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China's Politics of Modernization / by David Yuen Yeung. CHINA'S POLITICS OF MODERNIZATION David Yuen Yeung B.A., Simon Fraser University, 1975 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS in the Department of Political Science David Yuen Yeung SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY AUGUST 1982 A11 rights reserved. This thesis may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without permission of the author. APPROVAL Name : David Yuen Yeung Degree : Master of Arts Title of Thesis: China's Politics of Modernization Examining Committee: Chairperson: Maureen Cove11 F. Qu&i/Quo, Senior Supervisor Ted Cohn KenY'? Okga, External Examiner ~ssodiateProfessor Department of Economics and Commerce Simon Fraser University PARTIAL COPY RIGHT LICENSE I hereby grant to Simon Fraser University the right to lend my thesis or dissertation (the title of which is shown below) to users of the Simon Fraser University Library, and to make partial or single copies only for such users or in response to a request from the library of any other university, or other educational institution, on its own behalf or for one of its users. I further agree that permission for mu1 tiple copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by me or the Dean of Graduate Studies. It is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. Title of Thesi s1Dissertation : e CXtnds /3dh oj- ~d~a*nl~efim Author : (signature) (name) (date) ABSTRACT This thesis is an attempt to examine the modernization efforts of the People's Republic of China under Mao and the post-Mao period. The methodology used is based on David Apter's two models of modernization, namely the Mobilization system and Reconciliation system. The former is a communist oriented model and the latter is libertarian. Using ~pter'stypology and explanation, various stages of Chinese mobilization systems from 1949 to 1981 are examined in detail to (i) identify the factors behind the failures, (ii) illustrate the oscillating process of policy changes and (iii) explain the transformation into a reconciliation system. Since modernization effort is not new to China this thesis begins with a historical review of the pre-People's Republic experience in the form of the Self-strengthening Movement, Sun Yat-sen's Nationalist effort and the May Fourth Movement of the late Nineteenth and the early Twentieth centuries (Chapter One). The experience of the Soviet Model and subsequent debate over the choice of development model are dealt with in subsequent chapters (Chapters Two and Three). The main focus, however, is the current Four Modernizations and their future outlook (Chapters Four and Five). This study finds that China, like many other developing nations, faced and still faces three basic problems associated with the course of moderni- zation: ti) the problem of balanced development between urban and rural, agricultural and industrial sectors of the society; (ii) the issue of political development versus economic growth, i.e., which one should take iii pecedence; and (iii) the need for a favorable international environment as indicated by the linkage between the external input and domestic dev- elopment, be it in the form of foreign investment or technological-aid (Chapter VI) . This study also verifies Apter's assumption that it is difficult for a developing society to emulate Mobilization systems unless one is prepared to pay unlimited human and material sacrifice in the form of a totalitarian system. Finally, Apter's speculation is that Mobilization systems will eventually transform themselves into a more or less Libertarian model, though not necessarily democratic in the western sense. China's current development pattern seems to verify this prediction. I would like to express my deep gratitude to Dr. F.Q. Quo who has gone through the original work of this thesis with great patience. With- out his painstaking guidance and constant assistance this thesis would not have been possible. I would also like to thank Dr. T.H. Cohn for agreeing to act as my second supervisor. His assistance is highly appreciated. My appreciation also goes to Dr. Kenji Okuda of the Economics Department for his valuable comments and assistance as an External Examiner. Finally, I would like to thank Dr. A.H. Somjee, Dr. Edward McWhinney and Dr. Maureen Cove11 for their friendly assistance and encouragement during my stay at Simon Fraser University. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Approval .............................................................. ii Abstract.............................................................. iii Acknowledgements ..................................................... v I. INTRODUCTION A. The Concept of Modernization.. ........................... 2 B. Historical Efforts 1. Manchu Self-strengthening Movement................... 13 2. Modernization Scheme under Dr. Sun Yat Sen.. ......... 19 3. Maoism and Modern China.. ............................ 24 4. A Summary ............................................ 29 5. Notes... .............................................. 33 11. MODEL DILEMMA A. The Soviet Model 1. China's First Five-Year Plan: Rapid Industrialization and its Consequences ................ 38 2. The Dilemma: Mao's Agrarian Socialism and the Role of Intellectuals......................... 46 B. The Self-Reliant Model 1. Mao's New Economic Strategy: The Great Leap Forward Movement (1958-1960) ..................... 62 2. Liu's New Economic Policy (1961-1965): Its Successes and Failures.. .......................... 80 3. The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution: Political and Socio-Economic Reorientation 1966-1969................................ 97 4. Mao versus Lin (1969-1971) ............................lo 6 5. The Gang of Four and the Pragmatists (1973-1976) ......110 6. An Overall Review .....................................ll7 7. Notes .................................................122 111 . THE GREAT DEBATE OVER DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY IN THE POST-MA0 LEADERSHIP A . The Demise of Gang of Four and the Theoretical Debate among the Post-Mao Leadership .........................137 B . The Turning Point: The Third Plenum of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party December 14.18. 1978 .........................144 C . An Overview ..................................................150 D . Notes ........................................................ 152 IV . THE FOUR MODERNIZATIONS A . The Program of Four Modernizations and Political Liberalization .................................157 B . The Rationale behind the Process of Readjustment in Industry and Light Industry and Agriculture ............... 164 C . The Imbalance between Heavy Industry. Light Industry and Agriculture ..................................... 168 D . The Reform and Rectification of the Current Economic System .............................................. 171 E . Educational Modernization .................................... 179 F . Military Modernization ....................................... 183 G . An Overview.................................................. 190 H . Notes ........................................................ 193 A . Deng Xiaoping's Political Consolidation ......................193 B . China's Economic Prospect and Problematic Areas ..............205 D . Notes ........................................................ 211 VI . CONCLUS IOS A . Three Basic Problems......................................... 214 B . Towards a Reconciliation System? .............................223 1 C . Notes ........................................................226 BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................... 227 i i vii LIST OF TABLES Page Indices of Economic Growth from 1949 to 1978..................... 79 World Extension of Export Credit to China ........................ 177 Private Bank Extension of Credit to China ........................ 178 china's Nuclear Tests, 1964-1978 ................................. 187 viii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION A. The Concept of Modernization B. Historical Efforts 1. Manchu Self-strengthening Movement 2. Modernization Scheme under Dr. Sun Yat Sen 3. Maoism and Modern China 4. A Summary 5. Notes I. INTRODUCTION A. The Concept of Modernization Modernization came about in Europe in the latter part of the nine- teenth century as a consequence of industrialization. Today, it has become a goal for many underdeveloped countries. Indeed, modernization is a broad term of which one could devote volumes to the discussions of its meaning. However, in general, modernization is a process based upon the rational utilization of resources and aimed at the establishment of a 1 "modern society". In other words, modernization is a process whereby a society incorporates the new ideas, practices and institutions necessary for the mastery of science, technology and industrial production and a host of similar efforts. Within this framework, this thesis will use David Apter's two models of modernization, expounded earlier by Marion Levy Jr., for the study of the People's Republic of China from 1949 to In The Politics of Modernization, David Apter classifies modernization into two main models. The modernizing model that underlines the western con- cept of democracy is called the Reconciliation System (also known as the Secu- lar Libertarian Model), and the other, the communist-oriented one, the Mobili- zation System (also known as the Sacred Collectivity ~odel).~According to Apter, the Reconciliation system
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