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Antagonist Images of the Turk in Early Modern European Games

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Antagonist Images of the Turk in Early Modern European Games ANTI/THESIS 87 The earliest representation of the Turk in art appeared in Venetian Quattrocento ANTI-THESIS Antagonist paintings as a result of the increasing com- Images of mercial activities of Venice, which played a role as the main connection between the Turk in Europe and the Levant (Raby 17). The per- ception of the image of the Turk varied Early Modern depending on the conflicts between Venice and the Ottomans, usually pro- European Games voked by religious and political propa- ganda. Gentile Bellini’s circa 1480 portrait of Mehmed the Conqueror, who con- quered Constantinople, is one of such rare early examples that reflected an apprecia- tion of an incognito enemy before the early modern period, which had faded Ömer Fatih Parlak over the course of time as tensions increased. Bellini, who started a short- “The Turk” is a multifaceted concept that perspective to the image of the Turk by lived early Renaissance Orientalism, was emerged in the late Middle Ages in shedding light on its representations in commissioned by Mehmed II, whose pri- Europe, and has gained new faces over early modern European board games and vate patronage was “eclectic with a strong the course of time until today. Being pri- playing cards; thus, contributing to a nou- interest in both historical and contempo- marily a Muslim, the Turk usually con- velle scholarly interest on the image of rary Western culture” (Raby 7).1 The forma- noted the antichrist, infidel, and the ulti- the Turk. It argues that, belonging to a tion of the Holy League of 1571 against the mate enemy. With such attributed familiar but relatively obscure world of Ottomans was celebrated in Venice with a qualities, the concept influenced games, board games and playing cards procession in which “the Gran Turco [was European art and literature by providing have the potential to reinforce an antith- represented] as a huge dragon with a a subject with negative visual and textual esis to the negative image of the Turk. crescent on its head” (Gombrich 63). representations. Current scholarly corpus Similarly, the 1683 Battle of Vienna, which about representations of the Turk suffi- Keywords: Image of the Turk, Board marked a decisive victory for European ciently investigates the subject, yet, with- Games, Playing Cards, Early Modern forces over the Ottomans, was glorified by out offering different reading and conclu- Period, the Ottomans commissioned artists who symbolized the sion. This paper aims at introducing a new Turk in like manner. Such celebrations Middle East – Topics & Arguments #08–2017 ANTI/THESIS 88 inspired not only artistic but also ludic historical sources is highly ubiquitous. lications, but also translations of docu- expressions.2 Delicate yet significant new approaches ments regarding the Turks.2 In spite of this, have yielded a more multifaceted image early modern humanists situated the Turk The Turk, with all these qualities, became that argues for a revision to the simplistic into a different context by classicizing a part of cultural productions in art and dichotomy of a positive Europe vs. a neg- them in accordance with classical anti- literature. Their terrible image was re-pro- ative Turk. As a researcher on this topic, I quity, as a result of which the Turk was duced by artists and writers who needed find the image of the Turk in early modern identified with Scythians (the epitome of an antagonist in their works. Winning a European board games and playing cards barbarism).3 The humanists’ insufficient war against the Turk was glorified in paint- particularly promising, bearing the poten- knowledge on one hand, and their grow- ings depicting enslaved Turkish soldiers, tial to provide a counterargument to the ing interest about the Turk on the other, broken scimitars and Ottoman flags on mainstream image of the Turk in other resulted with an imagined Turk. This the ground. Titian’s 1573-75 “Allegory of media as well. approach of the humanists towards “the the Battle of Lepanto” represents an exam- Considering the long history of wars Turk” resonates with what Stephen ple of such a depiction commemorating between the Ottomans and the Europeans, Greenblatt calls “engaged representa- victory against the Turk. Robert Daborne’s the image of the Turk may have emerged tions”: representations override the objec- 1612 play “A Christian Turn’d Turk” out of a perception of fear, threat and tive knowledge, as a result of which the expressed a deep anxiety of Christians’ aggressive military conditions. Thus, points of departure (in our case, of the conversion to Islam. Religious conversion according to many scholarly publications, humanists) are the very imagination (of the was regarded as the most gruesome vic- the Turk was seen as the enemy, antichrist, Turk). Studies on how wide the image of tory that Turks could gain at a personal infidel, barbarian, and terror of the world. the Turk spread to the world with European level. Despite the growing interest, early mod- colonialism and missionaries and how ern writers’ insufficient knowledge about fragmented it could get in relation to the The image of the Turk from the point of the Ottomans consolidated an imagined geographical and cultural distance show view of the Europeans has been broadly Turk that was widely circulated in many that the image of the Turk travelled faster investigated by researchers from different early modern publications. James Hankins than the Turks themselves.4 fields whose views have been revolving states that he collected more than four However, there are examples in represen- around unfavorable connotations attri- hundred texts on the necessity of a cru- tations of the Turk in the early modern buted to the Turks from the time they sade against the Turk, written by more period suggesting differing views which became a topic in Europe in the 15th cen- than fifty humanists and printed between should not be disregarded. While tradi- tury. These connotations are so strong that 1451-81, and this number is by no means tional historiography claims that Muslim it seems impossible to propose a different complete (Hankins 112). In parallel, communities became inexistent in Europe reading that claims otherwise, due to the Ottoman advances in Balkans, especially after the Spanish Reconquista, this notion fact that the repetitive negative image in in the 15th century, attracted not only pub- of a homogenous Europe has been criti- Middle East – Topics & Arguments #08–2017 ANTI/THESIS 89 cized by Tijana Krstic. Krstic collected the ever-present Muslim strata in Europe under four groups: slaves and captives, merchants, diplomats and travelers, and scholars (Krstic 671-693). Although slavery and captivity are closely related to wars, these groups had constant interaction with the two parties beyond militaristic practices. The intensity of diplomatic “net- works of contacts” and the Ottoman “go- betweens” in the Mediterranean polities highlighted by Emrah Safa Gürkan are novel scholarly contributions to this end (Gürkan 107-128). Anders Ingram’s thor- ough inspection of the frequently refer- Figure 1: Meister PW’s playing cards; Turkish King and the Over Knave. The British Museum, Inv. Num: enced works of Richard Knolles on the 1878,1012.41, 1878,1012.24. Ottomans, on the other hand, reveals that while addressing the Ottomans as “the ludic way (Jessen 102-103). Thanks to the of the cards. In this regard, Albrecht terror of the world”, this early modern developments in printing technology pio- Dürer’s contribution to the early depic- English historian had a different mindset neered by Johannes Gutenberg, early tions of the Turk is both paradigmatic and that the current scholarship has neglected modern European societies could access controversial. As Raby noted in his “Venice, in its interpretation. (Ingram, p.3) This printed playing cards and board games, Dürer and the Oriental Mode” (25), during recent research on the familiarity with Turks with playing cards in particular enjoying $ķRERSlRSTVISITTO6ENICEINTHROUGH and Muslims necessitates a reevaluation of an unprecedented popularity. Since the 1505, all Orientals in his works (mostly the earlier consensus of a purely negative production of pictures on the playing Biblical characters) were Ottomans, wear- image of the Turk, which will be conducted cards required skillful woodcut and etch- ing distinctive Ottoman headwear such as in an exemplary fashion on the level of ing artists, unique pieces of art were pro- the turban, taj and börk. However, he also card and board games in this article. duced in this medium by leading German drew Turks in compliance with exoticism Renaissance artists, some of whom also and by no means derogative.5 His The Turk as a Biblical Enemy were engaged in the production of other /RIENTALSINmUENCEDOTHERWOODCUTARTISTS Early modern board games and playing genres such as Biblical illustrations. The and card makers alike in establishing a cards form a part of cultural production IMAGEOFTHE4URKWASREmECTEDINTHEIR “German” image of the Turk.6 EXPRESSINGREmECTIONSOFTHESOCIETYINA exotic and uncanny appearance on most Middle East – Topics & Arguments #08–2017 ANTI/THESIS 90 One of the earliest German woodcut art- Nonetheless, the Turkish King represents ists was Meister PW, whose initials appear power, fear and threat. on a number of works. Although little is In conclusion, the German depictions of known about him, he lived and produced Turks on early modern playing cards draw his woodcuts in Cologne in the last half of ONAVESTIMENTARYICONOGRAPHYlRSTAPPAR- the 15th century. Besides illustrations for ent in Dürer’s work and connect the Turk the Bible, he produced playing cards, ICONOGRAPHICALLYWITHNEGATIVElGURESOF among which a round deck is the most biblical salvation history. notable. Produced around 1500, this round DECKOFCARDSHASlVESUITS SOMEOFWHICH The Static Turk CONTAINTHElRSTKNOWNDEPICTIONSOFTHE Giuseppe Maria Mitelli (1634–1718), a Turk on a playing card: a Turkish King, Bolognese artist, produced his board Over Knave (Ober) and Under Knave games and caricatures during a period (Unter) (Figure 1).
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