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Introduction 1 Notes Introduction 1. Ramanujan, Collected Essays, 7. 2. P. Chatterjee, Nation and Its Fragments, 11. 3. Anderson, Imagined Communities, 7. 4. R. Kumar, Essays in the Social History of Modern India, 14. 5. Sethi, Myths of the Nation, 5. 6. Jaidev, “Na Anne Wala Post-Colonialism?” 182. 7. Aijaz Ahmad, Lineages of the Present, 145. 8. Pappu, “Determining Nations,” 95. 9. Spivak, Critique of Postcolonial Reason, 188. 10. O’Connor, “When is a Nation?” 11. The voter turnout in the 1999 elections, for instance, was 60 percent, a rate comparable with those found in other democratic countries such as the United States and Britain. 12. Radhakrishnan, “Nationalism, Gender, and the Narrative of Identity,” 88. 13. Trivedi, “India and Post-Colonial Discourse,” 240; Spivak, “Introduction,” in Imaginary Maps, xxvi–xxvii. 14. Khilnani, Idea of India. 15. P. Chatterjee, Nation and Its Fragments, 6. 16. Khilnani, Idea of India, 119. 17. P. Roy, Indian Traffi c, 128. 18. This issue was explored by, among others, Rabindranath Tagore, in his novel of ideas, The Home and the World. 19. Katrak, “Indian Nationalism,” 400. Joanna Liddle and Rama Joshi make a similar point. 20. Ghosh, The Imam and the Indian, 270. 21. As P. Chatterjee points out, even in the United States, which, at least in legal terms, is usually offered as the defi nitive example of a secular state, religion has a complex and, sometimes, contradictory, role in public life. India may not be perfectly secular either, but it need not necessarily aspire to be so. A Possible India: Essays in Political Criticism. 22. A. Chaudhuri, “Poles of Recovery.” 23. P. Chatterjee, Nation and Its Fragments, 10. 186 ● Notes 24. Papastergiadis, “Ambivalence in Cultural Theory,” 181. 25. This is evident from the Indian Constitution, which guarantees, among other things, the right to private ownership and to a fair trial. 26. Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe, 35. 27. Aijaz Ahmad, In Theory, 248. 28. Paul Brass illustrates this succinctly in the case of the United Provinces. See Language, Religion and Politics in North India, 149. P. Chatterjee identifi es the same phenomenon in Bengal. Nation and Its Fragments, 52. 29. Van Der Veer, Religious Nationalism, 170–171. 30. Phadnis, “Politics of Language,” 18. 31. Aziz Ahmad, Intellectual History of Islam in India, 91. 32. Anderson, Imagined Communities, 46, 139. 33. A. Chaudhuri, “Modernity and the Vernacular,” xxii. 34. Sethi, Myths of the Nation, 22. 35. Robert King, Nehru and the Language Politics of India, 155. 36. Lelyveld, “Fate of Hindustani,” 189–190. 37. Poole, Nation and Identity, 104. 38. Robert King, Nehru and the Language Politics of India, 76. 39. Nehru, Discovery of India, 169. All further references will be given in the body of the text as DI. 40. Robert King, Nehru and the Language Politics of India, 75. 41. Khilnani, Idea of India, 23. 42. Anderson, Imagined Communities, 36. 43. Matthews, Shackle, and Husain, Urdu Literature, 13–14. 44. Katzenstein, “Preferential Policies,” 138. 45. Austin, Indian Constitution, 277. 46. Robert King, Nehru and the Language Politics of India, 77–78. 47. Khilnani, Idea of India, 186. 48. Richard King, Orientalism and Religion, 98. 49. Phadnis, “Politics of Language,”18. 50. Robert King, Nehru and the Language Politics of India, 85, and Apte, “Multilingualism in India,” 148. 51. Krishnaswamy and Burde, Politics of Indians’ English, 11–12. 52. Certainly, some Indian literature in English self-consciously writes back to the imperial center, as described by Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffi ths, and Helen Tiffi n in The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Post-Colonial Literatures. 53. Bhatnagar, Political Consciousness, 8. 54. For a more complete treatment of this issue, see A. Rai, Hindi Nationalism. 55. Beginning in the mid-1990s a series of name-changes, initiated by the BJP and regionalist parties, occurred in India’s major cities. Bombay was renamed Mumbai (after the Marathi goddess Mumbadevi), Calcutta became Kolkata (a change in spelling that does not actually impact local pronunciation), Madras became Chennai, and Cochin became Kochi, among others. These changes have been controversial, particularly in the case of Bombay/Mumbai, where the Notes ● 187 new name arguably inscribes the preeminence of one linguistic-religious group in a heterogeneous metropolis. As Nilufer E. Bharucha points out, while renam- ings have occurred “in the guise of postcolonial repossession,” it also “impose[s] their own brand of postcolonial hegemony and regional hegemony.” See “Bombay to Mumbai: Postcolonial Repossessions and Hegemonies,” 13. The Indian National Congress, which returned to power at the federal level in 2004, has deemed both versions of these names acceptable for offi cial purposes. The original names are used throughout this book for several reasons: they are in wider general use, they are preferred by the writers discussed in this book, and they refl ect the complex and confl icted history of Indian identity that is the book’s subject. 56. P. Roy, Indian Traffi c, 165. 57. Anderson, Imagined Communities, 24. 58. P. Chatterjee, Nation and Its Fragments, 84–91. 59. Brennan, “National Longing for Form,” 49–50. 60. Anderson, Imagined Communities, 30. 61. I refer, of course, to Fredric Jameson’s controversial essay, “World Literature in an Age of Multinational Capitalism.” 62. Aijaz Ahmad, In Theory, 43–70. 63. This has been acknowledged within the fi eld of Indian literary criticism. See Sarma, Nationalism in Indo-Anglian Fiction. 64. The publication of such titles as “Magic Realism as Postcolonial Discourse” by Stephen Slemon, and Coterminous Worlds: Magical Realism and Contemporary Post-Colonial Literature in English by Elsa Luanti indicate the degree to which magical realism and the postcolonial have been accepted as isomorphic. 65. Bakhtin, “Discourse in the Novel.” 66. Sanyal, Indianness in Major Indo-English Novels, 63–65. 67. He appears both in Tariq Rahman’s A History of Pakistani Literature in English and in M. K. Naik’s A History of Indian Literature in English. 68. Khilnani, Idea of India, 122. 69. Aijaz Ahmad, for instance, links Nehru with the “stagnation” of the post-colonial state. See In Theory, 41. Bhagwan D. Dua similarly sees the corruption of the Congress party as beginning with Nehru. See “Nehru’s Federalism.” Chapter 1 1. Khilnani, Idea of India, 39. 2. Shintri, “Glimpses of Nehru, the Writer,” 178. 3. Quoted in Khilnani, Idea of India, 22. 4. Sethi, Myths of the Nation, 20. 5. B. R. Nanda, Jawaharlal Nehru, 270. 6. This is hardly surprising given that The Discovery of India was not published until 1946, by which point Indian independence seemed a foregone conclusion. 7. Bhabha, “Of Mimicry and Man,” 360–367. 188 ● Notes 8. A. Chaudhuri, “Construction of the Indian Novel in English,” xxiv. 9. Ibid., xxiv. 10. V. Lal, “Nehru as Writer,” 21. 11. Alphonso-Karkala, “Nehru’s Aesthetic Sensibilities,” 193. 12. Ramanan, “Jawaharlal Nehru,” 55–56. 13. Narula, “Style that Validates,” 58. 14. White, Tropics of Discourse, 89. 15. Stilz, “Experiments in Squaring the Ellipsis,” 164. 16. Benedict Anderson emphasizes that symbols such as the tomb of the Unknown Soldier, which are central to the construction of the national community, evoke emotive and, even, illogical responses. See Imagined Communities. 17. The problematization of historical knowledge and the concomitant valorization of individual perspectives are both characteristics of postmodern literary and historical scholarship. See Hutcheon, Poetics of Postmodernism, 89–94. 18. Quoted in Khilnani, Idea of India, 169. 19. Jawaharlal Nehru frequently cites volumes from the Everyman’s Library (DI 80), Penguin (DI 302), and other long-established mainstream English-language publishers. 20. Somnath Zutshi, quoted in Sethi, Myths of the Nation, 12. 21. See, for example, G. W. Russell’s remark on the “godlike fullness of Wisdom” in the Upanishads (DI 93). 22. Tagore, Tagore Reader, 182–183. 23. Gyanendra Pandey, Construction of Communalism, 115–116. 24. Quoted in Khilnani, Idea of India, 154. 25. See, for example, A. J. Greenberg, British Image of India. 26. Radhakrishnan, “Nationalism, Gender, and the Narrative of Identity,” 88. 27. See M. K. Gandhi, Young India, September 25, 1924, reprinted in M. K. Gandhi, The Essential Writings of Mahatma Gandhi, 41. 28. See Bridget Allchin and Raymond Allchin, Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan. The ethnic origins of the Indus Valley people are, however, still very much a subject of controversy. 29. I rely on T. N. Madan’s distinction between secular, secularism, and seculariza- tion. Secularism entails the deliberate exclusion of the spiritual from the mate- rial world and is a decidedly modern, Western concept. The word itself does not appear in the English language until 1851. Certainly, there is no evidence to suggest that the Indus Valley civilization was secularized in this way. Modern Myths, Locked Minds, 5–25. 30. Following Edward Said, I use Orientalism to refer to an “ontological and epis- temological distinction made between ‘the Orient’ and . ‘the Occident’” enacted by those who made it their practice to write, teach, or research Asia in particular. Orientalism, 2–3. I hold with Aijaz Ahmad, however, that this is a distinctly modern phenomenon and not a discourse as such. In Theory, 179. 31. Madan, Modern Myths, Locked Minds, 180–188. 32. Quoted from Time and Tide, March 9, 1940, in Bolitho, Jinnah, 127. 33. Quoted in M. K. Gandhi, Essential Writings of Mahatma Gandhi, 38. Notes ● 189 34. M. K. Gandhi, Hind Swaraj and Other Writings, 92. 35. P. Chatterjee, Nation and Its Fragments, 73. 36. Pratt, Imperial Eyes, 135. 37. Though he does not say so, it seems most likely that Jawaharlal Nehru is refer- ring to the former Director General of Archeology in India, the author of A Guide to Taxila. 38. Madan, Modern Myths, Locked Minds, 110.
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