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Sejarah / Sastra VOLUME 16 No HUMANIORA Kuntowijoyo, Sejarah / Sastra VOLUME 16 No. 1 Februari 2004 Halaman 17 - 26 SEJARAH / SASTRA Kuntowijoyo* ABSTRAK Di Indonesia sejarah dan sastra menjadi satu dalam mitos sampai awal abad ke-20. Ketika kesadaran mitis itu berakhir, keduanya berjalan senndiri-sendiri. Sekalipun keduanya merekam realitas, tetapi sejarah adalah ilmu, sastra adalah imajinasi. Sejarah dan sastra berbeda dalam struktur dan substansi. Dalam struktur sejarah ada evidensi, informasi, fakta, dan berguna untuk menjelaskan realitas. Dalam struktur sastra ada strukturalisasi kemungkinan, ekspresi, imajinasi, dan berguna untuk mengadili realitas. Sementara itu, substansi sejarah adalah objektifikasi kehidupan karena ia harus sadar akan perubahan. Sastra adalah subjektifikasi kehidupan dan acuannya adalah keabadian. Kata kunci : kesadaran mitis - struktur - substansi - kesadaran historis - fungsi akademis - fungsi sosial PENGANTAR Sartono Kartodirdjo pada 1987, A. Teuw menyimpulkan, “syukurlah ada sastra dan ejarah sebagai ilmu hidup di tengah ilmu sejarah sebagai dua ragam peng- dunia realitas, pekerjaannya ialah ungkapan persepsi manusia tentang dirinya” merekonstruksikan realitas itu. (Teeuw, dalam Alfian dkk, 1987: 11-33). Sastra sebagai seni hidup dalam dunia Katanya, orang yang ingin mencari informasi imajinasi, pekerjaannya ialah meng- yang “tepat” tentang priyayi dapat membaca ekspresikan imajinasi itu. Sejarah dan sastra buku Sartono Kartodirdjo dkk. mengenai berbeda dalam struktur dan substansi. peradaban priyayi, sedangkan kalau orang Perbedaan itu—sebagaimana dikatakan ingin mengetahui rekaman manusia dengan oleh Thomas Clark Pollock dalam The latar belakang dunia Jawa dan kepriyayian Nature of Literature, Its Relation to Science: dapat membaca novel Arswendo Atmowiloto, Language in Human Experience—ialah Canting. Atau—artikel ini ingin menambah- karena sejarah adalah referential symbol- kan—orang dapat membaca novel Umar ism, sedangkan sastra adalah evocative Kayam, Para Priyayi, dan novel Kuntowijoyo, Pasar. symbolism (Pollock, 1965: passim). Seja- Kedua jenis pengungkapan pengalaman rah merujuk pada sesuatu di luar dirinya itu di Indonesia menjadi satu sampai zaman (referensi), sedangkan sastra merujuk pada modern. Tidak seperti dalam kebudayaan dirinya sendiri (ekspresi). Namun, keduanya Yunani, misalnya, sejarah dan sastra sudah adalah symbolic form—istilah Cassirer— lama terpisah. Epos Homerus, Iliad dan yang diciptakan manusia. Odyssey (perang antara Yunani dan Troya, Justru karena perbedaan itulah kedua- mencapai bentuk final pada c. 800 BC) telah nya saling melengkapi. Dalam sebuah mengindikasikan perpisahan antara dewa- seminar untuk menghormati sejarawan dewa dan manusia, suatu hal yang terus * Staf Pengajar Jurusan Sejarah, Fakultas Ilmu Budaya, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta 17 Kuntowijoyo, Sejarah / Sastra berlanjut dalam drama-drama Yunani. Kesa- adalah pengesahan atas dinasti Mataram. daran mitis berakhir ketika orang mampu Di dalamnya ada klaim mengenai silsilah membedakan antara “the I” dan “the thou” (Aku yang menyurut ke belakang sampai di satu dan engkau), orang menemukan “the I”, pihak ada Nabi Adam, di lain pihak ada para manusia sebagai pribadi (Casirer, 1972: 195- dewa. Kita baca, “Poenika sedjarahipoen 198). para ratoe ing tanah Djawi wiwit Nabi Adam apepoetra Sis. Esis apepoetra Noertjahja, KESADARAN MITIS Noertjahja apepoetra Noerasa, Noerasa apepoetra sanghjang Wening, sanghjang Menurut Cassirer kesadaran mitis Wening apepoetra sanghjang Toenggal. adalah sebuah synthetic unity, dan merupa- Sanghjang Toenggal apepoetra batara kan hasil dari bekerjanya intuisi atau pikiran Goeroe” ('s-Gravenhage: M. ijhoff, 1941). murni. Berbagai kesan inderawi disintesis- Babad Dipanegara juga berupa legitimasi kan dalam satu entitas spiritual itu melalui klaim Dipanegara atas kerajaan Yogyakarta objektivisasi (Casirer, 1972: 29). Tidak heran (Carey, 1986). bahwa dalam mitos itulah dewa-dewa, Rupanya, hanya kerajaan-kerajaan manusia, sejarah, dan peristiwa keseharian besar, seperti Melayu dan Mataram, dengan tercampur, termasuk sejarah dan sastra. tradisi sastra tulis menciptakan mitos-mitos Adapun fungsi mitos dalam masyarakat politik untuk memberikan legitimasi atas kuno menurut Mircea Eliade adalah (1) hegemoni politiknya. Sebaliknya, fungsi melukiskan sejarah dari perilaku-perilaku mitos, sejarah, dan sastra dalam masyara- supranatural, (2) sejarah itu dianggap mutlak kat kesukuan tidak bersifat sakral tapi profan benar dan keramat, (3) mitos selalu ber- semata. Ketiganya hanyalah refleksi kultu- hubungan dengan “penciptaan” tentang ral, hiburan, dan sejarah. James J. Fox keberadaan, institusi, dan perilaku, (4) memberi contoh tentang penggunaan sastra dengan mengetahui mitos tentang “asal- lisan untuk klaim “historis” atas mata air dan muasal” orang dapat melakukan kontrol dan kepemimpinan dalam “masyarakat pemugar- memanipulasi sesuatu sesuai kemauan, an” (pemakai air, semacam subak) di Pulau dan (5) dengan “menghayati” mitos orang Roti. Kita baca, “Demikianlah maka leluhur hidup di dalam yang serba keramat, mem- Suki dan leluhur Modok sangat yakin bahwa punyai kekuatan untuk berada di atas leluhur Kunaklah yang pertama-tama peristiwa-peristiwa (Eliade, 1968: 18-19). melihat air, dan mereka pun sepakat bahwa Oleh karena itu, Shelly Errington yang itu adalah milik Kunak, ...” (Fox, dalam mempelajari hikayat—dengan mengutip Carey, 1986: 10-25; Fox, 1985: 48). Malinowski—mengatakan bahwa mitos dalam hikayat bertujuan sebagai alat Kesadaran Mitis Berakhir pembenar tertib sosial. Meskipun didasarkan Kesadaran mitis (dan hitoriografi tradi- pada kejadian yang sungguh-sungguh, tetapi sional) berakhir, dan mulailah hitoriografi pengarang mitos (yang selalu anonim) mem- modern. Permulaan historiografi modern di punyai maksud politik, yaitu usaha mem- Indonesia ditandai dengan terbitnya buku perkuat kedudukan sang patron. Fungsi Hoesein Djajadiningrat, Critische Beschowing teks tidak sekuler, yaitu untuk mencatat van de Sadjarah van Banten pada 1913, sejarah, tapi mempunyai fungsi magis. waktu itu muncullah sejarah kritis. Dalam Hikayat Hang Tuah dikatakan, “Inilah Dasawarsa 1910 dalam sejarah Indone- hikayat Hang Tuah, yang sangat setia pada sia sibuk dengan membongkar masa lalu, rajanya dan berperilaku dengan kepatuhan institusi dan kebudayaannya. Karena itu, yang luar biasa melayani rajanya. Suatu kali dasawarsa itu patut kita sebut sebagai turunlah seorang raja dari surga” (Errington, dasawarsa dekonstruksi. Ada kesatuan dalam Reid, 1979: 26-42). wacana dalam dasawarsa itu, ada unities Pernyataan Errington itu juga berlaku of discourse—demikian istilah Michel dalam babad. Babad Tanah Jawi, misalnya, Foucault. (Foucault, 1991). 18 Kuntowijoyo, Sejarah / Sastra Inilah yang terjadi di Kerajaan Sura- pada 1918 dengan gerakan “Jawa Dipo” karta, tempat kesadaran mitis itu muncul di (bahasa Jawa “ngoko”, tanpa tataran), yang permukaan sejarah dan menjadi kenyataan diikuti oleh gerakan “Madura Dipo”. sehari-hari. Raja Surakarta dipercaya me- Semua orang menjelang dan pada ngawini Ratu Laut Selatan, Nyi Loro Kidul, 1910-an mempunyai ideologi kemajuan dan bercintaan di Panggung Sangga- melawan kebekuan masa lalu. Budi Utomo buwana. Raja adalah sahabat danyang (berdiri 1908), Muhammadiyah (berdiri 1912), besar penunggu Gunung Merapi, Gunung dan bahkan Abipraya (perkumpulan priyayi Lawu, dan sumber air Bengawan Solo di “abdi dalem”, berdiri menjelang abad ke-20) Dlepih. Bukan itu saja. Tahi kerbau raja, Kyai mempunyai ideologi kemajuan. Dengan dalih Slamet, dapat menjadi obat, nasi raja yang kemajuan pula para abdi dalem mencukur didapat waktu perayaan Sekaten dapat rambut (semula rambut digelung) dan orang- menyuburkan tanah. Bertapa yang sejati orang Cina memotong kucir. Kata “kemajuan” adalah seba di keraton. Mati yang paling menjadi alasan untuk membuang etiket- mulia ialah mati di bawah kaki raja. Raja etiket Jawa lama. Dalam Serat Subasita adalah “Sampeyan Dalem Ingkang Sinuhun karangan Padmasusastra, etiket Jawa Khalifatullah Sayidin Panatagama Ingkang dirasionalisasikan (mencari kepatutan baru) Jumeneng ing Surakarta Adiningrat”. Raja dengan mengacu etiket Belanda. Misalnya, adalah “dewa yang turun ke bumi”. Bila supaya tidak degsura (sewenang-wenang), sedang duduk di singgasana raja mirip biarkan gigi putih, jangan dihitamkan (sisig); dengan Kresna titisan Dewa Wisnu, demi- apalagi dengan gaya penthulan (meng- kian gambaran dalam Serat Wedhamadya hitamkan semua gigi, kecuali dua gigi karangan Sruyadiningrat. Ada busana, tengah-atas). Di Surakarta, tempat bertahan- sungai, dan tempat-tempat terlarang bagi nya tatanan lama, tatanan lama itu ditolak, wong cilik. “Mistisisme politik” itu juga men- bahkan dalam mimpi, ilusi, dan halusinasi jadi stratifikasi sosial. “Priyayi cara priyayi, dengan sebuah counter culture. (Kunto- wong cilik cara wong cilik”, demikianlah wijoyo, 1999: 70-81) kesimpulan dari Serat Mas Jenthu Inggih Sementara itu, Indische Partij (Bandung, Mas Nganten karya RMA Jayadiningrat I. 1912) menolak Hindia-Belanda dan berjuang Akan tetapi, perubahan sedang terjadi, untuk mendirikan negara merdeka (onafhan- dunia sedang bergerak (Doenia Bergerak, kelijkheid). Mas Marco dari Surakarta nama majalah pimpinan Mas Marco, Solo dalam Doenia Bergerak (1914) mengecam 1914). Untuk menandai perubahan-per- Mindere Welvaart Commissie dengan me- ubahan yang sedang terjadi, Takashi Shi- nyebutnya Mindere WC. Di Surakarta juga, raishi menulis An Age in Motion: Popoular dalam sastra RB. Soelardi dengan Serat Radicalism
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