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The Role of Jews in the British Colonies of the Western Mediterranean

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The Role of Jews in the British Colonies of the Western Mediterranean The role of Jews in theBritish colonies of the Western Mediterranean* T. M. BENADY The British Isles and Morocco, both situated on the western edge of the old Mediterranean world, have been linked by trade since early times. Moroccans have not traditionally been ocean sailors, as their long Atlantic coastline faced miles of endless watery waste and held no attractions prior to the discovery of America. But Englishmen have been keen Atlantic sailors, and Morocco became the firstnon-European countrywith which some British people had direct contact. Itwas enshrined in popular imagination as an exotic and very rich country, as the - legend of Dick Whittington bears out although the story represents the percep? tions of the 16th rather than the 14th century, when the historical Whittington was thrice Lord Mayor of London. A country of high mountains, deserts and fertile plains, cut off from close contacts with the north by the Spanish Reconquista, and from the east by the long rivalrywith the Ottoman Empire, Morocco became a conservative and inward looking country from the lateMiddle Ages onwards. The isolation was intensified by the tenacious hold on the popular culture of Sufi mysticism which became an important political force.1 Since 1510 Morocco has been ruled by two dynasties, both of them founded by country sheikhs from the south with conservative attitudes. Until the English and Dutch entered on the scene in the 16th and 17th centur? ies, foreign trade was conducted largely by the Genoese. It is hardly surprising that in this very conservative and psychologically isolated country much of the organization of the internal tradewas in the hands of the ancient but cosmopolitan Jewish community.2 The Jewish community of Morocco was heavily depleted in the Almohade persecutions of the 12th century, but was afterwards considerably reinforced by successive waves of immigrants from Spain. Many Jews in 12th-century Spain wished to find refuge from Almohade persecution in an environment where they would pass unnoticed, where their real religion was not inquired into too closely, and their personal customs would not be scrutinized. (They were even less happy in the Christian parts of Spain, as the peregrinations of a family such as that of Maimonides show.) Substantial Jewish migrations from Spain followed the * Paper presented to the Society on 19 November 1992. 45 Jewish Historical Society of England is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve, and extend access to Jewish Historical Studies ® www.jstor.org T. M. Benady persecutions of 1391 (inspired unwittingly by Francis Xavier) and, of course, the expulsion in 1492. In the coastal cities, particularly Tetuan and Sale, colonies of Andaluzes, Spanish Muslims who arrived in the years after the fall of Granada, were reinforced by Spanish-speaking Moriscos after their expulsion in 1609. Elizabethan trade with Morocco consisted mainly of the export of cloth and firearms, and the import of sugar. Sugar was a royal monopoly inMorocco and its production in the hands of Jews.3 The name of one of these Jewish sugar producers is given as Isaac Cabesa, 'a famous and jolie merchant', who rented three sugar houses for a year from the king at a rent of 50,000 ounces of silver. Given the considerable amount of trade he transacted he may well have been the leading sugar exporter to England in the middle of the 16th century.4 He is probably to be identified with the Portuguese Converso of that name who is reported in 1537 to have reverted to Judaism inAzemmour.5 Tetuan was founded byMuslims fleeing Granada in 1485, but its population was considerably reinforced by refugees after Granada fell in 1492. It soon became an important corsair centre. The Moriscos expelled from Spain after 1609 settledmainly in Sale and Tetuan, and they too found ways of earning their - living and an outlet for the strong grudge they bore Christians and Spaniards - in particular by joining the corsairs operating from these ports. For almost two centuries, until the Sultan Sidi Mohammed halted the activities of the corsairs in 1777,6 the problems of ransoming captives from the corsairs and trying to establish terms preventing British ships from molestation, were to dominate relations between Britain and Morocco. For a time, Charles I considered supporting an independent republic of Sale, but relations with the central authorities inMorocco were too important, despite the anarchic state of the country, to imperil them by bestowing recognition on a small group of rebels.7 Tetuan, the main trading port ofMorocco, controlled most of the trade with the interior,which consisted of goods brought from Fez by caravan. Itwas prob? ably the most cosmopolitan city in the country, and had been founded in 1485 by al-Mandari, a noble refugee of the Abencerrage party from Granada, under the suzerainty of the Kadi of Chechouan, with the aim of protecting the frontier from Portuguese incursions from Ceuta. The original settlerswere joined by Jews expelled from Spain in 1492 and by Spanish-speaking Moriscos after 1609. Tetuan retained a precarious autonomy, only occasionally acknowledging the direct rule of the emperor, until it came under the direct control of the Alaouite, Moulay Rachid, in 1667.8 Tangier As British involvement in theWestern Mediterranean increased, the Jewish con? nection became stronger. In 1661 Tangier was ceded to England by Portugal as part of Catherine of Braganza's marriage dowry for Charles II.When the Earl of Peterborough took possession of the place on 30 January 1662, he found that of 46 The role of Jews in the British colonies of theWestern Mediterranean the previous inhabitants only a few poor Portuguese, some monks and a few families of Jews remained. The Jews were described as: 'A kind of retailing dealers which in the infancie of our settlement were not unuseful to the Garrison, the men whereof were altogether ignorant and helpless as to furnish themselves with any of these accomodacions necessary to humane life'.9 An English visitor to Tangier in 1674 found the Jews divided into two distinct groups: poor natives, whose synagogue did not even have a Scroll of the Law, and a European commun? ity led by Abraham Cohen, a native of Amsterdam and a Shabbatean, who had lived in Sale formany years and who provided a synagogue for the Europeans in his house.10 There was littleharmony between the two groups, and theMoroccan Jews accused the Europeans, who were of Converso descent, of trading in articles prohibited by Jewish law. In 1675 the Beth Din ofTetuan excommunicated the European Jews of Tang? ier, at the request of theMoroccan congregation, for drinking ritually unfitwine - and for importing pork presumably salted in barrels and intended to supply the needs of the garrison, a staple of the English Army overseas and of the Royal Navy until the 19th century. The Governor, the Earl of Inchiquin, insisted that thisHerem be lifted.No doubt he was concerned at the effect that interference by Rabbi Jacob Aboab and Rabbi Isaac Bibas ofTetuan might have on the garrison's supplies.11 As the garrison of Tangier was constantly at war with theMoroccans, the Jews of that country were suspect as enemy nationals and were expelled inDecember 1677; but their role in conducting trade was considered so important that they were readmitted in 1680, although hostilities were then at their height.12 Solomon Pariente, 'the Rich Jew', who was probably a native of Fez, was the trusted inter? preter of four successive governors.13 Tangier was abandoned by Charles II in 1684. Gibraltar The loss of Tangier was considered detrimental to British trade; but Gibraltar was captured in 1704, and although at first itwas held in the name of the Arch? duke Charles, the pretender to the Spanish throne,many voices in England were raised for itsmore complete retention. The first governors of the Rock were appointed in the name of the pretender, but JohnMethuen, the English minister in Portugal who was in charge of financing Allied operations in the Peninsula during theWar of the Spanish Succession, insisted on an English officer being appointed to the post.14Major-General Shrimpton was an absentee governor, and the place was left in charge of the senior English officer, Colonel Roger Elliott, a Tangier veteran.15 As the surrounding countryside maintained its allegiance to Philip V, the Bour? bon wearer of the Spanish crown, the difficulty of supply became an important problem. Tetuan, only 35 miles away and within sight of the Rock, became the 47 T. M. Benady main source of fresh food and building materials, and a community of Jewish traders was soon established in the fortress.There was also a need for craftsmen and labourers.16 The theatre of war subsequently moved to the eastern coast of Spain and the Portuguese frontier, and Elliott (appointed governor by Queen Anne inDecember 1707, a few days after the death of Shrimpton17) was left in charge of an isolated backwater, which he ran with virtually no interference and in a way that suited his own whims and pocket. His venality worried the Secretary of State who feared he might even be tempted to sell the fortress to the enemy.18While encouraging foreigners (Spaniards, Genoese and Jews) to settle, Elliott made them pay for the privilege, and his exactions bore particularly heavily on Jewish merchants, who had to find '2Moedas of Gold per month'. When he was not satisfied with this poll tax, and thought it 'fittto raise a large sum from the Jews, therewas an order on the church door with the names of about 4 or 5 at a time, ordering them immediately to leave theTowne; which they not being willing to do, were obliged to raise two or threeMoedas of Gold each man for leave to stay'.19But the Jews inGibraltar were not without friends in high places, in the form of Abraham Ben Hattar, the treasurer to the Emperor ofMorocco, Mulay Ismael.
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