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The Bear in the Footprint: Using Ethnography to Interpret Archaeological Evidence of Bear Hunting and Bear Veneration in the Northern Rockies

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University of Montana ScholarWorks at University of Montana Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers Graduate School 2014 THE BEAR IN THE FOOTPRINT: USING ETHNOGRAPHY TO INTERPRET ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE OF BEAR HUNTING AND BEAR VENERATION IN THE NORTHERN ROCKIES Michael D. Ciani The University of Montana Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd Let us know how access to this document benefits ou.y Recommended Citation Ciani, Michael D., "THE BEAR IN THE FOOTPRINT: USING ETHNOGRAPHY TO INTERPRET ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE OF BEAR HUNTING AND BEAR VENERATION IN THE NORTHERN ROCKIES" (2014). Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers. 4218. https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd/4218 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at ScholarWorks at University of Montana. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at University of Montana. For more information, please contact [email protected]. THE BEAR IN THE FOOTPRINT: USING ETHNOGRAPHY TO INTERPRET ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE OF BEAR HUNTING AND BEAR VENERATION IN THE NORTHERN ROCKIES By Michael David Ciani B.A. Anthropology, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, 2012 A.S. Historic Preservation, College of the Redwoods, Eureka, CA, 2006 Thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Anthropology, Cultural Heritage The University of Montana Missoula, MT May 2014 Approved by: Sandy Ross, Dean of The Graduate School Graduate School Dr. Douglas H. MacDonald, Chair Anthropology Dr. Anna M. Prentiss Anthropology Dr. Christopher Servheen Forestry and Conservation Ciani, Michael, M.A., May 2014 Major Anthropology The Bear in the Footprint: Using Ethnography to Interpret Archaeological Evidence of Bear Hunting and Bear Veneration in the Northern Rockies Chairperson: Dr. Douglas H. MacDonald Abstract Archaeological evidence of prehistoric bear hunting and bear veneration in the northern Rocky Mountains and northwestern Plains is presented. Ethnographic documents and the writings of trappers, traders, and explorers are assessed in order to establish an interpretative framework to help decipher archaeological contexts in the region that include bear remains and rock art depicting bears. Examining prehistoric archaeological contexts in Montana and Wyoming within this framework suggests evidence of bear hunting and veneration similar to the regional ethnographic record. Data trends imply there may be a relationship between such sites and variables like site location, seasonality, function, and age. Contexts with bear remains were regularly located along stream corridors, and several sites showed winter occupation and hints of the ritual treatment of bear skulls and paws. An apparent increase in hunting during the Late Prehistoric Period was likely affiliated with warfare and healing. Compatible theoretical approaches are articulated in an effort to more clearly understand bear hunting and veneration in ecologic, symbolic, and utilitarian terms. Possible motivations include economic, social signaling, bear power attainment, and revenge incentives. Multiple archaeological signatures are forwarded at the conclusion that may indicate bear veneration, help identify and locate such sites, and enlighten our knowledge of specific hunting practices and potential motives. ii Acknowledgements I would especially like to thank Douglas Melton for contributing his accumulation of bear references and table of Montana archaeological sites with bear remains. A debt of thanks is also owed to Mavis Greer who provided the extensive lists of rock art sites with bear motifs from Montana and Wyoming. Data provided by these practitioners was certainly the accumulation of countless hours of study. I appreciate your sharing. I am grateful for the assistance of the Montana State Historic Preservation Office, and particularly Damon Murdo, who facilitated much of the background research. This work owes thanks to Doug MacDonald, my advisor, professor, supervisor, and friend, who has supported this work from inception. A final thanks is due to Charlie Bear, whose late night stories inspired the writing of this work. iii Table of Contents List of Figures and Tables ............................................................................................................................. v Chapter 1: Introduction and Background ...................................................................................................... 1 Background: Prehistory ............................................................................................................................ 3 Background: Ethnography ........................................................................................................................ 5 Why were bears hunted? ............................................................................................................................... 8 Chapter 2: Theoretical Perspectives ............................................................................................................ 13 Cultural Ecology ..................................................................................................................................... 13 Social Signaling ...................................................................................................................................... 16 Middle-range ........................................................................................................................................... 18 Symbolism .............................................................................................................................................. 19 Traditional Ecological Knowledge ......................................................................................................... 19 Chapter 3: Bear Ecology and Ethnographic Context .................................................................................. 21 Bear Behavior and Physical traits ........................................................................................................... 21 Bear Denning habits ................................................................................................................................ 23 Bear Diet ................................................................................................................................................. 25 Bear Habitat ............................................................................................................................................ 26 Building an Ethnographic Context of Bear-Human Interaction .............................................................. 28 The Function of Bear Veneration in the northern Rocky Mountains .................................................. 32 Bear Societies ...................................................................................................................................... 34 Bear Oral Traditions and Bundles ....................................................................................................... 35 Bear Paws and Skulls .......................................................................................................................... 39 Bear hunting methods, weapons, and seasons .................................................................................... 41 Bear Trapping ..................................................................................................................................... 46 Chapter 4: Archaeological Sites with bear remains or bear rock art ........................................................... 50 Species of bear hunted ............................................................................................................................ 52 Site chronology ....................................................................................................................................... 53 Site Locations and Distributions ............................................................................................................. 54 Stream corridors and cold season hunting .......................................................................................... 55 Types of sites .......................................................................................................................................... 56 Offering and Burial sites ......................................................................................................................... 57 Communal kill sites with bear remains ................................................................................................... 59 iv Bear paws and skulls ............................................................................................................................... 61 Cave sites with bear remains ................................................................................................................... 63 Bear Rock Art ......................................................................................................................................... 66 Age of rock art sites with bear motifs ................................................................................................. 67 Location of rock art sites with bear motifs.........................................................................................
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