFIC OCEAN

Equator 0° 0°

Galapagos Is. A

N Amaz on River D

Olmec, 1200-200 B.C. Chavín de Huántar SOUTH Chavín, 900-200 B.C. AMERICA Nazca, 200 B.C. - A.D. 600 M Moche, A.D. 100-700 Zapotec, 500 B.C. - A.D. 700 O 15°S Center of Civilization U

N 0 500 1000 Miles T

0 500 1000 Kilometers A Robinson Projection

I Tropic of Capricorn

N S

105°W90°W75°W 45°W

1200 B.C. Olmec 900 B.C. 500 B.C. 200 B.C. Nazca A.D. 100 civilization emerges Chavín culture Zapotecs build civilization arises Moche culture in southeast Mexico. arises in Peru. Monte Albán. in southern Peru. emerges. 210-0209s1 10/11/02 3:47 PM Page 210

Interact with History

ou live in ancient North America, where most animal stands more than 14 feet high and weighs Ypeople must hunt for their food. Along with more than a ton, it will provide much meat, as several members of your group, you have been well as hides for clothing and shelter. hunting the mastodon for days. The giant beast Suddenly in the clearing you spot the massive is a challenging but rewarding prey. While the creature. Aside from spears, your only weapons are some crude tools and your superior intelligence.

How would you As the group determines its strategy, its members seek protection behind boulders Your group carries and loose rocks. kill a mastodon? several shovels for digging holes.

EXAMINING the ISSUES

Should a hunter get too close, the mastodon might • How might the group use the shovels crush him under his large to trap the mastodon? feet, or stab him with • Aside from spears and tools, what else his sharp tusks. could be used as a weapon against the animal?

As a class, discuss these questions. In your discussion, consider how this situation speaks to the difficulties of life in a hunter-gatherer society. As you read about the growth of civilizations in the Americas, notice how the old hunting and gathering way of life dramatically changed with the development of agriculture. 210 211-215-0209s1 10/11/02 3:47 PM Page 211

TERMS & NAMES 1 • Beringia Hunters and Farmers • Ice Age • maize in the Americas

MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW Although isolated, the ﬁrst Americans The Americas’ ﬁrst inhabitants developed in ways similar to the other developed the basis for American earliest humans. civilizations to come.

SETTING THE STAGE While civilizations were developing in Africa, Asia, and Europe, they were also emerging in the Americas. Human settlement in the Americas is rela- tively recent compared to that in other parts of the world. However, it followed a similar pattern. At ﬁrst the ancient people of the Americas survived mainly by hunting. Over time, they developed farming methods that ensured a more reliable supply of food. This in turn led to the growth of the ﬁrst civilizations in the Americas.

The Earliest Americans ARCTIC OCEAN The American continents include North and South America. They are connected and span two hemispheres, from the frigid Arctic B e r i n g i a Circle in the north to the icy waters around Antarctica in the south. ASIA ALASKA Although this land mass narrows greatly around modern-day Bering Strait Panama, it stretches unbroken for more than 10,000 miles. This large and rugged land is isolated from the rest of the world by vast oceans. Yet, at one time, thousands of years ago, the Americas were connected by a land bridge to Asia. Most experts believe that the PACIFIC OCEAN first people came to the Americas from Asia over this land bridge. The land bridge is known as Beringia. Peopling the Americas The first Americans arrived sometime toward the end of the last Ice Age, which lasted from roughly 1.6 million to 10,000 B.C. During this period huge sheets of moving ice, called glaciers, spread southward from the Arctic Circle. They covered large portions of North America. The buildup of glaciers locked up huge amounts of the earth’s water. It lowered sea levels and created a land corridor between Asia and Alaska across what is now the Bering Strait. Herds of wild animals from Siberia, including the mastodon, migrated across the flat, treeless plains of the Beringia land bridge. Gradually, Siberian hunters followed these animals into North America. They most likely were unaware that they were entering a new continent. These migrants became the first Americans. Thomas Canby, a writer for National Geographic magazine, spent a year with archaeologists as they searched for ancient burial sites throughout the Americas. From his experi- ence, Canby envisioned the type of world that might have greeted the first Americans:

A VOICE ABOUT THE PAST What a wild world it was! To see it properly, we must board a time machine and travel back into the Ice Age. The northern half of North America has vanished, buried beneath ice sheets two miles thick. Stretching south to Kentucky, they buckle the earth’s crust with their weight. . . . Animals grow oversize. . . . Elephant-eating jaguars stand tall as lions, beavers grow as big as bears, South American sloths as tall as giraffes. With arctic cold pushing so far southward, walrus bask on Virginia beaches, and musk-oxen graze from Maryland to California. THOMAS CANBY, “The Search for the First Americans”

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No one knows for sure when the ﬁrst Americans arrived. Some scholars contend that the migration across the land bridge began as early as 40,000 B.C. Others argue it occurred as late as 12,000 B.C. For years, many researchers have regarded the discovery of spearheads dating back to 9500 B.C. near Clovis, New Mexico, to be the earliest evidence of humankind in the Americas. However, recent discoveries of possible pre-Clovis sites have challenged this theory. One such discovery was made at Monte Verde, Chile, near the southern tip of the Americas. Researchers there have found evidence of human life dating back to 10,500 B.C. Underneath this site—a sandy bank near a creek—archaeologists discovered pieces of animal hide and various tools. They also found a preserved chunk of mastodon meat and a child’s single footprint. The evidence at Monte Verde suggests

80°N Migration Routes, 40,000–10,000 B.C.

ARCTIC OCEAN

B e r i n g i a Arctic Circle ASIA

R O C K NORTH Y AMERICA

M M O i s U s i N s s T i Glacier ice, 12,000 B.C. p A p 40°N i

I Beringia N R

S . Possible land migration routes Clovis, New Mexico Possible water migration route 9,500 B.C. Fossil site

Tropic of Cancer

ATLANTIC Spearheads similar to these were OCEAN ﬁrst discovered near Clovis, New Mexico, and later throughout North America. Many of these artifacts PACIFIC OCEAN 0° Equator A mazon R. date back to around 9500 B.C. A

N SOUTH

D E AMERICA S M

U N

T Tropic of Capricorn

N S

° Monte Verde, Chile 40 S 10,500 B.C. Recent ﬁndings at Monte Verde, Chile, have 0 2,000 Miles provided evidence of human life in the Americas as early as 10,500 B.C. 0 4,000 Kilometers ° E W W W W 0 ° ° ° ° ° 80 40 160 120 160

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps 1. Location What two continents does the Beringia land bridge connect? 2. Movement From where do scholars believe the ﬁrst Americans came? How did they come?

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that the first Americans arrived well before the Clovis era. To reach southern Chile at such an early date, experts believe, humans would have had to cross the land bridge at least 20,000 years ago. They also could have come by boat. Most experts believe the earliest Americans traveled by foot across the land bridge. However, some scholars think they also may have paddled from Asia to the Pacific Coast in small boats. Hunters and Gatherers Questions remain about how and when the first Americans Researchers found the bones of these arrived. What appears more certain—from the discovery of chiseled spearheads and bison in a sand charred bones at ancient sites—is that the earliest Americans lived as hunters. dune near Casper, Perhaps their most challenging and rewarding prey was the mastodon. Weighing more Wyoming. These animals are than a ton, this animal provided meat, hide, and bones for making food, clothing, believed to have shelters, and tools. been killed Eventually, large animals like the mastodon became extinct. Hunters soon turned around 8000 B.C. THINK THROUGH HISTORY to smaller prey, such as deer and rabbits, for their survival. They also fished and gath- A. Recognizing ered edible plants and fruits. Because they were hunters, the earliest Americans Effects How did the found it necessary to move regularly in search of food. Whenever they did settle in one earliest Americans adapt to the loss of place for a short time, prehistoric Americans lived in caves or temporary shelters in the large animals? open air. A. Answer They With the end of the Ice Age, around 12,000 to 10,000 years ago, came the end of hunted smaller prey, fished, and gathered land travel across Beringia. As the great glaciers melted, sea levels rose. The ancient edible plants. land bridge disappeared under the Bering Strait. By this time, however, humans inhabited most regions of the Americas. Wherever they roamed, from the grassy plains of the modern-day United States to the steamy tropical forests of Central America, the first Americans adapted to the variety of environments they inhabited. In doing so, they carved out unique ways of life.

Agriculture Prompts a New Way of Life Gradually, the earliest Americans became more familiar with plant foods. They began to experiment with simple methods of farming. Their efforts at planting and harvest- ing eventually led to the birth of agriculture. This in turn dramatically changed their way of life.

The Development of Farming Around 7000 B.C., a revolution quietly began in what is now central Mexico. There, people began to rely more on wild edible plants, raising some of them from seeds. By 5000 B.C. many had begun to grow these pre- ferred plants. They included squashes, gourds, beans, avocados, and chilies. By 3400 B.C., these early farmers grew maize, or corn. Maize soon became the most important crop. This highly nourishing crop ﬂourished in the tropical climate of Mexico. There, a family of three could raise enough corn in four months to feed themselves for up to two years. Gradually, people settled in permanent villages in the Tehuacan (tay •wuh•KAHN) Valley, south of present-day Mexico City. There, they raised corn and other crops. Even- tually the techniques of agriculture spread over most of North and South America. How- ever, it is believed that people in some areas, such as Peru and eastern North America, may have discovered the secrets of cultivating local edible plants independently.

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FEATURESCIENCE& TITLETECHNOLOGY Digging Up the Past It is mainly through the work of archaeologists and paleontologists that we know as much as we do about ancient America, as well as the other ancient lands of the world. Archaeology is the study of prehistoric human cultures. Paleontology is the study of ancient animals and plants. Both are sciences, requiring specialized skills and techniques. The men and women in both ﬁelds must show patience, precision, and a careful touch. Their job Where To Dig? is to extract from the earth the fragile fossils and artifacts of the past. How do researchers know where to Below is a dig at the La Brea tar pits, in what is now downtown Los dig in the ﬁrst place? One way is by Angeles. There, paleontologists found the remains of numerous prehistoric using an instrument called a soil- animals. They included saber-toothed tigers, mammoths, bison, and birds. resistivity meter. This device transmits electric currents into the soil and registers any abnormalities in the currents—usually caused by buried objects.

Using such tools as picks and brushes, workers clear away soil without Unearthed remains must damaging the be covered for protection animal remains. fromfrom thethe sunsun andand rain.rain.

A digger uses a jackhammer-jackhammer typetype instrumentinstrument toto loosenloosen thethe extremely hard dried tar.

Connect to History Diggers use a sieve to shake free tiny Analyzing Issues What things fossils that may be are paleontologists concerned lodged in soil. with during a dig? SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R12

Connect Today Tools of the Trade to The most commonly used tool on the site is a bricklayer’s Creating a Database Read an account of a dig at a trowel (far left). Workers use the durable instrument for a prehistoric site. Then create a variety of tasks, including digging and scraping. To recover database of information about fragile remains, diggers must use delicate, tiny tools, such what researchers found. as dental picks (left).

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The Effects of Agriculture

Before Agriculture After Agriculture

• People hunted or gathered what they ate. • People enjoyed a more reliable and • Families continually moved in search of steady source of food. beans big game. • Families settled down and formed • Groups remained small due to the scarcity larger communities. white and black maize of reliable sources of food. • Humans concentrated on new skills: arts • Humans devoted much of their time to and crafts, architecture, social organization. obtaining food. • Complex societies eventually arose.

avocados potatoes

peppers

SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Charts 1. How did the early Americans’ way of life change after the development of agriculture? 2. How might the establishment of agriculture have helped humans to develop new skills and interests?

Over the next several centuries, farming methods became increasingly advanced. In central Mexico, for example, native farmers created small islands in swamps and shal- low lakes by stacking layers of vegetation, dirt, and mud. They then planted crops on B. Possible Answer top of the island soil. The surrounding water provided continuous irrigation. These Its effects were floating gardens, known as chinampas, were very productive, yielding up to three har- significant: it led to a more reliable and vests a year. increased food supply, which in turn led to Farming Brings Great Change “[The] . . . transition from a foraging to a farming population growth, way of life,” noted American scientist Bruce Smith, “was a major turning point in the settled communities, long evolutionary history of our species.” Indeed, in the Americas as in other regions and eventually the establishment of of the world, agriculture brought great and lasting change to peoples’ way of life. civilizations. The cultivation of corn and other crops provided a more reliable and expanding THINK THROUGH HISTORY food supply. This encouraged population growth and the establishment of large, set- B. Making tled communities. As the population grew, and as farming became more efficient and Inferences Why might the productive, more people turned their attention to nonagricultural pursuits. They development of developed specialized skills in arts and crafts, building trades, and other fields. agriculture be charac- Differences between social classes—between rich and poor, ruler and subject—began terized by some as a turning point in to emerge. With the development of agriculture, society became more complex and human history? sophisticated. The stage was set for the rise of more advanced civilizations.

Section 1 Assessment

1. TERMS & NAMES 2. TAKING NOTES 3. FORMING OPINIONS 4. ANALYZING THEMES Identify The events listed in the following Why do you think early Power and Authority What • Beringia chart had important effects on the Americans, isolated from the rest type of person might hold power in • Ice Age development of the Americas. of the world, developed in ways a hunter-gatherer society? in a • maize Identify the main effects for each. similar to other early humans? settled, agricultural society? Cause Effects THINK ABOUT THINK ABOUT Beringia land • similarities among all human • qualities needed to succeed in a bridge forms. beings hunting society Large animals • availability of similar resources • qualities most admired in a become extinct. • the development from hunting to settled, farming society Early Americans farming experiment with farming. Crops provide a reliable food supply. The Americas: A Separate World 215 216-220-0209s2 10/11/02 3:47 PM Page 216

TERMS & NAMES 2 • Mesoamerica Early Mesoamerican • Olmec • Zapotec Civilizations • Monte Albán

MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW The Olmec created the Americas’ ﬁrst Later American civilizations relied on civilization, which in turn inﬂuenced the technology and achievements of later civilizations in the region. earlier cultures to move forward.

SETTING THE STAGE The story of developed civilizations in the Americas begins in a region archaeologists and historians refer to as Mesoamerica. This area stretches south from central Mexico to the northern reaches of modern-day Honduras. It was here, more than 3,000 years ago, that the ﬁrst complex societies in the Americas arose.

Mesoamerica’s Mother Culture Mesoamerica’s first known civilization builders were a people known as the Olmec. They began carving out a thriving society around 1200 B.C. in the humid jungles of southern Mexico. The Olmec influenced neighboring groups, as well as the later civilizations of the region. Thus, they often are called Mesoamerica’s “mother culture.” The Rise of Olmec Civilization Around 1860, a worker clearing a field in the hot coastal plain of southeastern Mexico uncovered an extraordinary stone sculpture. It stood five feet tall and weighed an estimated eight tons. The sculpture was of an enormous head, wearing a headpiece that resembled a football helmet. The head was carved in a strikingly realistic style, with thick lips, a flat nose, and large oval eyes. (See History Through Art on page 219.) Archaeologists had never seen anything like it in the Americas. This head, along with others that were discovered later, was a remnant of the Olmec civilization. The Olmec flourished from 1200 B.C. to 400 B.C. They lived along the Gulf Coast of Mexico, in the modern-day Mexican states of Veracruz and Tabasco. On the surface, the Gulf Coast seemed an unlikely site for a high culture to take root. The region was hot and humid and covered with swamps and jungle. In some places, giant trees formed a thick cover that prevented most sunlight from reaching the ground. Up to 100 inches of rain fell every year. The rainfall swelled rivers and caused severe flooding. However, the region also had certain advantages. There were abundant THINK THROUGH HISTORY deposits of salt and tar, as well as fine clay used in making pottery. There A. Making This Olmec figure was also wood and rubber from the rain forest. The hills to the north provided hard Inferences In what represents either stone from which the Olmec could make tools and monuments. The rivers that laced ways did the Olmec’s a wrestler or ball environment help player. The Olmec the region provided a ready means of transport. Perhaps most important, the flood in the creation of played a game plains of these rivers provided fertile land for farming. its civilization? in which two The Olmec used their abundant resources to build thriving communities. The old- A. Possible Answer opponents battled The region supplied to place a ball in est site, San Lorenzo, dates back to around 1150 B.C. Here, and at other sites, archaeolo- abundant natural a goal. The loser gists uncovered important clues that offered a glimpse into the Olmec world. resources, and the often was sacrificed. surrounding flood Olmec Society At San Lorenzo archaeologists discovered earthen mounds, court- plains provided fertile yards, and pyramids. Set among these earthworks were large stone monuments. They farmland. included columns, altars, and more colossal, sculpted heads, which may have represented particular Olmec rulers. These giant monuments weigh as much as 44 tons. Researchers are left to wonder how the Olmec moved them to various centers of 216 Chapter 9 216-220-0209s2 10/11/02 3:47 PM Page 217 100 ° worship. Some scholars suspect that W Olmec Civilization, 900 B.C. Olmec workers moved these sculp-

tures over land on rolling logs to the E A Olmec homeland river banks. From there, they rafted S T Oaxaca Valley the monuments along numerous E Possible trade routes R waterways to various sites. N Centers of Olmec civilization Other Olmec sites S The organization needed for such I Limit of Mesoamerica E Tropic of Cancer an undertaking is one reason scholars R 90 R ° W think San Lorenzo was home to a A Gulf of small ruling class of priests and nobles. M A Mexico These rulers may have commanded a D YUCATAN R PENINSULA much larger group of peasant farmers E living in the surrounding country. 20°N Bay of To the east of San Lorenzo, another Campeche significant Olmec site, La Venta, rose San Lorenzo La Venta around 900 B.C. Here, researchers discovered a 100-foot-high mound of Oaxaca earth and clay. This structure may have Valley served as the tomb of a great Olmec ruler. Known as the Great Pyramid, the 0 250 Miles PACIFIC mound also may have been the center 0 500 Kilometers OCEAN of the Olmec religion. Based on other artifacts found at sites like La Venta, GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps experts believe the Olmec prayed to a 1. Movement Judging from the map, what was one way in which the Olmec spread their influence? variety of nature gods. 2. Movement What difficulties might the Olmec have Jaguar Worship Most of all they encountered in developing their trade routes? probably worshiped the jaguar spirit. Numerous Olmec sculptures and carvings depict a half-human, half-jaguar creature. THINK THROUGH HISTORY Some scholars believe that the jaguar represented a powerful rain god. Others con- B. Clarifying What tend that there were several jaguar gods, representing such vital things as the earth, is the jaguar believed to have represented fertility, and maize. As anthropologist Peter Furst points out, the jaguar was central to to the Olmec? Olmec religion: B. Possible Answer CONNECT TODAY A powerful rain god, A VOICE ABOUT THE PAST to as well as the earth, You can almost call the Olmec the people of the jaguar. In tropical fertility, and maize. America, jaguars were the shamans [medicine men] of the animal Jaguar Worship world, the alter ego [other identity] of the shaman. They are the most Some descendants of the Olmec and powerful predators. That's why in Olmec art you get these combina- other Mesoamerican peoples still tions of jaguars and humans. practice jaguar worship. In the spring, villagers in Acatlan, Mexico, PETER FURST, quoted in “New Light on the Olmec” put on jaguar masks and draw blood in mock combat. They do this in the Trade and Commerce Archaeologists once believed that sites such hope that the jaguar will shed its as La Venta were ceremonial centers where important rituals were own blood, in the form of rain, to performed but few people lived. In recent years, however, experts have water the fields. In another ritual, shown here, a boy becomes a begun to revise that view. According to Mexican archaeologist Rebecca jaguar dancer to bring rain. González, “La Venta was not just an empty ceremonial spot visited Vocabulary by Olmec priests and nobles, but a prosperous community of fishers, artisan: a skilled farmers, traders, and specialists, such as the artisans and the sculptors.” worker or craftsman. Indeed, the Olmec appear to have been a prosperous people who directed a large trading network throughout Mesoamerica. Olmec goods traveled as far as Mexico City to the north and Honduras to the south. In addition, raw materials—including iron ore and various stones—reached San Lorenzo from faraway regions. This trade network helped boost the Olmec economy and spread Olmec influence to other parts of Mesoamerica. 216-220-0209s2 10/11/02 3:47 PM Page 218

Decline of the Olmec For reasons that are not fully understood, Olmec civilization THINK THROUGH HISTORY eventually collapsed. Scholars believe San Lorenzo was destroyed around 900 B.C. La C. Hypothesizing What things Venta may have fallen sometime around 400 B.C. Some experts speculate that outside might lead to the invaders caused the destruction. Others believe the Olmec may have destroyed their disappearance of an own monuments upon the death of their rulers. entire civilization? Because the Olmec apparently left no written records, scholars may never know the C. Possible Answer An overwhelming full truth. Nevertheless, Olmec artifacts continue to offer up tantalizing clues about this enemy attack, dis- ﬁrst known Mesoamerican civilization. ease, crop failure, drought. Zapotec Civilization Arises By the time Olmec civilization had collapsed, another people—the Zapotec—were developing an advanced society to the southwest, in what is now the Mexican state of Oaxaca (wuh•HAH•kah). Though they showed traces of Olmec inﬂuence, the Zapotec built a unique civilization. This ancient group dominated Oaxaca for more than a thousand years. Peoples of the Oaxaca Valley Oaxaca is a rugged region of mountains and valleys in southern Mexico. In the center of the state, three valleys meet to form a large open area known as the Oaxaca Valley. (See map on page 217.) Though much of Oaxaca is hot and dry, this valley has fertile soil, a mild climate, and enough rainfall to support agriculture. As a result, various peoples have made the Oaxaca Valley their home, including the ancient Zapotec. For centuries the Zapotec lived in scattered villages throughout the valley. By 1000 B.C., however, one site—San José Mogote—was emerging as the main power in the region. At this site, the Zapotec constructed stone platforms. They also built temples and began work on monumental sculptures. By 500 b.c. they also had developed early forms of hieroglyphic writing and a calendar system.

HISTORY THROUGH ART: Sculpture A Legacy of Sculpture More than 2,000 years after the Olmec’s collapse, the ancient society’s sculpture remains its most lasting legacy. From the colossal stone heads to the tiny jade ﬁgures, these carvings reveal the Olmec’s expert craftsmanship and commitment to detail. They also provide a glimpse of the values and beliefs of the Americas’ oldest known civilization.

Giant Altars The Olmec carved a number of impressive altars. Like the one pictured to the right, they often depicted a priest or shaman emerging from the structure. In numerous altars, the priest cradles a child. Some scholars believe that this may have signiﬁed the importance of the notion of dynasty—with the child representing the heir to the throne—in Olmec society.

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The Zapotec Flourish at Monte Albán THINK THROUGH HISTORY Around 500 B.C., Zapotec civilization took D. Comparing a major leap forward. High atop a mountain at the center of the Oaxaca Valley, the How does Monte Zapotec built the first real urban center in the Americas: Monte Albán. This city, Albán’s population with its commanding view of the entire valley, grew and prospered over the next compare to the popu- lations of today’s several centuries. By 200 B.C., Monte Albán was home to around 15,000 people. The major cities? city eventually would reach a peak population of 25,000. D. Possible Answer From A.D. 250 to A.D. 700, Monte Albán was truly impressive. At the heart of the It was much smaller; many of today’s large city was a giant plaza paved with stones. Towering pyramids, temples, and palaces, all cities have several made out of stone, surrounded this plaza. There was even a building that may have million residents. acted as an observatory for gazing at the stars. Nearby was a series of stone carvings of corpses. Their thick lips and flat noses show a clear influence of Olmec style. For more than a thousand years the Zapotec controlled the Oaxaca Valley and the surrounding region. Sometime after A.D. 600, however, the Zapotec began to decline. Some scholars believe they may have suffered a loss of trade or other economic difficulties. As with the Olmec, the fall of Zapotec civilization remains a puzzle. The Early Mesoamericans’ Legacy Although both the Zapotec and Olmec civilizations eventually collapsed, each culture left its mark on the Mesoamerican civilizations that followed. The Olmec Leave Their Mark The Olmec contributed much to later Mesoamer- Vocabulary ican civilizations. They influenced the powerful Maya, who will be discussed in motif: a repeated Chapter 16. Olmec art styles, especially the use of the jaguar motif, can be seen in the theme in a literary or pottery and sculpture of later peoples in the region. In addition, future Mesoamerican artistic work. societies copied the Olmec pattern of urban design. Like the Olmec, later civilizations built cities by combining pyramids, plazas, and monumental sculpture.

Jade Figures With little technology at their disposal, the Olmec mastered the difficult art of carving jade. Jade is a hard and tough but highly colorful stone. “The tough material was mastered as though it were a plastic,” one scholar said of the Olmec’s work. As shown here, the Olmec often carved jaguar ﬁgures out of jade. The jaguar-god was a powerful deity in Olmec society.

Connect to History Colossal Heads Perhaps the most recognizable Analyzing Issues What charac- Olmec sculptures are the giant teristics of Olmec society does stone heads. Researchers each of these sculptures convey? SEE SKILLBUILDER have uncovered more than a HANDBOOK, PAGE R12 dozen Olmec heads. The largest one stands 11 feet tall. Some Connect to Today scholars say that the heads Comparing Consider the better- represent idolized warriors or known sculptures and monuments ball players. However, most in your country. What do they say experts believe they depict about your civilization? individual rulers.

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Daily Life

Working Hard For Water Monte Albán’s position upon a mountain top (depicted in this pho- tograph of its ruins) added to its magnificence. But it also presented a daily problem for the city’s The Olmec also left behind the notions of planned ceremonial E. Possible residents: limited access to water. centers, ritual ball games, and an elite ruling class. And while there Answers Olmec’s Perched so high above the is no clear evidence that the Olmec used a written language, their sculpture and planned valley, Monte Albán had no natural ceremonial centers; waterways leading into the city. descendants or a related people carved out stone symbols that may Zapotec’s hieroglyphic Scholars believe that city leaders have influenced later glyph writing. language and may have organized citizens to calendar system. carry drinking water up the Zapotec Contributions The Zapotec left behind their own legacy. THINK THROUGH HISTORY mountain—as far as 1,500 feet— It included a hieroglyphic language and a calendar system based on E. Forming Opinions in jars. the movement of the sun. In addition, the Zapotec are noted as the What do you consider Americas’ first city builders. Monte Albán combined ceremonial to be the Olmec’s and Zapotec’s most impor- grandeur with residential living space. This style influenced the development of future tant contributions to urban centers and became a hallmark of Mesoamerican civilizations. later cultures? Why? As the Zapotec and Olmec flourished and then declined, civilizations were also taking shape in South America. Along the rough and mountainous terrain in what is now Peru, ancient peoples came together. There, they created more advanced and complex societies.

Section 2 Assessment

1. TERMS & NAMES 2. TAKING NOTES 3. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS 4. THEME ACTIVITY Identify Compare the Olmec and Zapotec Why do you think the Olmec are Cultural Interaction As a • Mesoamerica cultures by using a Venn diagram called Mesoamerica’s “mother trader from a small Mesoamerican • Olmec similar to the one below. culture”? Consider the Olmec’s village, you have just returned • Zapotec inﬂuence on later groups in the from your ﬁrst visit to the Olmec • Monte Albán region. site at La Venta. Write a descrip- THINK ABOUT tion of what you might tell your Olmec Both Zapotec • architecture family about the wondrous things • religion you saw in and around the site. • art Prepare to present the description orally to the class. Design another way to show this same information. 220 Chapter 9 221-223-0209s3 10/11/02 3:47 PM Page 221

TERMS & NAMES 3 • Chavín Early Civilizations • Nazca • Moche of the Andes

MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW Around the harsh terrain of the Andes Like the early Andean civilizations, Mountains in South America, various people today must adapt to their groups created ﬂourishing civilizations. environment in order to survive.

SETTING THE STAGE While civilizations were emerging in Mesoamerica, advanced societies were also arising in South America. The early cultures of South America arose in difficult environs, namely the rugged terrain of the Andes Mountains. However, like the peoples of Mesoamerica, the early Andean cultures controlled their surroundings and created ﬂourishing civilizations.

Societies Grow in the Andes Region The Andes Mountains stretch some 4,000 miles down the western edge of South America, from Colombia in the north to Chile in the south. After the Himalayas in southern Asia, the Andes is the highest mountain range in the world. The Andes has a number of peaks over 20,000 feet in elevation. It was in the northern Andes region, in what is now Peru, that South America’s first advanced civilizations emerged. Early Settlements Along the Coast Peru was a difficult place to launch a civilization. The Andes are steep and rocky, with generally poor soil. Ice and snow cover the THINK THROUGH HISTORY highest elevations year-round. Overland travel often is difficult. The climate is also A. Contrasting severe: hot and dry during the day, and often freezing at night. How did the environ- Between the mountains and the Pacific Ocean lies a narrow coastal plain. Most of The Chavín’s ment of the Andes this plain is harsh desert where rain seldom falls. In some places, however, rivers cross artistic styles region differ from influenced peoples that of much of the desert on their path from the mountains to the sea. It was in these river valleys that throughout the Mesoamerica? the first settlements occurred. Andes region. A. Possible Answer Between 3600 and 2500 B.C. people began to establish temporary villages along the Here, a Chavín The Andes region was ceramic vessel mostly dry, mountain- Pacific coast. These first inhabitants were hunter-gatherers who relied on seafood and depicts images of ous terrain with gen- small game for their survival. Eventually, around 3000 B.C., these people began to snarling cats. erally poor soil, while farm. By 1800 B.C., a number of thriving communities existed along the coast. much of Mesoamerica was humid tropical The Chavín Period The first influential civilization in South America arose not on forests with more fertile soil. the coast, however, but in the mountains. This culture, known as the Chavín (sha•VEEN), flourished from around 900 B.C. to 200 B.C. Archaeologists named the culture after a major ruin, Chavín de Huántar, in the northern highlands of Peru. This site is situated more than 10,000 feet above sea level. It features pyramids, plazas, and massive earthen mounds. Chavín culture spread quickly across much of northern and central Peru. Archaeologists have found no evidence of political or economic organization within the culture. Thus, they conclude that the Chavín were primarily a religious civilization. According to this theory, Chavín de Huántar and other similar sites were important religious centers rather than outposts of a powerful empire. Nevertheless, the spread of Chavín art styles and religious images—as seen in stone carving, pottery, and textiles—demonstrates the powerful influence of this culture. Ancient Peruvians may have visited Chavín temples to pay their respects. They then carried ideas back to their communities. The Chavín are believed to The Americas: A Separate World 221 221-223-0209s3 10/11/02 3:47 PM Page 222

have established certain patterns that helped unify Andean culture and SPOTLIGHTON lay the foundation for later civilizations in Peru. Thus, like the Olmec, Headhunters the Chavín may have acted as a “mother culture.” The striking images on their pottery indicate that the Nazca may have Other Andean Civilizations Flourish been headhunters. In numerous Around the time Chavín culture declined, other civilizations were ceramic and textile designs, Nazca artisans depict the taking of human emerging in Peru. First the Nazca and then the Moche (MO•chay) built heads, probably from enemies in advanced societies that flourished for centuries in the Andes region. combat. Many ancient cultures believed the head to have special Nazca Achievements The Nazca culture flourished along the power as the seat of the soul. southern coast of Peru from around 200 B.C. to A.D. 600. This area is Taking and displaying the head of extremely dry. The Nazca developed extensive irrigation systems, an enemy was considered a way of including underground canals, that allowed them to farm the land. increasing the strength and well- being of a community. The Nazca are known for their beautiful textiles and pottery. Both Throughout history, headhunting feature images of animals and mythological beings. has been practiced around the They are even more famous, however, for an extraordinary but puz- world, from New Zealand to the zling set of creations known as the Nazca Lines. On a large, rock-strewn Balkan region in southeastern Europe. Scattered reports of head- plain, the Nazca made huge drawings by scraping away stones to reveal hunting continued well into the the lighter soil underneath. The drawings depict various plants and ani- mid-20th century. mals, including a monkey, birds, and other creatures. These drawings are so huge, however, that they can be seen only from the air. Scientists believe that the Nazca made these drawings for their gods. Moche Culture Meanwhile, on the northern coast of Peru, another civilization was reaching great heights. This was the Moche culture, which lasted from about A.D. 100 to A.D. 700. The Moche took advantage of the rivers that flowed from the Andes Mountains. They built impressive irrigation systems to water their wide range of

Early Civilizations, 1200 B.C.–A.D. 700 Tropic of Cancer The region in NORTH Gulf of Mexico ATLANTIC which the Olmec AMERICA OCEAN arose included lush forests. MESO- AMERICA In addition, Caribbean Sea numerous rivers Chavín in the region Moche provided fertile Nazca farming land. Olmec

0° Equator The environment A A mazon R. of the Andes region PACIFIC N was harsh. Its dry D OCEAN E and mountainous S terrain made M farming more O difficult. U SOUTH N AMERICA T

Tropic of Capricorn N S GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps 1. Place Along what mountain range did the early South American 40 80 civilizations arise? ° ° W 0 1,000 Miles W 2. Human-Environment Interaction What advantages did the Olmec 0 2,000 Kilometers have over the early civilizations of the Andes? 222 Chapter 9 221-223-0209s3 10/11/02 3:47 PM Page 223

Early Civilizations Around the World

1200 B.C. 900 B.C. 500 B.C. 200 B.C. A.D. 100 Olmec Chavín Zapotec establish Nazca Moche civilization arises. culture Monte Albán. culture culture The Americas emerges. emerges. arises.

1200 B.C. 1000 B.C. 500 B.C. A.D.1 A.D. 120 Africa, Asia, and Europe

Around 1200 B.C. 480 B.C. 202 B.C. Around A.D. 120 Egyptian Empire Golden Age of Han Dynasty Roman Empire begins to decline. Greece begins. begins in China. reaches its height.

crops, which included corn, beans, potatoes, squash, and peanuts. According to Peruvian archaeologist Walter Alva, the Moche enjoyed a variety of foods:

A VOICE ABOUT THE PAST The Moche enjoyed a diet rich in protein and probably better balanced than that of many modern Peruvians. Fish from the nearby Paciﬁc were eaten fresh or sun dried. They ate Muscovy ducks and guinea pigs. To drink, there was potent chicha, a cloudy beverage fermented from corn that had been ground and boiled. Deer, now rare, were abundant. . . . Crayﬁsh in irrigation ditches supplemented seafood from the coast. WALTER ALVA, “Richest Unlooted Tomb of a Moche Lord”

Moche tombs uncovered in the recent past have revealed a civilization with THINK THROUGH HISTORY B. Analyzing Issues enormous wealth. Archaeologists have found beautiful jewelry crafted from gold, silver, How were archaeolo- and semiprecious stones. The Moche were also brilliant ceramic artists. They created gists able to gain so pottery that depicted scenes from everyday life. Moche pots show doctors healing much information patients, women weaving cloth, and musicians playing instruments. They also show about the Moche without the help of a ﬁerce soldiers armed with spears, leading enemy captives. Although the Moche never written language? developed a written language, their pottery provides a wealth of detail about Moche life. B. Possible Answer Nevertheless, many questions about the Moche remain. Experts still do not fully The Moche’s elabo- rate pottery provided understand Moche religious beliefs. Nor do they know why the Moche fell. Like a great deal of infor- many early cultures of the Americas, the Moche remain something of a mystery. mation about their Unlike the lands you will read about in the next chapter—which were uniﬁed by everyday life. the spread of Islam—the Americas would remain a patchwork of separate civilizations until the early 16th century. Around that time the Europeans would begin to arrive and bring dramatic and lasting changes to the American continents.

Section 3 Assessment

1. TERMS & NAMES 2. TAKING NOTES 3. HYPOTHESIZING 4. ANALYZING THEMES Identify Use a chart like the one below to Would the Chavín culture have Interaction with • Chavín record important details about the been more influential if it had Environment Describe how • Nazca earliest Andean civilizations. arisen along the Peruvian coast? the Nazca and the Moche adapted • Moche Why or why not? to their environment in order to Time build flourishing societies. Culture Span Location Achievements THINK ABOUT Chavín • the harsh environment of the Andes Mountain region Nazca • the effect of environment on the spread of culture Moche • the nature of Chavín influence

What achievements, if any, did all three cultures share? The Americas: A Separate World 223 224-225-0209ca 10/11/02 3:48 PM Page 224

Chapter9 Assessment

GRTERMS & NAMES REVIEW QUESTIONS Briefly explain the importance of each of the following to the early peoples and civilizations of the Americas. SECTION 1 (pages 211–215) Hunters and Farmers in the Americas 11. How do archaeologists know that the first Americans lived as hunters? 1. Beringia 6. Zapotec 12. Why was corn such an important food crop to the people of Mexico 2. Ice Age 7. Monte Albán and Central America? 3. maize 8. Chavín 13. What were the main differences between hunter-gatherer societies and 4. Mesoamerica 9. Nazca those based primarily on agriculture? 5. Olmec 10. Moche SECTION 2 (pages 216–220) Early Mesoamerican Civilizations 14. Where did the Olmec, the Americas’ first known civilization, arise? 15. How did the Olmec’s location contribute to the development of Interact with History their civilization? On page 210 you examined ways 16. How did the Olmec influence the Zapotec civilization? to kill the mastodon and discussed 17. How do archaeologists know that the Zapotec city of Monte Albán was the difficulties of living in a hunter- more than just a ceremonial center? gatherer society. Now that you have read the chapter, discuss why SECTION 3 (pages 221–223) the early Americans moved from Early Civilizations of the Andes a hunting to a farming existence. 18. In what ways did the Chavín influence other peoples of the Andes region? In what ways was food gathering 19. What do scholars believe the Nazca Lines represented? easier in an agricultural society? 20. How were the Nazca and Moche able to develop productive farmland?

Visual Summary The Americas: A Separate World

The Earliest Americans • Hunted big game and later ﬁshed and gathered berries and plants • Lived in small groups, as they had to move continually in search of food • Eventually developed farming and settled down into large communities • Developed various new skills, including arts and crafts, architecture, and social and political organization • Gradually forged more complex societies

Early South American Societies Early Mesoamerican Societies The Chavín The Nazca and Moche The Olmec The Zapotec • Established powerful • Developed extensive • Designed and built pyramids, plazas, • Built a magniﬁcent urban religious worship centers irrigation systems and monumental sculptures center at Monte Albán • Created inﬂuential for farming • Developed ceremonial centers, ritual • Developed early forms of artistic styles • Crafted intricate ball games, and a ruling class hieroglyphic writing and ceramics and textiles • Directed a large trade network a calendar system and other decorative art throughout Mesoamerica

224 Chapter 9 224-225-0209ca 10/11/02 3:48 PM Page 225

CRITICAL THINKING CHAPTER ACTIVITIES 1. STAGES TO CIVILIZATION 1. LIVING HISTORY: Unit Portfolio Project The early Americans’ way of life developed through THEME POWER AND AUTHORITY Your unit portfolio project focuses on the several stages, starting with hunting. Use a sequence growth and use of power and authority in ancient history. (See page 107.) For graphic like the one below to show the stages of this Chapter 9 you might use one of the following ideas to add to your portfolio. development up to and including the time of the first • Write a piece of historical fiction about an early American in which you civilizations. describe how the first ruler gained power or how some people got rich. Hunting • With a partner, design and prepare a time capsule that members of one of the first civilizations might have created to preserve the memory of their powerful and successful society. • Speculate about why the Olmec or another civilization declined. Then draw a picture showing a key aspect of that decline. Include a caption. 2. CONNECT TO TODAY: Cooperative Learning THEME CULTURAL INTERACTION One way that a culture’s influence spread was by direct contact between people. Members of advanced civilizations, especially traders, carried their influential ideas with them as they traveled. 2. CHALLENGING LOCATIONS Today, cultural influence is still spread in a similar way. THEME INTERACTION WITH ENVIRONMENT What unique Work with a team to create and role-play two distinct meetings. In the first environmental challenges did the early Mesoamerican meeting, a trader from an ancient American civilization shares ideas and and South American peoples face as they built descriptions of his or her society with a farmer from a distant settlement. In thriving civilizations? the second meeting, an American salesperson from today shares similar 3. EARLY WAYS OF LIFE information with a farmer in a distant land. Would you rather have lived in a hunting society • Decide exactly what information you want the person from each of the or a settled farming society? Explain your answer. dominant cultures to pass on. • Establish a set of specific questions that the curious farmers will ask in 4. ANALYZING PRIMARY SOURCES order to draw out information about each culture. In his article “The Chavín Cult,” historian Brian Fagan 3. INTERPRETING A TIME LINE describes the mysterious shrine of Chavín de Huántar. Revisit the time line on pages 106–107. Look above the Chapter 9 time line. A VOICE ABOUT THE PAST Write about three other events that are happening in the world at this time. Its U-shaped temple opens east toward the nearby Mosna River and the rising sun. The sacred precinct faces away from the nearby FOCUS ON GEOGRAPHY prehistoric settlement, presenting a high, Notice the location of almost menacing, wall to the outside world. the early Mesoamerican The entire effect is one of mystery and and South American Early America, 1200 B.C.–A.D. 700 hidden power. . . . Worshippers entered the civilizations. sacred precincts by a roundabout route, ATLANTIC • How many miles apart passing along the temple pyramid to the Gulf of OCEAN by land do they appear Tropic of Cancer river, then up some low terraces that led into Mexico to be? the heart of the shrine. Here they found MESOAMERICA themselves in a sacred landscape set against a • What geographic C a backdrop of mountains. Ahead of them lay factors would have r i b Early Mesoamerican b e a n S the hidden place where the axis of the world made interaction Civilizations e a passed from the sky into the underworld, an between the two oracle [a place for predicting the future] regions difficult? famous for miles around. Connect to History PACIFIC BRIAN FAGAN, quoted in The Peru Reader Based on the map, why OCEAN do you think it took so 0° A

many thousands of years N • How might visitors have felt upon entering this to travel from the land D SOUTH shrine for the ﬁrst time? Why? E AMERICA bridge in upper North S

• Do you think the mystery of this place helped America to the southern Early Andean M Civilizations O spread the Chavín culture’s inﬂuence? Explain. tip of South America? U N T A I N Additional Test Practice, TEST PRACTICE S

pp. S1–S33 CLASSZONE.COM 0 1,000 Miles 80 ° W 0 2,000 Kilometers 225