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Information to Users INFORMATION TO USERS This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI films the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of computer printer. The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleed through, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand comer and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. Higher quality 6” x 9" black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order. ProQuest Information and Learning 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 USA 800-521-0600 UMI* Expedient Truths: Aspects of Nanative Representation in Elizabethan Voyage Literature. by Robert Gordon Griffiths B.A., University of Birmingham, 1983 M.A., University of York, 1992 A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in the Department of English We accept this dissertation as conforming to the required standard Dr. Patrick Grant, Supervisor (Department of English) Dr. Edw^d I. Berry, Departmei^ Member (Department of English) _______________________________________ Dr. Robert M. Schuler, Departmental Member (Department of English) ------------------------------------------------------------ Dr. Elizabeth Vibert, Outside Member (Department of History) . __________________________________________________ Dr. Dennis R. Danielson^txtemal Examiner (Department of English, University of British Columbia) © Robert Gordon Griffiths, 2001. University of Victoria All rights reserved. This dissertation may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopying or other means, without the permission of the author. Griffiths 1 i Abstract In the following dissertation, 1 investigate how the reports of Ralegh’s Roanoke adventures, 1584-90, interpret Virginia. Other scholarly writers have considered these reports in the context of broader studies, but the reports have not been analysed together as a body of literature that presents a shared experience, nor have their impacts upon each other and on Ralegh’s The Discoverie o f the large, rich, and Bewtijul Empyre o f Guiana (1596) been the main focus of an investigation. 1 argue that the initial reports projected an optimistic tone about Virginia that became increasingly suspect as alternative reports concerning Ralegh’s attempt to establish a colony entered circulation. Furthermore, 1 believe that the reports written about Ralegh’s colonial adventures in Virginia and his own report, the Discoverie, contain significant common features, and that a hitherto unanalysed intertextuality exists among them. The reports are strongly influenced by the need to present the discovered land in its best light and the need to present the authors’ actions as laudable and fully in support of the enterprise in hand. With this in mind, 1 identify in the reports a pervasive equivocation, especially based on the fact that in encouraging expansion they also attempt to make a virtue of failure. Thus, profound setbacks are explained without admitting excessive discouragement, and one result is a rhetoric wherein rumour, second-hand evidence, hearsay, and the suppression of inauspicious information are extensively deployed. What emerges is a highly equivocal mixture of revelation and concealment which provides a constantly shifting set of perspectives against which the voyagers’ experiences can be interpreted. This complex rhetoric is simultaneously fascinating and elusive, as the explorers attempt to maintain a sometimes perilous balance between their optimistically expansionist aspirations and the containment of refractory experiences of various kinds. No extended study has been made of the rhetorical strategies developed to negotiate such contradictions, or of the intertextuality among the accounts of the voyages with which 1 deal. In short, these documents show how a putatively historical narrative engages with uncomfortable contingency, political aspiration, fanciful escapism and inventiveness designed to save appearances, producing a literature that is often more than the sum of its eclectic influences, and which tells us much about our perennial search through history for meaning and stability. The intertextuality of the reports is a fundamental, though unexamined (and generally unrecognised), feature of the Elizabethan experience of America. Although each writer espouses a different view of the new found land, significant common material and shared motifs combine to create a coherent, if complex, Elizabethan English interpretation of America. My analysis of the inter-relationships among the Roanoke reports and my subsequent suggestions about their development in Ralegh’s Discoverie are offered here as original contributions to scholarship about Elizabethan English voyage literature. Griffiths tii Dr. Patrick Grant, Supervisor (Department of English) Dr. Edward I. Berry, Departmenta^ember (Department of English) Dr. Robert M. Schuler, Departmental Member (Department of English) _______________________________________________________________________ Dr. Elizabètn Vibert, Outside Member (Department of History) Dr. Denms R. Danielson, External Examiner (Department of English, University of British Columbia) Griffiths, iv Table of Contents Title Page i Abstract ii Table of Contents iv Map 1 : European Exploration and Settlement in the Southeast v Map 2: Roanoke Island and Jamestown vi Map 3: Roanoke Island and Area vii Acknowledgements viii Dedication ix Chapter One: Introduction 1 Chapter Two: Barlowe’s Virginia 47 Chapter Three: Harriot’s Virginia 84 C hapter F our: Lane ’ s V irginia 13 7 Chapter Five: White’s Virginia 174 Chapter Six: Ralegh’s Guiana 207 Concluding Remarks 256 Bibliography 264 Griffiths. V Map 1 “European Exploration and Settlement in the Southeast.” (Trigger, Bruce G. and William R. Swagerty. “Entertaining Strangers: North America in the Sixteenth Century.” The Cambridge History o f the Native Peoples o f the Americas. Vol. 1: North America. Part 1. Ed. Bruce G. Trigger and Wilcomb E. Washburn. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1996. 346). I !i f ! M I: I 1 iVi Griffiths, vi Map 2 “Roanoke Island and Jamestown.” Milton, Giles. Big Chief Elizabeth: How England's Adventurers Gambled and Won in the New World. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 2000. 119. Details concerning Ralph Lane’s and Thomas Harriot’s journeys and the locations of settlements are based upon Milton’s interpretations and extrapolations of the original reports and maps, and secondary materials. and JAMESTOWN 3uy«r % Griffiths, vii Map 3 “Roanoke Island and Area." Milton, Giles. Big Chief Elizabeth: How England's Adventurers Gambled and Won in the New World. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 2000. 141. Details concerning the locations of settlements are based upon Milton’s interpretations and extrapolations of the original reports and maps, and secondary materials. ROANOKE ISLAND AND AREA lO T l Ti t R . • i. f cf :Tvi 1« TKE • NORTH CAROLINA MAINLAND oApfiMiMUceMiiMiaMtkcanry ’ . - L 'vin Griffiths, viii Acknowledgements I wish to acknowledge all the help, support and encouragement that my Committee at the University of Victoria has provided. Patrick Grant, my academic supervisor, has guided me with insight, patience and good humour throughout my studies. The assistance and hard work of Edward Berry and Robert Schuler of the Department of English and Elizabeth Vibert of the Department of History have been equally invaluable. Victor Neufeld, Evelyn Cobley, and John Tucker have made my studies easier through their tolerant and supportive roles as recent Chairs of the English Department. I also wish to acknowledge the hard work and dedication of all the members of the English Department Office who have supplied prompt and helpful answers to my many emails and, latterly, transatlantic telephone queries. Cambridge University Press kindly granted permission to use the map of “European Expansion and Settlement in the Southeast” from Volume One of The Cambridge History o f the Native Peoples o f the Americas. The maps titled “Roanoke Island and Jamestown” and “Roanoke Island and Area” are reproduced by permission of Hodder and Stoughton Limited fi'om Giles Norton’s Big Chief Elizabeth: How England’s Adventurers Gambled and Won in the New World. Griffiths, ix Dedication This work is dedicated to Claire, whose hard work and support helped to make it possible, and Alexander and Rhiannon, without whom it would have been finished much more quickly. Chapter One: Introduction In the following dissertation, I address some literary aspects of the reports of Ralegh’s Roanoke adventures, 1584-90. In particular, I investigate how these reports interpret Virginia expediently, as the authors attempt, sometimes by dubious means, to promote their own interests,
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