www.egyptologues.net
Collège de FranceInstitut français Chaire "Civilisation de l'Égypte pharaonique : d'archéologie orientale archéologie, philologie, histoire" Bulletin d'Information Archéologique
BIA
www.egyptologues.net XLI
Janvier - Juin 2010
Le Caire - Paris 2010
Système de translittération des mots arabes consonnes voyelles
Ce semestre a été relativement riche en expositions. En Égypte avec une rétrospective consacrée à Abû Simbil à la Bibliotheca alexandrina, une exposition ludique au musée du Caire, combinant jeux de lego, puzzles et maquettes, une troisième, enfin, dédiée à Ippolito Rosellini. Aux États- Unis, Toutânkhamon, momies et Cléopâtre attirent à nouveau de nombreux visiteurs, tandis que Zurich présente une collection de chats et de crocodiles. Les fouilles et découvertes, dont certaines fort importantes sont toujours présentées à travers le prisme du discours officiel, qui ne laisse guère de place à leurs inventeurs, quand il ne se transforme pas en mise en scène de résultats illusoires. On retiendra toutefois d’importants travaux, comme ceux de Tell ed-Dab‘a ou du cimetière des ouvriers de Gîza, la découverte de la pyramide de la reine Behenou ou de la tombe de Ptahmes à Saqqara, les recherches menées à Dionysias… La presse insiste beaucoup sur le dégagement du grand dromos de Louqsor, dont le CSA veut faire une vitrine, mais aussi sur les thèmes de polémique habituels. Au premier rang figure la politique de restitution d’objets, dont le Secrétaire général a fait son principal cheval de bataille. Un colloque international de deux jours a servi de tribune internationale pour exiger que la convention ratifiée en 1970 par l’Unesco devienne rétroactive. L’intention évidente était de forcer le « retour » d’œuvres fortement symboliques, comme le buste de Néfertiti ou le zodiaque de Dendara, voire la Pierre de Rosette. 21 pays avaient été invités, mais ni la France, ni l’Allemagne, ni la Grande Bretagne, considérés comme hors-la- loi. Le résultat de ce diktat ne s’est guère fait attendre : la Suisse accepta quelques semaines plus tard de coopérer, tandis que les relations entre le CSA et les pays qui refusent d’entrer dans le jeu du prétendu néocolonialisme ne firent que se dégrader un peu plus…
SOMMAIRE
SYSTÈME DE TRANSLITTÉRATION….3 ÉDITORIAL...... 5
SOMMAIRE...... 7
I -THÈMES GÉNÉRAUX NOMINATIONS, RÉVOCATIONS ...... 9 PUBLICATIONS ...... 10
Le bain collectif en Égypte ...... 10
INTERNET, TÉLÉVISION & CD-ROM11 www.luxoregypt.org...... 11
MOMIES ...... 11
Momie de Toutankhamon ...... 12
II -MUSÉES EN BREF ...... 14 ALEXANDRIE ...... 15
Musée des Bijoux royaux...... 15 Musée de la Mosaïque ...... 16
LE CAIRE ...... 17
Musée Égyptien ...... 17 Grand Musée Égyptien ...... 18 Musée des Textiles ...... 20 Musée d’Art islamique...... 21
QINÂ ...... 22
Musée de la Préhistoire...... 22 III -RESTAURATIONS, PRÉSERVATIONS Documentation archéologique ...... 27
EN BREF ...... 29 LE CAIRE ...... 30
Le Caire historique ...... 30
Rue al-Mu‘izz ...... 30 Quartier al-Gamâliyya...... 32 Hammâm al-Ashraf Inâl...... 34
Aqueduc ...... 34 Mosquée Sultan Shâh...... 35 Mosquée Sitt Miska ...... 37 Palais Za‘farâna ...... 37 Patrimoine juif...... 39
Synagogue Maimonides...... 39 GÎZA ...... 41
Plateau des pyramides ...... 41
DAHSHÛR ...... 41 IDFÛ...... 42
Temple d’Horus...... 42
LOUQSOR...... 43
Dromos ...... 43 Réaménagement de la ville de Louqsor...... 44 MER ROUGE ...... 46
Monastère de Saint-Antoine ...... 46
IV -EXPOSITIONS ARCHÉOLOGIQUES EXPOSITIONS EN ÉGYPTE...... 48
Alexandrie...... 48
Bibliotheca Alexandrina: Abû Simbil •The Rescue of Temples. Man and Technology . 48 Le Caire ...... 49
Musée Égyptien : Secrets of the Pharaohs ...... 49 Musée Égyptien : Ippolito ROSELLINI et la fondation de l’égyptologie ...... 49 al-Sama‘ Khâna: Abû Simbil: the Salvaging of the Monuments. Men and Technology...... 51 EXPOSITIONS HORS D’ÉGYPTE...... 51
États-Unis ...... 52
Discovery Times Square Exposition: Tutankhamun and the Golden Age of the Pharaohs ...... 52 California Science Center : Mummies of the World...... 53 The Franklin Institute: Cleopatra -The Search for the Last Queen of Egypt...... 53 Suisse ...... 54
Museum Rietberg Zürich : Faucons, chats et crocodiles...... 54
V -VOLS & RESTITUTIONS D'ANTIQUITÉS AMENDEMENT DE LA LOI 117/1983.56 VOLS & TRAFIC D’ANTIQUITÉS ...... 59 Antiquités égyptiennes ...... 59
RESTITUTIONS ...... 59
Allemagne ...... 62
Neues Museum : Buste de Néfertiti.... 62 États-Unis ...... 64
Sarcophage d’Imesy ...... 64 Saint Louis Art Museum : Masque de Ka-Nefer- Nefer ...... 65 France...... 66
Musée du Louvre : Zodiaque de Dandara...... 66 Royaume-Uni...... 66
University College London : 217 objets préhistoriques ...... 66 Suisse ...... 67
Orteil d’Akhenaton ...... 67
Tunisie ...... 68
3 instruments de navigation du XIXe siècle ...... 68 VI -RECHERCHES & DÉCOUVERTES EN BREF ...... 69 ALEXANDRIE & NORD-OUEST ...... 73
Kom al-Dikka ...... 73 Héraklion ...... 73 Taposiris Magna ...... 74
DELTA ...... 77
Ismâ‘îliyya ...... 77
Tell al-Maskhûta...... 77
Sharqiyya ...... 77
Tell al-Dab‘a ...... 77 LE CAIRE ...... 79
Le Caire historique ...... 79
Bâb al-Tawfîq ...... 79 GÎZA ...... 79
Plateau des pyramides...... 79
Pyramidede Chéops ...... 81 SAQQÂRA ...... 81
Râs al-Gisr ...... 81
Chambre funéraire de Behenu ...... 82 Tombe de Ptahmes ...... 82
FAYYÛM ...... 83
Dayr al-Malah...... 84 Dionysias ...... 84 al-Lâhûn...... 86
ASYÛT...... 87
Dayr al-Ganâdla ...... 87
LOUQSOR...... 88
Dromos ...... 88 Vallée des Rois ...... 90
Tombe de Séthi Ier ...... 90
Tombe d’Harwa (TT 37)...... 90 MER ROUGE ...... 91
Monastère de Saint-Antoine ...... 91
DÉSERT OCCIDENTAL ...... 92
Wâdî Sûra ...... 92
SOUDAN...... 92
Royaume de Makourie ...... 92
VII -CONFÉRENCES & COLLOQUES………………………95 VIII -WHO'S WHO? CONSEIL SUPRÊME DES ANTIQUITÉS ...... 102 MUSÉES ...... 107 UNIVERSITÉS ...... 108 POUVOIR EXÉCUTIF...... 110 DIVERS...... 112
IX – INDEX…………………………113
I – THÈMES GÉNÉRAUX
Firm in his belief that the ancient history of Egypt must be rooted in the minds of its people, Zâhî Hawwâs, the Secretary-General of the Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA), has come up with the idea of nurturing the minds of schoolchildren with lessons in hieroglyphics. The idea is to teach them to write hieroglyphics, making them more aware of their country’s deeply rooted civilization in the process. In an attempt to fulfill his plan, Hawwâs has suggested to the People’s Assembly (Lower House of Parliament) that schoolchildren be educated in this ancient written language, as part of their history course. He also sent an official letter to the Minister of Education, Ahmad Zakî, about this. Hawwâs wants the younger generation to be more conscious of the importance of Egypt’s priceless antiquities, thereby encouraging them to protect their country’s wonderful legacy. However, his suggestion sounds “useless” according to some experts. ‘Abd al-Halîm Nûr al-Dîn, a former Secretary-General of the SCA, thinks that Hawwâs’ proposal won’t work. “Hieroglyphics is a dead language, not a living one. There is no need to teach it to schoolchildren, as they already have so much to learn,” he argues. Nûr al•Dîn’s reasoning could be right, bearing in mind that the education system in Egypt has reached a very low ebb. The education system here is mainly concerned with cramming the minds of pupils with information, rather than getting them to understand it all. It’s doubtful that they could absorb any more information anyway, as their minds are like sponges that cannot absorb any more water. “There’s no point giving children hieroglyphic lessons, while they are not well acquainted with their native language. But at the same time, pupils ought to have some idea about Egypt’s ancient civilization and the language used then,” stresses Professor of Educational Research Husnî al-Sayyid. He and other like-minded Egyptians regard Hawwâs’ suggestion as “barren” and “fruitless”, but other people believe that it is a “must” for all Egyptians to learn hieroglyphics and about their country’s ancient civilization. “People in Western countries learn about hieroglyphics, BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010 while we, the Egyptians, don’t have the least idea about it,” explains Professor of Antiquities at Cairo University Muhammad al-Kahlâwî. “Students in the faculties of antiquities have to study this language, as it sheds so much light on their country’s ancient history,” Professor al-Kahlâwî said. (Hagar Saeed, “The sponges are saturated. No room at schools for hieroglyphics”, The Egyptian Gazette, March 27, 2010).
In compliance with the antiquities law, Culture Minister Fârûq Husnî ordered yesterday the setting up of a specialized unit that would be in charge of managing and registering privately owned relics. The unit, which will be headed by al-Husayn ‘Abd al-Basîr, will be receiving Egyptians who have antiquities to report their possessions to the Supreme Council of Antiquities, headed by Zâhî Hawwâs, in six months. The law allows the possession of antiquities with some individuals, on condition that they cannot use them to benefit others, or to damage and neglect them. These relics can in future only be given as a gift with the Council’s authorization. They may also be passed on as part of an inheritance. (Hassan Saadallah, “Antiquity management unit established”, The Egyptian Gazette, April 3, 2010). Le Parquet de Sîdî Gâbir a ordonné la mise en examen pour corruption du directeur général de la zone archéologique Est d’Alexandrie. Il a été arrêté en flagrant délit après avoir été dénoncé par une architecte qui souhaitait obtenir un permis de construction d’une maison située dans la zone de Smûha. L’accusée lui avait réclamé un pot-de-vin de 3 mille livres égyptiennes en échange d’un certificat attestant que le terrain en question ne contenait aucune antiquité. (« Arrestation pour corruption du directeur général de la zone archéologique Est d’Alexandrie », al-Wafd du 9 avril 2010. Voir également Râmî Yâsîn, « Mise en examen du directeur général de la zone archéologique Est d’Alexandrie pour pot-de•vin », al-Ahrâm du 9 mai).
Le bain collectif en Égypte Balnéorient est un programme de recherche fédératif et pluridisciplinaire qui se propose d’étudier les bains collectifs (balaneia, thermes et hammâms) en Méditerranée orientale et dans la péninsule Arabique de l’Antiquité à nos jours. Le premier colloque Balnéorient, destiné à présenter les résultats des prospections, fouilles ou dépouillements d’archives effectués en Égypte, s’est donc tenu à Alexandrie, dans les locaux de la Bibliotheca Alexandrina, du 1er au 4 décembre 2006. Il a abordé de manière diachronique la question du bain en Égypte, des installations antiques (pharaoniques, grecques, impériales et byzantines) aux hammâms médiévaux et modernes. L’Ifao du Caire vient donc de publier les actes du 1er colloque Balnéorient dans un volume impressionnant ayant pour titre : Le bain collectif en Égypte, Balaneia, thermes et hammams. Ce livre réunit, en fait, une trentaine d’études de cas et synthèses régionales et historiques. Il propose un glossaire multilingue (grec, latin, arabe) et diachronique, des index (toponymes, sources, termes techniques dans les langues concernées) et une bibliographie commune. Édité par Marie-Françoise BOUSSAC, Thibaud FOURNET et Bérangère REDON, ce volume fait ainsi figure d’introduction au programme Balnéorient. Les éditeurs révèlent que les raisons qui les ont poussés à créer le programme Balnéorient sont, entre autres, que le Proche-Orient, la péninsule Arabique et l’Égypte offrent la possibilité unique d’étudier la pratique du bain collectif sur le long terme, dans une perspective d’histoire des mentalités. L’objectif de Balnéorient est donc d’écrire l’histoire du bain collectif d’Orient, depuis son adoption à l’époque hellénistique jusqu’à sa mort annoncée ou son ultime mutation, en soulignant les évolutions et en isolant les époques charnières. Pour élaborer cette synthèse qui prendra l’aspect d’un manuel, complété d’un recueil de textes sur les bains de l’Antiquité à l’époque moderne, le programme réunit des chercheurs — archéologues, historiens, architectes, anthropologues — et des spécialistes des différentes périodes et entend, par des enquêtes dans les archives et des travaux sur le terrain, combiner étude des pratiques et analyse des vestiges. Dans cette perspective, l’Égypte constitue un terrain de recherche privilégié : les bains y sont « merveilleusement nombreux » sur le terrain et dans les textes. Comme l’expliquent les éditeurs, plusieurs raisons ont dicté le choix de l’Égypte pour un premier bilan. « Les bains y sont nombreux… Les vestiges sont présents partout… La documentation écrite est particulièrement variée, depuis les papyrus et documentaires jusqu’aux waqfs en passant par les textes littéraires et les récits de voyageurs arabes et occidentaux », expliquent-ils. Et d’ajouter : « L’Égypte est le pays qui permet de suivre sur la plus longue durée les mutations et les continuités des réalisations architecturales comme des pratiques. Le bain collectif est attesté en Égypte depuis la haute époque hellénistique, d’abord à travers les textes, ce qui n’est pas le cas ailleurs, et même si la tradition meurt, quelques hammâms sont encore en activité au Caire ou dans le Delta du Nil. L’Égypte est au total le terrain approprié pour commencer à recueillir un matériau nouveau avec des grilles de lecture inspirées de celles qui ont été utilisées avec succès en Occident ou en Afrique romaine et pour réunir Antiquité et époque arabe ». L’ordre suivi dans ce volume correspond à celui des journées d’Alexandrie. Une première partie traite « l’invention d’une tradition ». Une seconde partie parle du bain égyptien d’époque hellénistique. Une troisième partie tente d’éclairer le passage du bain de tradition grecque à des modèles romains et présente le résultat de fouilles anciennes ou nouvelles, souvent peu ou pas publiées. La quatrième partie suit le processus d’évolution des établissements balnéaires jusqu’à l’Antiquité tardive. La partie suivante parle du bain de l’Antiquité à l’islam. Enfin, la dernière partie, réservée aux hammâms depuis l’époque médiévale jusqu’à l’époque contemporaine, comprend des études centrées sur les établissements du Sinaï, du Caire ou d’Alexandrie, selon des approches chronologiques. À la différence du programme européen Hammam 2006-2008, Balnéorient se propose de sortir les études de hammâm du cadre patrimonial, et rejoint en cela les initiatives récentes de l’Ifao. (Amira Samir, « Le colloque Balnéorient », Al-Ahram Hebdo du 5 mai 2010).
www.luxoregypt.org (…) As part of development plans for modern-day Luxor, tourist services recently went online. The project implements the February 2005 cooperation protocol between the Ministry of Communications and Information Technology (MCIT) and HCLC to build the IT infrastructure needed to promote tourism in Luxor. Online services include virtual tours and a digital map of Luxor at www.luxoregypt.org, and are an effort by the government to boost and develop the tourism industry. In fact, the website has become the official gateway to tourism in Luxor. Minister of Communications and Information Technology Târiq Kâmil said that the website gives Egyptian tourism a boost by using IT tools to promote all the services available to tourists in a digital format, especially a first•time digital map which allows visitors to take a virtual tour of Luxor and provides them with e-services that enable them to easily access information about the city and its historic sites. Visitors can move around the city and visit landmark locations through interactive virtual pictures, and read detailed information about tourist sites from the comfort of their homes. The virtual tours aim to entice visitors to travel in real time and tour the sites in person. The website also provides contact information for tourism companies in the city. Samîr Farag, who formerly was the head of Luxor City and is now its first governor, believes that the development and modernisation of Luxor’s technology infrastructure is a priority. It is part of a comprehensive plan to develop the city and activate cooperation between local governing bodies and all ministries, to develop and improve services for local residents. It will also assist in organising and coordinating tours for visitors, and inform tourists about Egyptian heritage in Luxor. Developing the city’s IT infrastructure is also a first step in building a comprehensive database about Luxor’s tourism, cultural, economic, infrastructure and social dimensions. According to Huda Baraka, deputy minister for communications and IT, the digital map of Luxor includes detailed data about the city, with pictures of landmarks and streets using GIS mapping software. The data includes information on hospitals, clinics, hotels, restaurants, tourism and services companies, such as locations of train reservations, train BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010 and plane schedules, bank and ATM locations, and other landmarks which are important to tourists. The website also has a large photo archive of Luxor. Luxor’s website offers a brief history of the city, its culture and the most important festivals which take place there. It also highlights all the activities which could be of interest to any visitor to the city, such as safari trips, Nile cruises, air balloon excursions, the Sound and Light shows at various temples, among others. After the virtual tour, visitors can plan their trip to Luxor, decide on the sites they wish to visit, organise a schedule for the trip and print their schedule. Visitors need only register online and download Microsoft Silverlight to ensure optimum performance on the site, while the search engine enables them to hone in on their target topics. As Luxor continues to modernise itself and promote the splendour of the Pharaohs, the website also is continuously developing and reinventing itself. Luxor’s online venture has gone beyond the scope of MCIT’s digital content project to provide Egyptian, Arab and foreign users an added wealth of information. It aims at increasing tourism revenues by showcasing historic and tourist destinations in Egypt to the world. (Nader Habib, “Pharaoh's splendour online”, Al-Ahram Weekly, February 11, 2010).
Bountiful banquets offered to the gods and eaten by Egyptian priests and their families were laden with saturated fat and bursting with calories — from the highly•popular goose to fortified bread, eggs and rich milk, the scientists said according to DPA. Researchers at Manchester University in northern Britain have found that hieroglyphic inscriptions on temple walls and the priests’ mummified remains bear the unmistakable signs of damaged arteries and heart disease. Their findings, published in the medical magazine The Lancet yesterday, said salt intake was also high and alcohol consumption would have exceeded modern recommendations. Sumptuous meals of beef, wild fowl, bread, fruit, vegetables, cake, wine and beer were offered to the gods at the temple up to the three times a day, and often the priests would take the leftovers home to their families. “There couldn’t be a more evocative message: live like a god and you will pay with your health,” said professor Rosalie DAVID, who led the study.
The findings also showed that blocked arteries caused by rich diets are not just a modern malaise, she said. The findings are based on a new translation of hieroglyphs in Egyptian temples to reveal the offerings menu, much of which was rich in saturated fat and would be classified as “junk food” now. Goose, which was commonly consumed, provided 63 per cent of its energy from fat, of which 20 per cent was saturated, said the study. In addition, the priests ate a type of bread fortified with fat, milk and eggs, while cakes were typically made with animal fat or oil. Salt intake was also likely to have been high, since it was often used as a preservative. Mummified remains of the priests showed high levels of calcified hardened deposits on the walls of arteries — clear signs of atherosclerosis, the narrowing of diseased blood vessels. (“Ancient Egyptians died by lavish banquets”, The Egyptian Gazette, February 27, 2010).
Momie de Toutankhamon A 3,000-year-old cold case is now closed. King Tut was not murdered, according to head of Egypt’s Supreme Council of Antiquities Zâhî Hawwâs. In a press conference Wednesday, Hawwâs revealed that the young king died of complications resulting from a combination of an infection from a broken leg and malaria. “King Tut had severe malaria,” said Hawwâs. “I really believe now that we can answer the death of King Tutankhamen.” After two independent studies, which included Egypt and German scientists and were primarily funded by the Discovery Channel, the real reasons behind King Tut’s early death were revealed via extensive CT scans and DNA testing. Experts previously thought that a blow to the back of the head killed Tutankhamen at the age of 19, but the new testing proved that the hole in his skull was part of the mummification processes. “This search looked for a particular DNA from a pathogen,” said German scientist Carsten PUSCH. “When you find the DNA of a black parasite in any human body or in this case a mummy, this is the big evidence, a leap forward for proof that this person had malaria.” While this parasite is considered the most severe form of malaria, not everyone who carries it shows the symptoms of malaria. PUSCH referred to BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010 artifacts found in Tut’s tomb for evidence that confirms their malaria hypothesis. “We found drugs that fight fever, which is the main condition of malaria,” said PUSCH referring to the herbs and seeds found in the burial chamber, which were also used for pain relief. Additional artifacts in the tomb helped reinforce hypotheses related to other complications suffered by the frail boy-king. “The other important thing that they found in the tomb of King Tut was 130 canes,” said Hawwâs. “He used these canes.” Medical studies concluded that King Tut walked with a limp because of a clef foot. Hieroglyphics about Tut support this conclusion, which depict him walking with a cane. Another picture shows Tut sitting while shooting a bow and arrow, which Hawwâs says isn’t typical of those times. “He normally should be standing, he is a king,” said Hawwâs, re•enacting the hieroglyphic. “But he can’t, he is a sick man. The days preceding his death, Tut suffered a compound fracture in his leg. The potential blood poisoning from the injury combined with malaria brought a close to the chapter of this young Pharaoh. The researchers also identified three other mummies believed to be part of King Tut’s family. DNA testing proved that the mummy found in KV55 is that of King Akhenaten, Tut’s father. Akhenaten married his sister, which scientists believe, could have been the reason for Tut’s deformity. “We know in Ancient Egypt a King can marry his sister or daughter because he is like a god,” said Hawwâs. “This can explain why King Tut has deformities, why he was a sick man.” The two other mummies were also part of Tut’s family. DNA testing revealed that the mummy referred to as the Elder Lady turned out to be that of Queen Tiye, the wife of Amenhotep III, who is the father of Akhenaten, making her King Tut’s grandmother. The next mummy, known as the Young Lady, was previously believed to be that of Queen Nefertiti. “We found out that the younger lady found in cave 35 is the mother of King Tut,” says Hawwâs. “But we don’t know her name.” Nefertiti was the wife and sister of Tut’s father, Akhenaten, but because she wasn’t able to bare him a son, Hawwâs believes that he then married another sister. And while they don’t know her name, Hawwâs is sure that she is the daughter of Amenhotep III and Queen Tiye. Hawwâs said that his next expedition would be to discover the name of King Tut’s mother, the body of Nefertiti and more of Tut’s Amarna family. “The same team is working on this in the two labs,” said Hawwâs. “And we are hoping in about six months from now that we will be able to answer some of these questions.” Magda Gâd, professor of Egyptology at Cairo University, said that knowing Tut’s family tree “will help us understand the historical events and texts about the events.” (Ian Lee, “DNA testing reveals mystery of Tutankhamen’s early death”, Daily News Egypt, February 17, 2010. Voir également Christophe DE ROQUEFEUIL, “DNA reveals King Tut’s secrets”, Egyptian Mail, February 16 ; ‘Alâ’ al-Dîn Zâhir, « Hawwâs : Toutankhamon n’était pas gay… », Ruz al-Yûsuf du 18 février ; Isrâ’ ‘Abd al-Tawwâb, « L’ADN confirme que le paludisme est la cause du décès de Toutankhamon », al-Dustûr du 18 février ; « Toutankhamon est mort du paludisme et d’une maladie osseuse », al-Ahrâr du 18 février ; ‘Isâm ‘Umrân, « Hawwâs dévoile l’arbre généalogique de Toutankhamon », al-Gumhûriyya du 18 février ; Safwat Dusûqî, « Le roi Toutankhamon mort de paludisme », al-Wafd du 18 février ; Usâma Fârûq, « Akhenaton est le vrai père de Toutankhamon mort de paludisme », Akhbâr al-Adab du 21 février).
(…) “Akhenaten has been portrayed with deformities, some thought he had womanly traits while others believed him to be homosexual. But what we have discovered is that he was a completely normal man,” Hawwâs, the Secretary- General of Egypt’s Supreme Council of Antiquities, said. “The Pharaohs were depicted with the traits of both man and woman because this was believed to be godly at the time. The feminine traits give them fertility, the ability to create life,” he continued. “It is unlikely that either Tutankhamen or Akhenaten actually displayed a significantly bizarre or feminine physique. It is important to note that ancient Egyptian kings typically had themselves and their families represented in an idealised fashion,” Hawwâs said. The scientists also confirmed that one of the two still-born foetuses buried with Tutankhamun had been his daughter, born of King Tut’s marriage to his own sister. Carsten M PUSCH, one of the German scientists involved in the research, said more testing had to be done to confirm that the cause of death was malaria, saying that the parasite that causes the disease can be present without causing symptoms. “Tutankhamen had multiple disorders, and some of them might have reached the cumulative character of an inflammatory, immune-suppressive — and thus weakening — syndrome. He might be envisioned as a young but frail king who needed canes to walk,” Hawwâs wrote in the Journal of the American Medical Association. There have been many speculations as to how Tutankhamun died. Some said that he was murdered at the age of 19 by a blow to the back of the head, that he had been poisoned, or had died when fat was released into his bloodstream after he broke his leg. “I brought in German scientists so that no foreign scientist can come to us later and say the Egyptians messed up the process,” Hawwâs told reporters. Tutankhamun, who took the throne at the age of nine, has fascinated Egyptologists and the general public since his mummy and the treasures hidden in his intact tomb were unearthed in 1922. He died after a nine-year reign in 1324 BC and left no heirs, bringing an end to one of the most powerful Pharaonic ruling houses, the 18th dynasty of the New Kingdom. “I do not think the mummies should be viewed by the public, but I do believe in using them for scientific discoveries,” Hawwâs said. “I wouldn’t mind if my own body was drilled into and used for science,” he added. (Hassan Saadallah, “King Tut ‘died of malaria’”, The Egyptian Gazette, February 17, 2010. Voir également Christophe DE ROQUEFEUIL, “Egypt to unveil King Tut’s 'family secrets' from DNA”, Daily News Egypt, February 15 ; Nevine El-Aref, “A family tree at last”, Al-Ahram Weekly, February 18 ; « Une énigme à moitié levée », Al- Ahram Hebdo du 24 février ; Zâhî Hawwâs, “As if Tutankhamen were still alive!”, Egyptian Mail, March 9 ; Sanâ’ Fârûq & Mirvat ‘Ayyâd, “Archaeoscope”, Watanî, March 21; Zâhî Hawwâs, « Révélations sur la famille de Toutankhamon », al-Ahrâm du 10 avril). - -
II -MUSÉES
Le directeur général du musée archéologique de Sharm al-Shaykh, Ahmad Kâmil, a annoncé la formation de comités chargés de sélectionner entre 7 et 8 milles pièces archéologiques qui seront exposées dans ce nouveau musée. Ces pièces appartiennent à toutes les époques pharaonique, grecque, copte, islamique et même moderne. (Lu’ay Mahmûd Sa‘îd, « Musées et antiquités », al-Qâhira du 12 janvier 2010). Le président de l’administration centrale pour le secteur des musées, ‘Âdil ‘Abd al-Sattâr, a annoncé l’achèvement du projet de baisse du niveau des eaux souterraines du musée de Banî Swayf. La restauration du musée est en cours de préparation. (Lu’ay Mahmûd Sa‘îd, « Musées et antiquités », al- Qâhira du 23 février 2010). La citoyenne Naglâ’ Riyâd a offert au CSA onze pièces de textile datant de l’époque copte. Le secrétaire général du CSA, Dr Zâhî Hawwâs, a remercié la donatrice de son initiative généreuse. Il a décidé l’exposition de ces pièces dans le nouveau musée de Sharm al-Shaykh dans une vitrine spéciale portant le nom du sculpteuse Tahiyya Halîm, propriétaire de ces pièces et testatrice de Naglâ’ Riyâd. (« Don de 11 pièces coptes », Âkhir Sâ‘a du 24 février 2010. Voir également Ibtihâl Ghayth, « Restauration de 11 pièces coptes offertes au CSA », Uktubar du 14 février). Le ministre de la Culture, Fârûq Husnî, a annoncé l’achèvement de 90 % du projet du musée archéologique de Suhâg d’une superficie de 8 700 m2. Il sera inauguré 1er le mai lors d’une grande cérémonie officielle et populaire. Le secrétaire général BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010 du CSA, Dr Zâhî Hawwâs, a déclaré avoir mis la dernière main au scénario muséologique et le lancement des deux dernières phases du projet. La collection de ce musée retracera l’histoire de Suhâg à travers les différentes époques historiques jusqu’aux époques copte et islamique. Ce projet dont le coût s’élève à 41 millions de livres égyptiennes est réalisé par les services architecturaux de l’armée. (‘Isâm ‘Umrân, « Inauguration du musée archéologique de Suhâg début mai », al-Gumhûriyya du 2 mars 2010. Voir également ‘Isâm ‘Umrân, « 41 millions de L.E. pour la création du musée archéologique de Suhâg », al-Gumhûriyya du 6 janvier ; Ahmad al- Zahîrî, « Le musée archéologique de Suhâg victime de la malédiction des pharaons depuis 25 ans », al-Ahrâm du 20 février). Le Musée Égyptien s’apprête à transférer vingt momies royales de sa collection vers le Musée national de la Civilisation égyptienne où seront regroupées les momies des plus célèbres pharaons : Ramsès II, Thoutmosis III, Amenhotep III et Séti 1er, en plus d’une collection de momies de princes et de vizirs. L’architecte japonais chargé de la conception muséographique du Musée de la Civilisation a rencontré la semaine dernière le ministre de la Culture. Au cours de ce long entretien, ils ont convenu de la forme finale du scénario muséographique. Celui-ci s’articulera autour de huit thèmes : une exposition générale sur la civilisation égyptienne située au cœur même du musée ; une exposition sur les momies royales, en plus de six autres expositions intitulées : l’aube de la civilisation, le Nil, la culture matérielle, l’écriture et les sciences, l’État et la société, les croyances et la pensée. Les responsables de ce projet confirment que les collections du musée couvriront huit époques historiques : la préhistoire, l’époque pharaonique, gréco-romaine, copte, islamique, moderne et contemporaine. (« 20 rois s’apprêtent à quitter le centre-ville », Akbar al-Adab du 25 avril 2010. Voir également « Achèvement du Musée national de la Civilisation dans un an », al-Qâhira du 2 février ; ‘Isâm ‘Abd al-Karîm, « Nazîf : le musée national de la Civilisation sera un pôle d’attraction touristique », al-Ahrâm du 18 14 mars). Une équipe d’experts japonais appartenant à la Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) organise un workshop de quatre jours sur les méthodes de lutte contre les insectes et les bactéries qui envahissent les entrepôts archéologiques. Onze restaurateurs égyptiens du Centre de maintenance et de restauration du Grand Musée Égyptien participent à ce stage. Ils suivent des conférences théoriques et des travaux pratiques en ce domaine dispensés par des experts japonais. (« Workshop japonais organisé pour le Grand Musée Égyptien », al- Wafd du 19 mai 2010. Voir également Dâlyâ ‘Uthmân, « Workshop japonais dans le Grand Musée Égyptien », al-Masrî al-Yawm du 24 mars ; ‘Abd al-Nâsir Farîd, « Stage japonais de lutte contre l’invasion des insectes destiné aux archéologues égyptiens », al-Ahrâr du 18 mai). Le gouverneur du Caire, Dr ‘Abd al•‘Azîm Wazîr, a effectué hier une tournée d’inspection des travaux en cours du parking al-Darrâsa implanté à la lisière du parc al-Azhar, en collaboration avec l’Aga Khan Trust for Culture. Il s’agit d’un parking sous-terrain à étages d’une superficie de 4 800 m2 pouvant accueillir jusqu’à 550 véhicules. Le gouverneur a également inspecté les travaux de construction du musée historique du Caire: un bâtiment de 3 500 m2 répartis sur 4 étages. Le gouverneur a affirmé que les travaux de construction du parking se dérouleraient en 3 phases pour un coût de près de 215 millions de livres égyptiennes. Par ailleurs, le gouverneur a approuvé le développement du parc al-Azhar: adoption de nouvelles activités et création d’une unité de compostage destinée à recycler les déchets générés par le parc et leur transformation en terreau fertile. (‘Abd al-Hâdî Tamâm, « Wazîr inspecte les travaux du parking al- Darrâsa et du musée historique du Caire », al-Qâhira du 6 juin 2010).
Musée des Bijoux royaux Zizinyya is one of the most elegant neighbourhoods in Alexandria and the fitting home of the Alexandria Jewellery Museum, which is housed in a sumptuous building originally built as a summer palace for the family of Zaynab Fahmî, wife of a descendant of Muhammad ‘Alî. Completed in 1923, the two-storey palace is a gem of exquisite European architectural style of the period. The royal jewellery collection, or rather those pieces remaining in Egypt, has been housed here since 1986, but the museum closed to the public in 2005 to allow restoration to take place. On her death Zaynab Fahmî left the palace to her daughter Princess Fâtima al-Zahrâ’ Haydar Fâdil, who added an east wing to the palace and connected it to the west wing by means of a corridor. Fâdil’s maternal uncle, an Italian architect who also designed the Sîdî Gâbir train station in Alexandria, created the interior design of the palace when she gained possession. Following the 1952 Revolution, Fâdil’s followed the way of similar royal palace and was expropriated by the Egyptian government, as were the treasures of the royal family who had reigned in the country since Muhammad ‘Alî became Viceroy in 1805. The government allowed Fâdil to live in the palace for the duration of her lifetime, but she assigned it to the government in 1964 when she left Alexandria and moved to Cairo. After she passed away in 1983 the palace was briefly used as a presidential rest house, but in 1986 President Husnî Mubârak issued a decree assigning it to become a museum for the royal jewellery collection. In October of the same year the museum opened to the public. The collection of 11,500 pieces placed on show were personal possessions and gifts belonging to the family and descendants of Muhammad ‘Alî, among them magnificent pieces owned by Muhammad ‘Alî himself and his son Sa‘îd Pasha all the way down the line to King Fu’âd and his first wife Princess Shuyakar. King Farouk, his mother, Queen Nazlî and his wife Queen Farîda also owned valuable pieces. Queen Farîda’s jewellery was designed and created by the French firm Boucheron. The collection includes of a luxury chess set owned by Muhammad ‘Alî; a coffee set inlaid with silver embellished with gold; a set of gold glassware decorated with 977 diamonds; and a number of medals and decorations. Gold cosmetic boxes, various containers and holders engraved with the initials of Queen Nazlî were also among the unique jewels created by the French jewellery house of Van Cleef and Arpels. Other notable pieces include a set of jewellery that was owned by the sisters of King Fârûq: Princess Fawziyya, first wife of Reza Pahlavi, Shah of Iran, and Princess Fâyza; and an Indian-inspired set owned by Queen Nârîmân, the second wife of King Fârûq. Jewellery belonging to Princess Sâmîha and Princess Qadriyya Husayn Kâmil is also on show, as are medallions worn by Prince Yûsuf Kamâl and Prince Muhammad ‘Alî Tawfîq.
The museum was previously restored in 1986 and 1994, but Muhammad ‘Abd al- Fattâh, who heads the museum department at the Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA), told Al-Ahram Weekly that by the end of 2004 it became clear that time had taken its toll of the museum building and it was closed for full restoration, including upgrading its showcases and display areas. New lighting and ventilation systems have been installed along with a new security system with burglar alarms connected to a CCTV network. Early in April Mrs Suzanne Mubârak, accompanied by Culture Minister Fârûq Husnî, Alexandria Governor ‘Âdil Labîb and SCA Secretary-General Zâhî Hawwâs, along with other governmental officials, officially inaugurated the museum after the completion of the renovations. Hawwâs described the building as a piece of art in itself, and pointed out that the various halls, rooms and corridors were embellished by fine works of art while the ceilings were adorned with murals depicting various historical and natural scenes. The windows are decorated with lead-inlaid stained glass showing European-style historical scenes. The highlight of the palace is the wonderful stained glass panels in the stairwell between the first and second floors, which combine to tell a love story. (Nevine El-Aref, “The princess and the glass fairy tale”, Al-Ahram Weekly, May 6, 2010. Voir également Gîhân Mustafa, « Suzanne Mubârak inaugure le musée des Bijoux royaux », al-Ahrâm du 11 avril ; ‘Isâm ‘Atiyya, « Le musée des Bijoux royaux revient à la vie », Âkhir Sâ‘a du 14 avril ; Amânî ‘Abd al-Hamîd, « Le musée des Bijoux… Un bijou des musées égyptiens », al-Musawwar du 14 avril ; Ahmed Ramadan, “Royal Jewelry museum exhibits riches of a bygone era”, al-Masrî al-Yawm, 18 avril ; Salwa Mahmûd, « Le musée des Bijoux royaux retrouve son lustre », Uktubar du 18 avril ; Doaa Elhami, « Les splendeurs du temps jadis », Al-Ahram Hebdo du 21 avril ; Hassan Saadallah, “Princess Fâtima Ismâ‘îl Museum reopens”, The Egyptian Gazette, May 10). Musée de la Mosaïque Alexandrie a lancé les premières étapes concrètes pour la création du premier musée de la Mosaïque dont le coût est estimé à 40 millions de livres égyptiennes. Ce musée sera implanté à al-Lâtîn, dans le centre- ville, à proximité du temple al-Ra’s al-Sawdâ’. Le secrétaire général du CSA, Dr Zâhî Hawwâs, a annoncé que ce musée abritera près de 37 pièces exceptionnelles, fruit des fouilles archéologiques menées à travers tout le pays. Elles datent de différentes époques historiques, notamment aux époques grecque et romaine. 25 pièces proviennent du Musée gréco-romain et de ses entrepôts. 12 autres proviennent d’Ismâ‘îliyya, de Qantara Sharq et de Suez. Certaines de ces pièces se trouvent actuellement in situ. Elles seront démontées, restaurées puis transférées vers ce nouveau musée. Le consultant du projet, ‘Âdil Mukhtâr, a annoncé le lancement des travaux de fondation de ce musée où les pièces seront exposées soit horizontalement soit verticalement suivant un classement chronologique illustrant l’art de la mosaïque à travers le monde entier. L’éclairage du musée ainsi que son jardin sont en cours d’élaboration. Le Dr Mukhtâr a précisé que 7 pièces de très grandes tailles (entre 20 et 24 mètres carrés) seront fixées dans leurs emplacements définitifs avant même l’installation du toit du musée. La directrice générale des restaurations en Alexandrie, Amîra Abû Bakr, a souligné que plus de 25 mosaïques sont en cours de restauration, afin qu’elles soient prêtes dès l’achèvement des travaux de construction. Parmi celles-ci figurent la fameuse scène de chasse découverte dans la région d’al-Shatbî, ainsi que celle de la Méduse. (Amal al-Gayyâr, « Alexandrie accueille le premier musée de la Mosaïque », al-Ahrâm du 29 mai 2010. Voir également « Fondation du musée de la Mosaïque en Alexandrie », al-Qâhira du 13 avril 2010).
Musée Égyptien If you give your child the choice between going to a playground and visiting a museum, they will most definitely choose the playground, and it’s hard to argue against that. That’s why the Museum of Egyptian Antiquities set up its first children’s section, a miniature version built on the same premises in the heart of downtown Cairo displaying real artifacts alongside innovative replicas made entirely from Lego bricks. And it also houses a play area. “This occasion today gives me the time to make an exciting discovery... that it is possible to create new artistic portraits and new monuments from the old Egyptian civilization with ordinary cubes of plastic,” Denmark’s Prince HENRIK told attendees at the inauguration of Egypt’s Children’s Museum last Monday. The ceremonial ribbon was cut by Prince HENRIK alongside Head of Egypt’s Supreme Council of Antiquities Zâhî Hawwâs and the Danish ambassador to Cairo, launching a project that has been in the pipeline for the past three years. A giant Lego Sphinx leads the way to the six-chamber underground space situated on the Westside of the museum, which begins with a colourful Lego map outlining Egypt’s main archaeological sites and ends with a workshop room equipped with Lego bricks for the little visitors to play with. The faces of legendary Pharaohs have been refashioned with tens of thousands of colourful plastic bricks in a fashion that blends the ancient civilization of the east with the west’s manufactured products. With children in mind, the curators made sure the walls are colour-painted, the artifacts are placed on low shelves and the description of each display — available in English and Arabic — uses simple language. The first showroom to the right-hand side of the entrance showcases everyday activities in ancient Egypt. The viewer meets statues and Lego formations of beer brewing and bread-making alongside toys, cosmetics, artifacts displayed behind a glass window and Lego models perched on ceramic bases. The next room shows the most fascinating of rituals practiced by the Pharaohs: mummification. A model of a body ready to be mummified is accompanied with Lego-jars bearing the heads of four Gods, as was the case in ancient times. A simple explanation of BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010 the process hangs on the wall while other equipment used for ancient mummification is also on display. The room also includes a Lego model of a boat carrying a dead man, equipped with material needed for the burial as it heads to the city of Abydos, the main center of worship for Osiris. It is fascinating to see that even though the greatness of the ancient civilization is diminished to colourful brick models, the grandiose feeling that is associated with the Pharaohs’ way of living is still traceable. Rooms on the left-hand side of the entrance are dedicated to writing, ancient knowledge and the palace life as depicted during the times of the Pharaohs. Pieces include a Lego-model of a king being serenaded by harp musicians; a Lego-man kneeling down as he writes on papyrus; a statue of Ramses II; and a sandstone statue of a baboon, symbol of Thoth, the God of knowledge. Upon exist, the viewer is greeted with a one room workshop where children were seen playing with Lego bricks on the opening day. In addition, the walls are dotted with artwork produced through activities run by the Management of Museum Education for the Talented and People with Disabilities. After the inauguration ceremony, Daily News Egypt spoke to Director General of the Egyptian Museum Wafâ’ al-Siddîq on the choice of Lego and what the new museum plans to offer the children that visit it. “It [Lego] is the most suitable artistic technique for a child’s brainpower... Lego cubes make children sit and reflect on their own creation,” al-Siddîq said. “Lego is a great invention. Children might listen and forget, but whatever a child creates with their own hands will stick to his/her mind; this is exactly our aim,” she added. The idea came to al-Siddîq after she visited a Lego exhibition titled “The Secret of the Pharaohs” as it toured Europe. She approached the organizing company who later agreed to donate the collection to the Egyptian Museum. “All the pieces on display have been collected by a group of archaeologists and psychologists to ensure that it interests children,” she said, adding that around 100 real artifacts were added to the Lego collection to complement the concept. “As long as it is called a museum, it has to include real artifacts.” A researcher of children’s museums, al-Siddîq points to the crammed nature of the Egyptian Museum as one of the reasons why Egypt was in need of a museum specifically designed for children. “Children are unable to comprehend the scores of monuments displayed in the Egyptian Museum,” she explained, adding that the new museum will offer additional educational tools for visitors. Alongside the Lego playroom, fliers are currently available in four languages: Arabic, English, French and German. In the future, al-Siddîq hopes to prepare workbooks to be given out to visiting children or their teachers, which will include crossword puzzles and colouring pages based on the displayed pieces. In addition, audio tours are a future consideration.
When asked whether the new museum will move to the Grand Egyptian Museum in Gîza, she said: “The current Egyptian museum and the newly inaugurated Children’s Museum will continue to display the marvels of the ancient civilization [here in downtown]. Only a few chosen pieces will be moved to the Grand Egyptian Museum.” Although the collection targets children, the museum looms as an enjoyable visit for all ages, offering a simplified but compact display of the ancient Egyptian civilization in an innovative manner, a space that is definitely serener than its larger kind. (Heba El- Sherif, “World of Pharaohs resurrected in first Lego museum”, Daily News Egypt, January 21, 2010. Voir également Amira Samir, « Amusez-vous et instruisez-vous les petits ! », Al-Ahram Hebdo du 27 janvier).
Grand Musée Égyptien Last week the premises of the Ministry of Culture in Zamâlik was bulging with journalists and media experts to witness the signing of a joint venture contract with Hill International and EHAF consulting engineers to provide project management services during the planning and construction of the Grand Egyptian Museum (GEM). “With the selection of a project manager, we have achieved yet another milestone in the development of the GEM,” Minister of Culture Fârûq Husnî said. “We have the expertise of a world- class project management team to ensure that this project will be completed successfully, as our expertise and efforts are not enough to supervise management work of that weight,” Husnî told reporters. The minister described such a moment as one of Egypt’s most momentous cultural days, as the GEM, he said, was the most important cultural project of the century. The GEM is scheduled to open 26 months from now. He also wishes that a private organization will take the management and administration work in the GEM after the completion of its construction. The GEM will be the largest and most important museum in the world for displaying ancient Egyptian objects. It will also be the largest museum in Egypt and one of the leading centres of Scientific, historical and archaeological studies on the globe. The museum’s 21st-century galleries will be located in an iconic and distinctive building located at the spot where Cairo meets the desert, abutting the Gîza Plateau. Visitors to the museum are projected to be five million per year at first, and after two years numbers are expected to reach eight million. The museum, designed by architect Heneghan PENG, will be built on an area of 117 feddans and will display 100,000 artefacts from the art of ancient Egypt. The total cost is estimated at $550 million, $300 million of which is a long-term loan from Japan with the rest being provided by the Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA). The GEM is designed to use the latest technology systems, including virtual reality, in order to be in direct contact with other local and international museums. It will include a museum for children, conference rooms, training centres and a workshop similar to those found in ancient Egypt. “We are glad to participate in managing this historical project, and we shall use outstanding project management systems that are up to the level of the humanitarian value that this project presents,” EHAF Vice-President Muhammad Fahmî said. Ra’ûf Ghâlî, president of Hill’s project management group, called the project “an iconic and once in a lifetime project”. “Hill and EHAF are proud to have been selected to manage the construction of this world class project,” he said. (Nevine El-Aref, “GEM construction partners”, Al-Ahram Weekly, February 18, 2010. Voir également Georges Edouard, « Lancement de la troisième et dernière phase de construction du Grand Musée Égyptien », Watanî du 17 janvier ; Hassan Saadallah, “Grand Museum contract signed”, The Egyptian Gazette, February 3 ; Taha ‘Abd al- Rahmân, « Suzanne Mubârak inaugure les deux premières phases du projet du Grand Musée Égyptien », al-Ahrâr du 26 mai ; Dînâ ‘Abd al-‘Alîm, « Le ministère de la Culture engage 122 fonctionnaires pour le Grand Musée Égyptien », al-Yawm al-Sâbi‘ du 13 juin).
February 2002 there was no doubting the scale of the ambition. The Grand Egyptian Museum (GEM) was always intended to be an architectural masterpiece, a fit home for the display of the most outstanding objects produced by Egypt’s 7,000 years old civilisation. On Monday, after eight years of work, the first two phases of the project — including a power plant, fire station, fully equipped conservation centre with 12 labs and four storage galleries — were inaugurated. Mrs Suzanne Mubârak attended the opening ceremony and was given a tour of the conservation centre guided by Minister of Culture Fârûq Husnî and Secretary-General of the Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA) Zâhî Hawwâs. She was accompanied by Minister of Education Ahmad Zakî Badr, Minister of Housing Ahmad al-Maghrabî, and columnists Salâh Muntasir and Anîs Mansûr. During the tour Mrs Mubârak admired the work of young restorers. She watched a 10•minute computer simulation showing the objects, including pottery, limestone statues, and a wooden sarcophagus, on which they were working before and after restoration. The conservation centre, said the museum’s technical consultant Muhammad Ghunaym, is the largest in the world, intended not only to restore Egyptian antiquities but to be a regional conservation centre. It will also incorporate a documentation unit charged with creating a computerised database of all artefacts. Established in partnership with the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), and with Japanese technical assistance, the centre includes 12 laboratories for restoring, scanning and studying mummies as well as objects made from pottery, wood, textiles and glass. The 122 conservators are currently working on restoring 6,800 objects that will be part of the museum’s permanent display. “In building a state-of-the-art museum near the Pyramids of Gîza we want to create the best environment for the display of our priceless treasures. There will be more space, better lighting and more information available, to do justice to our priceless heritage,” Husnî told Al-Ahram Weekly. He described the new museum as one of the “world’s most ambitious projects” and “the museum of the century”. Husnî thanked the Japanese government for helping to fund the $600 million project. It provided a $300 million soft loan to be repaid over 30 years at an interest rate of 1.5 per cent. In addition, the Ministry of Culture will itself provide $150 million and an additional $27 million has already been donated by businessmen. SCA economic consultant Nûrâ ‘Ubayd told the Weekly that an international firm will soon be appointed to manage the project’s fund raising. “The SCA has launched a preliminary campaign through its antiquities exhibitions abroad, and the response has been promising,” she said. Plans are also afoot to ask visitors to Egypt’s archaeological sites and museums to each donate a dollar towards the GEM. Husnî also expressed gratitude to the Italian government, that financed the project’s year and a half feasibility study. During the inauguration he presented an overview of the museum’s conceptual framework, prepared by the Italians, and of the international competition set up by the UNESCO to choose the museum’s design. Over five million tourists will visit the museum and the Gîza Plateau in its first year, said Husnî, a figure that is expected to increase to eight million by 2020. Fârûq ‘Abd al-Salâm, supervisor of the culture minister’s office, pointed out that the museum will also house a conference centre with an auditorium for 1,000, catering to theatrical performances, concerts, conferences and business meetings. The main auditorium will be supplemented by seminar rooms, meeting halls, a multi-purpose hall suitable for a variety of events, along with an open plan gallery for accompanying exhibitions. A special section for children will be created in order to encourage young people to learn about their heritage. A 7,000-square-metres commercial area with retail shops, cafeterias, restaurants, leisure and recreational activities is planned for the ground floor level, as well as a 250 seat cinema. Development of the 117 feddan GEM site overlooking the Gîza Plateau, planned to be completed after 26 months, makes more than a nodding pass to the surrounding desert landscape. The museum complex will centre on the Dunal Eye, an area containing the main exhibition spaces. From this central hub a network of streets, piazzas and bridges will link the museum’s many sections. The design is by Shih-Fu PENG, of the Dublin firm Heneghan, winners of the international architectural competition held in 2003. According to PENG the museum, which will be partly ringed by a desert wall containing half a million semi-precious stone, will act as a link between modern Cairo and the ancient Pyramids. “The GEM will be a beautiful space in which visitors can experience the art and artefacts of ancient Egypt in the shadow of the Pyramids,” Hawwâs told the Weekly.“The museum boasts perhaps the largest museum conservation labs in the world.” The storage rooms will be equipped with movable units designed for secure storage and easy access, and the environment will be determined by the materials kept in individual rooms, whether they are organic or non-organic, or require low temperatures for their preservation. The conservation centre has been constructed 10 metres below ground level.
“We are now planning to move objects from the Cairo Museum in Tahrîr to the new lab for conservation and restoration,” said Hawwâs. “That way, the objects will be ready to be installed in the museum when it is completed.” Hawwâs described the museum’s thematic displays, beginning with the physical environment, the River Nile and the surrounding deserts and oases, moving through kingship and the state, religion as practised under the Pharaoh Akhenaten during the Amarna period, and displays focussing on the daily lives of the ancient Egyptians, their sports, games, music, arts, crafts and cultural and social practices. The new museum will house objects drawn from prehistory and up to the early Roman period. The unique funerary objects of Tutankhamun, Hetepheres, mother of the Pharaoh Khufu, Yuya and Thuya, the grandfathers of Pharaoh Akhenaten, Senedjem, the principal artist of Pharaoh Ramses II, the royal mummies and the treasures of Tanis will all be on permanent display. “Khufu’s solar boats, now on display at the Gîza Plateau, and the red granite statue of Ramses II, removed four years ago from Ramses Square in downtown Cairo, will also be among the permanent display,” said Hawwâs. To guarantee security and complete isolation of the complex from the surrounding neighbourhood an iron fence has been erected and is monitored by CCTV cameras. A buffer zone of trees has also been planted. Building the conservation centre and the galleries underground, said Fârûq ‘Abd al- Salâm, the Ministry of Culture’s chief of cabinet, means that the complex avoids the intense summer heat of the plateau. “All mechanical, electrical and plumbing systems will be centrally regulated, stabilising conditions in each space based on the objects it contains,” he said. (Nevine El-Aref, “Museum of the century”, Al-Ahram Weekly, June 17, 2010. Voir également Sayyid Yûnis, « Le ministre de la Culture : le Grand Musée Égyptien est une mutation touristique et économique », al-Usbû‘ du 28 mai ; ‘Abîr Fathî, « Suzanne Mubârak inaugure les 2 premières phases du Grand Musée Égyptien », al-Gumhûriyya du 15 juin ; Gîhân Mustafa, « Suzanne Mubârak inaugure les 2 premières phases du Grand Musée Égyptien », al-Ahrâm du 15 juin ; Sarah el- Deeb, “New museum taking shape”, The Egyptian Gazette, June 16 ; ‘Isâm ‘Atiyya, « Grand Musée Égyptien : un panorama pharaonique qui éblouit les yeux du monde », Âkhir Sâ‘a du 16 juin ; Usâma Fârûq, « Inauguration du Grand Musée Égyptien en 2012 », Akhbâr al-Adab du 20 juin ; Nasma Réda, « Les pharaons sous un éclairage moderne », Al-Ahram Hebdo du 23 juin).
Musée des Textile s Ce musée est sans doute l’un des plus impressionnants de l’Égypte. Jusqu’ici, les textiles, témoins de la vie quotidienne et populaire, ont été bien négligés. Il fallait beaucoup de ténacité, d’opiniâtreté et surtout d’amour pour consacrer aux textiles un tel musée en Égypte qui est unique, pédagogique et évolutif à la fois. Le très récent musée des Textiles aménagé dans le sabîl Muhammad ‘Alî renferme une collection de 250 pièces offertes soit de plusieurs musées égyptiens, soit des dépôts du Conseil Suprême des Antiquités (CSA). Présenter ces pièces rares, de provenances multiples, comme on le fait pour des tableaux ou des sculptures, était une gageure. Il propose textiles et tapisseries permettant la compréhension d’un aspect essentiel d’un art peu connu en Égypte. Les pièces exposées datent de toutes les périodes de l’histoire de l’Égypte. Outre les salles pharaonique et copte, le musée abrite toute une section consacrée aux textiles islamiques remontant aux différentes dynasties : omeyyade, abbasside, toulounide, fatimide, ayyoubide, mamelouke et ottomane. Souvent fragmentaires (tapis, nattes, tricots, vêtements), les pièces ont gardé leur fraîcheur et leur beauté. Elles témoignent de la maîtrise technique exceptionnelle, du raffinement et de la sûreté de goût auxquels étaient parvenus les tisserands des plus célèbres ateliers égyptiens. Le nouveau musée exprime un savoir-faire des origines de la fabrication des textiles encore vivant dans de nombreux centres du monde islamique comme au Maroc et en Syrie. Le musée aura de même un rôle éducatif. Chaque salle donne au visiteur toutes les informations possibles sur l’industrie des textiles dans la période représentée et son développement.
Le sabîl Muhammad ‘Alî, qui accueille ce nouveau musée, est situé dans la rue al•Mu‘izz, au cœur du Caire islamique, à al-Nahhâsîn. L’idée de la transformation de ce sabîl en musée entre dans le cadre d’un grand projet visant à la réutilisation des sabîl-s restaurés au Caire islamique plutôt que de les abandonner vides. Au début, l’idée était de transformer ce sabîl en un musée des textiles islamiques. Mais le ministre de la Culture a décidé d’élargir le musée de manière à introduire les textiles à travers les époques : pharaonique, copte et islamique. Et c’est ainsi que le musée des textiles égyptiens est né. (Amira Samir, « Un musée éducatif et évolutif », Al-Ahram Hebdo du 24 février 2010).
Musée d’Art islamique Following five years of meticulous restoration work, which cost some EGP85 million, the Ministry of Culture will be shortly celebrating the official opening of Cairo’s Museum of Islamic Art. The museum, the exterior of which is in it a magnificent sample of Islamic architecture, has undergone a comprehensive restoration process, which brings it back to its original splendour. Not only was the building and interior renovated, but also the exhibition design and displays. The restoration project was carried out jointly with the Islamic Department of the Louvre in Paris and the Aga Khan Trust for Culture. The museum offers a collection of rare wooden, metal, ceramic, glass, rock crystal and textile objects from across the Islamic world. In addition, it encompasses an introductory gallery that will present Islamic arts and the Muslim countries and their locations in the world in a mixed display made up of panels, maps and objects from the collection. Visitors will also gain an idea of the geography of historic Cairo and the early Islamic town of Fustât, the oldest Islamic settlement in Egypt. The master plan for the renovation work was drawn up by French designer and museographer Adrien GARDÈRE in cooperation with the Islamic Department of the Louvre Museum in Paris. Fâkhir Subhî, the construction manager at the Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA), told Watanî that the Museum of Islamic Art was one of the oldest museums in the Middle East and that it boasts some 80,000 objects which date back from the early ages of Islam and until the Ottoman period. Two new displays halls have been added to house collections of textiles, rare gold and silver coins, and royal medals. The old display cases were replaced with new ones, which provide a far better environment for the artefacts. The renovated museum has state-of-the art security and lighting systems, as well as a fully-equipped restoration laboratory, a children’s museum and library. The museum is divided into two large wings with the one on the right-hand side devoted to a chronological display of Islamic artifacts, while the left-hand one displays exhibits from countries other than Egypt. The exhibits include samples of calligraphy, manuscripts, ceramics, mosaics, textiles, tombstones, mashrabiyyas (lattice woodwork), woodwork, metal and glass vessels, incense burners, pottery, metalwork and glass lamps dating from different periods in Islamic history. The display will be in some cases chronological and in others according to theme and material. Even though the museum encompasses more than 100,000 objects, only 2500 will be on display. The museum has a rare collection of sand clocks, tools used for measuring distances and heights, and items related to astronomy, engineering, chemistry and surgery. A collection of pottery which was unearthed from within the remains of Fustât is displayed and includes pots and rich wood carvings from the Umayyad, Abbasid and Tolonic periods. One of the wonderful displays is a metal bronze pitcher which belonged to Marawân Ibn Muhammad, the last Umayyad Caliph; it stands at 41cms tall and 28cm wide. First planned in 1869 even before the establishment of a committee of Arab antiquities dedicated to building a national collection of Islamic art, the Museum of Islamic Art first opened in 1881 in the courtyard of the Fatimid al-Hâkim Mosque in Islamic Cairo. The initial display comprised 111 objects gathered from mosques and mausoleums across Egypt. Due to the rapid increase in the size of the collection, a new building was constructed in the courtyard of the mosque in 1883 to house what had now become a considerably enlarged museum. In 1899, the government began construction work on the present building, and in 1903 the Islamic Museum opened with a display of 3,154 objects originating from Egypt and other countries. In the same neighbourhood stand other outstanding models of Islamic architecture, including the exceptional 10th century Ahmad Ibn Tûlûn mosque, the 12th century Salâh al-Dîn’s citadel and 19th century Muhammad ‘Alî mosque which was built in the citadel grounds. While the museum’s name has changed over the years, in 1952 the museum’s trustees settled on the institution’s present name, the Museum of Islamic Art, in recognition of the contributions of non-Arab Muslims from Iran, Turkey, and Andalusia. (Sanâ’ Fârûq, “The Museum of Islamic Art in Cairo. Renewed magnificence”, Watanî, February 21, 2010. Voir également Hassan Saadallah, “Islamic Art Museum gets new look”, The Egyptian Gazette, February 26 ; Hâla Ahmad, « Le musée d’Art islamique ressuscite », al-Ahrâm du 7 avril).
Musée de la Préhistoire
Anyone interested in the antecedents of the Egyptian civilisation and the cultures that predated the unification of the country under one king may soon have many of their questions answered. Items showing evidence of the activities of the early peoples of the Nile Valley, from the predynastic cultures of Upper and Lower Egypt, Fayyûm and the oases of Sîwa and Khârga selected from storehouses around the country, plus pieces from various museums, will soon be on display in a new predynastic museum at Qinâ. The museum is currently being built at an ideal location — a prominent five- feddan site overlooking the Nile. Mahmûd Mabrûk, head of the museums sector of the Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA), which is overseeing the work, says it will represent a long period of history covering about 10,000 years. He adds that a plan has already been worked out to start surveying and registering predynastic items in order to prepare a database of antiquities. As were other parts of the world, Egypt was occupied by Stone Age hunting, fishing and food-gathering communities in the Late Paleolithic. In about 5000 BC, Neolithic or New Stone Age people wandered along the river terraces of the Nile Valley, and traces of their agricultural, hunting and animal domestication activities have been found on numerous sites. Interestingly, from very early times many of the artefacts produced had a peculiarly “Egyptian” character, and their styles continued through various development phases well into the early historical period. The work on predynastic sites, discovered independently by Britain’s Flinders PETRIE and France’s BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010 Jacques DE MORGAN in the late 19th century have now been expanded. Literature has become specialised and scattered, and the sources and types of material, in the absence of a written language, remain wide-ranging and complex. Take pottery for example. It was used for vessels which served a wide variety of functions long before the first Pharaohs — for everyday cooking and domestic purposes, storage of cosmetics and oils, for the transportation of food and drink, and funerary rituals. There were also fancy vessels in the form of humans, animals and birds, decorated vessels, and mother•goddess figures. The historical development of Egyptian pottery alone, and its role in Egyptology, is extremely complex. What do predynastic objects tell us about the inception of Egyptian culture? What do flint tools, stone mace heads, chisels and adzes, metal jewellery, slate cosmetic palettes, leather and textile clothes and containers tell us about society? Were small objects in ivory, stone, shell and faience depicting zoomorphic figures actually representations of deities? Were they devices to ward off evil? And to what extent do they reveal a complex and developing community, its class structure, its organisation? Were goods created for trade? Were luxury items and minerals unobtainable locally and therefore imported into the country? These are but a few of the questions raised by scholars of various specialisations, and the predynastic sites so far excavated — both settlement sites and cemeteries — reveal a truly remarkable picture. Since the early days of study, radiocarbon dating has been refined and the methods used today are more sensitive and accurate. Hair, skin, shell and wood samples can now be tested with accuracy. It is no longer necessary to identify foreign imports on stylistic grounds alone when analysis can prove or disprove an argument. Remnants of clothing in some predynastic sites show that the people wore kilts, sometimes with decorative girdles, and feathered headgear. Strings of blue-glazed beads, anklets of shells and bracelets of ivory attest to the standard of personal decoration, as do oval slate palettes which bear traces of red ochre or green malachite probably used to grind body or face paint. The earliest known “seasonal settlements” in Egypt are in Fayyûm, the depression in the Western Desert that was filled by the Nile in about 8000 BC to create a considerable lake with a much higher water level than it has today. Mud huts were built on mounds along its north and north-east shores when the level of the lake gradually fell and where the land was fertile, and by about 5000 BC emmer, wheat, barley and flax were being cultivated and harvested using sickle-flints set in wooden handles. Traces of cloth reveal that the people wove linen, which they probably wore beneath an outer garment of leather. Stone beads and pendants show that they also developed drilling techniques. Pottery was made of coarse clay and fashioned in a variety of shapes. This seasonal, semi-nomadic existence where, despite an increase in animal husbandry, expeditions into the desert to hunt large mammals continued. Such an existence can also be traced at many sites in Upper Egypt south of Asyût where, although the actual settlements built on levees along the banks of the river have long disappeared, burial grounds provide evidence of early society. Ivory spoons, figurines, and small copper objects — hammered, not cast — were among the grave goods.
The earliest evidence of fully sedentary village life can be found at Merimda, a sandy rise in the Western Desert on the edge of the Delta near the Rosetta branch of the Nile. Radiocarbon readings reveal evidence of occupation from 4440 to 4145 BC, and some scholars suggest an even earlier date. Groups of small, flimsy huts made of wicker were built on spurs, and it is thought that they may have been used for much the same purpose as in rural communities in Egypt until today for storing food and tools rather than for habitation. Such lightly-constructed shelters may have also provided shade for workshops and cooking areas. The predynastic period is an exciting field of study. Early Egyptologists tended to discard fragments of pottery, ostrich shells and bones. Today we know their importance in revealing different stages of settlement, dietary habits and social patterns of the earliest people who settled in the Nile Valley, whether farmers or stock-breeders who raised cattle, sheep, goats and pigs, and who, over the passage of time developed trading centres in major settlement areas. One such predynastic settlement area shows that the inhabitants were indeed traders. I refer particularly to the contents of the delightful and little-known and long-neglected dig-house, known as the Ma‘âdî Museum, the contents of which will take prime place in the new predynastic Qinâ Museum. Ma‘âdî’s strategic position in pre-history is not widely known, yet it is unique. It was first excavated in 1918 and the results were made public in a report to the International Congress of Geography in 1925. Three years later, the famed Egyptologist J LUCAS visited the site and identified three specific areas of the settlement. His observations ignited further interest and, in 1929, he decided to initiate a project for its investigation. Eleven archaeological missions were carried out there under the directorship of various Egyptian and foreign pre-historians, but unfortunately the mission came abruptly to an end with the outbreak of World War II — although luckily not before the research resulted in the publication of four volumes of detailed studies carried out by specialists in the fields of natural sciences, pottery, lithic industries, non-lithic objects and cemeteries. It is, so far, the most comprehensive and well-documented pre- dynastic objects in the whole of Egypt. Little remains of the actual site today. It continues to be seriously threatened by further urban expansion, visibly creeping up on the ancient dig-house and its valuable collection which, fortunately, will be transferred to the Qinâ Museum in due course. I remember visiting the site 10 years ago, in late November 2000, when the late Ibrâhîm Rizqâna was custodian. He told me about the excavations and the fact that Ma‘âdî was ideally located for contacts with Upper and Lower Egypt, as well as with western Asia through a wadi leading to the Isthmus of Suez. He explained how the “Maadians” benefited from trade, being well placed with plenty of drinking water and situated as it was on a terrace at the fringe of the desert safe from high floods. The number of graves found in the cemeteries suggested a large community, believed to be traders who lived in a “real town”, and produced a number of innovations in around 4000 BC. It was not, according to Rizqâna, a simple trading post, but a settled community where the people practised agriculture, bred animals, wove fabrics, used teeth and shells for ornaments, made bread and manufactured stone vases and pottery jars for storage. The excavation of distinctive imported Palestinian pottery aroused the interest of scholars as soon as the preliminary reports appeared. It is now pretty certain that Ma‘âdî’s pre-dynastic site, which is a more elaborate and complex settlement than the pre•dynastic sites of Lower Egypt, will feature strongly in the new museum. It will be revealed that the people had a variety of rectangular houses, oval huts, subterranean shelters, storage pits and sunken storage jars. Interestingly, the houses and huts were concentrated in the centre of the settlement, while the storage facilities were around its edge. Burials, except for infants, were in cemeteries away from the settlement. The subterranean “houses” proved to be the most interesting of all. The three that were found were dug about two metres deep and in various shapes. Some appear to have been domed and covered with matting, a practice not common in Egypt but found at several sites in southern Palestine. This suggested to some of the archaeologists who excavated the site that they were actually the houses of foreigners in Ma‘âdî. Rizqâna, however, thought that idea “rather farfetched”, and said they were more likely to have been for common use, perhaps for administrative purposes. His thoughts about the settlement were, I recall, somewhat contradictory. He admitted that the Ma‘âdî settlement might have been a sort of shantytown, a trade station for various goods, but then on other occasions he said that it could have been a real town occupied by people with innovative ideas. Why, he postulated, was there an absence of threshing and harvesting implements, while grinding stones could be counted in their hundreds? And why, of the nearly 100,000 stone implements discovered were there only a dozen stickles and a handful of axes?
Mysteries always pique interest and although, as mentioned above, very little remains of the pre-dynastic site for further excavation, a new study of the objects — once they are placed in a new setting and considered alongside the already published literature — might enable modern scholars to answer some old scholarly questions. The new museum at Qinâ, devoted to predynastic objects of all periods, will be a valuable source of information covering a field that is rapidly expanding and increasingly capturing the interest of travellers and the lay public as well as scholars. (Jill KAMIL, “A new look at prehistory”, Al-Ahram Weekly, June 17, 2010). - - III – RESTAURATIONS, PRÉSERVATIONS
Half a century ago, we tended to think that the monuments built by the ancient Egyptians along the full length of the Nile Valley had stood for so long that they must be immune to the forces of time and nature. Now we know differently. As Egypt celebrates the foundation of the High Dam, the cornerstone of the country’s economic development envisioned by Gamâl ‘Abd al-Nâsir, articles are appearing in the press about its planning stages, construction and advantages. I am reminded of some of its disadvantages, especially for the country’s ancient heritage. During its construction between 1960 and 1971, the High Dam at Aswân was regarded as a boon that would improve conditions for the conservation of monuments. The stabilisation of the river would certainly overcome the danger of high floods, and this would enable the reinforcement of undermined foundations and prevent further collapse of large structures. Furthermore, the injury caused to some monuments by the excessive wetting and drying out each year would be ended. Or so it was thought. Egyptologists were hopeful that the future of the monuments would be assured. Before long, however, it was becoming clear that the higher average water table was damaging reliefs through seepage and salt erosion, and that the combination of these effects was even more damaging than the annual — and temporary — inundation. True, the annual flood had totally destroyed reliefs on the lower reaches of the temple walls, but those parts above flood level were — considering their age — well-preserved. Now the seepage and salt erosion were also causing progressive deterioration of the reliefs on the upper walls. There was no doubt that the legendary “Hundred-gated Thebes” was under threat. Archaeological teams working in Luxor set to work to address the problem, but it was no easy task because many previously held views on conservation had to be revised. For example, there had been a misconception that damage to reliefs was caused through subterranean seepage alone, and that there was no humidity in Upper Egypt. But there certainly is, and it increased as the Lake Nâsir reservoir began to form behind the High Dam. Moreover, methods of conservation that had proved successful on monuments in other parts of the world were not working in Egypt. Here the natural process of evaporation of moisture has to be allowed for, but crystallisation has to be curbed. Experiments took time. Seasons passed. Time took its toll. And on successive visits to Luxor one could clearly see deterioration — decay creeping up temple walls like some cursed disease, leaving the reliefs pimpled, festered and spoiled. Another problem that could be related to the dam was tomb robbing. Now this was nothing new; there were robbers even in Pharaonic times, and before the foundation of the Antiquities Department in 1850 (at first administered by the French under Auguste MARIETTE), the plundering of excavations had resulted in great collections of Egyptian antiquities abroad, in France, Britain, Italy and the Netherlands. However, the looting of monuments and smuggling of antiquities abroad reached an all time high when the dam was being built and attention was focussed on Nubia. This was because archaeological sites in Egypt were largely unprotected during the salvage operations. Robbers and antiquities dealers had a field day. Objects were dug up by gangs of workmen in broad daylight and shipped abroad. When the government eventually became aware of the problem they took drastic, but what proved to be totally ineffective measures. A decision was taken to absorb the manpower released from the High Dam to police archaeological sites. What a foolhardy decision that was! By appointing people who had no sense of the value of what they were protecting, and who, in any case, received such meagre salaries that they felt their country owed them more than they were earning, was asking for trouble. While many of the guards were honest and deeply resented the intrusion, there were others who were only too pleased to make extra money by turning a blind eye. It was a vicious circle. The security police intimidated the guards, because they themselves were subjected to bribes by antiquities dealers. All along the line palms are greased and backs turned.
At the first International Congress of Egyptology (ICE) in 1976, Labîb Habashî presented a paper entitled “Damages and Robberies of Egyptian Monuments in the Last Half Century”. His Egyptian colleagues tried to dissuade him from “putting an ugly face on Egypt and Egyptology”, but he went ahead nevertheless. He described some of the most well-known and theoretically well-protected areas that had suffered most seriously from vandalism, and astounded his audience when he mentioned such sites as Gîza, Memphis and Thebes. He called for collaboration by the curators of foreign museums to refrain from buying objects before making sure of their status with the Egyptian authorities, and for the Antiquities Department to ensure that storehouses were properly constructed and guarded. He laid stress on the need for proper documentation. Habashî’s lecture was well received, and he was soundly congratulated, but surprisingly, it was not until the 1990s, nearly 15 years after his presentation, that the recently reformed Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA) managed to procure strong ties with the international police organisation Interpol and customs agencies all over the world, and together with the newly-formed Department for the Recovery of Stolen Artefacts (DRSA) watch for signs of lost treasures, and attempt to curb their flow. It is not an easy task. Egypt’s ancient treasures are found over such a widespread area that it is not possible to keep track of them. Until today, objects are being stolen from archaeological sites and warehouses and being smuggled out of the country. Some are put up for sale at auction house and are recognised by archaeologists browsing the Internet, and SCA Secretary- General Zâhî Hawwâs, is making every effort — with some success — to have them returned to Egypt. However, the tragedy of modern-day plunder is that antiquities are lost to the world of art and scholarship. Too often they make their way out of the country through antique dealers, and into private collections. Another problem that can be traced to the construction of the High Dam is injury to monuments by tourists. Their numbers increased following the publicity surrounding the Nubia Salvage Operation during construction of the dam. Earlier, fewer than 100 visitors a day visited Luxor’s magnificent monuments, and fewer still went on to Abû Simbil. Now there were thousands. They started arriving by train, river, bus and private car, and in order to facilitate their movement to the Theban necropolis a decision was taken to build a bridge over the Nile and a rest-house in the heart of the Valley of the Kings. Both caused problems. Rumbling tourist buses parked near the sacred valley caused vibration that adversely affected the tombs, and water drainage from the rest-house seeped into the porous limestone bedrock and did more damage. Then there was the question of tour leaders (often transporting groups of 40), anxious to keep them intact and happy, hustling them — too many at a time — through the priceless corridors of the royal tombs before an earlier group emerged. Some steps were taken to control the movement of visitors. Alternative itineraries were formed to ease the pressure; a terminal was built for the buses at a safe distance from the tombs; and tour leaders were obliged to lecture their groups outside the tombs, before entering them. These were all steps in the right direction. Hope was on the horizon. But then a decision was taken to build an international air terminal in Luxor, and the daily number of visitors doubled almost overnight to 4,000 a day — in addition to those that were bussed in from the Red Sea resorts. These numbers are largely responsible for rapid changes in temperature and humidity levels in the tombs. Tourism is essential for the Egyptian economy and is expected to increase even further in the next decade. Long-term management plans are being put into operation to counter any negative effects. Dewatering programmes around Luxor and Karnak temples on the east bank of the Nile and on the necropolis include large-scale engineering work to install a city-wide sewage system around the most frequently visited and important monuments. Unfortunately, work does not always progress as quickly as planned because engineering operations sometimes reveal the presence of unknown or previously lost monuments around the temple complexes, and work is held up for an indefinite period while archaeological decisions are taken. This is what happened when, many years ago, a decision was taken to open up the ancient sphinx-lined avenue extending from the portal of Euergetes I at Karnak to the entrance pylon of Luxor temple. (…) The idea of re-activating this ancient avenue for tourism was excellent. But its progress was held up again and again. It took time to release the sphinxes, many in poor condition, from centuries of accumulated silt. Then there was the problem of relocating people from the urban settlements built over the long-buried route. An even more pressing problem was the Makashkash Mosque, which partly covered the ancient avenue, north of the Luxor Temple entrance. It seemed likely that this would have to remain in position and that there would have to be a detour along the Pharaonic highway. Fortunately, however, SCA staff found a photograph taken in about 1880 that shows a minaret standing by the sheikh’s tomb to the east of the Sphinx Avenue. Apparently the mosque was later enlarged. Thus it has been possible to remove its side walls while retaining, and restoring, the minaret and the sheikh’s tomb, which will have a special public access.
The Sphinx Avenue is still years from completion, but tourism marches forward. Following the inauguration of an international airport at Hurghada on the Red Sea coast, thousands more tourists began to travel to Luxor on day trips. In order to cope with the extra traffic, a decision was taken to double the width of the Nile Corniche boulevard. Egyptologists and concerned Luxor residents responded to the decision with horror, regarding it as a threat to historical 19th•century buildings and other structures on the town’s riverside esplanade. Several of the city’s landmarks between the two major temples would have to be demolished. These included a military club, a Coptic-Catholic rest-house, and the Chicago House garden. “Can a less radical plan not be drawn up?” wrote one of the many anxious parties on a blog. Apparently not. Chicago House has lost part of its garden; the façades of the Bank of Alexandria, the Etap/Mercure Hotel, and the garden of the Bishop’s residence have been cut back. The National Democratic Party headquarters in front of Luxor Temple has been demolished, as has the beautiful old Andraus Pasha house. The tell (mound) behind Luxor is now being subjected to an emergency archaeological survey before being demolished. By next summer that too will probably be lost. Can one attribute all this to human intervention in the form of the High Dam at Aswân built half a century ago? Probably not. One cannot halt progress, and it is wise to look on the positive side. The sloping and sinuous seven-kilometre stretch of rapids known as the First Cataract may have disappeared, yet Aswân remains one of the most picturesque of Egypt’s river cities. Nubia has been inundated, but its great monuments have been saved and are major tourist attractions. And as for Luxor, the fact that it is bringing in so many tourists that the wide corniche road being built will, it is rumoured, be turned into a pedestrian area, while the sphinx- lined avenue will bear the brunt of the BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010 traffic, is surely good for tourism. “Say no more!” said a tour guide, who added that it was unfortunate that visitors may not for long be able to “wander around the town and mix with the locals”. (Jill Kamil, “The High Dam and its negative effects”, Al-Ahram Weekly, February 18, 2010).
Documentation archéologique It was celebration time on 16 June when 73 junior archaeologists gathered to mark the completion of their six-week-long IT training course. The event was held in the Ahmad Pasha Kamâl Hall on the first floor of the Supreme Council of Antiquities’ (SCA) premises in Zamalek, where Zâhî Hawwâs, secretary-general of the SCA, told the archaeologists that they were now the core of a technical, scientific and archaeological unit which would carry out one of the SCA’s most important tasks. The mega project aims at documenting Egypt’s antiquities, both movable and immobile. It will also provide a technological database that will record and track every artefact in the storage facilities of every archaeological site in Egypt and will follow the object’s movements inside and outside the facility. The archaeologists were selected for special training from the SCA inspectorates of Gîza, Fayyûm, Banî Swayf, Saqqâra, Qalyûbiyya, Munûfiyya and Matariyya. A second group will be selected from inspectorates in Middle and Upper Egypt, while a third will be recruited from Lower Egypt and Alexandria. In a year’s time, Hawwâs said, all archaeologists working in storage museums would be IT-trained. Hawwâs told Al-Ahram Weekly that the training courses were being conducted in collaboration with the Integrated Care Society within the framework of the SCA’s planned investment in the capabilities of its junior archaeologists. Nevertheless, past schemes to document all the nation’s antiquities have not been successful. The history of professional archaeological documentation in Egypt began as early as the 1960s when the imminent construction of the Aswân High Dam put pressure on the antiquities sector to study the threatened monuments. Under the patronage of UNESCO, the Antiquities Documentation Centre (ADC) was set up to document all the Nubian temples that were due to sink under Lake Nâsir. At the time, regretfully, the centre only documented Nubian temples, whether they sank or were rescued and relocated. The centre remained under the supervision of the French until the end of the 1970s, when its supervision was transferred to the Egyptians. In 1980 the centre focussed its efforts on Luxor’s west bank and the documentation of its necropolis. But the mission it conducted lasted for only four months, and after that the centre’s activities were put on hold.
Ramadân Badrî Husayn, supervisor of the National Project of Documentation of Egypt’s Antiquities, told the Weekly that in 2005 the documentation programme was revived and a new strategy was drawn up aimed at putting into effect the original role of the ADC, while widening its mandate and protecting monuments to serve archaeology as a science and confirm Egypt’s possession of every artefact on its territory. “Documenting the objects is a very important certificate from the legal point of view,” Husayn said. This is because it acts as proof of possession by the nation in case of any future international legal dispute. According to previous archaeological documentation, Husayn continued, Egypt over the last eight years had succeeded in securing the return of several genuine items that had been stolen and smuggled out of the country. Husayn told the Weekly that excavation is a destructive process. “In discovering an object, a tomb or a temple, it is suddenly exposed to a number of destructive factors after being buried in the sand for thousands of years. It is a really harmful shock as it is now subject to human and environmental factors,” Husayn said. “Look at the painting of a tomb, for example, on the day when it was discovered, and then examine it two months later. You will easily observe the changes in the colours, which are more faded than before. This fact puts a huge responsibility on the archaeologist’s shoulders to document all information attested on the monument or artefact quickly and carefully,” Husayn asserted. Case in point, he explained, the documentation carried out by a German team on some clay stamps unearthed at the First-Dynasty necropolis in Suhâg has secured a very important piece of historical evidence that has helped Egyptologists correctly to classify the king list of that dynasty and the relationship of each king to the others. The information was printed on a fragment of a very fragile dried mud, which has now crumbled away. “If the excavators had not documented the engravings printed on the piece immediately after its discovery, the facts would not have been available.” On the other hand, excavation is a very beneficial way of understanding our history and learning more about the life of our ancestors. “A monument is a concrete witness to a special era at a specific time,” Husayn said. “So how can we solve such a riddle? The only way out is documentation.” Between 2005 and 2009 the ADC, headed by ‘Abd al-Hamîd Ma‘rûf, documented the tombs at Banî Hasan and the Tell al-Amarna site in Minyâ; the tombs on the Western Mountain and at Mere in Asyût; the Kubbat al-Hawa archaeological area at Aswân; and all archaeological sites in Alexandria. Last year, Husayn said, a new system was set up based on the decentralisation of documentation and building bridges of collaboration between all the SCA departments concerned. It was intended to spruce up procedures and make documentation “a living process” which guaranteed its rapidity and continuation. The departments involved were the storage museums, the Geographical Information System (GIS), the Information Centre, and the SCA general archive. To implement the decentralisation system, a documentation unit will be established at every site. So far five units have been formed as a trial at five archaeological sites in Saqqâra and Asyût. These units will document immobile monuments, such as tombs and temples. Collected data will be submitted to the ADC for revision and archiving. Plans for scientific publication of the data are also in place. The SCA new system also entails the creation of a database for all the artefacts stored in the newly constructed storage facilities, which are highly secured and well organised. Such database programme will establish a unified registration system of objects in all magazines. “The programme also allows conservators to put in the necessary information on the object’s condition and preservation requirements,” Husayn said. He added that the programme provides a unified spelling of the names of kings and site names, as well as the identification and material terms. Lists of archaeological missions and excavators are also provided. The magazines database helps the archaeologist to manage the collection of objects in his custody, by providing detailed information of the object’s movement within and outside of the magazine minute by minute, since being one of the magazine items, thus further tightening security. The new documentation system encourages the application of modern techniques and technologies in documentation. Digital epigraphy, which aims at providing copies of scenes and texts from digital photographs, has been widely implemented in the recent documentation projects. “This technique is indeed a non-destructive process,” Husayn confirmed. He continued that laser scanning of archaeological sites and artefacts has also been used in documentation in collaboration with the Remote Sensing Authority and the Information Research Institute at Mubârak City for Technology. Among the archaeological sites that have been documented with the laser technology are the Great Pyramid and the Sphinx at Gîza and the colossi of Memnon at Luxor. The second phase of the project, Husayn said, would be to establish a laboratory to analyse and archive the data provided through laser scanning. (Nevine El-Aref, “It’s all going on the list”, Al-Ahram Weekly, June 24, 2010).
Leaking water from ‘Ayn al-Sîra, a body of water formed by six springs, is threatening cemeteries in the Imâm al-Laythî area where members of Egypt’s royal family are buried. The Imâm al-Laythî royal cemetery is a short distance from the garden of Fustât, and includes around 44 tombs that belong to the family of Muhammad ‘Alî. Although the marble floors conceal the water lying below, it has visibly seeped into the walls. “The filling and drying of ‘Ayn al-Sîra have led to water leaking into the area and its tombs, which might, sooner or later, collapse,” said Muhammad ‘Abd al- Maqsûd, a resident in the area. The dome built above the upper tombs is already starting to collapse, he said, which could be a sign the entire building is about to fall apart. (Samâh ‘Abd al-‘Âtî, “Royal tombs threatened with collapse”, al-Masrî al-Yawm, January 20, 2010). Le Conseil Suprême des Antiquités entreprend la restauration de la tombe de Toutankhamon en collaboration avec le Paul Getty Institute. Il s’agit d’un projet de restauration en deux phases et d’une durée de cinq années. (Lu’ay Mahmûd Sa‘îd, « Musées et antiquités», al-Qâhira du 26 janvier 2010). Le Conseil Suprême des Antiquités a commencé la mise en place des projets de développement des temples et des antiquités de la région d’Abû Simbil au Sud d’Aswân. Parmi ces projets, financés par le fonds de sauvetage des monuments de la Nubie, figure la reconstitution du colosse de Ramsès II éparpillé en 250 blocs dans le temple de Girf Husayn. La région archéologique d’Abû Simbil regroupe les temples d’al-Subû‘, ‘Amdâ, Kalâbsha et Bayt al-Wâlî au Nord. Ils ont été préparés à la visite et inscrits sur la carte touristique du gouvernorat. (Lu’ay Mahmûd Sa‘îd, « Projets de développement des antiquités d’Abû Simbil », al-Qâhira du 2 mars 2010). Le secrétaire général du CSA, Dr Zâhî Hawwâs, a annoncé la poursuite du projet de développement de la zone de l’obélisque de Matariyya dont le coût s’élève à 5 millions de livres égyptiennes. Ce projet sera achevé au cours des prochains mois. (Lu’ay Mahmûd Sa‘îd, « Musées et antiquités », al- Qâhira du 2 mars 2010). The Egyptian Cabinet will meet in a few days to discuss an Urban Planning Authority (UPA) development project for the Fustât district of Old Cairo. The project includes the removal of 35,000 graves from the city cemetery to make room for public parks, while preserving graves of historical significance. “There are 63 historical graves and shrines in the area that we will preserve,” said UPA Chairman Mustafa Madbûlî. “The rest will be moved to the Cairo-Sukhna desert road east of the capital.” “Many of the graves in the area are flooded by subterranean water,” he explained. “Building a new cemetery costs much less than removing the water.” “We will also re-open the seven famous wells in ‘Ayn al-Sîra district that are used for medicinal purposes,” he added, explaining that the initial cost of the project is LE3 billion, allocated to “retain the historical and cultural glare of the area.” (Wafâ’ Bakrî, “Govt mulls removal of 35,000 graves from Cairo cemetery”, al-Masrî al-Yawm, March 16, 2010). Le ministre de la Culture, Fârûq Husnî, a approuvé l’affection de Bayt al- Sitt Wasîla — maison bourgeoise située dans Le Caire islamique — en un centre pour la poésie 29 arabe. Soulignons que d’autres maisons historiques ont été réutilisées après leur restauration en centres culturels. À titre d’exemple, la maison al-Sinnârî est devenu le siège cairote de la Bibliotheca Alexandrina ; Bayt ‘Alî Labîb est réutilisée comme centre d’activités culturelles ; sabîl Umm ‘Abbâs est affecté comme centre éducatif pour les enfants… (Taha ‘Abd al- Rahmân, « Transformation d’une maison historique au Caire en un centre pour la poésie arabe », al• 1er Ahrâr du avril 2010. Voir également « Fondation du Centre pour la poésie arabe », al-Masrî al-Yawm du 8 avril ; Mushîra Mûsa, « Fârûq Husnî inaugure le Centre pour la poésie arabe », al-Ahrâm du 1er juin). Egypt will open the temple of Dandara next month following a site management programme, according to antiquity officials. The temple, 60km north of the Upper Egyptian city of Luxor, is a prime example of the type of site management programme now being implemented, which includes safe- zoning around the temple area. The approach to the temple is preceded by a parking facility located on the west side. Tourists then enter a visitor centre where they can view a nine-minute film made by National Geographic. From there, tourists can then walk to the temple; the handicapped may use cars. (Hassan Saadallah, “Temple of Dandara to open to visitors soon”, The Egyptian Gazette, June 7, 2010). Preserving and protecting Egypt’s great cultural heritage of manuscripts was the theme of a recent training course held at the Supreme Council for Antiquities (SCA) and organised by the Egyptian General Authority for Books in cooperation with the Levantine Foundation. The Levantine Foundation, a charity chaired by the former British ambassador in Egypt, Sir Derek PLUMBLY, aims to record and preserve the written heritage of the Middle East that has come down to us on papyrus, vellum and related materials. Such manuscripts bear witness to human history, and Egypt has been one of the first countries in the region to vale the importance of restoration. The Egyptian manuscripts in the scheme begin with the Greek period and go through the Roman and Coptic eras to the Islamic. Some 120 trainee restorers who attended the course were from the SCA’s museums sector, BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010 while several were nuns and monks from a number of Egyptian convents and monasteries including al-Suryân in Wâdî al-Natrûn in the Western Desert and al-Muharraq in Asyût, Upper Egypt. The lectures were presented by specialist professors from Leiden University in the Netherlands, while the practical training was given by experts in the field of museums from England, and supervised by the executive administrator of Levantine Foundation Elizabeth SOBCZYNSKI. The training course was funded by a number of foundations and societies including the Sawiris Association for Social Development. (Samia Ayad, “Written history”, Watanî, June 20, 2010).
Le Caire historique Rue al-Mu‘izz From the 10th to the 18th centuries al•Mu‘izz Street, which runs through the heart of Fatimid Cairo, gloried in its splendid Islamic architecture. In the years following it became badly run down. It has taken almost 20 years of restoration and rehabilitation for the street to regain much of the splendour it saw in the days of the Fatimids, Ayoubids, Mamluks and Ottomans. Formerly the street resounded with the cacophony of shouts as traffic — both motorised and horse or donkey-drawn — battled with vendors and pedestrians for right of way. Now by day it is a pedestrian zone, not quite in keeping with the past but rather more suited to the nature of today’s visitors. At the invitation of Culture Minister Fârûq Husnî, Mrs Suzanne Mubârak attended the opening on Saturday and was given a tour of four of the 34 architectural monuments lining the street. The buildings showcased were the Egyptian Textile Museum, the school of Ruqayya Bint Qalâwwûn, the Sultan Barqûq mosque and the school and complex of al-Mansûr Qalâwwûn. Mrs Mubârak, who has long championed the arts, has lent her support to several such projects that cultivate awareness of Egypt’s heritage, both old and modern. The buildings in al-Mu‘izz Street, like other any Islamic monuments in Mediaeval Cairo, have been encroached on and misused by residents to the extent of causing irreparable damage. Environmental pollution
— ranging from particulates from petrol fumes to a rising underground water table — has undermined foundations in the historical zone, while the 1992 earthquake left visible structural marks. The project to protect, conserve and preserve al-Mu‘izz Street with a view to developing it as an open air museum falls within the ministry’s remit to restore Egyptian cultural heritage whether Pharaonic, Coptic, Islamic or Jewish. Fârûq ‘Abd al-Salâm, first undersecretary at the Ministry of Culture and supervisor of the project, said that as well as the fine architectural restoration, appropriate treatment of road surfaces and street furniture enhanced the full length of al-Mu‘izz Street. Ground height has been lowered to its original level, paving has been kept simple and direct to express the urban quality of the street, and the original irregular pattern has been retained. Residential houses have been polished and painted in an appropriate colour. ‘Abd al-Salâm said that, to accord with the development project, every day between 9am and midnight al-Mu‘izz Street would be a pedestrian zone to enable the people to experience the living traditions and customs of those who lived during the various ages of the Islamic era. Outside these hours traffic will be allowed so that merchants can transport goods in and out of the area. Entrance to the street is controlled by 11 electronic gates, which prohibit daytime admission, although emergency vehicles are allowed access at all times. “Rescuing al-Mu‘izz Street and developing it into an open air museum has been a dream for all archaeologists, and making it come true has been a challenge for me,” Husnî told Al-Ahram Weekly. He added that the street would be the most important touristic zone in Cairo, rather like the old part of Geneva, and would combine the tangible and intangible heritage of Islamic Egypt. One major adverse effect on the buildings was caused by industrial waste from workshops and small factories being dumped against the walls. These establishments have now been moved, except for those that agreed to change their activities. “Skilled workers and their handicraft stores are essential to the distinct character of al-Mu‘izz Street, since they provide the vivid atmosphere of the area and the government is keen on settling craftsmen in their original locations, but in a manner that complements the splendour of the area,” Husnî said. Other small enterprises have been transferred elsewhere. The government helped the labourers involved and provided them with training courses and materials for new businesses. “We want to bring back the area of the silk market, the tent market and other enterprises that are part of the Islamic heritage,” the minister added. Because of Husnî’s belief that these Islamic monuments are living entities inhabited by people who must remain a part of the total environment, the sabîl (water fountain) of Muhammad ‘Alî in al-Nahhâsîn, which was encroached on by a primary school, has been vacated of its pupils, desks and blackboard, and has been restored and redesigned as Egypt’s first textile museum. The sabîl was originally built on the order of Muhammad ‘Alî Pasha to commemorate his son Ismâ‘îl, who died in Sudan in 1822. It consists of a large rectangular hall opening onto the Tasbîl hall, with a rounded, marble façade and four windows surrounding an oval marble bowl. The “logo” of the Ottoman Empire featuring a crescent and a star decorates the area above each window. The sabîl’s wooden façade and the top of the frame are decorated in a rococo and baroque style, the main style seen in several of Muhammad ‘Alî’s edifices. One of those overseeing the restoration was the Supreme Council of Antiquities' Islamic monuments consultant ‘Abdallah al-‘Attâr. The museum displays 250 textile pieces and 15 carpets dating from the late Pharaonic era through the Coptic and Islamic ages. Among the collection on display are tools and instruments used by ancient Egyptians to clean and wash clothes, along with illustrations demonstrating the various stages of laundering clothes in ancient time. Monks’ robes, icons and clothes from various times in the Islamic era are also exhibited. According to Zâhî Hawwâs, secretary-general of the SCA, one of the most beautiful items on show is a red bed cover ornamented with gold and silver thread, said to have been a gift from Muhammad ‘Alî to his daughter on her marriage. Another is a large cover for the Ka‘ba in Mecca sent by King Fu’âd of Egypt to Saudi Arabia. This is a black velvet textile ornamented with Quranic verses and woven with gold and silver thread. The Sultan al-Mansûr Qalâwwûn complex, comprising a kuttâb (Quran school), mosque, mausoleum, madrasa (school) and mârîstân (asylum), was built in 1284 and is typical of Mamluk architecture with columned windows reminiscent of the Gothic style. Beyond the masonry entrance, a long corridor gives onto the mosque and kuttâb to the right. To the left, the mausoleum retains its original beam and coffered ceiling, ending with the entrance to the mârîstân. The mausoleum is known to be among Cairo’s most beautiful buildings; its main courtyard is shielded from the corridor by a screen and all is finished in stucco; the soaring dome, carved in arabesques, is finished in luminescent coloured glass. And yet it was in the time of Mansûr’s son Nâsir Muhammad Ibn Qalâwwûn, who ruled intermittently from 1293 to 1340, that Mamluk art reached its zenith; Nâsir’s complex, built in 1295 and similar on the whole to his father’s, boasts Cairo’s first cruciform kuttâb; the entryway is taken from the Crusader Church of St John of Acre and may be the finest extant example of its kind. (Nevine El-Aref, “More than just a street”, Al-Ahram Weekly, February 18, 2010. Voir également Gîhân Mustafa, « La rue al-Mu‘izz : un musée à ciel ouvert », al-Ahrâm du 14 février ; Asmâ’ Ma‘rûf, « Suzanne Mubârak inaugure les antiquités de la rue al-Mu‘izz », al-Qâhira du 16 février ; « Suzanne Mubârak inaugure la rue al-Mu‘izz », Âkhir Sâ‘a du 16 février ; Mâgda Mahmûd, « Suzanne Mubârak inaugure la rue al-Mu‘izz », al- Musawwar du 17 février ; Târiq al-Tâhir, « al-Mu‘izz resplendit », Akhbâr al-Adab du 21 février ; Amira Samir, « La nouvelle jeunesse d’al-Mu‘izz », Al-Ahram Hebdo du 24 février ; Georges Edouard, « La rue al-Mu‘izz accueille ses visiteurs », Watanî du 7 mars ; Nâdya Yûsuf, « Le réaménagement de la rue al-Mu‘izz se poursuit », al-Ahrâm du 24 juin).
Quartier al-Gamâliyya A few steps away from al-Mu‘izz Street, which is now preserved as an open- air museum of Islamic monuments, stands the area of al-Gamâliyya which now awaits its turn to be revamped and returned to its glorious heyday once the dust of centuries has been brushed away, and the monumental and historical edifices and accumulated debris removed from the streets, says Nevine El- Aref. The alleyways will be properly lit and the district will become an architectural showcase. On 7 January, Culture Minister Fârûq Husnî, accompanied by senior government officials and journalists, embarked on a tour of inspection of al-Gamâliyya to reassure residents and assess the current situation of the area and its buildings. Time has taken a heavy toll on these historic edifices. Encroachment and misuse by residents have in some cases caused irreparable harm, while environmental pollution has undermined foundations and the 1992 earthquake left visible marks on the threatened historical zone. In 2000 the government launched its huge restoration campaign, the Historic Cairo Rehabilitation Project, with the aim of protecting and conserving historic Cairo with a view to creating a living museum. Al-Mu‘izz Street took a huge chunk of the LE850-million project, but now it is the turn of al-Gamâliyya. “I need your help and support in order to spruce up the area with a view to developing it into an open air museum like its neighbour, al-Mu‘izz Street,” Husnî told residents. He said that those people who would be moved from their houses and workshops would be compensated and rehoused. According to the rehabilitation project for the area, workshops and factories that affect the monuments in the historic district and dump their industrial waste near the buildings will be removed unless they change their ways. “Skilled workers and their handicraft stores are essential to the distinct character of al-Gamâliyya. They provide the vivid atmosphere of the area and the government is keen on settling craftsmen in their original locations, but in a manner that complements the splendour of the area,” Husnî said. “Workers whose small enterprises adversely affect the monuments will be transferred elsewhere unless they change their activities. In this case, the government will help the labourers involved and provide them with training courses and materials for new businesses.” Owing to Husnî’s belief that these Islamic monuments are living entities inhabited by people who must remain a part of the total environment, the khânqa (fountain) of Sa‘îd al-Su‘adâ’, which houses a fountain of the reign of Salaheddin, the oldest in Cairo, will be transformed into a inshâd dînî (centre of religious chanting). A new drainage system will be installed for the whole area, and major restoration will be carried out on the magnificent buildings such as the Ûdâ Pasha wakâla (community workshop). (Nevine El-Aref, “New look for old quarter”, Al-Ahram Weekly, January 21, 2010. Voir également Usâma Fârûq, « 20 millions de L.E. pour développer la rue et restaurer 22 monuments », Akhbâr al-Adab du 16 mai).
A few meters away from the entrance of Wakâlat Ûda Pasha two men sit around a small campfire made from scrap wood and garbage. Across from them, an old woman sells piles of fish and shrimp. The smell of the fire and the fish mix together and move down the unpaved Gamâliyya Street apace with the donkey carts and hand trucks. But Gamâliyya probably won’t look or smell this way for long. The Ministry of Culture plans to spruce up the area and to develop it into an open-air museum, like its neighbour, al-Mu‘îzz Street. “I need your help and support,” Minister of Culture Fârûq Husnî told Gamâliyya residents during his 7 January visit to the neighbourhood, according to the local press. Just two weeks after Husnî’s visit, teams of contractors in blue jumpsuits are already apparent throughout the neighbourhood repainting mashrabiyya and tearing down concrete walls. Ultimately the “museumification” of Gamâliyya will also require the displacement of its inhabitants, according to reports of Husnî’s statements in the neighbourhood. The Ministry of Culture was not available for comment on the Gamâliyya restoration project. While the government thinks the project will bring in tourist dollars, some experts and locals are not sure that this is what Gamâliyya needs. “It is an area that used to be a great part of the city and part of its living memory,” says Ahmad Sidqî, a conservation specialist and the author of Living with Heritage in Cairo: Area Conservation in the Arab-Islamic City.“All they are trying to do is make it a pedestrian route,” says Sidqî. “They are compromising the liveability and the actual needs of the inhabitants.” The Ministry of Culture’s ultimate goal is to replicate the restoration of al-Mu‘izz Street, a central thoroughfare running from Bâb al-Futûh to Bâb Zuwayla. Due to recent renovations al-Mu‘izz Street now has new lighting fixtures, cobblestones, and freshly painted building facades. The street has also been closed off to cars and stands as a distinct area in the ancient part of Cairo, a clean and orderly oasis flanked by poor and chaotic residential areas. Gamâliyya locals, however, aren’t necessarily supportive of the ongoing “improvements” to their neighbourhood. “Before, it was better,” Khalaf Muhammad says of the changes to al-Mu‘izz Street as he sits in the scrap metal shop in an alley around the corner from Wakâlat Ûda Pasha. He has owned the shop for about five years, and while it’s not likely that the restoration process will affect his alley in the short term, he is unsure of the project’s real value. “Now they can’t bring cars on al- Mu‘izz Street. Sometimes I need to move goods in cars! And now they are doing the same thing with Gamâliyya?” “But the government does what they like,” he says. Gamâliyya is perhaps best known as the childhood home of Nobel Prize winning novelist Nagîb Mahfûz and the setting for a number of his novels, but the area’s history goes as far back as the name “Cairo” itself. According to Shâhinda Karîm, an affiliate professor of Islamic art and architecture at the American University in Cairo, the area was first settled in 969 AD after the Fatamid invasion of Egypt. Four years later, when the Fatamid caliph came to live in a palace in what is now known as the Gamâliyya neighbourhood, he renamed the area “al-Qâhira.” The city continued to evolve as Egypt saw successive ruling dynasties. Ayyubids, Mameluks, and Ottomans all contributed their own flourishes to Gamâliyya. (The majority of the buildings there today are Mameluk, according to Karîm.) The result is an area that is rich in architectural history. Karîm, who also teaches at the Faculty of Tourism at Hilwân University, praises the restoration project. “I think they’ve done a good job,” she says. Al•Mu‘izz Street “was an area that was hard to walk through. It was a mess.” Hishâm Gederes, a middle-aged man who pushes carts of sheet metal through the streets of Gamâliyya, has lived in the area his entire life. He believes that the residents of this ancient part of Cairo form a special community. “The people here are very smart,” Gederes says. “We believe we’re alone. We don’t need the government because we help each other and make each other strong.” “Have you read Nagîb Mahfûz? It’s like that,” he says gesturing towards the commerce around him. “They meet every day in the same coffee shops, they sell things together, they help each other.” Gederes is concerned about how the changes to the neighbourhood will affect the social fabric of his community. As the Ministry of Culture makes the rest of Gamâliyya look more like al-Mu‘izz Street, it will require some businesses and residents to be removed from the area. Though Fârûq Husnî promised residents that they will be adequately compensated, the effects will be huge. Gederes says that when Gamâliyya locals are moved to their new neighbourhood — a suburb behind the airport, according to Gederes — they will lose their sense of community and identity. Levels of crime and atheism rise as people move away from the watchful eye of the community and out of the shadow of Cairo’s most important mosques. “Like fish taken from the sea. That’s how they’re feeling,” Gederes says.
Ahmad Sidqî says that the money invested in these projects — and the impact that they have on local communities — may not even be worthwhile for the government in the long run. Tourism, Sidqî points out, is a vulnerable industry. Moreover, he says, cultural tourism ranks behind leisure tourism and ecotourism. “Go and invest in Sharm al-Shaykh and Marsa ‘Alam to get the dollars you need,” says Sidqî.‘ Sidqî says that behind the restoration project in Gamâliyya and other parts of historic Cairo is not a desire to preserve history or even to attract tourists. Culture Minister Fârûq Husnî’s own personal ambitions are significant, says Sidqî, as is corruption involving government ministries and well-connected contracting companies. But the voices of Ahmad Sidqî and scholars like him seem to be going unheeded. The government is continuing apace, albeit slowly, with plans to transform much of Fatamid Cairo, from Khân al-Khalîlî to the Northern Gates, into an open-air museum. “There is an agenda,” Sidqî says. “They need a clean, ‘civilized’ area free of people.” (Max STRASSER, “From neighbourhood to museum?”, al-Masrî al-Yawm, March 2, 2010. Voir également Amânî ‘Abd al-Hamîd, « al-Gamâliyya s’embellit », al-Musawwar du 12 janvier ; Kâmilyâ ‘Atrîs, « al-Gamâliyya : musée à ciel ouvert », Sabâh al- Khayr du 11 mai). Hammâm al-Ashraf Inâl Il y a mille ans, pour évaluer la richesse d’une cité musulmane, il suffisait de compter ses hammâms. « Les bains égyptiens étaient les plus beaux d’Orient, les plus commodes et les mieux disposés », estimait ‘Abd al-Latîf, célèbre médecin iraqien du XIIe siècle. On racontait qu’il y avait, à l’époque mamelouke, 365 hammâms au Caire. Quelques siècles plus tard, les hammâms du Caire deviennent les plus délaissés, les plus délabrés de tout le monde arabo-musulman. Mais pour certains d’entre eux, seul le nom d’une rue rappelle leur mémoire… L’un des rares hammâms d’antan qui ont survécu vient d’être restauré et inauguré, mais juste pour visiter ses salles. Il s’agit de celui du sultan mamelouk al-Ashraf Inâl. Situé sur la rue al-Mu‘izz l-Dîn Allah al-Fâtimî. Ce hammâm, qui porte le nom d’un célèbre sultan de la période mamelouke, fut construit au XVe siècle. Le hammâm a été inauguré en grande pompe, avec d’autres monuments, par Mme Suzanne Mubârak. Ce hammâm, comme les autres, a servi de lieu de loisir et de rencontres sociales. L’entrée conduit à un passage étroit en zigzag pour que les piétons de la rue ne voient pas l’intérieur. Le plafond de la salle de réception du monument est fabriqué en bois, au milieu duquel sont percées 28 fenêtres. Les murs épais et pratiquement scellés en vue de conserver la chaleur abritent une série de salles reflétant le programme de la progression du bain. Celles-ci se composent surtout d’un maghtas (bassin) et d’un maslakh (hall froid). La salle de déshabillage est particulièrement soignée et de proportions importantes. En général, l’architecture des hammâms, bien qu’ayant connu à travers les pays et les époques des variations importantes, a comporté ces éléments de base dans le hammâm Inâl. Restauré dans le cadre du grand projet du réaménagement du Caire islamique, ce beau hammâm attend la décision du ministère de la Culture qui précisera l’activité dans laquelle ce monument sera réutilisé. Plusieurs propositions sont en cours d’étude pour ce hammâm ainsi que pour les autres hammâms du Caire islamique. Une équipe égyptienne essaye de faire des propositions de restauration et de réhabilitation des hammâms du Caire et de les rouvrir pour la même vocation. « C’est très important que le hammâm continue sa fonction après être restauré. C’est à la mode ces jours-là dans beaucoup de pays », souligne l’ingénieur ‘Umar Nagâtî, qui a participé à la restauration de deux imposants hammâms monumentaux du Caire (al-Tumbalî et celui de Bâb al-Bahr). Le Caire retrouvera-t-il ses hammâms d’antan ? (Amira Samir, « À la recherche du temps perdu », Al-Ahram Hebdo du 5 mai 2010).
Aqueduc The Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA) recently launched a major project to restore Cairo’s ancient aqueduct, the Migra al-‘Uyûn, to protect it from random vandalism — it had become a dump for garbage — and at the same time to enable it once again to carry Nile water up to the Citadel. The SCA is determined to eliminate all abuse of this historical landmark, where irresponsible behaviour has led to blockage of the aqueduct’s water channels. Sultan al- Malik Ibn Qalâwwûn constructed the aqueduct in AD1311 to carry water to the gardens of the Citadel built by Salâh al-Dîn (Saladin) in 1176 to protect Cairo, which Qalâwwûn had expanded. Two hundred years later in 1507 Sultan al-Ghûrî extended it westward to meet the new channel of the Nile, as with every flood the watercourse shifted slightly to the west. Al-Ghûrî intended simply to enhance the pleasures of the Mamluk rulers in the Citadel, leaving ordinary people to the mercy of charitable or commercial drinking fountains. Eventually, however, the water was put to public use and the aqueduct remained in use supplying potable water to the people of Cairo until 1872.
The waterwheel pumps were run by oxen. Since cattle do not readily walk down stairs, it is assumed that the beasts were brought up to work and kept at the working level all their lives. A similar pattern was followed at the Citadel, where oxen were born and bred on the well-pump labour floor. The aqueduct runs from Fumm al-Khalîg on the bank of the Nile to the Sayyida ‘Aysha area of Cairo. Six wheels were installed, and water flowed through the 4km-aqueduct for 2.2km until it reached the Citadel. Following a population boom, the need for more water became imperative and a plan was instigated to construct waterwheels linking up the great barrages at Qanâtir north, of Cairo, and channelling water to the Citadel and its environs. The general manager of Fustât and Old Cairo antiquities, Muhammad Mahgûb, said repairs carried out to the aqueduct so far amounted to EGP25 million. The aim was to turn it into a tourist attraction, and the total cost is estimated at about EGP35 million. The first phase entailed cleaning the stones, replacing those that were damaged, demolishing houses and workshops that had encroached on the structure, and clearing away refuse in the surrounding area. It also involved replacing the old wheels. The project was partially completed, but some buildings and workshops still remained. The second phase of the project, Mr Mahgûb continued, would centre on lowering the underground water level, which works to deteriorate the base of the structure. This would be achieved by creating a drainage network so the underground water would flow into public drainage pipes. A seating platform will be installed parallel to the aqueduct. The SCA in cooperation with Cairo governorate has offered the 80 families living in the historical zone alternative accommodation. According to Mr Mahgûb, the 90 houses and workshops at present encroaching on the area will be demolished and their inhabitants relocated in Heliopolis. The SCA has already spent some EGP5 million on the new houses. (Sanaa’ Farouq, “Waterway to the Citadel”, Watanî, June 20, 2010).
Mosquée Sultan Shâh 45 millions de L.E. ont été dépensées pour rendre ces imposantes antiquités islamiques à leur état originaire. Sept merveilles architecturales de monuments islamiques viennent donc de joindre la carte touristique et patrimoniale du Caire. Les sept monuments restaurés datent de deux époques fastes et très riches dans le domaine de l’architecture : la période mamelouke et celle ottomane. Il s’agit de la mosquée Sultan Shâh, la mosquée Mustafa Fâdil et le sabîl•kuttâb Mustafa Fâdil, la mosquée Ahmad Cohé, la mosquée Inâl al-Yûsifî, la mosquée al-Mâs al-Hâgib et le sabîl- kuttâb Umm ‘Abbâs. Les monuments restaurés ont été inaugurés mardi dernier par le ministre de la Culture, Fârûq Husnî, accompagné du ministre des Waqfs, Hamdî Zaqzûq, et du gouverneur du Caire, ‘Abd al-‘Azîm Wazîr. Une grande cérémonie a été organisée pour célébrer l’achèvement des travaux, au cours de laquelle a été diffusé un film documentaire sur les sept monuments, leur histoire et les phases des travaux de restauration et de réhabilitation. La cérémonie a été organisée à proximité du premier édifice rouvert aux fidèles : la mosquée Sultan Shâh qui se trouve dans la rue de Ghayt al-‘Idda, tout près du palais ‘Âbidîn. La mosquée Sultan Shâh est construite en 1365, par l’ordre du sultan Tûrân Shâh Ibn Kûra, fils du sultan Nagm al-Dîn Ayyûb et la célébrissime reine Shagarat al-Durr. Il a gouverné l’Égypte durant 4 mois et demi après la mort de son père. Il fut nommé aussi, sous le règne du sultan Sha‘bân Ibn Qalâwwûn, comme émir de Tabla-khana (la troupe musicale militaire du sultan). La mosquée se distingue par son genre architectural unique connu sous le nom de « style perpendiculaire ». Elle est aussi caractérisée par son minaret de base rectangulaire, formé de deux balcons. En 1475, la mosquée a subi un élargissement réalisé sous le règne du sultan Qâytbây. Un nouveau minbar en bois lui a ainsi été rajouté. On raconte qu’en 1871, un responsable des waqfs égyptiens avait vendu ce minbar à un étranger. Mais le khédive Ismâ‘îl a demandé sa récupération sur-le•champ et a exilé le responsable à Aswân. La violation et le trafic des antiquités sont donc des affaires fort anciennes. Un autre minbar merveilleux en bois incrusté et décoré par des formes géométriques en ivoire a été offert à la mosquée. La restauration de la mosquée a duré 14 ans. Commençant en 1995, les travaux de restauration sont terminés à la fin de 2009 avec un coût de 9 millions de L.E. Ceux–ci ont compris entre autres la restauration du minbar, des travaux d’électricité et la consolidation des fondements.
Entre autres joyaux islamiques restaurés figurent la mosquée et le sabîl•kuttâb Mustafa Fâdil. Ces deux monuments se trouvent dans la rue Darb al-Gamâmîz. Construite en 1861, la mosquée Mustafa Fâdil pacha est un chef- d’œuvre architectural. La mosquée se distingue par ses 6 cours et un joli minbar en granit. Quant à son minaret, il est merveilleusement décoré par de différentes ornementations dont de belles calligraphies. La mosquée est connue aujourd’hui sous le nom de « Muhammad Rif‘at », du nom du célèbre récitateur égyptien de Coran. En face de cette mosquée se trouve le sabîl de la mère de Mustafa Fâdil, dont les ornementations ressemblent beaucoup à celles du sabîl Umm ‘Abbâs. Sa restauration, qui a coûté 2 millions et 200 milles L.E., a duré quelques mois de l’année 2009. Mustafa Fâdil est le demi-frère du khédive Ismâ‘îl monté au pouvoir en 1851. Il a occupé divers postes importants : ministre, puis président du Conseil des ministres. Mais il a été exilé à Istanbul après être condamné de complot contre le khédive. Fâdil mourut en 1875 puis enterré dans le petit mausolée décoré qui se trouve à droite de l’entrée de la mosquée. Mustafa Fâdil était passionné de collecter livres et manuscrits. Il possédait une grande bibliothèque renfermant une collection importante de livres et de manuscrits rares. Après sa mort, le khédive Ismâ‘îl avait acheté ces livres et les a offerts à Dâr al-kutub (la bibliothèque nationale de l’Égypte). Un autre complexe a été inauguré, celui de l’émir mamelouk Inâl al-Yûsufî al-Yalbaghâwî Atabakî. Ce complexe, donnant sur la rue al-Khiyâmiyya, est composé d’une mosquée-madrasa, un mausolée ainsi qu’un sabîl-kuttâb. Il appartient au type de mosquées-madrasa à deux iwâns (galeries) et une cour couverte. L’intérieur a été préservé pour longtemps : plafonds peints et murs revêtus de marbre. La mosquée•madrasa, qui se caractérise d’un minaret unique en son genre, fut construite en 1391, l’année même où est mort Inâl al-Yûsufî. Le complexe abrite les mausolées d’Inâl, sa femme et ses deux fils Ahmad et Muhammad. Inâl est un mot turc qui signifie « le rayon de la lune ». Ce monument n’était pas mieux loti que ses précédents. Il souffrait de la montée des eaux souterraines qui ont affecté ses fondements. Le coût du projet de sa restauration, conformément à son ancien schéma, a atteint les 4 millions de L.E. Quant à la mosquée al-Mâs al-Hâgib, elle a été édifiée en 1329 par l’émir Sayf al-Dîn al-Mâs Ibn ‘Abdallah al-Nâsirî. Celui-ci était un des éminents émirs du sultan al-Nâsir Ibn Qalawwûn. Il a occupé une place favorite chez le sultan. Une situation qui n’a pas duré longtemps. À son retour du pèlerinage, le sultan était tellement fâché d’al-Mâs al-Hâgib parce qu’il correspondait avec l’émir Gamâl al-Dîn Akûsh, un des rebelles d’al-Nâsir Ibn Qalawwûn, qu’il a ordonné alors son arrestation. Il fut donc emprisonné puis pendu en 1334. Al-Mâs est enterré dans sa mosquée. Chose bizarre. Le nom al-Mâs, un mot d’origine turque, veut signifier « l’éternel ». Située dans la rue de al-Siyûfiyya, non loin de la Citadelle, la mosquée al-Mâs est composée d’une cour ouverte, entourée de 4 magnifiques salles renfermant des colonnes en granit finement décorées en plâtre. Quant au mihrâb, c’est un chef-d’œuvre fabriqué en granit coloré. La porte principale de l’entrée est une autre œuvre architecturale, rare à trouver dans d’autres mosquées de l’époque mamelouke. Avec un coût qui a dépassé les 5 millions de L.E., le projet de la restauration de la mosquée a commencé en 2005 jusqu’à la fin de 2009. Ce projet a visé l’abaissement du niveau des eaux souterraines qui ont menacé l’édifice pour des années, la reconsolidation des fondements, la rectification du statut des colonnes et la restauration minutieuse des différentes décorations de la mosquée. Le projet de la restauration de la mosquée Ahmad Cohé a coûté plus de 5 millions de L.E. Commencée en 2003, la restauration de cette mosquée a compris la fortification des fondations, le changement des dalles et la réparation minutieuse de toutes les décorations de la mosquée. Comme il est inscrit autour de son plafond, la mosquée Ahmad Cohé était à l’origine une qâ‘a (salle destinée à recevoir les invités) édifiée par l’émir Ahmad Sungur en 1310. Et c’est l’émir Cohé qui, en 1740, l’a transformée en mosquée. Cohé était un des proches du wali ottoman, Sulaymân pacha Sâmî. En ce temps, Cohé occupait le poste de « katkhûda », c’est-à-dire le chef des gardes ottomans en Égypte qui ont pour rôle de contrôler l’ordre et la sécurité dans le pays.
Le sabîl-kuttâb Umm ‘Abbâs est l’un des monuments érigés à la mémoire d’une femme du XIXe siècle (1867). Il s’agit d’une fontaine publique qui se trouve non loin de la citadelle de Salâh al-Dîn. Sabîl Umm ‘Abbâs, ou « la mère de ‘Abbâs », est situé dans la rue al-Salîba au coin de la ruelle du côté d’al-Siyufiyya. Le sabîl Umm ‘Abbâs se trouve en fait dans un quartier où se trouvent plusieurs autres monuments islamiques remarquables, citons entre autres le palais du prince Tâz, la mosquée Sarghatmâsh et le merveilleux complexe du prince Shaykhû. Luxueusement décorée avec sa façade de marbre et de bronze ainsi que ses hottes en bois, la meilleure vue est de l’extrémité ouest de la rue qui est la direction de la Citadelle. Réunissant dans un seul édifice l’école coranique et la fontaine publique, ce genre de sabîl-kuttâb est le plus souvent d’une élégance délicate. C’est la mère du khédive Ismâ‘îl, la princesse Bambah Qâdin, qui fit ériger ce sabîl de facture ottomane en 1867. Elle était connue pour sa grande foi et on l’appelait « Umm al-muhsinîn », c’est-à-dire : la mère de la charité. La façade de marbre travaillé du sabîl et ses arabesques recherchées sont du plus pur style ottoman. L’étage du sabîl et ses chambres ont été occupés pour des années par un service d’organisation et une école du cycle préparatoire. Après l’évacuation de ces occupations, le sabîl a été restauré et voilà, aujourd’hui, une nouvelle restauration a été inaugurée. « Ces projets viennent en fait dans le cadre d’un plan adapté par le Conseil Suprême des Antiquités pour sauver les différents monuments égyptiens. Les jours qui viennent témoigneront la célébration de l’achèvement de plusieurs projets de restauration et de la réhabilitation d’un bon nombre de monuments islamiques », annonce Zâhî Hawwâs, secrétaire général du CSA. Il a fallu des années pour que ces imposantes antiquités islamiques retrouvent leur splendeur d’antan. On vous invite à admirer ces merveilleux monuments islamiques finement restaurés. (Amira Samir, « Des joyaux reviennent à la vie », Al-Ahram Hebdo du 17 février 2010. Voir également Taha ‘Abd al-Rahmân, « Mosquées et sabils de nouveau en service », al-Ahrâr du 10 février).
Mosquée Sitt Miska Restoration of the Sitt Hadaq Miska Mosque in Sayyida Zaynab, Cairo has been completed. The mosque was built in 1339AD during the Mamluk era. Sitt Miska herself, although a mere slave and wet nurse of Sultan al-Nâsir Muhammad Ben Qalâwwûn, played a vital role in his private and public life and the mosque was built in tribute to her. Sitt Miska supported Sultan Qalâwwûn in hard times, guiding him with her opinion on matters from planning feasts to arranging the affairs of the harem and bringing up the sultan’s children. Sitt Miska lived long and became wealthy. She was renowned for her charity, and was loyal in her service to the sultan and his family. When the sultan was imprisoned she was under pressure from the Mamluks to abandon him or be obliged to isolate herself. Miska chose the second option, even sharing imprisonment with Qalâwwûn. The mosque contains an open central courtyard with four surrounding colonnades. It has two gates; one on the west, which is the main gate; and the back gate on the south. Standing on two supporting columns in the mosque is a prayer place for women. In the northwest corner is a square shrine topped by a dome. ‘Abd al-Khâliq Mukhtâr, general manager of antiquities authority of South Cairo, said the restoration work had eliminated the threat of humidity and salt from rising groundwater on the wall of the main gate. The damaged bricks have been replaced with new bricks to the same specifications of the original. The wooden roof beams were repaired and the roof insulated so as to prevent rain damage. The restoration also covered the marble columns and the cornerstone, which needed cleaning to remove salt deposits and watermarks. Metallic elements on the windows were cleaned and accumulated rust removed. The mosque, now as good as new, has already opened for prayers. (Sanâ’ Fârûq, “Sitt Miska’s. As good as new”, Watanî, February 21, 2010).
Palais Za‘farâna Au cœur de l’enceinte de l’Université ‘Ayn Shams, située à la place ‘Abbâsiyya, se dresse majestueusement le palais Za‘farâna.
Étant le siège du recteur de l’université, le palais occupe une importance majeure pour l’administration de l’université. C’est pourquoi le palais a été enduit, nettoyé et restauré à plusieurs reprises. Certes mais « toutes ces opérations ont effacé beaucoup de ses reliefs ornementaux. Aussi les enduits ont dissimulé la couleur originelle du palais, et ce, sans oublier les effets néfastes du réseau sanitaire du palais. Ajoutons encore la verdure dans les alentours qui le dissimule », explique l’archéologue Ahmad Qadrî, directeur des monuments islamiques du Centre-ville. Pour lui, tous ces éléments ont gâché la splendeur d’antan du palais. Selon lui, l’intérêt du palais Za‘farâna ne s’arrête pas à son statut actuel. Mais sa valeur remonte à la moitié du XIXe siècle, c’est-à-dire vers la fin du règne de Muhammad ‘Alî pacha. D’ailleurs, le palais a vécu d’importants événements historiques dont les traces sont gravées dans la mémoire égyptienne. D’autre part, le palais Za‘farâna témoigne du développement de l’architecture haussmannienne qui a suivi la nahda alide et s’est manifestée sous le khédive Ismâ‘îl. Pour toutes ces raisons, et afin de lui rendre sa splendeur, le Conseil Suprême des Antiquités (CSA) a décidé d’y opérer un projet de restauration architectural et urbain qui prendra deux ans. « Le palais Za‘farâna est considéré comme la pierre angulaire de l’histoire de la famille alide, de l’architecture haussmannienne, et ce, sans oublier l’histoire égyptienne », commente Qadrî. Ce bâtiment, construit en 1902 par l’architecte italien Antonio LASCIAC sous les ordres du khédive ‘Abbâs Hilmî II, représente la fin d’une série d’événements qu’a vécus cet emplacement. Le premier palais était installé par le fondateur de la famille alide, Muhammad ‘Alî pacha, en 1848. À cette époque, toute la région était désertique et ne comprenait que quelques gendarmeries, le Pacha a alors demandé à son fils, ‘Abbâs pacha, de la peupler. À son tour, le fils a construit 5 sérails et quelques lycées, et a planté au nord un grand jardin. Ces 5 sérails étaient les composants d’un seul palais appelé al-Haswa. Le style des 5 sérails était majestueux jusqu’à ce que « Ferdinand DE LESSEPS l’ait décrit en assurant que le nombre de ses fenêtres avait atteint les 2 000 », reprend Qadrî. Après la mort de ‘Abbâs pacha, son fils Ilhâmî pacha a hérité de toutes ces propriétés. Il faut attendre 1871, lorsque le khédive Ismâ‘îl les a achetés pour sa famille. Il a alors remplacé les 5 sérails par un grand palais et l’a nommé le palais Za‘farâna qui, en arabe, veut dire safran. Le safran y poussait avec densité. Un an plus tard, le khédive l’a offert à sa mère Khushyâr Hânim pour s’y reposer. À son tour, Khushyâr Hânim a offert le palais au gouvernement pour l’exploiter comme école militaire. Dix ans plus tard, la reine a décidé d’y retourner « parce que l’atmosphère de la région était saine », commente ‘Abd al-Munsif Sâlim, professeur d’archéologie islamique à l’Université de Hilwân. Mais au cours de la même année, en 1882, le gouvernement lui a demandé de céder le palais Za‘farâna aux troupes anglaises qui se sont débarrassées des serviteurs, du mobilier ainsi que des tableaux artistiques. Cette exploitation destructive avait causé de grandes détériorations au palais ainsi que ses annexes et le jardin qui l’entourait. Cinq ans plus tard, les troupes anglaises étaient contraintes de livrer le palais grâce au prince Husayn Kâmil qui leur a demandé de payer 50 L.E. pour chaque mois dès 1882 jusqu’à 1887 ou bien de laisser le bâtiment. L’autorité anglaise avait préféré de le livrer sans retour. Dès lors, le gouvernement a restauré le palais et l’a remeublé pour qu’il devienne une résidence pour les convives du roi. Le palais al-Haswa et celui de Za‘farâna, outre les événements qu’ils ont vécus, incarnent aussi d’innombrables styles architecturaux qui étaient en vogue. Citons à titre d’exemple le turc, le baroque, le rococo, le néoclassique et bien d’autres qui ont été répandus sous la souveraineté du khédive Ismâ‘îl. « Pendant le XIXe siècle, l’Égypte était encore à la recherche de sa personnalité architecturale qui a surgi dans le nouveau palais de Za‘farâna », explique Sâlim. Donc, le palais qui se dresse actuellement est, en fait, le fruit d’une stabilité trouvée après une longue période de vicissitudes. Le style utilisé est le baroque, style architectural plein de noblesse. Les ornements sont sortis simples avec une finesse adorable. Ceci s’incarne dans les chapiteaux des colonnes et des piliers. Aussi, les reliefs géométriques et botaniques sont inspirés des décorations pharaoniques à l’instar du disque solaire et les têtes de cobras qui ornaient les temples. Quant à la description interne du palais, tous les murs et les plafonds gardent encore certaines traces décoratives géométriques et botaniques qui vont avec le style ornemental qui domine tout le palais. Alors, l’actuel palais Za‘farâna, bien qu’il soit bâti par un architecte italien, exprime un art architectural purement égyptien qui incarne aussi la vie sociale et politique de l’époque. En 1922, le gouvernement égyptien a constaté que le quartier ‘Abbâsiyya est privé d’école secondaire, le roi a alors promulgué un décret de transformer le palais Za‘farâna en école secondaire qui a pris le nom de « Lycée du roi Fû’âd Ier ». Et vers la fin de l’année, le roi l’a inauguré officiellement au cours d’un grand festival qui a regroupé les ministres, notamment ‘Alî Mâhir, ministre de l’Éducation à l’époque. À cette occasion, le roi a offert au Lycée sa photo en tenue royale. Devenu un lycée, le palais avait participé, à un moment donné, à l’instruction des jeunes générations et, par conséquent, à l’évolution de la vie sociale et culturelle qui continue jusqu’à nos jours, puisque le palais Za‘farâna est transformé en siège de l’Université ‘Ayn Shams en 1952.
Quant à la vie politique, c’était toujours sous la souveraineté du roi Fû’âd, lorsque le palais Za‘farâna avait témoigné les négociations qui s’y sont déroulées entre les Égyptiens et l’occupation britannique, qui a conclu à la fameuse Convention de 1936. Aussi, il a vécu la signature de la charte de la Ligue arabe en 1945 lors du règne du roi Fârûq. La position du palais Za‘farâna est alors d’une importance ultime. Certes, mais les traces de la détérioration ont commencé à s’imposer et s’esquisser sur sa figure. Cause : le réseau de l’eau ne convient pas à la structure du bâtiment et ses effets néfastes affectent le palais. Aussi, les enduits ont dissimulé plusieurs reliefs inédits, et ce, sans oublier les « fausses opérations de restauration et de nettoyage effectuées et dont la dernière avait été entamée en 1996 », reprend Qadrî. En plus, la verdure de l’entourage cache la vue panoramique de l’édifice. Afin de rendre sa splendeur, le CSA a installé un projet de restauration qui prendra fin en 2012. Il y aura du nettoyage et une restauration fine. Aussi, un système de réseau d’eau sera installé afin d’éviter les effets néfastes de l’eau souterraine. D’ailleurs, le palais aura une enceinte d’une longueur de 50 mètres autour des quatre faces. Quant au jardin, « nous préférons y planter les mêmes espèces de l’ancien jardin qui entourait le palais au début du XXe siècle. C’est la meilleure garantie de faire surgir la splendeur du palais Za‘farâna », conclut Ahmad Qadrî. (Doaa Elhami, « Splendeur et misère d’un chef-d’œuvre », Al-Ahram Hebdo du 3 février 2010).
Patrimoine juif Synagogue Maimonides The 19th-century synagogue of Maimonides in Cairo’s ancient Jewish quarter BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010 reopened Sunday after a nearly two-year restoration by Egyptian authorities, participants at the opening told AFP. They said some 150 people attended the opening, including Yitzhak LEVANON and Margaret SCOBEY, the ambassadors of Israel and the United States respectively. About a dozen rabbis from Israel and abroad also were at the ceremony. “When I first set foot here only five years ago, the synagogue was in ruins and its roof opened to the sky”, said Rabbi Andrew BAKER of the American Jewish Committee (AJC). BAKER praised Egyptian authorities for recognizing that Jewish religious sites are also an integral part of Egyptian heritage and Egyptian culture, and for leading the restoration project, the AJC said in a statement. Egyptian officials were absent from the ceremony, and Culture Minister Fârûq Husnî explained that was because Sunday’s opening was a purely religious ceremony. Zâhî Hawwâs, Egypt’s antiquities chief, said that a more formal opening on March 14 would be attended by Egyptian officials. Egypt is happy to tout its Pharaonic antiquities, but authorities remain more discrete when it comes to restoration of ancient Jewish sites. Egypt restored diplomatic ties with Israel in 1979, but many in the predominantly Muslim country remain opposed to better cultural ties with the Jewish state. Egypt began restoration of its Jewish sites several years ago. (Riad Abu Awad, “Cairo reopens restored 19th century synagogue”, Daily News Egypt, March 8, 2010. Voir également Taha ‘Abd al-Rahmân, « 11 rabbins participent aux célébrations de la Maimonides au Caire », al-Ahrâr du 9 mars ; Taha ‘Abd al-Rahmân, « L’Égypte assume les frais de restauration des temples juifs », al-Ahrâr du 810 mars ; janvier Sanâ’ Fârûq, “The Ben Maimon Synagogue restored”, Watanî, March 14, Usâma Fârûq, « Les célébrations des juifs brouillent les calculs du CSA », Akhbâr al-Adab du 14 mars ; Hassan Saadallah, “Synagogue ceremony scrapped over Jewish provocations”, Egyptian Mail, March 15 ; Fathiyya al-Dakhâkhnî, « Hawwâs : La restauration des temples et des antiquités juifs est une gifle sur le visage d’Israël », al-Masrî al-Yawm du 25 mars). A week after 150 members of the Jewish community joined a dozen Chabad emissaries at Maimonides (the Moses Ben Maimon) Synagogue in Old Cairo to celebrate its rededication, the Supreme Council of 39
Antiquities (SCA) cancelled the official inauguration of the building, scheduled for last Sunday. The rededication ceremony was attended by rabbis from Israel and the United States, as well as the US and Israeli ambassadors to Egypt. Meanwhile, in the occupied territories, Israeli police imposed new restrictions on worshippers at al-Aqsa Mosque, preventing anyone younger than 50 years from attending Friday prayers, as part of broader security measures that also included the closure of the West Bank. The government of Binyamin NETANYAHU had already announced a decision to include two ancient mosques, Ibrâhîmî in Hebron and Bilâl bin Rabah in Bethlehem, on Israel’s so•called heritage list. The two sites are located in the Palestinian heartland, which implies that Israel intends to annex the two shrines, a prospect vehemently rejected by Palestinians. Israeli hostilities in Palestine and the behaviour of Jewish international communities here in Cairo at the Maimonides Synagogue were considered by Zâhî Hawwâs, secretary-general of the Supreme Council of Antiquities, to be provocative and decided to cancel the official inauguration. “The cancellation followed the inauguration of the synagogue by the Jewish community during which participants engaged in activities considered provocative to the feelings of hundreds of millions of Muslims around the world, including dancing and drinking alcohol,” said Hawwâs. In a statement distributed to journalists he added that, “Muslim sanctuaries in occupied Palestine are subject to aggression by the occupation authorities”, citing in particular Israeli security restrictions at al-Aqsa Mosque. Egypt, Hawwâs continued, had always been keen to preserve and protect its archaeological and cultural heritage, whether Pharaonic, Islamic, Coptic or Jewish, sending a message to the world that there is no difference between religious monuments, whatever the faith. Restoration of the Moses Ben Maimon synagogue, he said, was carried out by Egyptian restorers at a cost of LE9.5 million, funded entirely by the SCA. Hawwâs denied rumours that the synagogue would be transformed into a museum for Jewish objects, pointing out that Egypt has a limited number of such artefacts, which are already part of more extensive national collections. Minister of Culture Fârûq Husnî stressed that Jewish sites are viewed as part and parcel of Egypt’s cultural heritage and that the Ministry of Culture and the SCA remain committed to restoring all 11 registered Jewish sites, including nine listed synagogues in Cairo, the Jewish cemetery in al-Basâtîn and a synagogue in Alexandria. Husnî told al-Masrî al-Yawm newspaper that the cancellation of the inauguration of the Maimonides Synagogue was not connected with Israeli attempts to Judaise Jerusalem, or the actions of the Israeli government towards the Ibrâhîmî and al-Aqsa mosques. “We have taken no decisions in response to Tel-Aviv’s actions,” he said. “We restored the synagogue because it is part of Egypt’s patrimony, not for the sake of gaining Israel’s approval, and the cancellation of the inauguration was unconnected to Israeli aggression in the occupied territories.” Husnî told Al-Ahram Weekly that leaving the opening ceremony, held a week ago, to be organised by Jews served to highlight the fact that Islam was not against the Jews but against the aggression and provocations of Israel, which is violating the rights of others in its attempts to Judaise al-Aqsa. He continued that the case of deciding to put two archaeological mosques on the Israel heritage list is a case in relation with the human heritage which might be condemned by the international community as it is a real violation of the other, Husnî said. Husnî also told al-Masrî al-Yawm that his ministry had no objections to the behaviour of participants at the opening ceremony inside the synagogue, where they danced and drank. “The ministry does not interfere or object to the rituals of any religion,” he said. The Maimonides Synagogue is named after the foremost intellectual figure of mediaeval Judaism, known in the West as Moses Maimonides. Born in Cordoba, he eventually settled in Egypt, where he died in 1204. He served as Saladin’s personal physician, and after Saladin’s death was retained by the royal family. Perhaps his most celebrated work, originally written in Arabic, is the Guide for the Perplexed,a remarkable document that scrutinises the works of both Islamic and Greek philosophers. Maimonides lived at a time and place in which all aspects of life were governed by Islamic education, and during a period when Jews partook in all aspects of society, whether political, religious or literary. Târiq al-‘Awadî, director of research at the SCA, told the Weekly that preliminary assessments of the condition of the synagogue began a year before restoration work started. Actual work, he says, had to be delayed until a new sewage system was installed in the area. Since work began two years ago the walls and ceilings have been reinforced, the floor has been isolated from remaining ground water, and earlier, crude attempts at restoration removed. The doors, windows and chairs of the synagogue have all been renovated. The synagogue, which was declared an antiquity in 1986, is divided into three sections. One area is dedicated to prayers and rituals, another contains the tomb of Maimonides, though his remains were removed to Tiberias several years ago, and which includes a small area for people to come and pray for cures, while a third section comprises rooms for the synagogue’s administrators and for women to observe prayers. (Nevine El- Aref, “An open and shut case”, Al-Ahram Weekly, March 18, 2010. Voir également Ashraf Sadek, “Gov’t paid for synagogue restoration”, The Egyptian Gazette, March 10 ; Mushîra Mûsa, « Annulation de l’inauguration de la Maimonides au Caire », al-Ahrâm du 15 mars ; ‘Isâm ‘Umrân, « Hawwâs : La restauration de la Maimonides est un message de tolérence adressé par l’Égypte au monde entier », al-Gumhûriyya du 15 mars).
Plateau des pyramides The camel and horse touts in Gîza are very upset with our new project to save the Pyramids. They do not understand what we are trying to do. Regrettably, many of them do things that harm tourists; I receive many letters from tourists claiming that they will never return to Egypt because of the way they were treated or harassed for money. I do not think that I need to elaborate much more, since one look at the pyramid site shows what kind of pollution the camels and horses cause. You see them everywhere, even inside the tombs and temples. We do not plan to hurt the animals. I honestly believe that this is what the camel and horse drivers think, and that is why they object to our plans. For example, I read an article in the Boston Globe written by a man and his wife about this problem. They met a horse driver whose family had been giving tours of Gîza for more than three generations. He asked the man and his wife to send letters to the government praising his business, because he was concerned that the modernisation of the site of Gîza would mean the end for him. He does not understand that we are trying to create a system that will benefit everyone. Currently, the stronger, BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010 wealthier families get all the business while the others do not. Some give tours to 10 tourists a day, while others do only a few. Before, the tourists did not have easy access to the stables. The modernisation of the Gîza Plateau has benefited the horse and camel drivers. All the buses filled with tourists now enter from the Fayyûm road. The tourists see the stables as soon as they exit the coaches, and this allows them to make an immediate decision whether or not to ride a horse or camel. None of the horse and camel drivers are allowed inside the pyramid compound any longer. This system permits us to identify the camel drivers who try to take advantage of the tourists, because, now, for the first time, there is a Tourist Police office, an Antiquities office, and even an area to feed the animals, all near the stables. At the same time, for those tourists who want to buy souvenirs and drinks, they will not be hassled by random individuals. It is my dream to clean up the Gîza Plateau and return it to its pristine glory. I believe this project benefits everyone, even the camel and horse drivers, as well as those who sell souvenirs. We are currently refining the implementation of a new track for electric cars. So far, we have completed about 70 per cent of the road. Tourists will be able to take the electric cars to the second pyramid and then walk around the site. No one will be near them asking them if they want to ride a camel or buy a souvenir, and none of them will even hear anyone say, “Would you like to see the mummy of Khufu?” We are building a wooden floor in front of the pyramid for tourist safety. While we were excavating, we uncovered evidence demonstrating the method by which the pyramid of Menkaure was levelled and further evidence regarding its construction. We even found a large, unfinished statue directly in front of this third pyramid. I am certain that this project will bring back the mystery of the pyramids, and all will benefit from it. (Zâhî Hawwâs, “Dig Days: Once again: camels and horses at the Pyramids”, Al-Ahram Weekly, April 1, 2010).
The Egyptian government and the United Nations held the first workshop in their “Mobilization of the Dahshûr World Heritage Site for Community Development” program on 10 April. The program aims to focus on developing the community while preserving the area’s rich cultural and natural heritage. The workshop, held under the
6th auspices of of October Governor Fathî Sa‘d at the famous Saqqâra archaeological site, was attended by Spanish Ambassador to Egypt Antonio LOPEZ MARTINEZ, and UN Resident Coordinator James W. RAWLEY. “I am confident that programs such as the Dahshûr World Heritage Site for Community Development will succeed in improving the quality of life of the people of Dahshûr while at the same time contributing to the preservation of the area’s unique cultural heritage and biodiversity for future generations,” RAWLEY declared in an opening address. The project has two main objectives: to reduce poverty and to protect and manage the area’s cultural heritage and natural resources. Program organizers hope to reduce poverty through increasing local employment, supporting traditional handcrafts, promoting tourism and developing creative industries. “The beneficiaries of the project are 40,000 Dahshûr residents,” said Program Manager Muhammad Shâkir. The project focuses on improving the livelihoods and working conditions of the local population through targeted employment-generation activities, with special focus given to the employment of women and young people, along with the development of small and micro enterprises. Meanwhile, the program will manage cultural heritage through the preservation of Dahshûr’s seasonal lake, a unique natural asset, by coordinating efforts to ensure the lake is preserved in its natural state through community-led conservation. The area surrounding the Dahshûr component of Memphis — along with its famous Necropolis — has also been incorporated into the project. The three-year project officially began in April of 2009. Its first year was devoted to conducting baseline studies, surveys and preparation for poverty-reduction interventions. According to Shâkir, the socio•economic profile for the target area has been completed, and most of the cooperating partners have finished — or are currently in the process of conducting — the necessary fieldwork and surveys. The development program is budgeted at US$3 million, to be provided by the UNDP-Spain Achievement Fund. It brings a number of government agencies together with the Social Fund for Development, including the Environmental Affairs Agency; the Industrial Modernization Center; the Tourism Ministry; the Tourism Development Authority; the Foreign Affairs Ministry; and the Ministry of International Cooperation. The project represents a collaboration between five UN agencies, namely, the UN Development Program, the World Trade Organization, the UN Industrial Development Organization, the International Labour Organization and UNESCO. (Ekram Ibrahim, “Govt teams up with UN to develop Dahshûr”, al-Masrî al-Yawm, April 11 2010).
Temple d’Horus The darkness surrounding the temple and the whispers from the eager visitors are quickly submerged by a masterful interplay of music, narration and light. As the show begins, the massive 37-metre-high pylon is splashed with colourful laser beams, while an amplified voice begins the fabulous story of Idfû’s Temple of Horus, dedicated to the god of the sky. This new sound-and-light show at Idfû Temple was inaugurated on 1 June, an impressive LE35 million project managed and completed in 18 months by Misr Company for Sound, Light and Cinema, headed by Chairman and Managing Director ‘Isâm ‘Abd al-Hâdî. “We added a sound-and-light show in Idfû for three main reasons,” explains ‘Abd al-Hâdî. “The Temple of Horus is one of the best preserved in Egypt,” and he adds that passengers on a Nile cruise docked overnight in Idfû previously had very few evening sightseeing options. “This project is also a way to develop the economy of Idfû, which is not a wealthy town,” says ‘Abd al-Hâdî. In an intriguing juxtaposition of state-of-the-art technology and Ptolemaic history, the show employs four high-definition projectors, three movable video projectors and 260 illumination units to create the special light effects. “We used a light- emitting diode system that has a longer lifetime, lower carbon emissions and is energy saving. It is therefore more environmentally friendly,” ‘Abd al-Hâdî explains. The 50-minute show is divided into three parts, beginning at the north entrance situated at the back of the temple. Images of Horus, characteristically depicted as a falcon, and the different Graeco-Roman rulers projected onto the limestone blocks of the building and synchronised with the narration and music bring the story of the construction of the Temple of Horus to life. The building was started in 237 BCE and completed about a century later. Visitors to the nightly show, mostly passengers from cruises on the Nile, are then led through a small door into the huge paved courtyard, where they are surrounded by the temple’s colonnades, columns and reliefs and faced with the imposing presence of a colossal black granite statue of Horus wearing the double crown of Egyptian kingship. Here they hear about daily life inside the temple, the sanctuary of Horus, and the ancient worshipping of this god, during which falcons were carried by priests to the deity who would choose a favourite and set it free. Attention is then soon drawn to two large circles that first appear as a mass of bird feathers and are then transformed into a pair of gigantic falcon eyes — those of Horus — which symbolically represent the sun and the moon.
“What makes this sound-and-light show unique is the depth, the space and the different shapes available for the light to be projected onto, such as the building’s colonnades, façades and walls,” said photographer Sharîf Sunbul, who has spent a great deal of time photographing the Idfû Temple for his new book, The Nile Cruise: An Illustrated Journey (AUC Press, 2010). The third and last part of the show depicts Horus’s mother and father, Isis and Osiris. The latter deity was killed by his brother Seth, the god of chaos, in ancient Egyptian mythology, and the show depicts the great battle of Idfû between Horus, avenging his father’s death, and Seth, who is represented in many temple wall reliefs as a shrinking hippopotamus. The show ends at the front façade of the temple, used today as the main entrance for daytime visits. “Not many people see the Idfû Temple at night, but now they can visit it during the day and after dark,” explains Ahmad Abû al-‘Ilâ, a national tour guide for the past 21 years. “The sound-and-light show in the Temple of Horus is the final phase of a 10-year site management programme put in place for Idfû,” Abû al-‘Ilâ adds enthusiastically. This latest sound-and- light show in Upper Egypt adds to existing ones at the Pyramids in Gîza and at Karnak in Luxor, Philae and Abû Simbil. Meanwhile, another sound-and- light show is being planned for Cairo’s Citadel, while the current one at the Pyramids in Gîza is expected to undergo a complete makeover. (Ingrid WASSMANN, “Paying nightly homage to Horus”, Al-Ahram Weekly, June 17, 2010).
Dromos The magnificent aspect of the Avenue of Sphinxes that once connected the temples of Luxor and Karnak, where priests, royalty and the pious walked in procession to celebrate the Opet festival, is being rekindled. Many of the 1,350 human-headed sphinxes with the bodies of lions that once lined the avenue have been restored. On the annual Opet festival priests trod the paving stones from Karnak to Luxor bearing a wooden bark holding the shrine of the triad of deities: Amun-Re, Mut and Khonsu. The 2,700-metre-long avenue of sphinxes was built during the reign of Pharaoh Nectanebo I of the 13th-Dynasty. It replaced one built formerly in the 18th Dynasty, as Queen Hatshepsut (1502-1482 BC) recorded on the walls of her red chapel in Karnak Temple. According to this, she built six chapels dedicated to the god Amun- Re on the route of the avenue during her reign, emphasising that it was long a place of religious significance. Sadly, however, over the span of history the avenue was lost, subjected to destruction as some of its sphinxes were destroyed and those sections of the avenue that were far removed from both temples were covered with sand and were buried under random housing. Within the framework of the Ministry of Culture programme to restore ancient Egyptian monuments with a view to developing the entire Luxor governorate into an open-air museum, a project was planned to recover the lost elements of the avenue, restore the sphinxes and return it to how it was in ancient Egypt. To check on the work achieved in the two sections of the avenue that will be opened next month by President Husnî Mubârak, the minister of Culture, Fârûq Husnî, and Zâhî Hawwâs, secretary-general of the Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA), last Monday embarked on an inspection tour of the site. Husnî told reporters that developing the Avenue of Sphinxes was part of the collaboration between the ministry and the SCA with the Luxor governorate to develop the whole city into an open-air museum. He continued that the SCA had allocated the sum of LE30 million to remove all encroachments and compensate those who owned houses and shops along the route and had been removed, as well as a further LE30 million for excavation and restoration work. Husnî explained that the work was carried out in three phases; the first was to build a low wall alongside the avenue in order to preserve it from any further encroachment, the second phase was the excavation, and the third was restoration of the area. The excavation team unearthed a large number of fragmented sphinxes that are now undergoing restoration in an effort led by SCA consultant Mahmûd Mabrûk. Once restored, they will be placed on display along the avenue. “It is really a great project and what has been achieved was like the way the Pharaohs worked,” Husnî concluded.
Hawwâs told Al-Ahram Weekly that the avenue was divided into five excavation sections, each revealing more sphinxes as well as the cartouches of several kings and queens. Excavators have unearthed only 650 sphinxes of the original 1,350, since many were reused during the Roman period and the Middle Ages. Archaeologists have unearthed a number of Roman buildings and workshops for the manufacture of clay pots and statues, as well as several reliefs. One of the reliefs bears the cartouche of the famous Queen Cleopatra VII (51-30 BC). “I believe that this queen likely visited this avenue during her Nile trip with Mark Anthony and implemented restoration work that was marked with her cartouche,” Hawwâs asserted. He said that remains of Queen Hatshepsut’s chapels, which were reused by the 30th- Dynasty Pharaoh Nectanebo I when the sphinxes were installed, have been found, along with the remains of Roman wine factories and a huge water cistern. Mabrûk said the original avenue was now resurrected and would soon appear just as it was before, planted with species to match those that grew in ancient Egypt. During this visit, Husnî and Hawwâs installed the piece of red granite belonging to the naos of Pharaoh Amenemhat I, who reigned from 1991 to 1962 BC in the Middle Kingdom, in its original place in the Temple of Ptah at Karnak. This naos was returned to Egypt last October by the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. The museum purchased the piece from an antiquities collector in New York expressly in order to return it to Egypt. Hawwâs described this action by the Metropolitan Museum as “a great deed”, since it was the first time that a museum had acquired an object for the purpose of returning it to its country of BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010 origin. The action, Hawwâs claimed, highlighted the deep cultural cooperation between the SCA and the Metropolitan Museum, as well as the Met’s determination to returning illegal antiquities to their homeland. “It is also a kind gesture from the newly appointed Metropolitan director Thomas CAMPBELL,” said Hawwâs. The recovery of the piece came after Dorothea ARNOLD, curator of the Egyptian section at the Metropolitan Museum, wrote an official letter to Hawwâs, stating the Met’s desire to offer Egypt the piece. It is a part of the base of the naos of Amenemhat I; the rest of the naos is still in the Ptah Temple. The piece of the naos was offered to the Metropolitan Museum by a New York collector who claimed to have bought it in the 1970s. ARNOLD believed that the granite fragment must join with the naos in Karnak, which scholars believe was moved there during the New Kingdom. The piece was subsequently returned to Egypt, and will now be returned to its rightful place. (Nevine El-Aref, “Strolling on the avenue”, Al-Ahram Weekly, February 11, 2010. Voir également Taha ‘Abd al-Rahmân, « Découverte de 80 % du dromos », al-Ahrâr du 5 février ; Kâmilyâ ‘Atrîs, « Le dromos de l’époque pharaonique jusqu’au président Mubârak », Sabâh al-Khayr du 9 février). Réaménagement de la ville de Louqsor The Governor of Luxor Samîr Farag said the city’s development is a work in progress, and that the government “will remove anything that stands in the face of development, even if it is a mosque or a church.” He added, “we are working according to a development plan which will end in 2030, and no one will threaten me, or force me to leave the track, because I am like a train.” Speaking at a symposium hosted by the Heliopolis Lions Club chaired by Sâfiya Mitwallî, he added, “No one can scare me. No one is more important than the government, and I will not be threatened by the media or the press.” He continued, “I demolished four mosques and no one uttered a word, but when I tried to demolish the house of a priest behind the church, the world was on fire. Some people claimed that the house belongs to the church, and they ask me how I am willing to demolish a church? I ask them why the Muslims did not refuse to demolish the four mosques?”
Farag insisted that he never makes decisions individually, and that all the people affected by the decisions are to be compensated appropriately. All the development works being carried out in Luxor are approved by a committee that is chaired by Prime Minister Ahmad Nazîf, and filled with members from the Ministries of Culture, Housing, Investment, Irrigation, Administrative Development and Tourism. Farag proclaimed, “Bring me one person from the people whose houses were demolished that has not been paid compensation.” He also revealed a security plan for Luxor, in which the city will be linked with electronic circuits and cameras that were imported from London recently, in order to maintain security and prevent terrorist attacks in the city. Female police will also begin working in schools for girls in the city. (Ayman Hamza, “Luxor governor defends demolitions”, al- Masrî al-Yawm, March 26, 2010. Voir également “Mubârak opens Luxor Development Project”, Egypt State Information Service, January 14 ; Ayman Nûr, « le village al-Marîs et l’injustice ! », al-Dustûr du 15 janvier ; Salâh Sharâbî, « Les habitants d’al-Marîs proteste contre l’expropriation de 550 feddans pour la création d’une marina à Louqsor », al-Wafd du 21 février ; Ragab al-Murshidî, « Des mines sur le chemin du dromos », Ruz al- Yûsuf du 27 mars ; Ahmad al-Sa‘dî, « Les habitants d’al-Marîs attaquent le gouverneur », al-Gumhûriyya du 2 avril ; Sa‘îd Gamâl al-Dîn, « Farag : Nous ne renoncerons pas à nos projets destinés à revitaliser Louqsor », al-Ahrâr du 17 mai). In the dusty streets behind the pasha’s grand villa, bulldozers and forklifts are tearing into the city where Agatha CHRISTIE found inspiration and Howard CARTER unearthed Tutankhamun. Egypt has already cleared out Luxor’s old bazaar, demolished thousands of homes and dozens of Belle Époque buildings in a push to transform the site of the ancient capital Thebes into a huge open-air museum. Officials say the project will preserve temples and draw more tourists, but the work has outraged archaeologists and architects who say it has gutted Luxor’s more recent heritage. “They basically want to tear the whole thing down,” said one foreigner who lives in Luxor part of the year, agreeing to speak only if his name was not used. “They want it to be all asphalt and strip malls and shopping centres. That’s their idea of modern and progressive.” He pointed to the destruction of the 19th-century house of French archaeologist Georges LEGRAIN, demolished to make way for a plaza outside Karnak temple, and plans to knock down the 150-year-old Pasha Andraos villa on the Nile boardwalk. While known mostly for temples and tombs, Luxor’s Victorian-era buildings and dusty alleyways have drawn Egyptologists, statesmen and writers for decades.
Samîr Farag, a former Egyptian general who now heads the billion-dollar plan to reinvent Luxor, dismisses the criticism. Improvements to the city had reduced traffic and brought top-notch education and healthcare. “Just a few people, maybe I removed their houses or something like that, they want to criticize,” Farag said this week in his wainscotted office of British military style. “We just cleaned the houses, cleaned the streets. You’ll never find a clean city like Luxor now in Egypt.” Farag said his work even won praise from Francesco BANDARIN, head of the World Heritage Center at the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. “His hometown is Venice. They have a very big area of slums,” Farag said. “He told me, when he came here and saw what I did for the houses, the slum areas, he said, 'we should have one like you in Venice, too'.” By 2030, the city and surrounding area will enjoy golf courses, five-star hotels, an IMAX theater and miles of new roads, while scores of lights will illuminate the mountains and valleys where Tutankhamun was buried, the project’s master plan shows. Egypt’s Supreme Council of Antiquities is restoring the 2.7 km long avenue of sphinxes that linked Karnak and Luxor temples. The buildings removed were not historically important, officials say, and uprooted homeowners received between 75,000 and 500,000 Egyptian pounds ($13,600-$90,810) or a free flat. But archaeologists said heavy•handed work could be damaging antiquities and is plowing through dozens of classic buildings with lax oversight from the international organizations whose money is funneled into the project. While many fume over the work in private, none agreed to attach their names to criticism, fearing they would be harassed, arrested, deported or see funding for their projects cut. “Many buildings from many different periods have been erased, or will be, and I think that’s entirely negative,” said one architect with wide experience in Egypt heritage projects. “At the end of the day, you’re left with a kind of Disneyland piece of pseudo-pharaonic stuff, and the rest of it is swept away.”
The plan also calls for thousands of homes to be moved. Residents of al- Marîs, south of Luxor, have sued the state to reconsider a proposed marina they say would uproot at least 10,000 people and destroy valuable farmland. Villagers there said they hoped the lawsuit and negotiations would persuade the government to move the port to an empty strip on the other bank, but they will fight if they do not. Protests near Karnak temple in 2008 turned violent when citizens who said they were being forced to leave or unfairly compensated broke windows and threw rocks at police. “They do what they want, we do what we want,” Zayn Sâdî, 35, said outside his house in al- Marîs. “We will beat and be beaten, we will kill and be killed. After we die they can take our homes.” In 2006 and 2007 Egypt demolished al-Qurna, near the Valley of the Kings, to access and preserve tombs buried beneath nearly 3,200 houses, and built a new village about 5 km away. Three years later, residents of New Qurna say they cannot find work and have had problems getting water and electricity. Those who are not happy with the changes are welcome to say so, Farag said, adding that he holds weekly meetings to hear complaints. But the end result may be the same. When a group of four citizens came into his office this week and asked him to reconsider the widening of a downtown road, Farag said the work was for their benefit. “We’re talking about destruction for the public good,” he said. “There are victims for every development.” (Alexander DZIADOSZ, “Bulldozers overhaul Luxor”, The Egyptian Gazette, April 3, 2010. Voir également Nasr Wahbî, « al-Naba’ publie des détails sur le nouveau projet de marina à Louqsor », al-Naba’ du 20 février ; Ahmad Badr, « Le Times : le projet du dromos n’est qu’une tentative gouvernementale de destruction des habitations des pauvres pour les remplacer par des hôtels luxueux », al-Dustûr du 15 mars ; « La marina touristique soulève une vive polémique à Louqsor », al-Gumhûriyya du 17 mars ; al-‘Azab al-Tayyib, « Farag : 2,5 milliards de L.E. dépensés pour développer Louqsor », al-Ahrâm al-‘Arabî du 12 juin).
Monastère de Sa int - Antoine
« Le monastère de Saint-Antoine est le premier du genre en Égypte, voire au monde entier. Il est aussi le plus riche dans ses éléments architecturaux », affirme l’évêque Maxime Al-Antoni, collaborateur du projet de restauration et de préservation effectué par le Conseil Suprême des Antiquités (CSA). D’une superficie de 18 feddans et dressé majestueusement au pied de la montagne al-Qalzam, à 67 km au sud de la ville de Za‘farâna, le monastère de Saint-Antoine le grand a été officiellement inauguré par Zâhî Hawwâs, secrétaire général du CSA. Une inauguration impatiemment attendue par les touristes et les visiteurs à cause des opérations de restauration qui ont duré cinq ans de travail continu. Tous les éléments architecturaux que comprend le monastère ont été restaurés ainsi que les différentes décorations et icônes. Au cours de ces opérations, les experts ont mis au jour de rares éléments qui augmentent la valeur historique du monastère. Selon l’évêque, la restauration était un projet exhaustif qui a commencé en 2003 et a pris fin en 2008. Un travail qui a couvert tous les anciens bâtiments du monastère qui étaient dans un état lamentable. À cet égard, citons à titre d’exemple une forteresse qui date du VIe siècle, les deux anciennes églises : celle de l’évêque Antoine ainsi que celle des 4 créatures appelées les 4 vivants de l’Apocalypse, et ce sans oublier les murailles entourant le monastère, le moulin, les greniers, le réfectoire, le pressoir d’olives et bien d’autres édifices. Le monastère de Saint- Antoine le grand est ainsi considéré comme une cité complète dressée au cœur du désert. « Aussi ont été consolidées les fondations des différents édifices ainsi que les sols des ermitages avec les matériaux locaux adéquats. D’ailleurs, il y a eu des restaurations fines des iconostases et des scènes coptes qui ornent les murs des autels des anciennes églises, et ce sans oublier le déplacement de quelques activités de l’église comme ateliers et autres hors de l’enceinte archéologique », explique l’évêque. En même temps, les travaux ont compris l’installation de deux réseaux électriques et d’un réseau d’eau potable. Ces travaux ont permis de dégager plusieurs éléments archéologiques d’une extrême importance. Parmi ces découvertes, on cite un ermitage trouvé sous l’ancienne église de Saint-Antoine. Composé de trois pièces, cet ermitage date du IVe siècle. « C’est la même époque où résidait encore l’évêque Antoine qui a vécu entre 251 et 356 de notre ère », explique Dr Lu’ay Mahmûd Sa‘îd, directeur du département de documentation et d’enregistrement des monuments coptes au CSA. Selon lui, il est très probable que l’évêque lui-même ait fondé cet ermitage, redoublant ainsi la valeur archéologique de cet édifice, considéré déjà comme l’un des plus anciens de toute l’Égypte, voire du monde entier. Impressionnant qu’il soit, cet ermitage se distingue par ses éléments architecturaux complets et bien préservés. Il est niché et était clos d’une porte en brique crue. Cet édifice comprend trois pièces : la première est celle des services où ont été trouvés deux fours et un récipient sur lequel des traces d’huile existent encore. Elle comprend aussi une niche qui contenait une lampe à huile et dont le dépôt d’huile est creusé au fond de la niche. « Cette méthode d’éclairage est très rare dans les constructions et témoigne en fait de l’ancienneté du bâtiment », précise l’évêque. Quant au sol, il est couvert de pierres colorées découpées des montagnes des alentours. La pièce des services s’ouvre sur deux autres salles. L’une d’elles est consacrée à la prière et un de ses murs est couvert d’inscriptions coptes comprenant des prières accompagnées de la forme classique de la croix. Ces inscriptions sont considérées comme les plus anciennes jamais connues, redoublant ainsi la valeur de l’ermitage.
Là aussi « a été découvert un grand récipient d’argile enseveli à moitié. Cette fois, nous y avons découvert de l’eau », reprend-il. Ainsi, les ermites évitaient la perte de l’eau à travers l’argile et en même temps garantissaient de boire de l’eau fraîche tout au long de l’année. Actuellement, l’ancien ermitage est couvert d’un verre transparent pour l’exposer aux visiteurs et aux jeunes moines. Toutes les pièces sont illuminées indirectement afin d’éviter tout effet nocif. Ajoutons que l’ermitage comprend de même une ancienne bibliothèque qui renferme 1 438 manuscrits. Un trésor incomparable et ce sans oublier les icônes et les scènes coptes qui décorent les murs des églises. De celles-ci surgit une scène représentative de Jésus assis sur le trône et entouré de deux anges ailés. Le monastère de Saint-Antoine le grand va attirer les touristes, étudiants, amateurs de l’art copte et tous les intéressés. L’inauguration officielle va enfin placer le monastère sur la carte touristique locale et mondiale. (Doaa Elhami, « Retour d’un pan de l’histoire copte », Al-Ahram Hebdo du 10 février 2010. Voir également Ibtihâl Ghayth, « Cure de jouvence pour le monastère de Saint-Antoine », Uktubar du 24 janvier ; “Hawwâs to reopen St. Antony’s”, Egyptian Mail, February 2 ; Paul Schemm, “Egypt restores monastery touting religious harmony”, Daily News Egypt, February 5 ; Hassan Saadallah, “Renovations at oldest Christian monastery”, The Egyptian Gazette, February 5 ; « Inauguration des restaurations du monastère de Saint-Antoine », Watanî du 7 février ; Lu’ay Mahmûd Sa‘îd, « Inauguration du monastère de Saint-Antoine après 8 années de restauration », al-Qâhira du 9 février ; Nevine El-Aref, “The father of all monks”, Al- Ahram Weekly, March 18). - -
IV – EXPOSITIONS ARCHÉOLOGIQUES
Doubts over the loan cropped up after Zâhî Hawwâs, the flamboyant chief of the Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities who visited Germany last month, called for the statue and other Pharaonic treasures to return to Egyptian permanently. Hemiunu is believed to have been the architect of the Great Pyramid of Cheops at Gîza. The life-size statue, depicting him in nothing but a loin cloth, is the top draw at the Roemer-und Pelizaeus-Museum in Hildesheim, Germany. Hawwâs has regularly insisted he also wants Germany to return the Berlin bust of Queen Nefertiti. The Germans have shrugged off the appeals, saying they know of no official claim by the Egyptian government that the treasures are Egyptian property. Kristina ZAPPEN of the Hildesheim Museum said there had never been any official request from Cairo to give the statue back. She confirmed an agreement had been reached on the 2013 loan and she added that it provided for the statue to then return to Germany. Hildesheim was not even considering giving the statue back, she added. The whole museum collection was of honest provenance. “Every item in our collection arrived in Germany legally,” she said. If the Egyptian government were to officially question the statue’s ownership, the museum would have to reconsider the loan. “The whole thing would have to be thought out again,” she said. Hans-Joachim GEHRKE, president of the German Institute of Archaeology, has similarly insisted in the past that Cairo has never officially claimed the bust of Nefertiti, an exquisite plaster and limestone head of a woman. (“Germany confirms loan of statue to Egypt”, The Egyptian Gazette, April 12, 2010). Under the auspices of Egypt’s First Lady Mrs. Suzanne Mubârak, the activities of the Annual Young Pharaoh summer festival started yesterday under the title of Crafts, Industries, and Technology. The festival, which runs until August 5, includes free visits for children to the nation’s museums with the purpose of creating a closer link between children and antiquities, Zâhî Hawwâs, the Secretary General of the Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA), said. “This approach helps effect a change of the children’ behavior towards antiquities, which express a culture and civilization that must be protected and respected,” Hawwâs said. The event, he continued, also incorporates field visits to historic sites, where the children can have a first hand idea about the pharaonic arts, industries, and technologies, which affected the world’s civilizations. Meanwhile, Ingî Farîd, the head of the Council’s Culture Development Unit, says that this festival includes weekly workshops during which the nation’s children will know about pharaonic history and arts. (Hassan Saadallah, “Young Pharaoh fest kicks off”, The Egyptian Gazette, June 17, 2010).
Alexandrie Bibliotheca Alexandrina: Abû Simbil •The Rescue of Temples. Man and Technology
The BA Antiquities Museum at the Library of Alexandria is organizing a conference and exhibition entitled “Abû Simbil: The Salvaging of Temples, Man and Technology” on January 10 – 25. The exhibition is held to mark the 50th anniversary of salvaging the Nubian temples in southern Egypt. The photographic exhibition is composed of about 60 photographic panels. It opens with the situation Abû Simbil was found in, and goes on by citing the steps of its salvage. The exhibition not only addresses the natural historical and archaeological value of Abû Simbil, but also stresses the anthropological aspects, with emphasis on the persons involved in the salvaging works, the methods they adopted, and the machinery they used in their projects. Abû Simbil is held in collaboration with the Worldwide Artists Gallery Cultural Association, the UNESCO Cairo Office, the Embassy of Italy in Cairo, the Italian Archaeological Centre, the Italian Institute of Culture and the Italian- Egyptian Centre for Restoration and Archaeology. (Hassan Saadallah, “Abû Simbil at centre of Alex exhibit”, The Egyptian Gazette, January 6, 2010. Voir également Ihab Shaarawy, “Abû Simbil memories revisited”, The Egyptian Gazette, February 5 ; « L’Égypte n’oublie pas ceux qui ont sauvé les antiquités de Nubie », Ruz al-Yûsuf du 8 mai).
Le Caire Musée Égyptien : Secrets of the Pharaohs
A touring exhibition that has been travelling to museums and science centres across the globe has landed a permanent home at the Egyptian Museum in Tahrîr Square. In “Secrets of the Pharaohs”, Egypt’s ancient monuments have been rebuilt in the basement exhibition area of the museum — entirely in Lego. Scale models of some of the nation’s best-loved ancient buildings have been refashioned in large, colourful Lego bricks and are on display at the cool-lit basement gallery. Here is the Great Sphinx sitting in front of the three Gîza Pyramids; here a team of ancient builders construct a temple while artisans decorate its walls and a scribe squats with a sheaf of papers to record the scene. Here is the mask of the boy king Tutankhamun, as well as some of his funerary collection. The exhibition combines the fun of the famous Lego building blocks that everyone played with as children and the colourful and amazing history of ancient Egypt. Visitors will have the chance to learn about daily life on the banks of the River Nile in ancient Egypt. There will be opportunities to learn how to write using ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs. There will also be lessons about the mysterious Egyptian rituals surrounding death and the afterlife. The Egyptian Museum's director Wafâ’ al-Siddîq told Al-Ahram Weekly that the exhibition combines the magnificence of the original monuments with the fun of Lego. Al-Siddîq says the display is divided into six sections displaying different aspects of the ancient Egyptian civilisation; everyday life along the Nile; kings and their families; religious beliefs; and the afterlife, along with the many deities that were worshipped. At the end of the tour children are introduced to a small workshop where they can explore for themselves the civilisation of ancient Egypt through fabricating their own creation from Lego blocks. Zâhî Hawwâs, secretary-general of the Supreme Council of Antiquities, says that the purpose of the exhibition is to help Egyptian children learn about themselves and their distinguished ancestry, as well as gain a better understanding of what it means to be Egyptian. As for non-Egyptians, al- Siddîq says the exhibition will be a window through which they can explore the impact of Egyptian history and culture by building their own pieces. The Lego figures are geared towards young visitors to the museum. They highlight several famous and iconic Egyptian archaeological finds. Some models are life size, such as the one of Tutankhamun, while others, like the Sphinx, are scaled down to fit inside the exhibition space. The highlights of the exhibition are the fixed creations, but there are several interactive elements that will delight children and adults alike. Puzzle games, multiple photo opportunities, and a chance to write their names in hieroglyphics are just a start. They can step into a role•play in a tacky mummy movie, get lost in a maze and, of course, get lost in their own Lego creations. Part of the fun in the exhibition is learning about how much time and how many bricks it took to create some of these fantastic models. To create Tutankhamun’s mask alone, Lego artists put in more than 220 hours and used more than 25,000 bricks. (Nevine El-Aref, “The Lego Dynasty”, Al- Ahram Weekly, January 21, 2010). Musée Égyptien : Ippolito ROSELLINI et la fondation de l’égyptologie La rencontre de l’Italien Ippolito ROSELLINI avec le Français Jean-François CHAMPOLLION en 1826 à Livourne, en Italie, était le fruit d’une longue démarche effectuée dans le cadre d’une mise au point d’une science naissante qu’est l’égyptologie. Elle a aussi semé les germes de la première mission de fouilles scientifiques. C’est le sujet de l’exposition « Ippolito ROSELLINI et la fondation de l’égyptologie ». Elle occupe actuellement la salle 44 au rez-de-chaussée du musée Égyptien jusqu’au 23 février, et elle est organisée par l’Université de Pise et le musée Égyptien. Composée de 73 pièces, les œuvres représentent en fait une sélection des manuscrits qui expliquent les différentes méthodes de documentation et des annotations quotidiennes marquées par Ippolito ROSELLINI et Jean- François CHAMPOLLION pendant leur mission franco-toscane en 1828 et 1829. Cette mission était restée inconnue jusqu’à la « redécouverte des manuscrits et des documents incomparables de ROSELLINI comprenant ses notes, ses dessins de différentes scènes qui ornaient les tombes mais qui avaient été perdues, ainsi que des cartes précises de certaines tombes peu connues de nos jours. Ce trésor est conservé dans la bibliothèque de l’Université de Pise, mais dans un état lamentable. La plupart de ces manuscrits ont été abîmés au fil du temps et atteints par l’humidité. Dès lors, nous avons décidé d’installer un énorme projet de restauration et de préservation afin d’étudier cette trouvaille et la publier en ligne pour qu’elle soit disponible aux intéressés », explique l’égyptologue Marilina BÉTRO, directrice du projet et chef de l’équipe organisatrice de l’exposition. Elle a décidé de présenter une sélection au Musée Égyptien à l’exemple de ce qui s’était passé pour les expositions consacrées aux premiers égyptologues, à l’instar de l’Allemand LEPSIUS. Certes, mais aussi pour rendre à ROSELLINI l’hommage qu’il mérite depuis longtemps. « Si j’avais vu cette carte avant de commencer mes fouilles dans la Vallée des Rois, je n’aurais pas pris autant de temps dans mes travaux », a commenté Zâhî Hawwâs, surpris, lorsqu’il a aperçu la carte de la tombe de Séthi Ier lors de l’inauguration de l’exposition. Étant le premier qui y a initié les fouilles, ROSELLINI avait établi une carte précise de la tombe en traçant un chemin qui sortait de la chambre funéraire. « Or, 22 ans plus tard, LEPSIUS avait visité le site et en avait établi une autre carte, mais elle ne contenait pas ce chemin et manquait de précision », souligne Paolo DEL VESCO, membre de l’équipe organisatrice. Quant aux fouilles du Dr Hawwâs, elles en ont creusé 145 mètres sans atteindre le bout. Et ce n’est pas l’unique surprise que comprend l’exposition. Elle renferme en fait certaines des scènes pharaoniques de quelques tombes à Dirâ‘ Abû al-Nagâ qui n’existent plus. De celles-ci surgissent les fameuses scènes des musiciennes et danseuses qui couvraient les murs de la tombe de Nebamoun à Dirâ‘ Abû al-Nagâ. Selon les égyptologues, l’emplacement de cette tombe est inconnu actuellement. Mais la découverte des manuscrits de ROSELLINI a résolu cette énigme. « Pendant la mission franco-toscane, les sites étaient encore intacts. C’était facile alors pour ROSELLINI, CHAMPOLLION et les membres de leur équipe de relever tout ce qu’ils découvraient. Ainsi ont-ils inscrit sur leurs papiers ces scènes avant que toute la tombe ne soit découpée et transférée ultérieurement au British Museum », reprend DEL VESCO. Si la tombe de Nebamoun, c’est-à•dire son contenu et ses murailles et autres, a disparu de l’Égypte, dans d’autres cas, l’hypogée a été tout à fait dépossédé de ses bas-reliefs. C’est le cas de la tombe de Rakhmirê à Shaykh ‘Abd al-Gurna. Les scènes varient entre des représentations des prisonniers au cours de leurs travaux forcés, des cuisiniers et des sculpteurs et décorateurs des statues des rois. Toutes ces représentations sont dérivées d’une même tombe. « Cette information est connue grâce aux notes des égyptologues prises en bas des fiches. Quant au nom du dessinateur, il est marqué en haut », précise l’égyptologue. D’où surgit l’importance des manuscrits de ROSELLINI. Et malgré la présence de toutes ces scènes sur papier, personne ne peut les situer dans leur place d’origine à cause de la perte de toutes les pièces qui formaient les scènes. L’exposition n’a pas négligé les représentations des fameuses statues colossales de Memnon avant d’être atteintes par les fissures, et ce sans oublier l’état des colosses de Ramsès II à Abû Simbil. Étant architecte et membre de la mission franco-toscane, l’oncle Gaetano ROSELLINI avait marqué avec le crayon l’état de différents monuments au sein de leurs sites à l’époque. Ainsi les actuels égyptologues peuvent-ils suivre l’évolution des sites archéologiques au fil du temps. D’ailleurs, la réalisation de ces fiches est basée sur des méthodes scientifiques dont l’objectif est de documenter sur l’état des monuments à cet âge. En outre, l’exposition comprend de nombreuses lettres de ROSELLINI envoyées à sa femme. Tandis que d’autres retracent les liens d’amitié entre les deux fondateurs de l’égyptologie, leur évolution et leur transformation en mission scientifique. D’ailleurs, les organisateurs de l’exposition n’ont pas omis de présenter une peinture qui regroupe les membres de la mission franco- toscane effectuée par le peintre Giuseppi ANGELELLI qui y avait dessiné leur portrait en tenue ottomane. Cette collection n’est qu’une simple partie du trésor de ROSELLINI. Beaucoup de ces pièces sont déjà étudiées. Mais il en reste autant, à l’instar des carnets dans lesquels l’égyptologue notait ses remarques quotidiennes et dont l’exposition comprend un. Ces carnets sont très riches en informations, commentaires et dessins. C’est pourquoi leur étude exige une longue durée. « Il faut alors les ramener à Pise le plus vite possible en espérant que cette collection, qui est sortie de l’Italie pour la première fois, donnera une idée sur l’effort de ROSELLINI dans la fondation de l’égyptologie. De même, nous espérons terminer notre projet afin de projeter ces documents en ligne », conclut Paolo DEL VESCO. (Doaa Elhami, « Les premiers pas d’une science naissante », Al-Ahram Hebdo du 17 février 2010). al-Sama‘ Khâna: Abû Simbil: the Salvaging of the Monuments. Men and Technology To the beat of Nubian drums at al-Sama‘ Khâna in Sayyida Zaynab, the director of the scientific office of the Italian Embassy in Cairo, Franco PORCELLI, accompanied by Rosanna PIRELLI, director of the Italian Archaeological Institute and Târiq Shawqî, director of UNESCO’s Cairo office, on Monday evening opened a photographic exhibition entitled “Abû Simbil: the Salvaging of the Monuments. Men and Technology”. The idea for an exhibition was dreamed up last year in Rome by the World Wide Artists Association and the Chamber of Commerce in Rome to highlight the role of Italy in rescuing Nubian monuments from the rising waters of Lake Nâsir following the construction of the Aswân High Dam. The exhibition was previously shown in 2009 in Rome inside the Temple of Hadrian. The exhibition will later tour some of the principle capitals of Europe and worldwide. Italian scholars and technicians played a decisive role in the interventions on the most important monuments: the twin temples of Abû Simbil and the Philae complex. So at the request of the UNESCO Cairo Office, the exhibition previously opened in Aswân on the fringe of last year’s international conference held to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the launch of the appeal by Egypt and Sudan for help to rescue the monuments from the rising water. The conference — “The Lower Nubia: Revisiting Memories of the Past, Envisaging Perspectives for the Future” — was attended by almost all the protagonists of the event that drew the focus of world attention in the 1960s and 70s. The nations who contributed to the effort were presented with awards by the two States of Egypt and Sudan during the opening ceremony. BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010 The exhibition in Egypt was organised in collaboration with the Nubia Museum and the Italian Archaeological Centre under the patronage of the Italian Embassy. It then moved to the Antiquities Museum at the Bibliotheca Alexandrina, and is now in Cairo. The event is taking the form of a worldwide documentary exhibition and will have a high impact, with images never before published. It will enhance not only the natural and historical value of the archaeological site, but also the anthropological aspect, paying particular attention to the human resources involved in the feat, the methodologies employed and the machinery and equipment used, as well as the projects throughout their development and realisation. More than 2,000 Egyptians made extraordinary contributions, both in terms of untiring activity and in the genial execution of the work done. To them goes the merit of having carried out such a feat, fraught with potential hazards, and without one single fatal accident. Indeed, when remembering the great works of art and monuments of the past, it is always to the authors of plans and projects that tribute is paid, not to the human resources who, through their invaluable indispensable contributions, devoted their lives to projects with their innate and time•tested abilities to resolve the many and varied everyday problems that arose in an age not yet witness to the advent of advanced technologies in the field of electronics. It was an age of manual labour. (Nevine El-Aref, “When Rome came to Nubia”, Al-Ahram Weekly, February 4, 2010).
Eight priceless pieces of ancient Egyptian antiquities will be on display at the Shanghai World Expo, which runs from May 1 to Oct. 31, a senior official said. The precious artifacts dating back 2,500 to 3,500 years will be shown abroad for the first time at the expo, Egyptian ambassador to China Ahmad Rizq said in a statement Friday. Coming from different Pharaonic dynasties, one of the pieces is the Gold Mask of Sheshonq, which dates back to the 22nd dynasty. It was discovered in 1939 in the Tanis Royal Tombs in Delta, northern Cairo. The antiquities also include a limestone Dayed Statue of Nebneheh and Bakyarti, which dates back to the 19th dynasty. It was unearthed in 1873. Other pieces include the Limestone Block Statue of Amenmessu with a small Figure of Sobek from the 19th dynasty. It was found in 1904. During the Expo, three Egyptian folk art troupes will perform and showcase Egyptian culture and art of different periods, the ambassador said. (Xinhua, “Egyptian antiquities on show at Shanghai”, The Egyptian Gazette, April 29, 2010).
Papyri from the ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead, a series of spells designed to help guide the dead through the after-life, will be at the centre of a new show at the British Museum this November. The star item is likely to be the Greenfield Papyrus, which the London museum called the world’s longest Book of the Dead at 37 meters. It has never been shown publicly in its entirely before. “Journey through the afterlife: ancient Egypt Book of the Dead”, sponsored by BP, will run from November 4 to March 6, 2011 in the museum’s central Reading Room, used for a series of successful “blockbuster” exhibitions in recent years. (“Ancient Egypt guide to afterlife focus of UK show”, The Egyptian Gazette, June 18, 2010). (…) The exhibition “Falcons, Cats and Crocodiles. Animals in Ancient Egypt”, which will run from June 25 to November 14 in Museum Rietberg, Zurich Switzerland, presents about 100 animal figures from the Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York) and the Egyptian Museum (Cairo) spanning a period of 4,000 years, showing the crafts and sophistication of the ancient Egyptian civilisation. The birds and animals known to the ancient Egyptians played an important role in every aspect of their culture. Ancient Egyptians believed that the world was inhabited by all manner of powers and forces and this unseen world could in some way be made manifest by the behaviour and characteristics of living creatures. Thus, ancient Egyptian deities could take the form of animals, which were considered to be the earthly manifestation of a god or goddess. However, eve if a deity might adopt a certain animal form, not all members of that particular species were necessarily held to be sacred. (Hassan Saadallah, “Animals of ancient Egypt displayed in Switzerland”, The Egyptian Gazette, June 8, 2010).
États -Unis Discovery Times Square Exposition: Tutankhamun and the Golden Age of the Pharaohs (…) New York is the final stop for the Tut exhibition, which opens Friday. It is being shown at the Discovery Times Square Exposition — a venue Hawwâs on Wednesday called “too commercial.” He said he wished it was the Metropolitan Museum of Art. King Tut “deserves to be at the Met, and not in this hall,” Hawwâs said. A blockbuster exhibition on the boy-king was first shown at the Met in 1979. “We’re delighted that the Tut material is back in New York,” said Met spokeswoman Elyse TOPALIAN. “The Met had discussions about the possibility of being a venue for the exhibition” but was unable to house it because “of the financial concerns that accompanied it,” which included charging a separate fee for the exhibition along with its regular museum admission, she said. The admission to the Tut exhibition is $27.50 for adults, with a portion going to fund antiquity conservation efforts in Egypt. TOPALIAN also said that the Met would not have had any curatorial oversight over the exhibition. The current Tut exhibit features about 130 objects — more than twice the number in the 1979 show — including more than 50 of Tut’s burial objects. It includes a golden diadem inlaid with colored glass and semiprecious stones that was found still on the head of the mummy when Howard CARTER discovered Tut’s tomb in 1922. The crown was not part of the 1979 exhibition. King Tut’s chariot also is a new addition; it will be the first time that it will travel outside Egypt. Its arrival at the exhibition has been delayed by the volcanic ash that suspended flights from Europe. It will be installed within the month. The current show provides new information about the life and death of Tutankhamun and his ancestors based on recent discoveries made through DNA and CT scans. For example, the tests revealed that Tut fractured a leg shortly before he died, and the accident likely occurred on the chariot, said exhibition curator David P. SILVERMAN. “It’s a traveling chariot he used in military campaigns and hunting,” he said. “One of the wheels was replaced in ancient times, probably after an accident.” Hawwâs also announced that a set of four foundation deposits — similar to time capsules — and a limestone fragment with a text indicating a tomb was hidden nearby were recently discovered in the Valley of the Kings. He said this discovery gave him hope he would soon find the tombs of Ankhesamun, Tut’s wife, and that of Nefertiti, his stepmother. (Ula Ilnytzky, “King Tut exhibition opening in NYC”, Daily News Egypt, April 22, 2010. Voir également ‘Izzat Ibrâhîm, « Le roi Tut, nouveau maître de New York ! », al- Ahrâm du 18 avril ; “King Tut mania back in New York”, The Egyptian Gazette, April 24 ; « Toutankhamon aux USA jusqu’au mois de janvier », al- Qâhira du 27 avril ; Thanâ’ Yûsuf, « Toutankhamon à New York », Âkhir Sâ‘a du 28 avril).
California Science Center : Mummies of the World
“Mummies of the World” — which premieres next month at the California Science Center will feature 150 real human and animal mummies and objects from South America, Europe, Asia, Oceana and ancient Egypt. The exhibition shows how science can shed light on the history of people and cultures around the world, and that mummification (through natural processes or intentional practices) is not just about Egypt. It has taken place all over the globe, from the hot desert sands of South America to remote European moors and bogs. Exhibition opens in July and runs to December 31, 2010. Highlights from “Mummies of the World” include one of the oldest mummy infants ever discovered; the first-ever presentation of an entire mummified family; a German nobleman discovered by his own descendants; and Egyptian animal mummies, ritually preserved to accompany royals for eternity. Egyptian animal mummies linen are elaborately wrapped in painted linen bandaging, holding fascinating clues to life and death in ancient Egypt. The Egyptian cat mummies in this exhibition date to the Ptolemaic period, and show how Egyptian BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010 cats were ritually embalmed in a lengthy process using salt and various resins. These mummies are on loan from various museums in Germany. The Detmold Child (Germany) is a Peruvian child mummy in a remarkable state of preservation, radiocarbon dated to 4504•4457 B.C. The ORLOVITS family was part of a group of 18th-century mummies discovered in a long-forgotten church crypt in Vac, Hungary in 1994. Michael and Veronica ORLOVITS and their son Johannis were among those preserved by the cool, dry air and oil from the pine boards used to build their coffins. They are on loan from the Hungarian Natural History Museum, Budapest. Baron VON HOLZ is a 17th- century nobleman believed to have died in Sommersdorf, Germany during the Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648). He was discovered in the family crypt of the VON CRAILSHEIM family’s late 14th-century castle, still wearing his top boots. (Hassan Saadallah, “Egyptian mummies displayed in California”, The Egyptian Gazette, June 27, 2010). The Franklin Institute: Cleopatra -The Search for the Last Queen of Egypt
In a glass case at Philadelphia’s Franklin Institute two fragments of papyrus feature the handwriting of Cleopatra, the last Egyptian pharaoh whose legendary beauty has inspired artists and filmmakers. The document with the Greek inscription, “make it happen,” refers to a tax break for a friend of her husband Mark Antony. It is one of 150 artifacts in an exhibition featuring the latest discoveries in an intensifying search for her long-lost tomb. Some of the items in “Cleopatra -the Search for the Last Queen of Egypt” which runs until January, have never been on public display. “The story of Cleopatra has drama, trauma, sex, murder and war,” said John NORMAN, president of the show designer Arts and Exhibitions International. “What could be better than that?” The artifacts have been unearthed from the Egyptian town of Taposiris Magna.
More recent recoveries are from deep in the Mediterranean Sea from the ancient cities of Heracleion and Canopus, where Cleopatra’s palace was destroyed by earthquakes and tidal waves some 2,000 years ago. Visitors can view two 16-foot-high, red-granite statues of a king and queen from Cleopatra’s Ptolomaic dynasty. Nearby, a video shows pieces of the statues being lifted out of the Mediterranean Sea off the coast of modern- day Alexandria. Gold necklaces, bracelets and earrings, a sculpted head of the son of Cleopatra and her lover Julius Caesar and slingshot bullets that could have been used by the Roman armies that ended Cleopatra’s reign from 69 to 30 B.C. are also on display. The exhibition tells the story of the woman who wooed two of the most powerful men in the Roman world, who won the loyalty of the Egyptian people by melding their traditional gods with those of her Greek culture, and who became educated in mathematics, medicine and foreign languages. It also describes her eventual suicide — an end she chose rather than submit to public humiliation at the hands of the Romans who defeated her. The exhibition is divided into two parts — the underwater operation and the excavations at Taposiris Magna, the town 30 miles west of Alexandria where Zâhî Hawwâs, secretary general of Egypt’s Supreme Council of Antiquities, is leading the search for Cleopatra’s tomb. Hawwâs hopes his work will lead to the tomb, which would be “one of the most important archaeological discoveries in history.” Cleopatra’s enduring grip on the popular imagination is shown in artistic depictions of her over the centuries, and by Hollywood renditions of her story. Movie clips include Elizabeth TAYLOR playing Cleopatra in 1963, and Vivien LEIGH in the same role in 1945. Cleopatra is also credited as a model for women’s liberation, according to a commentary in the final section of the show. “The last of the pharaohs emerged as an emancipated modern woman — beautiful, intelligent, accomplished, powerful,” it says. (Reuters, “Cleopatra show unveils new treasures”, The Egyptian Gazette, June 4, 2010. Voir également ‘Isâm ‘Umrân, « À la recherche de Cléopâtre aux États-Unis », al-Gumhûriyya du 2 juin ; « Cléopâtre fait le tour de 5 États américains », al-Qâhira du 96 avril ; mars Hassan Saadallah, “Search for Cleopatra goes to US”, The Egyptian Gazette, June 14).
Suisse Museum Rietberg Zürich : Faucons, chats et crocodiles Du 24 juin au 14 novembre 2010, la ville de Zurich accueille une collection de faucons, de chats et de crocodiles égyptiens à travers une exposition archéologique à laquelle participe également le Metropolitan Museum de New York. Dix des cent pièces exposées appartiennent au Musée Égyptien, en plus d’une pièce provenant du musée national de la Civilisation. En vertu d’un accord avec la partie suisse, le Conseil Suprême des Antiquités encaisse 35 % du montant des billets d’entrée. Les onze pièces prêtées par l’Égypte et remontant à plus de 4 000 ans sont couvertes par un contrat d’assurance de 16,5 millions de dollars. (Mushîra Mûsa, « 16,5 millions de dollars pour assurer 10 pièces antiques égyptiennes exposées à Zurich », al-Ahrâm du 19 juin 2010). - -
V – VOLS & RESTITUTIONS D’ANTIQUITÉS
Egypt’s antiquities chief has teamed up with 25 countries to press their campaigns to retrieve antiquities that were stolen and even those given as gifts, warning museums late Thursday that he would “make their lives miserable” if they refused his demands. Zâhî Hawwâs announced the expanded campaign at a news conference with officials from the US, Greece and Italy. By joining forces with other nations, he aims to add weight to an escalating campaign that even saw Egypt temporarily severing ties with the Louvre last year. “Greece was fighting alone, and Italy was fighting alone, now for the first time we are united. We will fight together,” said Hawwâs. “But I will tell you: Some of us will make the life of those museums that have our artifacts miserable.” Chief among the items Egypt wants back is the bust of Nefertiti, which is at Berlin’s Egyptian Museum. Egypt says it was shipped out of the country in 1913 on the basis of fraudulent papers. Egypt has also been seeking the Rosetta Stone, the slab of basalt with an inscription that was the key to deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphics. It was taken out of Egypt in 1799 during French colonial rule and is now at the British Museum in London. Hawwâs said a statue of Ramses from the Turin Museum in Italy was also on his “wish list.” He did not outline a specific strategy for retrieving the items. He said, however, that he was not threatening to cut ties with more museums refusing to return artifacts, as he did in the fight with the Louvre. Egypt is after items that it asserts were stolen and items that were once given as gifts, Hawwâs said. Since becoming antiquities head in 2002, Hawwâs has recovered 5,000 artifacts, he says. In one of the most acrimonious fights, Hawwâs has repeatedly requested the return of a 3,200-year-old golden mask of a noblewoman from the Saint Louis Art Museum and has since cut ties with the museum and called on people to boycott its collection. And in October 2009, Hawwâs cut ties with the Louvre, saying the museum had refused to return fragments illegally chipped from a tomb. Egypt suspended the Louvre’s excavation in the massive necropolis of Saqqâra, near Cairo. French officials quickly agreed to hand over the fragments and ties were restored. The British Museum said it had not received an official request for the permanent return of the Rosetta Stone, but that it was considering a request from Hawwâs for a short-term loan of the stone for the opening of the new museum in Gîza in 2012 or 2013. The American officials at Thursday’s announcement in Cairo wanted to signal they recognised the US is a major market for stolen relics, said Tonya FOX of the US delegation. In March, a 3,000-year-old wooden sarcophagus confiscated at the Miami airport was returned to Egypt. Other items are still held in New York including wooden coffins, pottery and ancient art pieces. Other countries represented at the meeting said they had wish lists of their own. Greece said it wants the Parthenon marbles back from the British Museum, Libya wants the Apollo at Cyrene back from the British Museum, and Peru is in talks to retrieve the Machu Picchu collection that was loaned and remains in the Peabody Museum in Yale University. The process of repatriating cultural heritage is complicated by inadequate local and international laws and many museums maintain they acquire their artifacts legally and in a transparent manner. Determining whether an artifact has even been stolen requires delicate cooperation between government, law enforcement, museums and antiquities dealers. And frequently, there are gaps in the historical records. (AP, “Egypt, 25 nations to return antiquities”, The Egyptian Gazette, April 9, 2010. Voir également Pacynthe Sabri, « La chasse aux antiquités », Al-Ahram Hebdo du 27 janvier ; ‘Isâm ‘Umrân, « Conférence internationale pour la protection et la restitution du patrimoine culturel », al-Gumhûriyya du 7 avril).
“Egypt owns two thirds of the world’s monuments.” So says the government’s state information service. It doesn’t go into detail. But when you consider the abundance of national icons — the Pyramids, the Sphinx, Abû Simbil, the Valley of the Kings — that draw thousands of visitors every year, the richness of the country’s past can be overwhelming. It is precisely this illustrious history, in the form of exquisite relics, excavated ruins and secrets yet to be unearthed beneath the sands, that is the subject of a new amendment to the antiquities law that has caused much debate in the People’s Assembly (PA). Approved early last month after a year of discussion in Parliament, law 117/1983 is being amended in a bid to preserve the nation’s documented archaeological heritage and prevent the expatriation of any future discoveries. For centuries, archaeologists have led international expeditions through Egypt’s deserted dunes in search of ancient civilizations. Many of the most significant discoveries of the modern era have been made by foreigners: The Rosetta Stone was found by French army engineer Captain Pierre-François BOUCHARD, the tomb of Tutankhamun was unearthed by British archaeologist Howard CARTER and Abû Simbil was introduced to Europeans by Swiss traveller Johann Ludwig BURCKHARDT. But eventually, all explorers return home, taking many of the artifacts along with them. The interest generated by their spoils and stories of exploits is one of the primary reasons that Egypt is the global tourist destination that it is today and contributes to the enthusiasm for continued foreign-led excavations. But authorities are now taking action to ensure the flight of antiques does not threaten the country’s entitlements to its own past. Since Dr. Zâhî Hawwâs took the reins at the Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA) in 2002, he has spearheaded a drive to cut down on the illegal trade and export of Egyptian antiquities and is fighting hard to repatriate many artifacts currently in the hands of foreign entities. “I am not against foreigners, I simply wanted to establish more equality,” said Hawwâs, as reported by AFP. “We want to protect Egyptian antiquities.” His endeavours are not without return; he claims that international museums and private collectors have handed over at least 5,000 artifacts to the SCA during his tenure. The most publicized homecoming was that of five paintings taken from a 3,500-year-old tomb in Luxor acquired by the Louvre museum in Paris in 2000 and 2003. Following threats by the SCA to sever all ties with the museum, the pieces were ceremoniously returned last December. “I believe returning these artifacts to Egypt is a good example to show that any museum that buys stolen artifacts will have an immediate reaction against them,” a triumphant Hawwâs told reporters. Egypt has had an antiquities law since 1835, but the new amendments seek to eradicate the need for drastic recovery measures by preventing items from leaving the country in the first place. Ashraf al•‘Ashmâwî, legal consultant to the SCA and one of the key figures responsible for drawing up the draft law, explains that the main changes were to article three of the law, which contains nine reformed sections. The new law — which was discussed in the PA with Dr. Hawwâs — imposes harsher punishments on those found guilty of smuggling antiquities, Hawwâs says. Previously the sentence for such crimes was three to 15 years imprisonment in addition to a fine ranging from LE 5,000 to LE 50,000. Under the new legislation, the jail terms remain the same but possible fines now range from LE 100,000 to LE 1 million for each smuggled antiquity. The law also removes a controversial stipulation that foreign excavation missions are entitled to 10 percent of unearthed goods. Between 2003 and 2008, authorities discovered 17 illegal excavations and 8,000 violations of protected historical grounds. The new law also aims to address these problems. Hawwâs had been agitated by a proposal granting people who own items considered antiquities a two-year grace period before being required to declare possessions to the SCA for examination. Al•‘Ashmâwî explains that the period was unreasonably long and allowed people to excavate for antiquities and claim they had owned them for longer, paving the way for illegal excavations. This period was reduced to six months in the new law. Al-‘Ashmâwî says that until 1983, the law permitted people to buy antiquities from the Egyptian Museum. In addition, many people had acquired heirlooms from the family of Muhammad ‘Alî during the 1950s and 1960s. Even after the law was altered to stop this practice, people were permitted to keep the items provided that they registered them with the SCA. A committee from the SCA visits the owner every three months to ensure the monuments remain in their possession and are well-maintained. The law still bans any form of antiquities trading; they can only be passed on by inheritance or given to the SCA. “We are telling [the owners of antiquities] that starting in March, if you have such a thing, report it to ensure it doesn’t get out of Egypt,” says al-‘Ashmâwî. The new law will also impose harsher penalties on those caught stealing or abetting the theft or hiding of antiquities, says al-‘Ashmâwî. Offenders face 10 years imprisonment and a fine between LE 50,000 to LE 500,000, up from a five-year prison term and a maximum fine of LE 50,000. Punishments for those found guilty of vandalizing or building on historical sites will also be stiffened; the prison sentence has been raised from two to five years and the fine from a ceiling of LE 500 to LE 100,000.
A study submitted by steel magnate Ahmad ‘Izz, a National Democratic Party member and chairman of the Planning and Budget Committee of the PA, caused an outcry while the law was under discussion, with media reports claiming he was in favour of legalizing some trafficking within the country. Both Hawwâs and Minister of Culture Fârûq Husnî reportedly threatened to resign if the law allowed the trading of antiquities in any form. However, Husnî told Al-Ahram Weekly that the rumours surrounding ‘Izz were not true and that ‘Izz’s study was only a comparison of antiquities laws adopted by other countries with rich cultural heritages such as Greece and Italy. The fact that some of the countries examined in the report allow limited trading was mistakenly construed to imply that ‘Izz was a proponent of such practices. During debates on the law, some MPs lobbied for a committee to redefine antiquities but were met with strong opposition from some who feared that the drafting of the final law would be severely delayed. Opposing MPs maintained that only minor adjustments were needed to ensure protection today. Eventually the MPs agreed to define antiquities as buildings or objects that represent or are products of a civilization over 100 years old. Any item that has artistic, archaeological or historical value to Egyptian civilization or was produced in Egypt and is related to its history, including human remains, is considered an antiquity. Following the controversial “copyrighting the pyramids” incident from 2007, in which Hawwâs attempted to extract royalties from anyone using replicas of Egyptian icons — from the Luxor casino in Las Vegas to souvenir sellers on al-Haram Street — some of his wishes have now been granted. Under the new law, “exact replicas” of any antiquity or monument must be approved by the SCA, in return for royalties for using Egypt’s intellectual property. Also, photography of historical sites or monuments for commercial use is prohibited without a purchasing a permit issued by the SCA. Hawwâs’ success in this matter is likely to add legitimacy to his long-running quest to bring home a number of particularly high•profile artifacts. He claims that both the Rosetta Stone, currently in the possession of the British Museum in London, and a bust of Queen Nefertiti, in the hands of the Neues Museum in Berlin, were illegally taken from the country and should be returned according to a United Nations agreement signed in 1972. Hawwâs has indicated that a loan of the Rosetta Stone might be an acceptable compromise, but if his tenacity in getting the antiquities law amended is any indication, it seems unlikely that Hawwâs will be satisfied until the piece is returned. “I want the Rosetta Stone to be back, it’s a unique artifact,” Hawwâs told the BBC late last year. “Its home should not be the British Museum in London, its home should be Cairo, in Egypt.” (Nadine El Sayed, “Punish the Plunderers”, Egypt Today, March 2010. Voir également Hala Fares, « La loi actuelle facilite la violation de différents sites », Al-Ahram Hebdo du 27 janvier ; Fathiyya al-Dakhâkhnî, « Hawwâs : La légalisation du commerce archéologique est une catastrophe », al-Masrî al- Yawm du 28 janvier ; Ihab Shaarawy, “Antiquities Bill approuved”, Egyptian Mail, February 2 ; Nevine El-Aref, “No more trafficking”, Al-Ahram Weekly, February 4). (…) ‘Alî Radwân, the Chairman of the Arab Archaeologists’ Union, said that the bill if approved would encourage more thefts and illegal excavations for antiquities, which constitute a vital component of Egypt’s rich history and cultural heritage. The bill, proposed by business tycoon Ahmad ‘Izz, a member of the ruling National Democratic Party (NDP), seeks to legalise the trade in ancient monuments as some European countries have done. But, Radwân has said that if such a law were to be passed, dealers would be able to operate in the country and theft from archaeological sites would increase. “If such a law is passed, then Egypt’s rich history, which is the property of all people, will be lost to private collectors who can pay its price,” Radwân said.
He said that Law No. 117/1983 criminalises the selling, buying and trafficking of Egyptian artefacts. The law clearly states that no antiquities can be sold in Egypt or exported out of the country. Radwân refutes ‘Izz’ claim that European countries allow the trade of antiquities saying that auction halls sell stolen and smuggled artefacts only and rarely deal with antiquities that belong to them. “In some auction halls in England, for example, stolen and smuggled antiquities from other countries are sold and bought every day. But, they have never sold a single piece of British antiquity to anyone,” he said. Every ancient artefact belongs to all Egyptians and the human civilisation in general and not to certain people, he said. Meanwhile, Muhammad ‘Abd al-Maqsûd, the Director of Antiquities Sector in the Delta region, said that the bill aims to give thieves and looters the legal tools to legitimise their illegal trade. “It is a shame that the parliament has decided to debate this law, while Egypt is mounting a world wide campaign for the return of its priceless antiquities, which have been stolen and smuggled over the centuries,” ‘Abd al-Maqsûd said. He criticised ‘Izz for condoning the buying and selling of antiquities, saying that the proposed bill was illegal unethical because it promotes the looting and trade of Egyptian artefacts. “The value of antiquities is the story of Egypt and when they are treated only as objects, Egypt loses this value for ever,” he said. Farîda al-Shâbâshî, a leftist writer, said that the bill substantiates ‘Izz’ capitalist mentality, which believes in selling anything even history and culture to anyone to make money. “Even the Egyptian heritage and culture are threatened as a result of the sweeping privatisation drive, which ‘Izz wants to accelerate by offering anything for sale,” al-Shâbâshî said, adding that she strongly rejects the bill. She called on the Egyptians to use their fundamental rights to protect their antiquities and national heritage from being put under the hammer and lost forever. Lending his voice to al-Shâbâshî’s call, writer Yûsuf al-Qâ‘îd criticised the Government for failing to stop any further loss of antiquities by giving ‘Izz the chance to propose this bill. “The Government wants to privatise everything at lightening speed. I am afraid that the time has come to privatise the Pyramids, or the Suez Canal,” said al-Qâ‘îd. (Ashraf Sadek, “Row over controversial antiquities bill in Egypt”, The Egyptian Gazette, January 24, 2010. Voir également Fathiyya al-Dakhâkhnî, « Archéologues et intellectuels dénoncent le projet de ‘Izz visant à légaliser le commerce archéologique », al-Masrî al-Yawm du 20 janvier ; Aliaa Al-Korachi, « Vers un durcissement des législations ? », Al-Ahram Hebdo du 27 janvier ; Nevine El-Aref, “No more trafficking”, Al-Ahram Weekly, February 4 ; Târiq Higgî, « Les antiquités entre les savants et les trafiquants ! », Watanî du 28 février). (…) Minster of State for Legal Affairs and Parliamentary Councils, Mufîd Shihâb, proposed to add a clause to the articles which states that anyone in possession of an antiquity has to notify the council within a year of the law coming into force. Parliament Speaker Ahmad Fathî Surûr said that the crime of owning an antiquity is only punishable if the owner knows that it is an antiquity and doesn’t report it, and he postponed the discussion of this article until the entire law is discussed. Independent MP ‘Alâ’ ‘Abd al-Mun‘im says that the law needs more work especially in defining what constitutes an antiquity. In its Tuesday edition, independent daily, al-Masrî al-Yawm, reported that ‘Izz proposed, to much uproar, to permit the trading of antiquities inside Egypt. On Wednesday, the newspaper then reported that when asked about this, Husnî said, “We have closed this subject and it will not be discussed any more.” Other parts of the draft law include raising the entry fees to historical places, which got a strong disapproval from MPs who said that it should be decreased to allow Egyptians to visit them. Citing a worldwide hike in entry fees, Husnî said the increase will be used for maintenance and protecting these places, according to official news portal Egynews.net. SCA Chief Zâhî Hawwâs was also present at the PA for the discussion of the law, along with the council’s legal advisor, judge Ashraf al-‘Ashmâwî. He told the media that a harsher punishment of smuggling antiquities is needed. “Smuggling is a great crime and its continuous existence means that the current law is ineffective and a harsher penalty needs to be enforced,” Hawwâs said. An article which has unanimous approval is requiring royalties be paid whenever replicas are made of museum pieces or ancient monuments. Independent MP Gamâl Zahrân personally supports the law as it protects Egypt’s heritage. “Lately there have been numerous cases of antiquities smuggling which calls for further protection measures. In addition it is only fair that we profit when people use our civilization for commercial purposes,” he explained. (Safaa Abdoun, “Antiquities protection draft law continues to ignite debates at PA”, Daily News Egypt, January 20, 2010. Voir également Hala Fares, « Des trésors en danger ? », Al-Ahram Hebdo du 27 janvier ; Mustafa ‘Abd al-Ghaffâr, « Le Parlement poursuit aujourd’hui l’examen de la nouvelle loi sur les antiquités », al-Gumhûriyya du 1er février ; Fathiyya al-Dakhâkhnî, « Le Parlement rejette les propositions de ‘Izz », al-Masrî al-Yawm du 2 février).
Anti quités égyptiennes Pharaonic tombs in Tameyah Desert in Fayyûm are being raided, according to an investigation by al-Masrî al-Yawm. The investigation found that residents in the area have encroached on historical tombs that contain stone statues, gold necklaces, a royal chair made from pure gold, kohl containers, stone pots and coffins. The residents have been using primitive tools to search for antiquities. Al-Masrî al-Yawm also obtained photos of artifacts hidden in homes and yards before being put up for sale. The investigation comes at a time when the People’s Assembly is discussing a bill, presented by steel tycoon and NDP leader Ahmad ‘Izz, to amend the law on trade in artifacts. The proposed amendment would allow Egyptians to register artifacts and trade them within the country. Al-Masrî al-Yawm also penetrated an artifact-trading ring based in Qinâ and Suhâg. Members of the ring expressed readiness to smuggle one Pharaonic statue — valued at US$11 million — outside the country with the help of a foreign embassy in Cairo. (‘Alî Zalat, “Al-Masrî al-Yawm digs up Fayyûm tomb raiders”, al-Masrî al- Yawm, April 12, 2010). Customs officials in the Cargo Village foiled yesterday an attempt by a Lebanese man to smuggle a cache of antiquities, including 11 rare manuscripts and handwritten books out of Egypt, security sources at Cairo Airport said. They said the smuggler had tried to disguise the antiquities shipment as parcels of goods that were to be exported to Beirut with fake authorization, the sources added. The police arrested the man, whose name has not been disclosed for legal reasons, with prosecutors later charging him with allegedly trying to smuggle antiquities out of the country, they added. Under Egyptian law, the charge of smuggling antiquities carries a maximum jail term of 15 years. The seized items, dating back hundreds of years, were referred to the National Library, the officials added. An unnamed antiquity official at the airport described the seizure as rare because of the number of items involved, and their age. (Adel Moustafa, “Smuggler of rare manuscripts nabbed”, The Egyptian Gazette, January 24, 2010).
Egyptian antiquities supremo Zâhî Hawwâs on Wednesday opened an international conference on recovering ancient artifacts from abroad, saying countries must unite to recover their stolen heritage. “We need to cooperate, we need a unification between our countries,” Hawwâs told antiquities officials, deputy culture ministers and museum directors from 21 countries at the two-day Cairo meeting. “Every country is fighting alone, every country suffered alone, especially Egypt,” Hawwâs told the delegates from countries that have seen their national heritage looted over the centuries. “We will battle together,” he said, adding that “maybe we will not succeed in a lifetime (but) we have to open the subject.” Hawwâs, who heads Egypt’s Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA), urged delegates to draw up lists of artifacts missing from their countries and displayed in museums abroad. “This conference shows the importance many countries place in joining forces,” said Elena KORKA, who is in charge of protecting Greece’s cultural heritage. Athens has been locked in a 30-year antiquities “war” with London to retrieve the Elgin Marbles from the British Museum, and Egypt has been fighting for the Rosetta stone from Britain and a bust of Nefertiti from Germany. A major aim of the conference is to call on the United Nations cultural body UNESCO to amend a 1970 convention banning the export or ownership of stolen antiquities acquired after that date. The convention prohibits the illicit import, export and sale of cultural property, but stipulates there will be no “retroactive” measure for artifacts acquired before the convention was signed. Over the years, Hawwâs has made the return of looted Egyptian artifacts the hallmark of his tenure and won many battles to bring home Pharaonic items and other ancient relics. In March, Egypt said it retrieved from Britain some 25,000 ancient artifacts, including a stone axe dating back 200,000 years and pottery from the seventh millennium BC. But Hawwâs is still eyeing the Rosetta stone held by the British Museum for more than 200 years and the 3,400-year-old bust of Queen Nefertiti on display at the Neues Museum in Berlin. (…) As for the Nefertiti bust, Germany has repeatedly rebuffed Egyptian claims to the rightful ownership of it and says the priceless sculpture was acquired legally nearly a century ago. Egypt says it was spirited out of the country.
Last year Egypt broke off relations with the Louvre Museum until France finally returns stolen steles chipped off a wall painting in the ancient tomb in Luxor’s Valley of the Kings. Since becoming head of antiquities in 2002, Hawwâs has helped Egypt reclaim 31,000 relics from abroad. Last year he insisted that “what has been stolen from us must be returned.” Thirty countries were invited to attend but only 21 have sent delegates: Austria, Bolivia, Chili, China, Cyprus, Ecuador, Greece, Guatemala, Honduras, India, Italy, Libya, Mexico, Nigeria, Peru, Poland, South Korea, Spain, Sri Lanka, Syria and the United States. Britain, France and Germany which have been repeatedly accused by Egypt of holding Pharaonic artifacts are not attending. (Christophe DE ROQUEFEUIL, “Egypt forum on looted antiquities opens with call for unity”, Daily News Egypt, April 7, 2010. Voir également AFP, “Egypt urges unity to regain stolen relics”, The Egyptian Gazette, April 7 ; “Hawwâs Urges Stopping Antiquities Theft”, Egypt State Information Service, April 8 ; Dalia Farouq, « Batailles réussies », Al- Ahram Hebdo du 14 avril). « On ne les a pas invités parce qu’on voulait que les pays qui souffrent de pillage d’antiquités se mettent ensemble, étudient leurs cas, échangent des expériences à cet égard, se réunissent et mettent un plan commun pour pouvoir récupérer leurs antiquités volées. Ensuite, ces pays entendront nos voix fortes et seront obligés de négocier avec nous. Nous ne sommes pas un ou deux ou trois pays qui revendiquent, on est une masse de 25 pays », reprend ‘Alî Radwân. Si les plus grands pays détenant des pièces archéologiques étaient absents, par contre, la présence de quelques pays européens comme la Grèce et l’Italie est venue renforcer la cause des pays orientaux. L’Iraq aussi était absent bien qu’il soit l’un des pays les plus importants, à cause des opérations de pillage intense auxquelles il a été exposé depuis l’invasion américaine en 2003. « C’est dommage que l’Iraq ne soit pas présent, surtout que la violation et le vol de son patrimoine culturel mérite une conférence à part, et c’était une bonne occasion pour attirer l’attention de la société internationale sur cette civilisation qui se vide de son contenu patrimonial », reprend Radwân. On peut dire qu’un premier pas est franchi même si les résultats ne sont pas spectaculaires. Mais il y a une prise de conscience sur l’importance de s’unir. Du côté des autres, il est sûr aussi que les différents trafics illicites ne seront plus aussi faciles qu’autrefois. Et, de toute façon, la conférence se tiendra désormais annuellement chaque fois dans un pays pour un suivi des efforts dans ce domaine. « Nous devons nous unir, coopérer, nous battre ensemble. Jusqu’à présent, nos pays, spécialement l’Égypte, ont trop souffert seuls » dans ce combat, a relevé d’ailleurs Hawwâs. On le dit bien : « La préservation du patrimoine culturel des peuples est une préservation de l’identité humaine ». (Dalia Farouq, « Un premier pas est franchi », Al-Ahram Hebdo du 14 avril). (…) No one knows the political power of antiquities better than Dr. Zâhî Hawwâs, the head of Egypt’s Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA). Egypt, by some accounts, is the repository of a full third of the world’s surviving antiquities. Add to that its long history of occupation and looting by colonial powers, and it is no wonder today’s battle to repatriate ancient artifacts is being led by Hawwâs, who for years has been challenging the status quo and stoking controversy in the world antiquities community with his demands for the return of high-profile artifacts from abroad. On April 7 and 8, the SCA hosted the Conference on International Cooperation for the Protection and Repatriation of Cultural Heritage in Cairo, bringing together 25 countries — among them Greece, Peru and Italy — to discuss how to work cohesively to repatriate pilfered artifacts, with Hawwâs suggesting that countries draw up wish-lists of artifacts to recover from foreign museums. At the end of the conference, Hawwâs told international media, “Some of us will make the life of those museums that have our artifacts miserable.” The conference participants may also submit recommendations to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to amend current antiquities conventions to allow the countries greater flexibility in pursuing antiquities removed from their borders.
A week after the conference, the SCA signed an agreement with Switzerland that will see the return of all artifacts illegally taken from Egypt and found within Swiss borders. Switzerland has virtually no antiquities protection laws, which has made it a hotbed for global antiquities smuggling. The conference and the Swiss accord are merely the latest in Hawwâs’ well-publicized campaign to return allegedly stolen antiquities to Egypt. In recent years, Hawwâs has lobbied for the return of several high•profile artifacts, including the Rosetta Stone from the British Museum and the bust of Nefertiti from Germany’s Neues Museum. Though the two pieces still remain in the West, Hawwâs scored a victory when the Louvre returned five fresco fragments after he threatened to break off all cooperation with the museum and suspend its archaeological missions in Egypt until the pieces were returned. Despite the sound bites, public shaming and media grandstanding, the question of who owns history isn’t as simple as Egypt’s Indiana Jones might have you think. The war over antiquities is waged between modern nation states, which didn’t exist at the times the artifacts were created or removed. Many of the artifacts in question were taken across the borders of defunct political bodies, Ottoman-administered Egypt in the case of the Rosetta Stone, and Ottoman-administered Greece in the case of the Elgin Marbles. Though cases can be made for their return, it is logically and legally impossible to hold modern-day states accountable for the actions of past governments, regimes and empires. What the now-existing states can do is enact laws protecting their cultural heritage — Egypt has recently strengthened its own laws against antiquities looters — and negotiate agreements with other existing political bodies. Though international frameworks exist for the protection of cultural heritage, such as those created by UNESCO, these agreements value national sovereignty above all. UNESCO has no authority to enact laws or force one country to return artifacts to another. This means countries holding antiquities originating elsewhere must voluntarily agree to their return to source countries, ideally through international agreements. The key UNESCO convention on the issue — the Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property — was enacted in 1970. But it has no legal weight, and applies only to antiquities removed from countries after 1970. The lack of international legal tools that can be used to reclaim antiquities is part of the problem for source countries, leading to high- profile repatriation campaigns such as the one led by Hawwâs. “I think [these countries] do that because they feel there is a void in this area in terms of international law or prevailing conventions that they can refer to,” says Târiq Shawqî, director of UNESCO’s regional bureau for science in Arab states. But even if laws are in place, the case for ownership isn’t always cut and dry. Exhibit A: the Rosetta Stone. The stone was first discovered by French occupation soldiers in 1799, when Egypt was under the nominal rule of the Ottomans. In 1801, after Napoleon’s defeat by the British, the stone was ceded to the victors. Since 1802, it has been displayed in the British Museum (with a brief break during the heavy bombing of London during the Second World War). It was decoded by British and French archaeologists and subsequently maintained by the British Museum. It’s an all-too-common tale of colonial powers pilfering antiquities from source countries under occupation. But it’s an argument that sways the heart, not the head. Not only does the stone’s complicated history make a legal case for returning it difficult, the British Museum has demurred on giving the stone back, citing practical concerns over the stone’s security in Egypt. Such concerns can come off as “logical or hostile, depending on who’s listening,” says Shawqî. Genuine concern over the well-being of priceless artifacts on the part of, in this case, European museums, can come off as patronizing and colonial. Conversely, Hawwâs’ rhetoric, though born of a passion for antiquities, can come off as nationalistic. Hawwâs told al- Gazîra in a July 2007 television interview about the Rosetta Stone: “We own that stone. The motherland should own this.” Such talk is disturbing to those who see ancient artifacts as world heritage, not national symbols. It is difficult to make the case that the artifacts of ancient Egypt were made by people bearing strong similarities to citizens of the modern-day Arab Republic of Egypt, just as it would be difficult for Greek PM PAPINDREOU to say he has a tangible link to the lineage of Socrates. Though geography and cultural identity count for much personally, they are not consistent, logical or legal foundations for creating effective mechanisms to govern the return of antiquities.
These larger issues are precisely the ones people like James CUNO, director of the Art Institute of Chicago, see as the overriding concern in the political debate over antiquities. CUNO’s book Who Owns Antiquity? and his subsequent lectures on the subject of antiquities argue for a global culture of antiquities exchange, in which scholars refuse to cave to the pressure of leaders and governments seeking to acquire antiquities for their own national promotion. “It isinthe nature of our species to connect and exchange,” CUNO wrote in his book. “And the result is a common culture in which we all have a stake. It is not, and can never be, the property of one modern nation or another.” CUNO argues that the laws drafted by nations to protect their antiquities are not only ineffective and drive pieces to the black market, away from the public eye and scholarship, but also that ancient antiquities are used to foster the nationalist identity of the state. The arguments made by the SCA hinge on national ownership, but those arguments can be dangerous when used by any country seeking to place a national claim on human heritage. The modern state of Israel declared in February that Rachel’s Tomb in Bethlehem and the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron, two West Bank sites considered holy to both Jews and Muslims, as Israeli national heritage sites. Clashes erupted after the announcement in what many viewed as a bid to claim Palestinian land under the guise of preserving cultural heritage. On March 14, Hawwâs cancelled the SCA’s unveiling ceremony for Cairo’s Maimonides Synagogue, a recently restored nineteenth-century synagogue, citing displeasure with recent Israeli actions in the Palestinian territories. He was quoted in the independent Israeli daily Ha’aretz, as saying that he had given “the Zionist enemy a slap in the face.” In a cultural, scientific and educational sense, name-calling and flag•waving degrade the ideals behind preserving humanity’s past. When artifacts are used as political footballs, history gets sidelined. In BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010 the spat over Maimonides Synagogue, the irony was lost on all parties. The synagogue’s namesake was a famous thirteenth-century Jewish philosopher and physician who died in Cairo after serving as the court physician to a series of Muslim sultans, including Salâh al-Dîn. (Michael KAPUT, “Whose Heritage?. Repatriating ancient treasures seems like a noble cause, but history might end up the loser”, Egypt Today, May 2010).
Allemagne Neues Museum : Buste de Néfertiti Thousands of artifacts are now returning to Egypt from abroad, but one piece continues to elude decades of government calls for its return: the famous bust of Nefertiti. The bust has become such a contentious symbol that a copy of it is now part of an exhibition at the Ruhr Museum in Germany dubbed “The Great Game: Archaeology and Politics in the Colonial Period,” open until 13 June. The original, unfinished sculpture from Thutmose’s workshop in Tell al-Amarna is internationally recognized for its artistic quality and aesthetic beauty. The Egyptian government says it was illegally smuggled out of the country some time around 1924. The German government has always refused to repatriate the queen, which remains the centerpiece of the Neues Museum in Berlin. The Ruhr exhibition also displays the contract between the Egyptian government and the sponsor of the Thutmose’s workshop exhibition, James SIMON, who was also the founder of the German Oriental Society. Charlotte TRÜMPLER, curator of both the exhibition and of the archaeological collection at the Ruhr Museum, said it was clear that all parties had agreed that half the findings would go to the excavation team. Authorities in Egypt say the export papers for the bust were deceptive, since it listed the bust as a statue of a “princess” —a description hardly befitting one of the most powerful queens in pharaonic Egypt. “I don’t think Nefertiti’s bust left legitimately, because, despite there being a contract, maybe Nefertiti was hidden or not seen by the person who ought to have seen her and decided on whether she should leave or not,” said Salima IKRAM, a professor of Egyptology at the American University in Cairo. That the copy of the bust at the Ruhr was made for the Kaiser WILHELM II in 1913, a year after the original was discovered, does not prove the Germans knew of its importance at the time — or that they intentionally deceived Egyptian authorities. TRÜMPLER said the Kaiser had been the patron of many archaeological activities, not only of the bust. “He sponsored excavations in Babylon and other places because he presided over the German Orientalist Society,” IKRAM explained.
A few years after the bust left its homeland, the Egyptian government realized its importance. Germany, however, refused to return it. “King Fu’âd II wanted Nefertiti back and they offered statues from the Cairo Museum to make an exchange,” TRÜMPLER said. “They knew the bust came to Germany correctly through a find sharing [contract].” “They had other objects that the director of antiquities found more important,” she added. “He wasn’t so interested in this bust.” But the relationship between colonial rule and the exportation of antiquities raises the question of whether the antiquities in question left their country of origin legitimately. “It’s a complicated thing because, at that time, that was the legitimate government, whether one likes it or not,” IKRAM said. France, the US and the United Kingdom have recently been repatriating items following pressure from and negotiations with Egypt. In early March, the Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA) announced that the UK had recently returned about 25,000 artifacts, some dating back to the Stone Age. In October, the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York agreed to return a granite relief fragment. Around the same time, the Louvre announced it would send back five fresco fragments after French Culture Minister Frédéric MITTERRAND convened a special meeting on the issue. “What they’re giving back are small things on the whole, and I think that they’re doing it with good will and good intent,” IKRAM said. “In some cases, what they are doing is giving a fragment of something the larger part of which remains in Egypt, so they’re completing something.” In other cases, the objects appear to have been smuggled illegally. This week, US authorities are sending back to Egypt a 3,000-year-old casket found with a Spanish dealer who failed to provide papers showing proof of ownership. “This coffin is one of the most beautiful wooden coffins, dating to 1080 BC,” said Egyptian Culture Minister Fârûq Husnî in a statement today. “It’s return to Egypt comes after nearly three years of Egyptian-American contacts through which Egypt succeeded in proving its legal right to restore this coffin.” SCA Secretary-General Zâhî Hawwâs could not be reached for comment because he was travelling to the US to bring back the coffin. Hawwâs has repeatedly called for the return of antiquities from a number of countries, sometimes threatening to cut off cultural ties as a means of exerting pressure. Such pressure may have contributed to the decision by the Louvre — and other museums — to repatriate antiquities, but the Germans have yet to acquiesce. “Frankly, Nefertiti is an iconic piece,” IKRAM said. “I’m sure the Germans feel they would lose not only tourism, but also prestige, by returning her.” (Andrew Bossone, “Waiting for Nefertiti”, al-Masrî al-Yawm, April 11, 2010. Voir également « Hawwâs s’engage à récupérer le buste de Néfertiti par les voies juridiques », al-Ahrâr du 1er janvier ; Samar Ali Ezzat, “For Nefertiti’s homecoming”, The Egyptian Gazette, January 7 ; Usâma Fârûq, « Néfertiti mène la guerre des restitutions ! », Akhbâr al-Adab du 18 avril ; Mushîra Mûsa, « Le buste de Néfertiti soulève une crise entre l’Égypte et l’Allemagne », al-Ahrâm du 15 mai ; Dâliyâ ‘Uthmân, « L’ambassadeur d’Allemagne : Néfertiti est sortie d’Égypte d’une façon légale », al-Masrî al-Yawm du 20 mai). German Foreign Minister Guido WESTERWELLE assured Egypt on Saturday that a dispute over the ownership of a 3,400 year•old bust of Queen Nefertiti will not damage ties between the two countries. Egypt and Germany have been at loggerheads over who legally owns the bust of the ancient beauty that is currently on display at the Neues Museum in Berlin. “I understand very well that this is a sensitive topic in Egypt. The statue was a legitimate acquisition of the Prussian state,” WESTERWELLE a told news conference in Cairo. The ancient artefact was at risk of being damaged even if it was lent to Egypt, according to the German minister. “Experts say it should not be moved due to possible breakage and for everyone’s benefit, it is better not to subject it to damage,” WESTERWELLE said. “But even this great treasure like the bust of Nefertiti will not damage relations between our two countries,” he concluded. For his part, Egyptian Foreign Minister Ahmad Abû al-Ghayt said Cairo would pursue discussions on the matter “with our German friends.” (AFP, “Nefertiti won’t come between us: German FM tells Egypt”, Daily News Egypt, May 23, 2010. Voir également “German FM: Nefertiti to stay in Berlin”, The Egyptian Gazette, May 24 ; Gum‘a Hamd Allah, « Berlin réitère son refus de rendre ou de prêter le buste de Néfertiti à l’Égypte », al-Masrî al-Yawm du 24 mai).
États -Unis Sarcophage d’Imesy
Following almost 18 months of investigations and legal battles involving fraudulent possession and shipment, a 21st Dynasty coffin of a private individual named Imesy is to come back to Egypt early in March. Culture Minister Fârûq Husnî describes the coffin, which is plastered and painted with colourful religious scenes, as one of the most beautiful coffins of its type. Zâhî Hawwâs, secretary-general of the Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA), says talks on the return of the coffin began in October 2008 when US customs officials at Miami International Airport detained a shipment from Spain containing the coffin, which was found to have no papers or provenance. The lack of documentation raised the concern of the American authorities, which suspected that the coffin might have left Egypt illegally. They were especially concerned because the shipment was made by Felix Cervera Correa, the owner of a private gallery, Arqueologia Clasia S.L., who had also had a family link to Fudacio Arrqueologica Clos, a private organisation that owns the Museu Egipci de Barcelona. The SCA was recently involved in negotiations with the Barcelona museum over stolen artefacts. The Immigration and Customs Enforcement Agency (ICE) of the US Department of Homeland Security (DHS) opened investigations and claimed that the coffin left Egypt prior to 1970. Its first public showing was in 2007, when it was exhibited in Madrid. According to a brief report, a copy of which is in the possession of Al- Ahram Weekly, the SCA has not been able to find any record of the coffin in its official registers, nor any record of its legal export abroad. Even experts specialising in coffins belonging to the 21st Dynasty had never seen this coffin before, which makes it very likely that the coffin was illegally excavated and smuggled abroad. Additional research undertaken by the SCA has discovered connections between the family of the importer and antiquities smuggling. It was ascertained that a gallery owner, Bea Felix Cervera, was arrested by the authorities more than a year ago after a police raid uncovered several Roman antiquities hidden in his gallery. Bea Felix Cervera is apparently the father of the importer, Felix Cervera Correa. The exhibition in which the Imesy coffin was displayed was at the Alexandra Irigoyen Gallery in Madrid, and was labelled “Galeria F. Cervera presents La Mirada de Egipto”. One of the other pieces displayed in this exhibition is a block from the site of Kom al-Khamsîn in the south of Saqqâra. Egyptologist Joseph CERVELLO has demonstrated that this block came from the tomb of Imep-Hor and was most probably looted from the site during a robbery in 1999. This again connects CERVERA with antiquities smuggling. The ICE confiscated the coffin and informed Hawwâs of its action. Upon the request of Hawwâs, the DHS seized the coffin in February 2009. All the interested parties had 30 days from the date of the seizure notice to respond; the American buyer of the coffin had already abandoned his interest, leaving only the SCA and CERVERA as potential claimants. The SCA petitioned the DHS to return the coffin to Egypt without bringing the matter before a court, but CERVERA contested this. Counsel for the SCA then filed a claim before the court in November 2009. Hawwâs provided all the required official documents and assigned a lawyer in Miami who agreed to file the lawsuit free of charge. According to Hawwâs, when CERVERA saw that the SCA was exerting such effort to procure the restitution of the coffin, and when CERVERA failed to file a counter claim before the deadline, he withdrew from the case and the SCA allowed the coffin to be forfeited to the US authorities, with the guarantee that the authorities would repatriate it as soon as possible. Arrangements have now been made for the coffin to be handed over to Hawwâs on 10 March by the ICE agents responsible for the seizure at a gala ceremony in the headquarters of the National Geographic Society in Washington, DC. (Nevine El-Aref, “Unknown, unregistered, but thanks”, Al- Ahram Weekly, February 25, 2010. Voir également Isrâ’ ‘Abd al-Tawwâb, « Le ministère de la Culture récupère début mars le sarcophage d’Imesy des États-Unis », al-Dustûr du 23 février ; Hassan Saadallah, “3,000-year-old sarcophagus back in Egypt”, The Egyptian Gazette, March 14 ; Rîhâm Hayâtî, « L’Égypte récupère un sarcophage vieux de 3 000 ans », Watanî du 21 mars).
Un sarcophage datant de 1081-931 avant J.-C. a été rendu à l’Égypte 125 ans après avoir quitté le pays illégalement. Un sarcophage pharaonique datant de la XXIe dynastie a été restitué samedi 13 mars à l’Égypte. D’après les autorités égyptiennes, le sarcophage a été sorti en contrebande du pays en 1884. Zâhî Hawwâs, qui a accompagné le sarcophage pendant le voyage de retour des États-Unis, a déclaré devant les journalistes que les négociations pour sa restitution avaient duré un an et demi. « Le sarcophage date de la XXIe dynastie », soit de 1081-931 avant J.-C., c’est « une époque pour laquelle nous avons relativement peu d’antiquités », a-t- il affirmé soulignant la rareté d’une telle pièce. Le sarcophage en bois est orné de textes religieux et d’images devant aider le défunt, un homme nommé Emus, dans son voyage après la mort, a été remis au chef des antiquités au cours d’une cérémonie à la National Geographic Society à Washington mercredi 10 mars. Le sarcophage sera la pièce centrale d’une exposition qui aura lieu à partir du 7 avril au Musée Égyptien, a expliqué le chef des Antiquités égyptiennes. L’Égypte avait demandé en 2009 la restitution du sarcophage aux États-Unis. Le Service américain de l’immigration et des douanes avait confisqué le cercueil, à Miami en Floride, à un négociant espagnol qui cherchait à le vendre mais n’avait aucun document prouvant l’authenticité du sarcophage, avait BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010 déclaré Hawwâs. Le chef du Conseil Suprême des Antiquités dit avoir récupéré 31.000 objets à l’étranger depuis son arrivée à la tête du CSA en 2002. (« Le sarcophage d’Emus restitué à l’Égypte », Watanî du 22 avril 2010. Voir également Fathiyya al-Dakhâkhnî, « L’Égypte parvient à récupérer un sarcophage de la XXIe dynastie après un an de négociation », al-Masrî al-Yawm du 23 février ; Ibtihâl Ghayth, « Retour des États-Unis du sarcophage d’Imesy », Uktubar du 28 février ; « L’Égypte récupère un sarcophage pharaonique des États-unis », Watanî du 17 mars ; AFP, “3,000- year-old sarcophagus back in Egypt”, Daily News Egypt, March 14). Saint Louis Art Museum : Masque de Ka-Nefer-Nefer Egypt’s antiquities chief, speaking Wednesday at a preview of a King Tut exhibition, renewed his attacks on museums he claims have refused to return artifacts that rightfully belong in Egypt. Zâhî Hawwâs, secretary general of Egypt’s Supreme Council of Antiquities, said he had a wish list of objects he wants returned. He singled out several museums, including the Saint Louis Art Museum, which he said has a 3,200-year•old mummy mask that was stolen before it was acquired by the museum. “We’re going to fight to get these unique artifacts back,” he said at the New York preview of “Tutankhamun and the Golden Age of the Pharaohs,” an exhibition that has traveled to five other US cities and London. Last week, he said he turned over to Homeland Security “all the evidence that I have to prove that this mask was stolen, and we have to bring it back.” On Wednesday, Saint Louis Art Museum spokeswoman Jennifer STOFFEL said the institution “had correspondence with Hawwâs in 2006 and 2007 and has not heard anything on the matter since.” At the time, she said the museum shared information with Hawwâs on the mask’s provenance and said “we would do the right thing... if there was something that refuted the legitimacy of the provenance.” The St. Louis museum has said it bought the mask from an art dealer in the United States in 1998 after checking with authorities and the international Art Loss Register to see if it had been stolen. It said it also approved the purchase with the Egyptian Museum. (Ula Ilnytzky, “King Tut exhibition opening in NYC”, Daily News Egypt, April 22, 2010. Voir également “Antiquities supreme chides museums”, The Egyptian Gazette, April 23).
France Musée du Louvre : Zodiaque de Dandara
Au fil de plus que 150 ans, des informations avaient circulé, selon lesquelles Muhammad ‘Alî avait offert le zodiaque de Dandara à la France. En revanche, ce chef-d’œuvre avait vécu une vraie aventure avant de trouver sa place au sein du Musée du Louvre. En effet, le zodiaque était intégré à l’une des 6 chapelles osiriennes que renferme le temple de Dandara. Dressé près de Qinâ, précisément dans la chapelle centrale parmi les trois de l’Est, le zodiaque représente le ciel tenu des quatre coins par quatre Horus, ainsi que huit autres divinités. Au sein du cylindre, sont indiqués les astres à l’instar de l’étoile Polaire et les constellations. « Les scientifiques de l’Expédition française étaient les premiers à annoncer la présence de ce zodiaque », explique Ayman Wahbî, professeur d’égyptologie à l’Université de Mansûra. Cette forme cylindrique du zodiaque est l’unique jamais découverte de toute l’Égypte, redoublant son importance. Suite à leur retour en France en 1801, le gouvernement français de l’époque avait décidé d’acquérir ce chef-d’œuvre. Pour ce faire, il avait envoyé, en 1821, un certain LELORRAIN au consul de France en Égypte. Cette personne avait une lettre de privilège du ministre français des Affaires étrangères de l’époque afin de faciliter sa mission en Égypte. Ainsi, Bughus Nûbâr pacha, le traducteur de Muhammad ‘Alî pacha, avait présenté LELORRAIN comme étant un amateur d’antiquités égyptiennes et voulait visiter les temples de Haute-Égypte. Pour sa part, le grand souverain avait accepté avec plaisir. LELORRAIN avait alors navigué sur le Nil. Mais l’armée ottomane, au cours d’une inspection à Banî Swayf, lui a demandé la cause de ce périple. LELORRAIN a prétendu qu’il « avait l’intention de partir pour la mer Rouge, afin de ramasser des pierres précieuses », reprend l’égyptologue. Ensuite, il avait continué sa navigation vers Dandara. Il a pénétré pendant la nuit et avait cassé le plafond qui portait le zodiaque et avait fait descendre le chef-d’œuvre avec des cordes à travers une cavité qu’il avait percé à l’est de la muraille entourant le temple. « Cette cavité existe jusqu’à aujourd’hui et témoigne du crime », déclare Wahbî. Le zodiaque hors du temple, LELORRAIN avait tenté de le mettre dans le navire pour retourner en Alexandrie. BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010 Mais le capitaine, ainsi que les ouvriers qui devaient le porter, avaient refusé et ils l’ont même jeté dans le Nil. LELORRAIN n’avait d’autre choix que de chercher un autre groupe d’ouvriers afin de le récupérer et augmenter le salaire du capitaine qui avait enfin accepté. Le zodiaque est parti pour la France. Un an plus tard, en 1822, le roi de France Louis XVIII avait acheté le zodiaque à 150 000 francs. Ensuite, il l’avait offert à la Bibliothèque Nationale. Puis, le zodiaque a été transféré au Musée du Louvre en 1964 jusqu’à présent. Selon l’égyptologue, cette aventure a été publiée par l’égyptologue anglais J. HADDON en 1825, ensuite par le baron GEORGES en 1829, d’autres Américains, ainsi que des historiens égyptiens tels Murqus ‘Azîz et ‘Abd al-Qâdir Hamza, tandis que toutes les références françaises maintiennent toujours la thèse du cadeau offert par Muhammad ‘Alî. En revanche, « si le zodiaque a été offert aux Français, comme ils le prétendent, alors pourquoi le roi était-il contraint de l’acheter à cette grande somme à l’époque ? », se demande-t-il. Donc le chef-d’œuvre était plutôt saisi et volé du temple égyptien ainsi en fait le silence complet des autorités du Musée du Louvre lorsque le secrétaire général du CSA a demandé le retour du zodiaque. (Doaa Elhami, « Aventure d’un chef- d’œuvre », Al-Ahram Hebdo du 23 juin 2010).
Royaume -Uni University College London : 217 objets préhistoriques A large collection of prehistoric artefacts, some of them dating from as far back as the Stone Age, have been sent home to Egypt. Nevine El-Aref reports that following several meetings with University College London, Egypt has succeeded in claiming the restitution of 217 early objects. The objects were part of a division agreement between Egypt and Great Britain more than 50 years ago. The collection includes a stone axe dating back 200,000 years, as well as pottery from the seventh millennium BC that bears the fingerprints of its maker. The artefacts will constitute the foundation for a collection from the pre-dynastic Naqada period, named after a village in southern Egypt where they were found. “[This] represents one of the oldest centres of civilisation in the world,” Culture Minister Fârûq Husnî says. Zâhî Hawwâs, secretary•general of the Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA), said the collection would form the core of a planned museum of prehistoric art currently under construction in Dâkhla Oasis. This museum will be named after the renowned archaeologist Ahmed Fakhrî, who documented the archaeology of the Western Desert oases and discovered several pre•dynastic objects.
Khâlid Sa‘d, head of the prehistoric department at the SCA, said that among the most significant of the recovered objects were a perfume jar and two stone stelae used to grind pigments, as well as an axe with a stone handle and an ivory box, arrows, pins and some human hair. Since he took office in 2002, Hawwâs has succeeded in retrieving 31,000 relics from abroad. Egypt is due to host a conference in April demanding the return of its antiquities, taken from but on display in museums around the world. Thirty countries, including Greece, Mexico, Peru, Afghanistan, Iraq, Cambodia and China, will participate in the Cairo gathering. (Nevine El-Aref, “Prehistoric objects to go to Dâkhla”, Al-Ahram Weekly, March 11, 2010. Voir également Adel Moustafa, “25,000 artifacts return from UK”, The Egyptian Gazette, March 4 ; ‘Abd al-Khâliq Khalîfa, « Retour de Londres de pièces préhistotiques », al-Wafd du 4 mars ; Fathiyya al-Dakhâkhnî, « L’University College restitute à l’Égypte des milliers de pièces antiques », al-Masrî al-Yawm du 5 mars ; « L’Égypte récupère des pièces remontant à la préhistoire », al-‘Arabî du 7 mars ; « L’Égypte reçoit 25 mille pièces antiques du Royaume-Uni », al-Qâhira du 9 mars ; Doaa Elhami, « Des objets antiques retrouvent leur lieu de naissance », Al-Ahram Hebdo du 10 mars).
Suisse The Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA) head and the Ambassador of Switzerland will sign a protocol on Wednesday by which Egypt will restore many ancient relics from the European country. SCA Chairman Zâhî Hawwâs and Ambassador Dominick FUZRGLER will sign the agreement, which asks Switzerland to hand over the antiquities, which were taken illegally, to Egypt, said Imân al-Fâr, the Foreign Minister’s assistant for agreements and cultural protocols’ affairs. Hawwâs is stepping up demands for the restitution of many relics from many European museums including the Rosetta Stone on display in the British Museum and the bust of Queen Nefertiti in Berlin’s Neues museum. (Mohamed Ismail, “SCA to restore antiquities from Switzerland”, The Egyptian Gazette, April 5, 2010). Orteil d’Akhenaton Un scientifique suisse a remis à l’Égypte un doigt de pied de la momie du pharaon Akhenaton, père du légendaire Toutankhamon, a annoncé le Conseil Suprême des Antiquités (CSA). L’orteil dérobé en 1907 lors d’un examen des ossements a été remis lors d’une cérémonie de signature au Caire d’un accord entre l’Égypte et la Suisse destiné à faciliter la restitution d’antiquités, a déclaré le CSA. « Maintenant que l’orteil est de retour en Égypte, il sera exposé au Musée égyptien du Caire », écrit le CSA dans un communiqué, en assurant qu’il provient bien du squelette d’Akhenaton retrouvé dans la Vallée des Rois, près de Louxor. (…) L’ambassade de Suisse au Caire a pour sa part indiqué que la relique provenant « très probablement » des restes d’Akhenaton a été remise au chef du CSA, Zâhî Hawwâs, par Frank RÜHLI, un scientifique de l’université de Zurich spécialiste des momies. Il s’agit d’une « initiative privée de la part de ce scientifique qui a, grâce à ses contacts personnels », récupéré l’orteil « dans un autre pays européen », a déclaré un diplomate, sans préciser de quel pays il s’agissait. « Il ne s’agit donc pas d’une restitution par le gouvernement suisse », a-t•il ajouté. Depuis 2002 la Suisse est le 16e pays à signer avec l’Égypte un accord sur la restitution des antiquités sorties illégalement. « Ce nouvel accord est d’autant plus important que de nombreuses antiquités volées en Égypte passent par la Suisse », a souligné le CSA dans son communiqué. L’Égypte, qui fait du retour de ses antiquités dispersées à travers le monde une grande cause nationale, a organisé la semaine dernière une conférence internationale sur ce sujet. Aucune des six pièces réclamées en priorité par Le Caire — au premier rang desquelles un buste de Néfertiti exposé à Berlin et la pierre de Rosette détenue par le British Museum — n'est toutefois présente en Suisse. L’ambassade helvétique a précisé que cet accord n’était pas rétroactif et se basait sur la convention de l’Unesco de 1970 sur la protection des antiquités et la lutte contre les trafics illicites. Il permet ainsi de mieux « protéger l’acquisition de biens culturels achetés de bonne foi », souligne l’ambassade. Le CSA rappelle quant à lui qu’au cours des dernières années la Suisse a déjà rendu « des centaines de pièces », dont un oeil du pharaon Amenhotep III pris sur une statue à Louxor et exposé à Bâle. « Ce nouvel accord va permettre à l’Égypte de récupérer tous les objets présents illégalement en Suisse ». (« Un orteil d’Akhenaton regagne l’Égypte », Watanî du 18 avril 2010. Voir également Hassan Saadallah, “Tut’s dad’s toe comes home”, The Egyptian Gazette, April 15 ; Doaa Elhami, « L’Égypte est vraiment éternelle », Al- Ahram Hebdo du 21 avril).
Tunisie 3 instruments de navigation du XIXe siècle After five years of negotiations with the Tunisian authorities, Egypt will once again be in possession of three antiquities dating back to the 19th century, which were illegally smuggled out of the country to Tunisia seven years ago. “The three antiquities belonging to the era of Egypt’s Khedive Ismâ‘îl and his grandson Khedive ‘Abbâs Hilmî II were confiscated by Tunisian authorities in 2003,” Egypt chief archaeologist Zâhî Hawwâs said yesterday. He added that Mahmûd ‘Abbâs, the chief of the Egyptian Modern Antiquities Department of the Supreme Council of Antiquities, was dispatched to receive them from Tunisia. “The three pieces are topography tools that were used in 1860s by rulers from the Muhammad ‘Alî dynasty. They were illegally stolen and the Tunisian authorities finally was persuaded to give them back,” Hawwâs said. The antiquities were all French-made tools, according to him. (Hassan Saadallah, “Artifacts come home from Tunisia”, The Egyptian Gazette, January 8, 2010. Voir également Safwat Dusûqî, « L’Égypte récupère des pièces de l’époque de Muhammad ‘Alî », al-Wafd du 8 janvier ; Taha ‘Abd al- Rahmân, « L’Égypte récupère 3 pièces archéologiques exceptionnelles datant de la famille alaouite », al-Ahrâr du 8 janvier). - -
VI – RECHERCHES & DÉCOUVERTES
Scientists have established for the first time clear dates for the ruling dynasties of ancient Egypt after carbon dating plant remains, according to a research published Friday. The results will force historians to revise their records for the two millennia when ancient Egypt dominated the Mediterranean world and hopefully end debate once and for all between rival Egyptologists. Led by Professor Christopher RAMSEY of Britain’s Oxford University, an international team tested seeds, baskets, textiles, plant stems and fruit obtained from museums in the United States and Europe for the landmark study. “For the first time, radiocarbon dating has become precise enough to constrain the history of ancient Egypt to very specific dates,” said RAMSEY. “I think scholars and scientists will be glad to hear that our small team of researchers has independently corroborated a century of scholarship in just three years.” Dates for Egypt’s Old, Middle and New Kingdoms had been based on historical documents or archaeological findings, but estimates were notoriously uncertain as each dynasty would reset the clock. The new data showed the reign of Djoser, the best known pharaoh in the Old Kingdom, was between 2691 and 2625 BCE, some 50 to 100 years earlier than the established wisdom. The study, published in Friday’s issue of the US journal Science, also concluded that the New Kingdom started slightly earlier than thought, between 1570 and 1544 BCE. The research team included experts from the universities of Oxford and Cranfield in Britain, the National Center for Scientific Research (CNRS) in France, and experts from Austria and Israel. Radiocarbon dating, also known as carbon-14 dating, is a technique that can accurately determine the age of organic material. (“Scientists use plants to date Egypt’s pharaohs”, al-Masrî al-Yawm, June 18, 2010. Voir également “Scientists use plants to date Pharaohs”, The Egyptian Gazette, June 19 ; Mervat Ayad, “Egyptian dates”, Watanî, June 27).
A Team of archaeologists and historians are trying to discover why 50,000 Persian soldiers disappeared in the Western Desert in 525 BC, after attacking Cambyses, the Persian King of Egypt. This new mission has been inspired by geologists finding human bones in the Western Desert a couple of years ago. (…) The team will go to the Bahr al-Rimâl (Sea of Sand) area of the Western Desert within the next few weeks, in order to draw up maps of remote locations using satellites. If they do indeed discover what happened to Cambyses II’s lost 50,000 strong army, they will have solved one of the ancient world’s greatest mysteries, probably providing us with much valuable information about the Persian military of the time, and perhaps even Cambyses II himself. (Hassan Saadallah, “Trying to solve an ancient mystery”, The Egyptian Gazette, January 2, 2010). Egyptian archaeologists have unearthed the largest tomb yet discovered in the ancient Saqqâra necropolis, antiquities chief Zâhî Hawwâs said on Monday. One of two tombs found, which were carved out of stone, consists of a vast chamber that branches off into many alcoves. One alcove contained skeletons and pottery, and led to another chamber with a seven-metre-deep well. “This is the largest tomb in Saqqâra,” Hawwâs told reporters. “It took me two hours to look round all of it.” At the northern end of the tomb, Hawwâs said archaeologists found another alcove that contained mummified falcons and well-preserved pottery. However, he said the tomb did appear to have been looted. Pottery was found in the other, much smaller, tomb. “This discovery... confirms that the Saqqâra area still contains undiscovered secrets,” Hawwâs said. (“New tombs near Pyramids discovered”, The Egyptian Gazette, January 04, 2010. Voir également AFP, “Huge tomb found in ancient Saqqâra burial ground”, Daily News Egypt, January 5 ; Taha ‘Abd al-Rahmân, « Mise au jour de la plus grande tombe antique à Saqqâra », al-Ahrâr du 5 janvier ; Isrâ’ ‘Abd al-Tawwâb, « Hawwâs annonce la découverte des deux plus grandes tombes à Saqqâra », al-Dustûr du 5 janvier).
La mission archéologique belge du Musée royal de Mariemont a découvert un buste de la déesse Isis sur un terrain appartenant à deux écoles situées dans la région de Smûha à l’Est d’Alexandrie, en plus d’un certain nombre de pièces en granite inscrites en hiéroglyphes, des fragments de récipients en céramique, des monnaies en bronze et des colliers. Cette découverte révèle la présence d’un temple ptolémaïque sur ce site. (…) De son côté, le directeur général des Antiquités d’Alexandrie et de l’Ouest du Delta, ‘Alâ’ al-Shahhât, a souligné que cette découverte soulève des points d’interrogation. Car son emplacement se trouve éloigné des sites archéologiques traditionnels et appartient à deux écoles : l’école al- Ibrâhimiyya pour jeunes filles et l’école primaire Ashraf al-Khûga. (« Découverte d’une statue d’Isis dans deux écoles en Alexandrie », al-Ahrâr du 28 janvier 2010). The red granite head of King Amenhotep III, part of a larger 3,000 year•old statue, was discovered at the site of the Pharaoh’s funerary temple in Luxor, Egypt’s Culture Ministry said in a statement. “The newly discovered head is intact and measures 2.5 metres high,” antiquities chief Zâhî Hawwâs was quoted as saying. “It is a masterpiece of highly artistic quality and shows a portrait of the king with very fine youthful sculptured features,” Hawwâs said, adding there were still traces of red paint on the head. The artefact belongs to a large statue of the king standing with his hands crossed over his chest and holding the royal insignia, said Hourig SOUROUZIAN who headed the team of archaeologists that made the find. In recent years, a large quantity of red granite statue pieces have been uncovered at Amenhotep III’s funerary temple at Kom al-Hîtân on Luxor’s west bank. (Hassan Saadallah, “Statue head of King Tut’s grandfather found in Luxor”, The Egyptian Gazette, March 01, 2010. Voir également Safwat Dusûqî, « Découverte de la plus grosse tête d’Amenhotep III sur la rive Ouest 1er de Louqsor », al-Wafd du mars ; Taha ‘Abd al-Rahmân, « Amenhotep III révèle ses secrets dans son temple à Louqsor », al-Ahrâr du 2 mars). Egyptian archaeologists have discovered a colossal ancient statue of the Pharaonic deity of wisdom, Thoth, in the shape of a baboon, the council of antiquities said in a statement on Tuesday. The four•meter tall statue was discovered in four pieces along with two statues while workers were lowering ground waters beneath Luxor to help preserve the city’s Pharaonic temples, the statement said. It dates back to the 18th Dynasty, which ruled Egypt until 1292 BC. “It is the first time that a statue of Thoth, depicting him as a monkey, of this magnitude has been discovered,” Mansûr Burayk, head of Pharaonic antiquities in Luxor, told AFP. The statues were discovered near the temple of Amenhotep III, who ruled until 1372 BC. Another statue, of which only the upper half was found, depicted the king and the sky god Horus, represented as a falcon, antiquities chief Zâhî Hawwâs said in the statement. “The team also discovered an alabaster statue base that is expected to have been the base of one of Amenhotep III’s statues,” he said. A granite statue of the pharaoh Ramses III, who ruled about 3,000 years ago, was also found. (AFP, “Colossal statue of ancient monkey god found in Luxor”, Daily News Egypt, March 17, 2010. Voir également Reuters, “Amenhotep III statues unearthed in Luxor”, The Egyptian Gazette, March 16 ; « Thot sous forme de babouin », Al-Ahram Hebdo du 24 mars ; Safwat Dusûqî, « Découverte d’une statue colossale de la déesse de la sagesse sur la rive Ouest », al-Wafd du 17 mai ; Mervat Ayad, “Colossus of wisdom”, Watanî, May 30 ; Nevine El-Aref, “Lord mayor of Memphis”, Al- Ahram Weekly, June 3). In the course of routine excavations in front of the Karnak temples, an Egyptian team unearthed a huge, red granite false door taken from the tomb of Queen Hatshepsut’s vizier User and his wife, Toy. According to Zâhî Hawwâs, secretary-general of the Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA), the door, which is 175cm tall, 100cm wide and 50cm thick, is engraved with religious texts as well as User’s various titles: the mayor of the city; vizier; and inheriting prince. User is believed to have come to office in the fifth year of Hatshepsut’s reign. He built a tomb for himself and his wife on the west bank at Luxor (number 61). Mansûr Burayk, supervisor of Luxor antiquities and head of the excavation team, said the newly•discovered door was cut from the tomb during the Roman period and used as part of a wall found several months ago by the mission. Burayk said User was the uncle of the well-known vizier Rekhmere, who was the vizier of Pharaoh Tuthmosis III (1504-1452 BC). A chapel that belonged to User (number 17) was found in the Silsila mountain quarries in Aswân, testimony to the vizier’s importance under Hatshepsut. The position of vizier was a top post in ancient Egypt, especially during the 18th Dynasty. Among the best known viziers of the dynasty were Rekhmere and Ramose who served under Amenhotep III and IV, as well as the military chief Horemheb who eventually came to the Egyptian throne as the last king of the 18th Dynasty. (Nevine El-Aref, “The vizier’s door”, Al-Ahram Weekly, April 1, 2010. Voir également AFP, “Ancient doorway to afterlife discovered in Egypt”, Daily News Egypt, March 29 ; Hassan Saadallah, “Doorway to afterlife unearthed”, The Egyptian Gazette, March 30 ; Safwat Dusûqî, « Mise au jour d’une fausse porte appartenant au vizir de Hatshepsout », al-Wafd du 30 mars ; Taha ‘Abd al-Rahmân, « Découverte de la fausse porte du vizir de la reine Hatshepsout », al-Ahrâr du 30 mars).
Minister of Culture Fârûq Husnî announced on April 12, 2010 the discovery of 14 Greco-Roman tombs dated back to 2,300 years at a construction site near al-Bâwîtî 6th town in Bahariyya Oasis, October Governorate. The archaeologists discovered four plaster human masks, a gold fragment decorated with the four sons of the god Horus, as well as coins, clay and glass, said Zâhî Hawwâs, the Secretary-General of the Supreme Council of Antiquities. A mummy of a woman measuring 97 centimeters, wearing some jewellery and covered with colored plaster depicting a Roman costume, was also found. The tombs were unearthed in an area where a youth center was to be built in a village there, Sabrî ‘Abd al-‘Azîz, the head of the ancient Egyptian antiquities department, said in a statement. The antiquities department has halted construction at the site, where a large necropolis may exist, he said. (“Ancient cemetery found in Bahariya Oasis”, Egypt State Information Service, April 13, 2010. Voir également AFP, “Egypt archaeologists uncover Roman mummy”, al-Masrî al-Yawm, April 13 ; “14 Graeco-Roman Tombs unearthed”, Egyptian Mail, April 13 ; BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010 Safwat Dusûqî, « Mise au jour de 14 tombes grecques à Bahariyya », al-Wafd du 13 avril ; Taha ‘Abd al-Rahmân, « Nouvelle nécropole à Bahariyya », al- Ahrâr du 13 avril ; ‘Isâm ‘Umrân, « Découverte d’un trésor archéologique à Bahariyya », al-Gumhûriyya du 13 avril ; Ibtihâl Ghayth, « Bahariyya révèle ses secrets », Uktubar du 18 avril ; Lu’ay Mahmûd Sa‘îd, « Musées et antiquités », al-Qâhira du 20 avril ; Doaa Elhami, « L’Égypte est vraiment éternelle », Al-Ahram Hebdo du 21 avril ; Nevine El-Aref, “In the sands of time”, Al-Ahram Weekly, April 29). Une mission d’archéologues égyptiens a découvert dans la région d’Ismâ‘iliyya (nord-est) la tombe d’un scribe royal. La tombe, datant de plus de 3 300 ans découverte à Tell al-Maskhûta, à environ 120 km à l’est du Caire, appartenait à Qin Amin, un scribe royal qui occupait d’importantes fonctions. La tombe contenait également un fragment de plaque de calcaire décorée sur laquelle étaient gravés des hiéroglyphes représentant le nom d’Avaris, ancienne capitale des Hyksôs, peuple pluriethnique arrivé dans la région du delta du Nil depuis l’Asie. Selon le chef du CSA, Zâhî Hawwâs, « cette tombe est la première tombe datant de la XIXe dynastie que nous découvrons dans la région du delta du Nil avec un tel degré de perfection et de créativité artistique dans l’exécution des décorations ». Les archéologues ont également retrouvé au niveau supérieur du site 35 tombes datant de l’époque romaine. (Doaa Elhami, « L’Égypte est vraiment éternelle », Al-Ahram Hebdo du 21 avril 2010). Archaeologists in Egypt say they have discovered a headless granite statue more than 2,000 years old belonging to an unidentified Ptolemaic-era king. Tuesday’s statement by the Supreme Council of Antiquities says an Egyptian- Dominican team made the discovery at the temple of Taposiris Magna, west of the coastal city of Alexandria. Archaeology chief Zâhî Hawwâs says the well-preserved statue may be among the most beautiful carvings in the ancient Egyptian style. He says the statue could belong to King Ptolemy IV. The statue’s height is 53 inches and its width at the shoulders is 22 inches. Alexandria was the seat of the Greek-speaking Ptolemaic Dynasty, which ruled Egypt for 300 years, until the suicide of Queen Cleopatra. (“Archaeologists in Egypt find Ptolemaic king statue”, Daily News Egypt, May 4, 2010. Voir également AP, “Archaeologists in Egypt find Ptolemaic king statue”, al-Masrî al-Yawm, May 5 ; Mervat Ayad, « Découverte d’une "énorme" statue ptolémaïque », Watanî du 23 mai).
Archaeologists have unearthed 57 ancient Egyptian tombs, most of which hold an ornately painted wooden sarcophagus with a mummy inside, Egypt’s Supreme Council of Antiquities said Sunday. The oldest tombs date back to around 2750 BC during the period of Egypt’s first and second dynasties, the council said in a statement. Twelve of the tombs belong the 18th dynasty, which ruled Egypt during the second millennium BC. The discovery throws new light on Egypt’s ancient religions, the council said. Egypt’s archaeology chief, Zâhî Hawwâs, said the mummies dating to the 18th dynasty are covered in linen decorated with religious texts from the Book of the Dead and scenes featuring ancient Egyptian deities. ‘Abd al-Rahmân al-‘Âydî, head of the archaeological mission that made the discovery, said some of the tombs are decorated with religious texts that ancient Egyptians believed would help the deceased to cross through the underworld. Al-‘Âydî said one of the oldest tombs is almost completely intact, with all of its funerary equipment and a wooden sarcophagus containing a mummy wrapped in linen. In 31 tombs dating to around 2030•1840 B.C, archaeologists discovered scenes of different ancient Egyptian deities, such as the falcon-headed Horus, Hathor, Khnum and Amun, decorating some of the tombs. The council said the findings were unearthed at Lâhûn, in Fayyûm, some 100 kilometers south of Cairo. Last year, some 53 stone tombs dating back to various ancient periods were found in the area. (“57 ancient tombs with mummies unearthed in Egypt”, Daily News Egypt, May 24, 2010. Voir également AP, “57 ancient tombs unearthed in Egypt”, The Egyptian Gazette, May 23 ; Mervat Ayad, “45 tombs”, Watanî, May 30). (…) At Dayr Yehnes al-Qusayr in Wâdî al-Natrûn a joint venture archaeological mission from Bill University in the United States and the SCA unearthed a gold Umayyad coin. The coin is very well preserved and each side is decorated with BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010 Kufic inscriptions. One side bears the name of Allah, while on the obverse is written: “In the name of God the Merciful”. The edge bears the year when the coin was struck: 103 Higra (721 AD) which was during the reign of the Umayyad Caliph Yâzîd Ibn ‘Abd al-Malik Ibn Marawân, an era well known with its peace and prosperity. (Nevine El-Aref, “Lord mayor of Memphis”, Al- Ahram Weekly, June 3, 2010. Voir également Safwat Dusûqî, « Mise au jour d’un dînâr en or datant de l’époque Omeyyade », al-Wafd du 25 mai ; « Découverte d’un dînâr en or de l’époque Omeyyade à Wâdî al-Natrûn », al- Ahrâr du 25 mai ; Lu’ay Mahmûd Sa‘îd, « Musées et antiquités », al-Qâhira du 1er juin). The Minister of Culture, Fârûq Husnî received yesterday a technical and ecological report on the health of the Great Sphinx at Gîza, which asserted that the giant statue and the surrounding bedrock are safe, and that the groundwater in the area in front of it has not affected any part of its body. Zâhî Hawwâs, the Secretary General of the Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA), said that the scientific studies carried out by the Ecology and Engineering Centre revealed that the groundwater in front of the Sphinx is potable water, found at a depth of 4,8 metres below ground, a level which has not changed since ancient times. He asserted that within two months, the water in front of the Sphinx will be pumped out within the framework of a LE2 million project being implemented out by the Archaeological Engineering Centre at Cairo University (AEC). (Hassan Saadallah, “Sphinx, surrounding bedrock area safe”, The Egyptian Gazette, June 6, 2010). Lors des travaux de creusement pour l’installation d’un réseau sanitaire dans le village de Zâwiyat Râzîn situé dans le gouvernorat de Munûfiyya, les ouvriers d’une entreprise du bâtiment ont découvert un pot en céramique rempli de 431 pièces de monnaies antiques. (Rif‘at Abû Srî‘, « Découverte de 431 pièces archéologiques lors de creusement à Munûfiyya », al-Ahrâm du 17 juin 2010). Les travaux d’installation d’un réseau sanitaire dans la région al-Dab‘iyya à al-Qurna sont interrompus suite à la découverte de pièces archéologiques remontant à Amenhotep III. (Sâmih ‘Abd al-Fattâh, « Des antiquités dans les égouts », al-Masrî al-Yawm du 23 juin 2010).
Egypt’s Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA) last week announced that an Austrian team has used radar imaging to find the outlines of the 3,500- year-old capital of Egypt. According to Irene FORSTNER-MÜLLER, the head of the Austrian mission, the radar imaging shows the outlines of streets, houses and temples underneath the green farm fields and modern towns in Egypt’s East Delta region. It reveals that a Nile branch passed through that region back then; two islands were spotted by the radar as well as a port. SCA secretary-general Zâhî Hawwâs said that the area could be part of Avaris, the summer capital of the Hyksos, invaders from Asia who ruled Egypt from 1664 – 1569BC. Such non•invasive techniques, he said, are the best way to define the extent of the site. Aerial photographs show several modern towns in the area. (Mervat Ayad, “Radar find”, Watanî, June 27, 2010).
Kom al -Dikka During routine excavations near the Roman theatre at Kom al-Dikka in Alexandria, an archaeological mission from the Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA) has discovered the remains of a temple built by Queen Berenike, wife of Ptolemy III (246-222 BC), along with a cachette of 600 Ptolemaic statues. The temple is believed to measure 60 metres by 15 metres and extends underneath the present Ismâ‘îl Fahmî Street. Zâhî Hawwâs, secretary-general of the SCA, says the temple was much destroyed in later centuries when it was used as a source of worked stone, which led to the disappearance of many of its components. Muhammad ‘Abd al-Maqsûd, head of the antiquities of Lower Egypt, said the team, which comprises 18 skilled excavators and restorers, unearthed a large collection of statues depicting the cat goddess Bastet, the goddess of protection and motherhood, which indicates that the temple was dedicated to this popular Delta goddess. The Bastet statues were unearthed in three different areas of the site together with other limestone statues of unidentified women and children. Clay pots as well as bronze and faience statues of various ancient Egyptian deities have also been uncovered, along with terracotta statues of the gods Harpocrates and Ptah. Early studies on site, ‘Abd al-Maqsûd says, reveal that the temple foundations can be dated to the reign of Queen Berenike, making this the first Ptolemaic temple discovered in Alexandria to be dedicated to the goddess Bastet. It also indicates that the worship of the goddess Bastet continued in Egypt after the decline of the ancient Egyptian dynasties. An inscribed base of a granite statue from the reign of Ptolemy IV was also unearthed. It bears ancient Greek text written in nine lines stating that the statue belonged to a top official at the Ptolemaic court. ‘Abd al- Maqsûd believes the base was made to celebrate Egypt’s victory over the Greeks during the Battle of Raphia in 217 BC. The mission also found a group of old structures, including a Roman water cistern, a group of 14-metre-deep water wells, stone water channels, and the remains of a bath area, as well as a large number of clay pots and shards that can be dated to the fourth century BC. ‘Abd al-Maqsûd believes that this find is the first trace of the real location of Alexandria’s royal quarter. (Nevine El-Aref, “A cat can look at a queen”, Al-Ahram Weekly, January 21, 2010. Voir également Hasan Abû Shaqra, « Mise au jour de nouvelles antiquités à Kom al-Dikka », al-Dustûr du 12 janvier ; Hassan Saadallah, “Bastet temple unearthed in Alex”, The Egyptian Gazette, January 20 ; Safwat Dusûqî, « Découverte en Alexandrie d’un temple appartenant à Bérénice II », al-Wafd du 20 janvier ; Mervat Ayad, “Fit for a queen”, Watanî, January 24 ; Doaa Elhami, « Bastet s’étire sur la Méditerranée », Al-Ahram Hebdo du 27 janvier ; Ibtihâl Ghayth, « Kom al-Dikka dévoile ses trésors historiques », Uktubar du 31 janvier).
Héraklion Plunging into the waters off Alexandria Tuesday, divers explored the submerged ruins of a palace and temple complex from which Cleopatra ruled, swimming over heaps of limestone blocks hammered into the sea by earthquakes and tsunamis more than 1,600 years ago. The international team is painstakingly excavating one of the richest underwater archaeological sites in the world and retrieving stunning artifacts from the last dynasty to rule over ancient Egypt before the Roman Empire annexed it in 30 BC. Using advanced technology, the team is surveying ancient Alexandria’s Royal Quarters, encased deep below the harbor sediment, and confirming the accuracy of descriptions of the city left by Greek geographers and historians more than 2,000 years ago. Since the early 1990s, the topographical surveys have allowed the team, led by French underwater archaeologist Franck GODDIO, to conquer the harbor’s extremely poor visibility and excavate below the seabed. They are discovering everything from coins and everyday objects to colossal granite statues of Egypt’s rulers and sunken temples dedicated to their gods.
“It’s a unique site in the world,” said GODDIO, who has spent two decades searching for shipwrecks and lost cities below the seas. The finds from along the Egyptian coast will go on display at Philadelphia’s Franklin Institute from June 5 to Jan. 2 in an exhibition titled “Cleopatra: The Search for the Last Queen of Egypt.” The exhibition will tour several other North American cities. Many archaeological sites have been destroyed by man, with statues cut or smashed to pieces. Alexandria’s Royal Quarters — ports, a cape and islands full of temples, palaces and military outposts — simply slid into the sea after cataclysmic earthquakes in the fourth and eighth centuries. GODDIO’s team found it in 1996. Many of its treasures are completely intact, wrapped in sediment protecting them from the saltwater. “It’s as it was when it sank,” said Ashraf ‘Abd al-Ra’ûf of Egypt’s Supreme Council of Antiquities, who is part of the team. Tuesday’s dive explored the sprawling palace and temple complex where Cleopatra, the last of Egypt’s Greek-speaking Ptolemaic rulers, seduced the Roman general Mark Antony before they committed suicide upon their defeat by Octavian, the future Roman Emperor Augustus. Dives have taken GODDIO and his team to some of the key scenes in the dramatic lives of the couple, including the Timonium, commissioned by Antony after his defeat as a place where he could retreat from the world, though he killed himself before it was completed. They also found a colossal stone head believed to be of Caesarion, son of Cleopatra and previous lover Julius Caesar, and two sphinxes, one of them probably representing Cleopatra's father, Ptolemy XII. Divers photographed a section of the seabed cleared of sediment with a powerful suction device. Their flashlights glowing in the green murk, the divers photographed ruins from a temple to Isis near Cleopatra’s palace on the submerged island of Antirhodos. Among the massive limestone blocks toppled in the fourth century was a huge quartzite block with an engraving of a pharaoh. An inscription indicates it depicts Seti I, father of Ramses II. “We’ve found many Pharaonic objects that were brought from Heliopolis, in what is now Cairo,” said ‘Abd al- Ra’ûf. “So, the Ptolemaic rulers re•used Pharaonic objects to construct their buildings.” On the boat’s deck, researchers displayed some small recent finds: imported ceramics and local copies, a statuette of a pharaoh, bronze ritual vessels, amulets barely bigger than a fingernail, and small lead vessels tossed by the poor into the water or buried in the ground as devotions to gods. Alexandria’s Eastern Harbor was abandoned after another earthquake, in the eighth century, and was left untouched as an open bay — apart from two 20th century breakwaters — while modern port construction went ahead in the Western Harbor. That has left the ancient Portus Magnus undisturbed below. “We have this as an open field for archaeology,” GODDIO said. (Jason Keyser/Associated Press, “Divers explore sunken ruins of Cleopatra’s palace”, Daily News Egypt, May 30, 2010).
Taposiris Magna Last Saturday was a very strange day. At Taposiris Magna, where the ruins of the Osiris Temple and few Graeco-Roman tombs emerge from the sand, a dozen journalists, photographers and TV cameramen gathered to witness the revelations of the latest search there carried by an Egyptian-Dominican team. At first everything seemed as normal as usual. Excavators were busy digging while workmen with their black buckets removing the sand out of the temple. At 9:30am sharp Zâhî Hawwâs, secretary-general of the Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA), who is supervising the excavations, came to the site to make the announcement and to explore a newly-discovered three- metre-deep shaft. Dominican archaeologist Kathleen MARTINEZ, who heads the excavation mission, was also on the site. There was a sense of great excitement and anxiety as we waited to see what lay inside the shaft. By this time Hawwâs, in his Indiana Jones hat, was enclosed inside a red iron cage hung on an anchor which suspended him on a thick wire from an electronic engine. Hawwâs went downwards, and when he had almost reached the bottom he gave the order for the engine to stop as he had found subterranean water covering the bottom of the shaft. After a few moments of thought, and under the spell of his passion for archaeology, Hawwâs decided to take the plunge because, he said, he believed that underneath the water there would most probably be a monument or a collection of artefacts. However, when the team on top resumed their drilling, the engine refused to operate and Hawwâs was trapped inside the cage which swung bashing Hawwâs against the rough sides of the stony shaft. This went on for 20 minutes until, following several failed attempts, workmen pulled the cage out manually.
“It’s Cleopatra curse!” one of the workers cried out. Hawwâs laughed, and said that it was not the first time he had been in such a position. “I always face circumstances like this when I am up to something special,” he told Al-Ahram Weekly.“When I was digging inside the Valley of the Golden Mummies I got an electric shock from a lamp I was holding. The shock threw me two metres away and I hit the floor of the tomb. And an hour before my lecture at the opening of the Tutankhamun exhibition in the United States, the light of the gallery went out and the computer didn’t work. I think this wasn’t the Pharaohs’ curse but Hawwâs’s curse,” he said with a huge grin. He went on to say that the ancient temple site might hide the tomb of the legendary lovers Queen Cleopatra VII and Mark Anthony as it was a perfect place to hide their corpses, especially since Egypt was in a very bad political situation at the time of the war with Octavian — later the Roman Emperor Augustine. “Searching for the tomb of Cleopatra and Mark Anthony is very exciting,” Hawwâs said. He pointed out that his fondness for Cleopatra blossomed in his early youth, when at 16 years old he began to study Graeco-Roman archaeology in the Faculty of Art’s Greek and Roman Department at the University of Alexandria. He once asked Fawzî al- Fakharânî, professor of Greek and Roman archaeology, about the place that he thought might be the location of the tomb of Cleopatra. Al-Fakharânî told him at the time: “To our knowledge and information Cleopatra was buried in a tomb beside her palace, which is now submerged under the Mediterranean Sea.” Hawwâs relates that he forgot about the issue until four years ago, when Dominican archaeologist MARTINEZ came to pay him a visit and tried to convince him of a theory that Cleopatra and Anthony were buried in Taposiris Magna, near Alexandria. “When actually you look at such a temple and remember the Osiris myth, you will be convinced by such a theory,” Hawwâs said. He explained that the temple was dedicated to the worship of the god Osiris, who according to ancient Egyptian myth was killed by his brother, the god Seth, who cut his corpse into 14 pieces which he spread over the Earth. Egypt has 14 temples dedicated to Osiris. Each temple is known in hieroglyphics as Per Oser, or the place of Osiris, and each contains one of these pieces. And that, according to Hawwâs, is why such a temple could be a perfect resting place for the legendary lovers. We know from the Greek historian PLUTARCH, he says, that the pair were buried together. Over the five•year-long excavations of the site, excavators have stumbled upon several objects. The most recent is a huge, headless granite statue of an as yet unidentified Ptolemaic king. The mission has also located the original gate of the temple as well as evidence revealing that the temple was built along the traditional ancient Egyptian design. The statue is very well preserved, and is was one of the most beautiful statues ever found carved according to the ancient Egyptian style as it bore the traditional shape of an ancient Egyptian Pharaoh wearing a collar and kilt. “I believe that the statue may have been an image of King Ptolemy IV, the founder of the temple,” Hawwâs suggested. Inside the temple, Hawwâs continued, the mission found a temple dedicated to the goddess Isis, mythical sister and wife of Osiris. The mission also located the temple’s original gate on the west side of the complex along with a number of limestone foundations that once outlined the entrance. One of these foundations, Hawwâs says, bears traces suggesting that the entrance was outlined by a series of sphinx-shaped statues similar to those fashioned in the dynastic era. The mission began excavating at Abû Sîr five years ago with the goal of discovering the tomb of the famous lovers Cleopatra and Anthony. According to Hawwâs, there is evidence to prove that Cleopatra was not buried in the tomb built for her beside the royal palace — which now lies under the waves in the Eastern Harbour on the Mediterranean coast of Alexandria. Hawwâs pointed out that over its years of excavations the mission had unearthed a number of headless royal statues, which might have been destroyed during the Christian Byzantine era. A number of heads featuring Cleopatra VII were also uncovered, along with 24 metal coins bearing an image of the queen’s face and one of Alexander the Great. All these objects suggest that Queen Cleopatra once built a religious chapel for her cult inside the temple of Osiris at Taposiris Magna. Outside the temple, at its back courtyard, a necropolis containing mummies from the Greek and Roman eras has been discovered. Hawwâs describes it as the largest ever Graeco-Roman cemetery to be found, stretching for more than half a kilometre. “Up to now the mission has succeeded in uncovering 22 rock-hewn tombs with stairs inside the necropolis,” Hawwâs told the Weekly. He went on to explain that skulls and mummies were also unearthed inside, two of which were gilded. On the west side of the temple another cemetery was located. “Early investigations show that the mummies were buried with their heads turned towards the temple, which indicated that the temple housed the tomb of a significant royal personality,” Hawwâs said, pointing out that if this were not so nobles would not have dug their tombs near the temple because, according to ancient Egyptian traditions, nobles always built their tomb near their kings and queens as demonstrated in the Valley of the Kings and Queens on Luxor's west bank. A radar survey carried out in the area revealed three anomalies or locations inside the temple, and it is possible that one of them could be the entrance of a tomb that goes down 20 metres below ground. “We are hoping that it could be of Queen Cleopatra and Mark Anthony,” Hawwâs said. “But as I always say, archaeology is based on theories and here we are experiencing one of them. If we succeed in discovering such a tomb it will be the discovery of the 21st century, and if not we still unearth major objects and monuments inside and outside the temple which shed more light on the history of the era and this mythical queen.”
For MARTINEZ, finding Cleopatra’s tomb is a dream. She told the Weekly that her theory that Cleopatra was buried in Taposiris Magna and not inside a tomb built for her beside her temple, which is now submerged under the Mediterranean Sea, was a result of 10 years of study of Cleopatra’s historical character. “I believe that it is impossible that Cleopatra was buried in her palace because of Egypt’s political situation. It was not only the end of the Ptolemaic era but the end of Egypt as a free country,” MARTINEZ says. “Cleopatra could never be buried in a very obvious place [i.e. her original tomb] as she needed to be hidden in a very special place in order to preserve her corpse. To prove my theory, I first travelled to Egypt to inspect the site and then, after three months, I realised that Taposiris Magna was definitely the place of Cleopatra’s lost tomb.” MARTINEZ went on to say that no one had ever come up with this idea: “If there is one per cent of a chance that the last queen of Egypt could be buried there, it is my duty to search for her,” she says. “I submitted my project to the SCA Permanent Committee and I thought it would never see the light, but few months later the project was approved and I was given two months to prove my theory. But in archaeology two months is nothing,” she said. “What can I do? This was my only hope,” MARTINEZ told the Weekly.“I took it and almost as the two months were about to end I found the first chamber, so the committee extended the mission’s work to the next season. And from now on excavation work is continuing, and revealing more of the mystery of this place.” Hawwâs promises that next week he will travel to Alexandria in an attempt to explore the shaft. But first the water must be pumped out of it. As for now, searching for the lost tomb of Cleopatra and her beloved Mark Anthony is still in full swing, but can the mission find the tomb of the legendary lovers who, according to PLUTARCH, took their lives in 30 BC after losing a power struggle between Mark Anthony and his rival Octavian, who later, as Emperor Augustus of Rome, ordered that Cleopatra be buried in a splendid and regal fashion along with Anthony? The question is, where? Could the gilded mummies recently found of a man and a woman have been the two lovers? Or perhaps the three shafts found inside the temple will reveal their tomb; or does it house more anonymous skulls and bones? Nothing is in hand, and we must wait and see what the days hold. (Nevine El-Aref, “So where are Anthony and Cleopatra?”, Al-Ahram Weekly, May 20, 2010. Voir également Hassan Saadallah, “Ptolemaic granite statue unearthed”, The Egyptian Gazette, May 5 ; Safwat Dusûqî, « Mise au jour d’une statue acéphale… », al-Wafd du 5 mai ; Taha ‘Abd al-Rahmân, « Découverte en Alexandrie d’une statue exceptionnelle attribuée à Ptolémée IV », al-Ahrâr du 5 mai ; « Découverte d’une statue acéphale d’un Ptolémée dans la région de Taposiris », al-Ahrâm du 5 mai ; ‘Isâm ‘Umrân, « Découverte d’un colosse d’époque ptolémaïque à Taposiris Magna », al-Gumhûriyya du 5 mai ; Ibtihâl Ghayth, « Ptolémée IV devant la porte de la reine Cléopâtre », Uktubar du 9 mai ; Kâmilyâ ‘Atrîs, « Trésors des ancêtres : des découvertes quotidiennes », Sabâh al-Khayr du 1er juin).
Ismâ‘îliyya Tell al-Maskhûta This month has proved very fruitful for the Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA). Three of its excavation missions, in Ismâ‘îliyya, Bahariyya Oasis and Fayyûm have all uncovered distinguished Roman treasures that reveal more about the fabric of this significant era in Egyptian history. An SCA archaeological team working in the area of Tell al-Maskhûta in Ismâ‘îliyya found the 19th-Dynasty mud-brick tomb of the overseer of royal records, Ken-Amun. Nearby they found 35 Roman tombs and an ancient limestone stela dating from the reign of an unidentified 19th-Dynasty Pharaoh. “It is a very important discovery for ancient Egyptian history,” Zâhî Hawwâs, secretary-general of the SCA, told Al-Ahram Weekly. The tomb consists of a rectangular room with a domed stone ceiling and a deep squared shaft. The walls are decorated with scenes depicting the tomb owner in various positions with his family and before the gods, as well as the titles of the deceased and the name of his wife, Isis, who was, it is written, a singer to the god Atum. Some of the decorations are in sunken relief and show religious and funerary scenes. The most interesting are the ones that display mourning women and the lines of Chapter 125 of the Book of the Dead that concerns the questioning of the deceased. A depiction of the goddess Hathor in the shape of a cow emerging from the Nile Delta marshes, and the four sons of the god Horus, are also visible. Inside the shaft the team found a large limestone sarcophagus of the tomb owner engraved with inscriptions on its inner and outer surfaces. “This is a very important discovery for ancient Egyptian history,” Zâhî Hawwâs, secretary-general of the SCA, told Al-Ahram Weekly. He said that it was the first time a Remissive tomb of this type had been discovered in Lower Egypt. Hawwâs pointed out that the tomb was very well preserved and beautifully decorated, and was inscribed with typical scenes of the Ramesside period. Muhammad ‘Abd al-Maqsûd, supervisor of the SCA’s central administration of Lower Egypt, said the discovery of the tomb would provide more information about the history of the Delta and its geography, as well as the position of Tell al-Maskhûta in regard to the eastern border of Egypt. Its deep location (four metres below the ground level), ‘Abd al- Maqsûd said, suggested that it may have been part of a larger ancient Egyptian cemetery located between the lake at Ismâ‘îliyya and the railway line that now runs between Ismâ‘îliyya and Cairo and Ismâ‘îliyya and Zaqâziq. ‘Abd al-Maqsûd told the Weekly that because of the importance of the discovery the sum of LE30,000 had been allocated for the continuance of the excavation as well as for archaeological documentation and restoration. He said the 35 Roman tombs that were found on an upper archaeological level in the same area, as had a limestone stela on which was written in hieroglyphs the names of the Hyksos capital Avaris (Het-Weret) and of the god Set before an unidentified Pharaoh. Tell al-Maskhûta, previously known as Bitoum, is in the Tamiliya valley on the eastern branch of the Nile. It was here that the largest section of the Suez Canal was created. In the ancient Egyptian era it was a garrison town, and its ancient name lingered into the Islamic era when it was known as Beit Atum, or “the house of Atum”, later shortened to Bitoum. It was developed during the Ramesside period when it became a large military granary to store foodstuffs to feed the army on the road to the eastern border of Egypt. During the digging of the Suez Canal a large number of statues and painted limestone reliefs were unearthed, as well as sphinxes bearing the features of Pharaoh Ramses II. (Nevine El-Aref, “In the sands of time”, Al-Ahram Weekly, April 29, 2010. Voir également Hadeel Al- Schalchi, “Newly unearthed tomb to reveal Egypt’s relations with eastern neighbors, says Hawwâs”, Daily News Egypt, April 16).
Sharqiyya Tell al-Dab‘a al-Dab‘a has located the southern suburban quarters of the ancient city of Avaris, the capital of the Hyksos, dating back to the Second Intermediate Period (1664-1569 BC). The excavation team found the area using a combination of magnetometry and resistivity surveys. The 3,500-year-old city was established after the Hyksos invaded Egypt, which they ruled for more than a century, holding the southern part of the country in alliance with the Nubian kingdom of Cush. The drive to expel the invaders began in Thebes, and the Hyksos were finally repelled by Ahmose, the founder of the 18th Dynasty. The location of their summer capital, Avaris, had long been one of the great mysteries of Egyptology. Objects excavated at Sân al- Hagar, Tell al-Yahûdiyya in Qalyûbiyya and Tell al-Ratâba in Ismâ‘îliyya, had led to wrong attributions of their capital, Muhammad ‘Abd al-Maqsûd, head of Antiquities in Lower Egypt and Alexandria, told Al-Ahram Weekly. Later studies revealed that while the unearthed artefacts did indeed date from the time of the Hyksos rule they were reused items that had been transferred from Avaris. “The site of the ancient city was one of the great historical enigmas,” says ‘Abd al-Maqsûd. “The city was almost completely destroyed during the war to liberate Egypt, and it was not until the early 1960s that the Egyptologists Mahmûd Hamza and Labîb Habashî correctly identified the site of Avaris at Tell al-Dab‘a in Sharqiyya governorate.” The settlement was in antiquity a well-developed trade centre with a large harbour that moored over 300 ships during the height of the trading season. The Hyksos, probably Semitic in origin, brought more than weapons to the country. Along with the invaders came hump backed Zebu cattle and new vegetable and fruit crops. They introduced technical innovations in the making of pottery, improving traditional potters’ wheels and in the weaving of cloth with the novel introduction of vertical looms. But perhaps the greatest contribution of the Hyksos was their preservation of Egyptian documents, both literary and scientific. The hunt to discover their capital was further complicated by the construction of cities nearby. When Ramses II came to the throne, he built a new capital, Pi-Ramses, two kilometres from Avaris. Successive dynasties also engaged in major construction, building cities such as Tanis (Sân al- Hagar) and Bu-Bastet (Tell Bastâ). Along the way the ruins of Avaris disappeared from sight. In the second part of the 1960s an Austrian mission headed by Egyptologist Manfred BIETAK traced all the former branches of the Nile, and the cities built along the banks, Avaris among them. In 2004, geophysical surveys undertaken by an Austrian archaeological team headed by Irene Forstner-Müller, determined the extent of the ancient city, which remains hidden beneath agricultural land and modern settlements. The latest radar imaging, says Zâhî Hawwâs, secretary•general of the Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA), has allowed for detailed computer•generated images of the city to be constructed. A very detailed layout of Avaris’s street plan has emerged. Several architectural features, including houses, temples, streets, cemeteries and palaces can be seen. The team has also been able to make out the arrangement of neighbourhoods and living quarters. “Using such a special scientific survey to locate such a city is the only way to gain a better understanding of such a large area at one time,” Hawwâs points out. FORSTNER-MÜLLER says that approximately 2.6 square kilometres have been investigated using a combination of geophysical survey and excavation. She explains that the aim of the magnetometric and resistivity surveys were to define the borders of ancient Avaris. The team has succeeded in identifying a collection of houses and a possible harbour area. A series of pits of different sizes are also visible but their function has not yet been determined. Such high-tech surveys, ‘Abd al-Maqsûd told the Weekly, accomplish what would take a century of conventional excavations to uncover. Now, he says, excavations can be more focussed, pin-pointing the most important monuments, thus saving time, effort and money. Avaris is one of four ancient cities in the area. Given the close proximity of Pi-Ramses, Bu-Bastet and Sân al-Hagar, the SCA is looking into schemes to develop the site and attract more tourists, including the construction of a museum dedicated to the history of the four cities. (Nevine El-Aref, “One less lost city”, Al-Ahram Weekly, June 24, 2010. Voir également Hassan Saadallah, “3,600-year-old city located in Egypt”, The Egyptian Gazette, June 21 ; Fathiyya al-Dakhâkhnî, « Hawwâs : découverte de la capitale des Hyksos à Sharqiyya », al-Masrî al-Yawm du 21 juin ; ‘Isâm ‘Umrân, « Le radar dévoile les vestiges de la capitale des Hyksos à Sharqiyya », al- Gumhûriyya du 22 juin ; Mervat Ayad, “Radar find”, Watanî, June 27).
Le Caire historique Bâb al-Tawfîq (…) In Islamic Cairo the scene is different. Following 10 years of archaeological excavation of the walls of Islamic Cairo, a mission from the Institut français d’archéologie orientale (Ifao) has found an imposing four-cornered tower composed of large mud bricks 40cm in length. Stéphane PARADINES, head of the mission, said the tower measured 14 metres from north to south and eight metres east to west, and was still preserved up to four metres in height. The tower was connected to a wall — also constructed in mud bricks — measuring 3.7 metres in width and preserved to 15 metres in length and two metres in height. The façade of this wall is very well preserved, and even has its original render of yellow mud. The foundations are composed of two courses of limestone. PARADINES said excavations at Bâb al-Tawfîq, carried out in 2004 to 2005, confirmed that the wall and tower were part of the fortification of Vizir Badr al-Gamalî, since another section of the same mud-brick wall is adjoined to this monumental door and is dated by an in situ inscription to 1087•1091 AD. Excavation work now covers more than 2.5km of the eastern wall of Islamic Cairo from Borg al-Zafar in the north to Bâb al-Wazîr in the south, while the studies are focussing on the evolution of the defensive systems from the end of the 10th to the end of the 12th century. This is because the Fatimid and Ayyubid fortifications of Cairo cover an important period of the history of the military architecture of the Arabian world. In fact, PARADINES said, Salaheddin’s defensive stonewall was built between 1173 and 1177 AD (these dates are based on an inscription above one of the gates found by experts from the Aga Khan Foundation). The Ayyubids therefore did not destroy the Fatimid fortifications but they kept the old wall, which was later destroyed by Mameluke urban development. The space between the two town walls at the excavated sites of Darrâsa, Bâb al-Tawfîq, Bâb al- Gadîd and the site beside Borg al-Zafar served, as the mission observed, was a circulation zone for the soldiers. An imposing four-cornered tower was found in Darrâsa. Since 2007 the French mission has excavated between Borg al-Zafar and Bâb al-Gadîd, where they discovered the same mud•brick Fatimid wall measuring 50 metres in length and including four square towers. “Investigation will continue in this area in order to provide more data and give to the SCA a site that can be visited as an archaeological park,” PARADINES said. To conclude, PARADINES continued, the Archaeological Triangle of the Darrâsa parking lot and Borg al-Zafar was the only place in Fatimid Cairo that had been explored methodically and scientifically by archaeologists. For more than 10 years now, the team has excavated and documented the remains of mediaeval Cairo from the Fatimid to Mameluke periods. The Darrâsa parking lot is to be transformed into an archaeological park by the Aga Khan Foundation. The major focus of interest will be the exhibition of the two town walls of mediaeval Cairo, the wall of Badr al-Gamalî from the 11th century, and the fortification of Salaheddin from the 12th century. (Nevine El-Aref. “Gold treasure, ancient tombs and mediaeval walls”, Al-Ahram Weekly, January 14, 2010).
Plateau des pyramides A number of tombs belonging to the workers who built Khufu’s pyramid were discovered in the necropolis of the Gîza plateau. Secretary General of the Supreme Council of Antiquities Zâhî Hawwâs said that the tombs date back to the 4th Dynasty when the pyramids of Khufu (2609-25840 BC) and Khafre (2576-2551 BC) were built. Dr Hawwâs said the tombs are among the most important discoveries of the 20th and the 21st centuries since they shed light on the early 4th period of the Dynasty and, more importantly, contradict the view that the pyramids were constructed through slavery or forced labour. “The tombs were built beside the king’s pyramid, which indicates that the people buried in them were by no means slaves,” Dr Hawwâs said. The most important tomb, belonging to Idu, is rectangular in structure with a mud brick outside casing covered with plaster. It has several burial shafts cased in white limestone, with niches in front of each shaft. ‘Âdil ‘Ukâsha, supervisor of the excavation, said that the upper part of Idu’s tomb was vaulted, symbolising the eternal hill from which human creation began, according to the Memphis religious tradition. Evidence uncovered revealed that families in the Delta and Upper Egypt sent 21 buffaloes and 23 sheep to the plateau every day to feed the workers. Dr Hawwâs pointed out that in doing so these families were not paying their taxes, but were rather contributing to a national project. The number of workers did not exceed 10,000, he said, contradicting HERODOTUS who said the workers numbered some 100,000. Dr Hawwâs said that the workers came from the Delta and Upper Egypt, rotated every three months, and those who died during the construction process were buried there. Scientifically and archaeologically, Dr Hawwâs said, no specific time may be set during which the construction of the pyramids was concluded. The transportation of the granite, basalt and limestone blocks used in the construction was only conducted during the three-month Nile flood season, he said, but the construction work lasted throughout the whole year. The blocks used in the construction of the body of the pyramid were cut out of the Gîza plateau itself. The cemetery of the pyramid builders was discovered in 1990 when a horse stumbled on top of a mud brick structure ten metres far of the necropolis located to the south of the wall. The necropolis is composed of two levels connected by a ramp. The tombs are of different shapes and styles; some are pyramidal in shape while others are vaulted, and some include false doors. (Mervat Ayad, “No slaves”, Watanî, January 17, 2010. Voir également Hassan Saadallah, “Ancient tombs found near Pyramids”, The Egyptian Gazette, January 11 ; Safwat Dusûqî, « Découverte des tombes des bâtisseurs de la Grande Pyramide », al-Wafd du 11 janvier). (…) Pour ‘Âdil ‘Ukâsha, superviseur des fouilles, la date de construction des tombes ne fait aucun doute. Elles se situent à l’extrémité d’une nécropole d’un kilomètre de long découverte en 1990. Ces tombes dataient de l’époque de la IVe et de la Ve dynasties aussi, et certaines seraient les dernières demeures des ouvriers ayant construit la pyramide de Chéphren. Zâhî Hawwâs assure que cette découverte nous donne une idée claire de la vie et des traditions religieuses des ouvriers qui ont participé à la construction de la Grande Pyramide, comme elle permet d’assurer que ces ouvriers n’étaient pas des esclaves, mais des travailleurs du Delta du Nil qui ne payaient pas d’impôts. Selon Hawwâs, le nombre d’ouvriers ayant participé à la construction des grandes pyramides d’Égypte ne devait pas excéder les 10 000, contrairement à ce qu’avait dit HÉRODOTE que le nombre des ouvriers avait atteint les 100 000 personnes. Ces hommes appartenaient en fait à des familles aisées qui vivaient dans le Delta du Nil et en Haute-Égypte. Ils envoyaient tous les jours 11 buffles et 23 moutons sur les lieux de la construction pour nourrir des ouvriers qui étaient remplacés tous les 3 mois. « La découverte assure au monde entier que ces ouvriers venaient de grandes familles et ceux qui sont enterrés sont ceux qui sont morts lors de la construction de la pyramide. La construction des pyramides semble correspondre à une aspiration nationale, à un projet commun : tout le monde y était impliqué », confirme-t-il. Il est connu que les ouvriers changeaient tous les trois mois et que les ouvriers travaillaient durant les 12 mois de l’année. Suite à des recherches approfondies effectuées par Hawwâs sur les tombes des ouvriers, les études ADN indiquent aussi que les ouvriers étaient égyptiens et que les Égyptiens d’aujourd’hui en sont les descendants. L’analyse des os faite sur les squelettes trouvés montre parfois des traces de fractures qui ont été correctement soignées. Visiblement, ces hommes bénéficiaient des mêmes soins que les nobles. La mission avait de même mis au jour de nombreux fours à pain attestant que l’on fabriquait là d’importantes quantités de nourriture. L’analyse des reliefs de repas retrouvés sur place : arêtes de poissons, fragments d’os, notamment de bovidés (animaux coûteux), indique que la main-d’œuvre était bien nourrie pour l’époque. Donc, ces ouvriers étaient bien traités, soignés et vivaient en familles, éléments qui écartent la thèse esclavagiste. En fait, il ne s’agissait pas d’esclaves mais au contraire de privilégiés. Ce n’est pas en fait la première fois que la mission archéologique du CSA fasse une telle découverte, puisqu’en 1990 la même mission avait découvert des tombes d’ouvriers qui appartenaient à la IVe et la Ve dynasties. La décision de fouiller dans le côté sud-est du Sphinx a été prise quand une touriste est tombée de son cheval et s’est heurtée à un mur en pierre cuite à dix mètres des cimetières.
Cet incident a été en fait le début de la découverte des tombes des ouvriers de bâtisseurs des Pyramides. Aujourd’hui, après une quinzaine d’années de fouilles, le nombre de tombes a atteint près de 600. Certaines sont ornées de bas-reliefs faisant allusion à la construction des pyramides. Elles contiennent des ossements (pas de momies) et des objets de la vie quotidienne. Il s’agit donc de tombes d’ouvriers, d’artisans et de contremaîtres ayant construit les pyramides. Cette nécropole comprend plusieurs genres de tombes : en forme de ruche, en forme pyramidale ou en forme de mastaba. À l’intérieur des uns nous trouvons des portes en pierre calcaire et dans d’autres des portes en pierre cuite. Ces découvertes ont fourni aux chercheurs une perspective sur les ouvriers, leur mission, leur mode vestimentaire, leur titre et leurs croyances. Les fouilles ont également prouvé que les ouvriers ont construit leurs propres tombeaux sous la forme d’une pyramide, utilisant la brique crue plutôt que la pierre. Il est probable que près de 18 000 personnes ont vécu dans la cité des ouvriers qui était séparée des pyramides par un mur, quand d’autres ouvriers entraient chez eux à la fin de la journée. (Hala Fares, « Des salariés non des esclaves », Al-Ahram Hebdo du 13 janvier. Voir également « La pyramide était un projet national égyptien », Sabâh al-Khayr du 12 janvier ; Amîra Fathî, « Hawwâs : Celui qui prétend que les juifs ont construit les pyramides est un escroc insensé », al-Wafd du 30 avril). Pyramide de Chéops A Tiny robot will attempt next month to decipher some of the Great Pyramid’s secrets, the Secretary-General of the Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA), Zâhî Hawwâs, said yesterday. The event is a new attempt to probe the secrets of the third gate of Khufu’s Pyramid at Gîza, Hawwâs said, adding that the robot was made by Hong Kong and Manchester universities. The robot would be traveling down a shaft that could lead to King Khufu’s Funerary Chamber, he said. In 1991, a similar experience was made when a custom-built robot was sent into the shafts to explore, record images and gather data, Hawwâs said. The robot traveled through the northern shaft for 65 meters but was forced to stop by what appeared to be a stone door with two copper handles affixed to it, he added. In February, a finger-width•sized hole would be drilled through the 6cm•thick door by the new robot in an attempt to find out what is behind it, Hawwâs said. Cheops, which is also known as the Great Pyramid or Khufu, was restored six years ago but had to undergo a new facelift when salt deposits re-appeared. Hawwâs said that the previous experiments had discovered a shaft beneath the Sphinx that could be connecting the statue to one of the three Pyramids. A new robot will be sent down this shaft to reveal its secrets and where it ends, Hawwâs said. (Hassan Saadallah, “Revealing the secrets of Khufu’s Pyramid”, The Egyptian Gazette, January 15, 2010).
Râs al -Gisr (…) At Saqqâra, an Egyptian archaeological mission from the Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA) stumbled upon what is believed to be two large 26th- Dynasty tombs during a routine excavation at the Râs al-Gisr area at Saqqâra, near the point of entry to the necropolis. Zâhî Hawwâs, secretary- general of the SCA and the director of the mission, explained that the two newly-discovered tombs were cut into the limestone rock of the hill. The first one, the largest yet found at Saqqâra, is composed of a large rock- hewn chamber followed by a number of small rooms and corridors. Outside the tomb on its eastern side are two large walls, the first made of limestone and the other of mud brick. Hawwâs said that during excavation the team had found two chambers full of dust that led to another room, where a number of coffins, skeletons and pots were found. This chamber has a corridor that leads to a smaller room with a seven-metre deep burial shaft. At the northern end of the tomb the team found a room full of clay pots and fragments along with ancient coffins and mummies of eagles. Hawwâs said early investigations revealed that the tomb could be dated to the 26th Dynasty. It was reused several times during its history, and was most probably robbed at the end of the Roman period. As for the second tomb, Hawwâs continued, the team found a number of Saite-Period clay pots and coffins scattered inside a sealed limestone room. “I am very happy that our team has found such important tombs at the beginning of 2010 as it highlights that the Saqqâra necropolis is still hiding many of its secrets,” Hawwâs said. (Nevine El-Aref. “Gold treasure, ancient tombs and mediaeval walls”, Al-Ahram Weekly, January 14, 2010. Voir également Ibtihâl Ghayth, « Saqqâra dévoile ses secrets », Uktubar du 10 janvier ; Dalia Farouq, « Un site qui fait toujours parler de lui », Al-Ahram Hebdo du 13 janvier).
Chambre funéraire de Behenu
The 4,200-year-old burial chamber of Queen Behenu has been discovered in Saqqâra in Gîza. French archaeologists digging in the necropolis of Pepi I discovered the tomb with an intact sarcophagus and a set of Pyramid Texts belonging to the queen, who had likely been a second wife of 6th dynasty Pharaoh Pepi II. “This necropolis was quite an important place; a sacred place, even after the time of Pepi I,” said Philippe COLLOMBERT, who leads the mission sponsored by the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs. “He was an important king, so probably queens from later times wanted to be buried in the same place.” Archaeologists are not 100•percent certain that the queen was in fact the wife of Pepi II, as her tomb contains no specific references to her husband. COLLOMBERT, who is also a professor at the University of Geneva, said it was uncommon during Pepi I’s time to find Pyramid Texts in the tombs of queens. The first queen known to have been buried with Pyramid Texts is Ankhespepi II, a wife of Pepi I and the mother of Pepi II. “Ankespepi II was the one in charge of the kingdom because Pepi II was just a small child [when he ascended the throne],” COLLOMBERT said. “That’s why she probably had some Pyramid Texts.” (…) “Pyramid Texts are the first corpus of writing in the world,” COLLOMBERT said. “This is the very first huge grouping of text in the history of the world. That’s why it’s so important to find these Pyramid Texts, even if they’re the same as those found in other pyramids. Sometimes one sentence will change and some new words and sentences will appear with formulas for the afterlife.” COLLOMBERT said that Queen Behenu’s Pyramid Texts had been found scattered in pieces around her 25-meter-wide pyramid as part of a“big puzzle.” The tomb, like many of those found in the area, was in poor condition due to quarrying during the Mamluk period, which ended about 500 years ago. “They were trying to find fine limestone,” he said. “That’s BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010 why they took out all the casings of all the pyramids and they also got inside the funerary chamber to dig out all the stones. Most of the time, we just find a big mound of stone.” (Andrew Bossone, “Ancient queen’s pyramid discovered in Saqqâra”, al-Masrî al-Yawm, March 3, 2010. Voir également “Burial chamber of Pharaoh’s queen unearthed”, The Egyptian Gazette, March 4 ; « Mise au jour de la chambre funéraire de la reine Behenu », Uktubar du 4 mars ; ‘Isâm ‘Umrân, « Découverte archéologique importante à Gîza », al- Gumhûriyya du 4 mars ; Lu’ay Mahmûd Sa‘îd, « Découverte de la chambre funéraire de la reine Behenu », al-Qâhira du 9 mars ; Sanâ’ Fârûq & Mirvat ‘Ayyâd, “Archaeoscope”, Watanî, March 21).
Tombe de Ptahmes Archaeologists have discovered the 3300-year-old tomb of the ancient Egyptian capital’s mayor, whose resting place had been lost under the desert sand since 19th century treasure hunters first carted off some of its decorative wall panels, officials announced Sunday. Ptahmes, the mayor of Memphis, also served as army chief, overseer of the treasury and royal scribe under Seti I and his son and successor, Ramses II, in the 13th century B.C. The discovery of his tomb earlier this year in a New Kingdom necropolis at Saqqâra, south of Cairo, solves a riddle dating back to 1885, when foreign expeditions made off with pieces of the tomb, whose location was soon after forgotten. “Since then it was covered by sand and no one knew about it,” said ‘Ula al-‘Agîzî, the Cairo University archaeology professor who led the excavation. “It is important because this tomb was the lost tomb.” Some of the artifacts ended up in museums in the Netherlands, the United States and Italy as well as the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, providing the only clues about the missing tomb. A team from Cairo University’s archaeology department found the tomb during new excavations of the area that started in 2005, al-‘Agîzî said. The inner chambers of the large, temple-style tomb and Ptahmes’ mummy remain undiscovered. In the side sanctuaries and other chambers they uncovered, archaeologists found a vivid wall engraving of people fishing from boats made of bundles of papyrus reeds. There were also amulets and fragments of statues. (AP, “Ancient mayor’s tomb found south of Cairo”, al-Masrî al-Yawm, May 31, 2010. Voir 82
également Yahia Shawkat, “Ancient mayor’s 'lost tomb' found south of Cairo”, Daily News Egypt, May 31 ; Taha ‘Abd al-Rahmân, « Nouvelle découverte archéologique à Saqqâra », al-Ahrâr du 31 mai ; Fathiyya al- Dakhâkhnî, « Découverte de la tombe du chef de l’armée de la XIXe dynastie », al-Masrî al-Yawm du 31 mai ; Mervat Ayad, “Lost tomb found”, Watanî, June 6). (…) Culture Minister Fârûq Husnî describes the discovery as of major importance as it reveals more of the mystery surrounding the Saqqâra archaeological site. He says the tomb can be dated to the second half of the 19th-Dynasty (1203-1186 BC). The tomb is 70 metres long and is composed of a number of corridors and chapels. Hawwâs says it is similar in interior design to the tomb of Ptah-Im-Wiya, the royal seal bearer during the reign of Pharaoh Akhenaten, which was discovered by a Dutch mission in 2007, also at Saqqâra. ‘Ula al-‘Agîzî, former dean of the Faculty of Archaeology at Cairo University, said the owner of the tomb was a prominent figure as he was appointed to several governmental posts, including that of chief of the army, the royal scribe, the inherited prince, and the supervisor of the Temple of Ptah in the reign of Pharaoh Seti I and his successor Ramses II. Al-‘Agîzî continued that excavations also revealed several stelae, among them an unfinished stela engraved with a scene featuring the deceased and his family before the Theban triad: Amun, Mut and Khonsu. Al-‘Agîzî said the stela pointed to a revival of the cult of Amun during the second half of the 19th Dynasty. The deputy to the mission director, Ahmad Sa‘îd, said that during the excavations several fragments of another statue of the tomb owner and his wife were unearthed. A painted head that most probably belonged to his wife or one of his daughters was also found, along with the lower part of a limestone statue that belonged to the deceased. Clay vessels, ushabti figurines and amulets were also found under the sand. A vivid wall engraving of people fishing from boats constructed of bundles of papyrus reeds was also found. Some pillars of the tomb were reused as chapels during the Christian era. The tomb was also subjected to robbery in the 19th century, which led to the deterioration of some of the walls. Several pieces of the wall were found within the debris inside the tomb. All these pieces were collected so that they could be registered and restored. (Nevine El-Aref, “Lord mayor of Memphis”, Al-Ahram Weekly, June 3. Voir également Hassan Saadallah, “Ancient commander’s tomb found in Saqqâra”, The Egyptian Gazette, May 31 ; Safwat Dusûqî, « Découverte d’une grande tombe à Saqqâra », al-Wafd du 31 mai ; Mushîra Mûsa, « Découverte à Saqqâra de la tombe du chef de l’armée », al-Ahrâm du 31 mai ; Doaa Elhami, « Une tombe problématique révèle ses secrets », Al-Ahram Hebdo du 9 juin).
(…) At the northern end of Lake Qârûn in Fayyûm, the closest oasis to Cairo and the Nile valley, a third mission of the SCA unearthed 383 very well- preserved bronze coins from the reign of Ptolemy III (222-246 BC). Each of the coins weighs 32 grammes and is decorated on one side with a scene depicting the cross-cultural god Amun-Zeus wearing a distinguishing wig with two horns and a cobra. The other side bears a stamp of a falcon standing on a wooden stand, under which the name of Ptolemy II is written in Greek. Sabrî ‘Abd al-‘Azîz said the mission was working on an area stretching on seven kilometres long and one wide after making a request to the Egyptian Tourism development department. Now all the antiquities found will be relocated to another area. Archaeologists have also uncovered antiquities that can be dated to several historical eras from the prehistoric right through to the Ottoman period. The mission found three prehistoric necklaces made of ostrich egg. From the Ottoman period, the mission uncovered a kohl container and two rings. Khâlid Sa‘d, director of the prehistoric department at the SCA, said the necklaces were unique in that this was the first time such a technique for making necklaces from the prehistoric era. He said that a skeleton of a proto-whale that lived 42 million years ago had has also been found. These prehistoric items will be put on display at a museum to be constructed at the site. (Nevine El-Aref, “In the sands of time”, Al-Ahram Weekly, April 29, 2010. Voir également “383 Ptolemy III coins found in Fayyûm”, The Egyptian Gazette, April 24 ; « Égypte : des pièces à l’effigie de Ptolémée III découvertes dans une oasis », Watanî du 16 mai).
Dayr al -Malah Wherever a mission digs in Egypt it is obvious that they will come up with a treasure. An archaeological mission from the Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology of Warsaw University excavating in a monastic building at Dayr al-Malah Monastery at Naqlûn in Fayyûm recently unearthed a decorated clay cup of Aswân production full of coins. The hoard consists of 18 gold coins and 62 fragments of coins, all of them provisionally dated to the Abbasid period. Under the charred remains of a collapsed wall, archaeologists also uncovered a chandelier and a well-preserved oil lamp, both made of bronze. “The whole treasure was found inside a room that seems to have been hastily abandoned during a fire,” said Woldzimierz GODLEWSKI, head of the Polish mission. He added that the monastic complex of Naqlûn was built in the early sixth century AD, while the area excavated this season dated to the seventh century and was destroyed by a massive fire in the eighth or at the beginning of the ninth century AD. (Nevine El-Aref. “Gold treasure, ancient tombs and mediaeval walls”, Al-Ahram Weekly, January 14, 2010).
Dionysias Non loin de la ville du Fayyûm, à quelque 50 Km au sud-ouest du lac Qârûn, se dresse majestueusement le temple ptolémaïque de l’ancienne ville, Dionysias. Nommée actuellement Qasr Qârûn, cette ville, dont la superficie est de 30 hectares, est considérée comme la reine des 34 villes gréco- romaines que renferme le Fayyûm grâce à ses caractéristiques archéologiques rares. En fait, l’importance de la ville ne cesse d’augmenter grâce aux récentes découvertes faites par la mission italienne de l’Università degli Studi di Siena, présidée par le professeur Emanuele PAPI. « C’est notre deuxième saison archéologique et les résultats des cinq semaines sont déjà fructueux », explique le professeur PAPI. Les membres de la mission ont entamé leurs relevés archéologiques l’an dernier. Et cette année, ils ont préféré s’attaquer au côté sud de la ville. « Nous utilisons des instruments modernes à travers lesquels les membres de la mission peuvent connaître les différents éléments que cache le sol jusqu’à un mètre de profondeur sans être contraints de creuser », souligne PAPI. Ainsi, le temps et l’effort sont économisés tout en gardant le BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010 site intact. D’ailleurs, grâce aux plans résultant de ces instruments, les experts peuvent préciser les points qui ont besoin d’être creusés. Lorsqu’on franchit le site, les indices archéologiques sont aperçus sans la moindre fouille. Des fragments de poterie sont éparpillés partout, des vestiges de maisons, des usines et même des statues de lions qui composaient le dromos ou la voie sacrée. « C’est pourquoi l’équipe archéologique n’a besoin que d’un instrument qui dévoile un mètre de profondeur seulement », commente le Dr Muhammad Qinâwî, membre de la mission et expert en poterie. Selon lui, les plus récentes découvertes assurent que cette ville, qui a été fondée au IIIe siècle av. J.-C. par les Ptolémées, a été abandonnée vers le début du VIe siècle de notre ère. C’est-à-dire que Dionysias témoigne non seulement de l’époque gréco- romaine, mais aussi de l’âge copte reflété par certains signes inédits. Mais l’histoire de la région remonte à la XIIe dynastie du Moyen Empire, lorsque les autorités de l’époque avaient décidé de réaménager le site en réduisant la superficie du terrain. Or, quinze siècles plus tard, « les Ptolémées, à leur tour, avaient décidé de dessécher le lac vers la fin du IIIe siècle afin d’y fonder Dionysias », reprend PAPI. Le premier édifice construit sur place était le temple ptolémaïque qui se dresse jusqu’à nos jours. C’est l’unique temple complet dressé encore au Fayyûm et ce, sans oublier 50 pièces tombées de différents endroits qu’il comprend. Si les édifices des anciennes villes gréco-romaines sont bâtis en brique crue, les constructions de Dionysias, à l’instar des maisons et des usines, sont édifiées en calcaire qui composait la plate-forme de la région. C’est en fait ce qui explique pourquoi les vestiges de Dionysias sont conservés jusqu’à nos jours. Ainsi est-il facile pour la mission de distinguer la planification de toute la ville. On aperçoit en fait le dromos ou la voie sacrée qui relie l’entrée du temple à une sorte de kiosque au bout. Ce dromos divise la ville en deux zones essentielles : est et ouest. D’après les experts, chaque partie se compose de réguliers îlots, dont chacun comprend de vrais labyrinthes. Ce sont en fait d’étroites routes irrégulières qui relient chaque groupe de maisons. Cette planification a fait surgir aussi l’importance industrielle et économique de la ville. Ainsi la mission a-t-elle découvert au sein des dédales de chaque îlot des mortiers. « Nous y avons dégagé plus de 300 éléments de pressoirs qui produisaient l’huile. Ce nombre 84 considérable de pressoirs suggère la densité de la production de l’huile d’olive que donnait Dionysias », reprend le directeur. Selon lui, on a trouvé 4 mortiers entre 4 ou 5 maisons, parfois un ou deux sont trouvés. En même temps, ces usines produisaient des qualités différentes d’huile. Celle pour l’alimentation était la plus pure et de très bonne qualité, tandis que celle qui était utilisée dans l’éclairage des lampes était de très mauvaise qualité. Ces détails sont révélés grâce à la découverte des archives d’une famille. Elles comprenaient aussi le fonctionnement de la gestion de ces usines productives d’huile, et ce sans oublier les quantités. Il était donc évident que Dionysias était un centre d’exportation d’huile pour les autres villes gréco-romaines des alentours et celles du Delta, et peut-être même aux autres provinces de l’Empire romain. Malgré cette grande quantité de production d’huile, Dionysias importait parfois l’huile d’olive de Tripoli, d’Algérie et de Tunisie. « Nous avons découvert 15 têtes d’amphores d’huile provenant de Tripoli et ce, sans oublier celles qui étaient dérivées de Tunisie et d’Algérie. L’importation de l’huile de ces pays était en principe pour comparer la qualité de la production locale aux autres », explique Qinâwî. De même, les amphores importées étaient exploitées pour exporter à leurs pays d’origine certaines productions locales, à l’instar du poisson salé. Aussi, la mission a découvert des amphores de l’Égée qui comprenaient des traces du vin, « assurant ainsi les échanges commerciaux entre l’Égée et Dionysias », reprend Qinâwî. Pour lui, toutes les voies commerciales devaient passer par Maryût dont une quantité considérable de poteries est relevée à Dionysias. Ceci est dû en principe aux multiples produits fabriqués dans cette ville pendant l’époque gréco- romaine. L’autre volet économique qui caractérise Dionysias, c’est la culture et la production du blé et surtout sous l’Empire romain. À cette époque, l’empereur Auguste, qui était représenté en tenue pharaonique, avait considéré l’Égypte comme son domaine privé. Il avait promulgué une loi romaine à travers laquelle chaque famille de Rome avait le droit de recevoir 30 kg de blé par mois. Ainsi, l’empereur avait-il imposé à l’Égypte — surtout les villes du Delta et du Fayyûm, connues par leur fertilité en blé — de financer les besoins du royaume en blé en consacrant 10 % des recettes annuelles des impôts pour répondre à cet objectif. C’est-à-dire que ces 10 % seront payés sous forme de blé. Ainsi Rome recevait-elle une quantité considérable suffisante à tel point que l’Égypte fut considérée à cette époque comme étant le grenier de l’Empire romain. Dionysias était donc en pleine prospérité et ses citoyens menaient une vie aisée grâce à sa position économique et commerciale privilégiée. « Cet État était toujours menacé par les invasions successives des Blêmis qui attaquaient les convois commerciaux qui sortaient de la ville », reprend le directeur. Selon lui, les Blêmis étaient des tribus libyques nomades qui envahissaient les villes frontalières de la vallée du Nil et adjacentes du désert occidental. C’est pourquoi les gérants de la province de l’Égypte avaient décidé d’y fonder une caserne militaire dont les vestiges sont révélés récemment par les membres de la mission. D’après Qinâwî, cette caserne constituait l’un des multiples points installés pour protéger les frontières ouest de l’Égypte. « Mais concernant celle de Dionysias, elle a été fondée après les attaques des convois commerciaux effectuées par les Blêmis », explique PAPI. Tous ces relevés parus pendant cinq semaines de fouilles reflètent l’ultime rôle que jouait Dionysias pendant l’époque gréco-romaine et ce en préservant le site de la moindre détérioration. Mais il reste autant de secrets que les membres de la mission espèrent dévoiler au cours des prochaines opérations de fouilles. (Doaa Elhami, « Qasr Qârûn revisité », Al-Ahram Hebdo du 10 mars 2010). « C’est l’unique temple ptolémaïque complet », déclare avec fierté le professeur Emanuele PAPI, directeur de la mission italienne de l’Università degli Studi di Siena. Selon lui, c’est pour cette raison que l’on a choisi ce site afin d’y opérer. Ce temple avait été soumis aux travaux de restauration plus de cinq fois pendant l’époque moderne. « Les différentes missions n’ont pas pu résoudre toutes les énigmes du site », explique le Dr Stefano CAMPOREALE, professeur des provinces romaines et membre de la mission italienne. Pour lui, le visiteur du temple peut distinguer les endroits restaurés de ceux intacts. Tandis que les murs opérés se composent de blocs de calcaire blanc, ceux d’origine sont noircis. Mais les yeux des experts sont plus précis. Ils trouvent que le temple de Dionysias occupe une importance majeure dans l’histoire égyptienne grâce à son intégralité. Ainsi, « nous pouvons connaître la planification des autres temples gréco- romains des autres sites », commente le Dr CAMPOREALE. Alors, les membres de la mission doivent restaurer et nettoyer, consolider et préserver, mesurer et relever l’architecture du temple et surtout mener des fouilles archéologiques et étudier tous les relevés archéologiques.
En effet, le temple a été bâti vers la fin du IIIe siècle av. J.-C. par les Ptolémées. Dédié au dieu Sobek, divinité locale du Fayyûm, le temple se compose de trois étages et ce sans oublier les annexes dont les vestiges existent encore entre l’édifice et la muraille l’encerclant. Le rez-de- chaussée se divise en trois parties : une grande salle, suivie d’une deuxième plus étroite, et enfin le saint des saints. Cette planification est en principe préservée dans le reste des étages, et ce, en conservant leur importance liturgique. Ainsi, le saint des saints est le lieu le plus petit et le plus saint du temple puisqu’il renfermait une momie du crocodile ainsi que sa statue. Selon les archéologues, le saint des saints, comme les autres temples gréco-romains, était exclusif au haut clergé du temple, notamment le grand prêtre. Mais les caractéristiques du temple de Dionysias sont vraiment inédites, les parties hautes des murs et les plafonds sont noircis et inscrits de caractères arabes et latins. Quant au reste, il est plus clair et propre. Selon le professeur, la plupart du temple était sous le sable jusqu’aux années cinquante du siècle dernier sauf les parties hautes des murs. De leur part, les visiteurs de la région, que ce soit des orientalistes ou des voyagistes, menaient une vie normale sur ce tiers paru du sable. « Ils inscrivaient alors leurs noms sur les murs et allumaient du feu dont les cendres ont noirci les murs et le plafond, afin de cuisiner leurs aliments », explique le professeur. Lors de leurs travaux de fouille, les membres de la mission ont dégagé le puits du temple. D’après le professeur, ce puits, lors de son utilisation, était toujours nettoyé. Ainsi les prêtres pouvaient-ils l’atteindre de tous les étages à travers une dalle mobile au sol. D’ailleurs, la mission a mis au jour d’innombrables couloirs qui donnaient aux salles étroites. Selon CAMPOREALE, ces salles avaient une fonction liturgique. Mais « il est difficile de l’affirmer pour l’instant », explique-t-il. En outre, sur les murs de certaines salles se trouve la croix, « indiquant l’utilisation du temple à l’époque copte, peut-être par des citoyens. Ces symboles n’ont pas empêché l’existence des scènes représentatives du culte païen qui régnait avant l’apparition du christianisme. Il s’agit d’une scène ptolémaïque inédite qui incarne le dieu Sobek, le crocodile personnifié, debout devant le gouverneur en tenue pharaonique. Aux murs des côtés sont incises deux colonnes, donnant en fait l’impression d’être présent au saint des saints d’un temple pharaonique », raconte-t-il. Toute cette scène est mise au jour au troisième étage et sur la même ligne du saint des Saints, du rez- de•chaussée. Selon le professeur, cette scène met en évidence la forte influence de l’architecture et la religion pharaonique sur les époques ultérieures. Malgré toutes ces découvertes, les experts trouvent que leurs opérations sont encore préliminaires. « Outre les couloirs et les étroites salles énigmatiques, le temple comprend plus que 50 pièces et blocs de pierre à étudier pour les remettre à leurs endroits d’origine. Ces objets contiennent autant de secrets à dévoiler », reprend le professeur tout en espérant que les futures saisons donneront de bonnes nouvelles inattendues. (Doaa Elhami, « Un temple énigmatique », Al-Ahram Hebdo du 10 mars 2010).
al -Lâhûn Archaeologists carrying out routine excavations at al-Lâhûn in Fayyûm last week chanced upon what is believed to be an ancient Egyptian cemetery. The Egyptian team from the Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA) found 45 tombs from different times in the Pharaonic era, each tomb containing a painted wooden sarcophagus with the mummy of the deceased still inside it. SCA Secretary-General Zâhî Hawwâs said that during the course of the excavation work the mission unearthed a tomb dating from the 18th-Dynasty (1550-1295 BC) containing 12 wooden sarcophagi stacked on top of one another. Each sarcophagus contained a well•preserved mummy. The mummies were covered in cartonnage decorated with religious texts from the Book of the Dead and scenes featuring various ancient Egyptian deities. The mission also discovered four other cemeteries; the first dating from the First and Second dynasties (ca. 2750-2649 BC), the second from the Middle Kingdom (2030-1660 BC) and the third and fourth from the New Kingdom (1550-1070 BC) and The Late Period (724-343 BC). ‘Abd al-Rahmân al-‘Âydî, head of the archaeological mission, pointed out that the First and Second-Dynasty cemeteries contained 14 tombs, one of which was almost completely intact and included all its funerary equipment together with a wooden sarcophagus containing a mummy wrapped in linen.
The Middle and New Kingdom cemeteries contain 31 tombs, most of which date from the 11th and 12th dynasties (2030•1840 BC). Each tomb contains a painted wooden sarcophagus bearing a mummy covered with cartonnage decorated with religious texts that help the deceased to cross through to the other world, as well as scenes of various deities such as Horus, Hathor, Khnum and Amun. Another find came at each of the four corners of the temple built by King Senusert II of the Middle Kingdom, where the mission located four shafts filled with a large number of clay vessels. Last year the same mission found 53 stone tombs dating from the Middle and New Kingdoms as well as from the Late Period and the Roman era. (Nevine El- Aref, “Intact burials discovered”, Al-Ahram Weekly, May 27, 2010. Voir également Taha ‘Abd al-Rahmân, « Mise au jour de 45 nouvelles tombes à al- Lâhûn », al-Ahrâr du 24 mai ; Mushîra Mûsa, « al-Lâhûn dévoile 45 tombes archéologiques », al-Ahrâm du 24 mai ; Safwat Dusûqî, « Découverte de 45 tombes antiques et 12 sarcophages dans le Fayyûm », al-Wafd du 24 mai ; Rîhâm Hayâtî, « 45 nouvelles tombes antiques découvertes au Fayyûm », Watanî du 6 juin).
Dayr al -Ganâdla Fresques, reliefs, iconostase et puits. Ce sont les éléments décoratifs qui distinguent Dayr al-Ganâdla dans le gouvernorat d’Asyût, en Moyenne-Égypte. Dayr al-Ganâdla se situe sur un mont dans les environs du village de Ganâdla, 38 Km au sud-ouest d’Asyût. Afin d’atteindre le monastère, il faut franchir un grand portail en fer, faire 200 mètres à pied et escalader quelques mètres. Le monastère fait partie d’une série d’édifices du même genre creusés au sein de la montagne Qusqâm qui se dresse au sud d’Asyût. Toutes ces grottes étaient utilisées comme des demeures aux temps pharaoniques. Ces emplacements ont servi comme refuges pour les premiers chrétiens qui s’y sont abrités de la persécution des Romains à cette époque. Ces chrétiens les avaient exploités et modifiés pour convenir à leur culte. Ainsi, les demeures pharaoniques ont-elles été transformées en monastères vers la fin du Ve siècle et aux débuts du VIe siècle. Dayr al- Ganâdla a été fondé par l’ermite Macrofius et ses adeptes. « Nous considérons ce monastère comme l’un des plus anciens de toute la Moyenne- Égypte à subsister encore, et ce tout en conservant d’importants reliefs inédits de toute l’histoire copte », affirme Ashraf al-Bakhshawangî, professeur de coptologie à l’Université de Suhâg. La région de Dayr al-Ganâdla, voire toute la montagne de Qusqâm, a été attaquée par les troupes israéliennes en 1967. Résultat : depuis, la région est soumise aux autorités de la sécurité, à l’exception du monastère en question. « Par chance, il est sous la supervision du Conseil Suprême des Antiquités (CSA). Alors, nous y avons mené plusieurs fouilles et restaurations qui nous ont fourni d’importantes informations archéologiques », affirme Ahmad ‘Awad, directeur général des monuments islamiques et coptes de la Moyenne-Égypte, auprès du CSA. Il s’agit de deux églises, l’une est datée du Ve siècle, tandis que la seconde remonte aux XVIIIe et XIXe siècles. La plus ancienne est la plus importante. Elle se compose de salles creusées dans le roc. Dès l’entrée, le visiteur rencontre une iconostase formée de plusieurs pierres prélevées des zones divergentes. Elles sont toutes ornées de reliefs coptes. Ainsi rencontre-t-on des grappes contenant peu de raisins « qui remontent à la fin du IIIe siècle et les débuts du IVe siècle », explique le professeur. Aussi, certaines pierres sont gravées de reliefs végétaux, et ce sans oublier les feuilles qui ont pris la forme de la croix. D’autres sont ornées de décorations géométriques qui renferment des croix. D’ailleurs, le signe pharaonique Ankh y est présent fortement, « symbolisant en fait la croix », commente le professeur. Pour lui, ce signe a été utilisé vers les débuts de la christianisation pour symboliser la croix afin d’éviter les attaques romaines successives faisant croire qu’il s’agit du signe pharaonique. D’ailleurs, le monastère a été fondé à une époque ultérieure à celle de la construction de l’iconostase qui reflète les débuts de l’art chrétien et l’exploitation des signes pharaoniques pour la nouvelle religion. L’iconostase s’ouvre sur le centre de l’ancienne église, celle de la Vierge. Cette église et ses composantes sont creusées dans la montagne, sauf la partie Est qui renferme les autels, elle est bâtie en calcaire et en briques. Dans cette église, le visiteur retourne vers les débuts de la christianisation. Les murs, les reliefs et les scènes qui les ornent et même les salles et les escaliers irréguliers marquent l’âge reculé de l’église. Les archéologues la considèrent comme l’une des perles des monuments chrétiens de toute l’Égypte. Ceci s’explique en principe par les fresques qui ornent les murs du centre. Elles représentent les 12 apôtres en tenue ecclésiastique pendant la prière. Mais seuls 7 apôtres sont visibles. Aussi, certains lèvent leurs mains pour la prière pendant que d’autres tiennent à la main droite la croix, et à la main gauche l’Évangile, comme signe de bénédiction. La tête de chacun est surmontée d’une auréole accompagnée de l’inscription en langue copte du nom de l’apôtre. « Ces scènes remontent à la fin du IVe siècle et le début du Ve. Peut-être ces représentations sont-elles les plus anciennes du genre de toute l’Égypte, d’où vient l’importance du monastère », explique ‘Awad. Et ce n’est pas tout. Restent les reliefs du plafond du centre de l’église et bien d’autres aspects qui mettent en relief la valeur de ces trésors.
Trois couleurs essentielles couvrent le plafond : le blanc comme arrière- plan, le rouge, symbole du sang de Jésus, et le noir, symbole du traître (Judas). Le centre du plafond est décoré d’une série de cercles entourant des croix ainsi que d’ornements géométriques, rares à fréquenter aux autres monastères archéologiques. Ces reliefs représentent le développement de la croix et ses différentes formes. Quant aux murs des salles, elles sont nichées. Surmontée d’un ornement vert rayonnant, chaque niche comprend une icône moderne représentative de différentes scènes évangéliques, à l’instar de saint Georges sur son cheval. Selon ‘Awad, à l’origine, ces niches comprenaient des scènes gravées, dont « les traces existent encore. Mais, afin de donner la même impression aux fidèles, les nouveaux ermites du monastère y ont posé de récentes icônes », reprend-il. Les niches sont surmontées de décorations géométriques, sans oublier les étoiles vertes et noires qui couvrent les côtés ainsi que les inscriptions coptes. Malgré toute cette richesse, le monastère souffre d’une négligence absolue. Selon ‘Awad, Dayr al-Ganâdla a été soumis aux nettoyages, restaurations et fouilles pendant les années 1990. Les archéologues ont découvert des marches d’escalier qui dirigent vers un deuxième étage. Aussi, ils ont mis au jour un ancien puits duquel les ermites obtenaient l’eau, sans oublier un bassin en pierre. « C’était la première fois que l’on trouve dans un monastère de Haute-Égypte cet élément architectural », renchérit l’archéologue. Bien que les résultats soient prometteurs, les travaux ont été suspendus à cause du manque de financement. « Nous avons pris en considération que certaines couches décorées en couvrent d’autres plus anciennes », explique-t-il. Peut-être ces anciennes couches sont-elles aussi ornées de plusieurs scènes inédites. Et par conséquent faire reculer la date de son exploitation vers le IVe siècle. Donc, Dayr al-Ganâdla reste toujours un site à explorer et comprend autant de secrets qui peuvent combler plusieurs lacunes de l’art et l’histoire coptes. (Doaa Elhami, « Dans les refuges des premiers chrétiens », Al-Ahram Hebdo du 13 janvier 2010).
Dromos Recent excavations conducted in the 2.7km-long Avenue of Sphinxes, along which the cult statue of the god Amun was annually carried from the Temple of Amun at Karnak to the Temple of Luxor, yielded a wonderful surprise for the team of 30 excavators and 30 restorers on the site. The find was nothing but a few stones; however, the inscriptions they bear mean a great deal. One inscription was on the royal cartouche of Queen Cleopatra VII (51-30 BC). This is actually the first time ever that her name has appeared in the Upper Egyptian city of Luxor, the modern name for Thebes. The Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra ruled Egypt from Alexandria, where several of her statues and items from her royal palace were found lying on the bed of the Mediterranean Sea a few years ago. The cartouche also described a winter trip she took with her husband Caesar to the temples of Karnak and Luxor, as Mansûr Burayk, Director of the Upper Egypt Antiquities Department, explains. The royal couple used to proceed along the Avenue of Sphinxes, used as a setting for the festival of Opet. “The visit to this religious site prompted her to order the restoration of the avenue, leaving behind an inscribed cartouche about her trip,” Burayk told the Arabic-language al- Musawwar magazine. Cleopatra was perhaps not the most beautiful or intelligent Egyptian queen, but she was certainly politically astute. Shakespeare’s masterpiece Antony and Cleopatra has undoubtedly bestowed immortality on this love story, in which political intrigue and passion bestow a peculiar flavour to the history of that Ptolemaic era. The whereabouts of their tombs is still a mystery to archaeologists. However, excavators believe that the tombs will soon be unearthed in the newly excavated site of the Temple of Taposiris Magna, 50km west of Alexandria. A Dominican team have been digging there for several seasons and a series of about 40 to 45 tombs cut into the bedrock, 35 metres deep, were pinpointed last year. There is convincing evidence of a royal tomb, thought to be that of Cleopatra and Mark Antony. For instance, 22 bronze coins bearing the portrait of Cleopatra have been dug up, in addition to a headless royal statue and a mask, most probably of the Roman leader Mark Antony. More importantly, an alabaster statue of the queen found there refutes recent allegations that she was ugly. Anyway, let’s wait to see what further excavations yield. Meanwhile, the excavation and restoration underway in the Avenue of Sphinxes is being implemented in three stages. The buildings that had been constructed over parts of the avenue have already been demolished and the residents given LE30 million in compensation. Moreover, another LE30 million has been allocated to restore the avenue to its original splendour. This involves constructing a mud brick wall along the entire length of the avenue, to protect it from encroachments, in addition to excavation work. So far 80 per cent of the avenue has been excavated, with thousands of scattered parts of the bodies and heads of sphinxes uncovered. So far, 650 of the original 1,350 statues have been recovered. Wine presses, potteries and buildings dating back to the Roman era have all been unearthed. The remains of one of Queen Hatshepsut’s chapels, whose columns were later used as the bases for the sphinxes, are also among the finds, according to archaeological reports. (Samar Ali Ezzat, “Queen Cleopatra’s surprises”, The Egyptian Gazette, February 18, 2010. Voir également Amânî ‘Abd al- Hamîd, « Le cartouche de Cléopâtre », al-Musawwar du 10 février). Zâhî Hawwâs, secretary-general of the Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA), said that the remains of the church were found on the second section of the path, which is divided into five sections. Archaeological investigations revealed that the church was built with limestone blocks that were originally parts of Ptolemaic temples and had been reused. The blocks are very well preserved and decorated with scenes depicting Ptolemaic and Roman rulers offering sacrifices to ancient Egyptian deities. Hawwâs believes that the blocks belonged to the Ptolemaic and Roman temples that once stretched along the avenue. They were removed and reused during the Coptic era in the construction of churches. One of the church’s blocks contains information concerning the 26th-Dynasty mayor of the Luxor area, Muntomhat. Sabrî ‘Abd al-‘Azîz, head of the Ancient Egyptian Department at the SCA, said that in the avenue’s fourth section the mission had also discovered the remains of a cylindrical sandstone Nilometer with spiral steps. The structure is seven metres in diameter, and inside, a collection of New Kingdom clay vessels has been unearthed. Mansûr Burayk, the general supervisor of Luxor monuments, said that a collection of foundation stones used to install sphinx statues had also been discovered. Some of the stones are decorated with scenes depicting Pharaoh Amenhotep III (1410-1372 BC), who began construction on the Avenue of Sphinxes to connect Luxor Temple to the Karnak complex. The SCA is now conducting comprehensive restoration work at the Avenue of Sphinxes in order to recreate this 2,700-metre-long path after clearing the area of encroachment. In the course of the excavations, the mission has unearthed 128 sphinxes statues, which will be put on display in their original positions on the path after restoration. A chapel of the 21st Dynasty priest Min-Kheber-Re has been also found. Development of the third section of the path located behind the Mubârak Public Library is in its final stages, and it should be opened to the public soon. (Nevine El-Aref, “Along the avenue”, Al-Ahram Weekly, May 13, 2010. Voir également Hassan Saadallah, “1,600•year-old church found in Egypt”, The Egyptian Gazette, May 12 ; Mushîra Mûsa, « Découverte de vestiges d’une église du Ve siècle dans le dromos », al-Ahrâm du 12 mai ; Safwat Dusûqî, « Mise au jour d’un nilomètre », al-Wafd du 12 mai ; Mervat Ayad, “Underneath the sphinxes”, Watanî, May 16 ; Ibtihâl Ghayth, « Découverte de vestiges d’une église et d’un nilomètre », Uktubar du 16 mai ; Usâma Fârûq, « Le dromos révèle ses secrets », Akhbâr al-Adab du 23 mai).
Vallée des Rois Tombe de Séthi Ier Egypt’s Minister of Culture Fârûq Husnî Wednesday announced that a tunnel in the tomb of King Seti I (1314-1304 BC) has been discovered by Zâhî Hawwâs and his team in the Valley of the Kings. They have been searching for this tunnel for over 20 years in the West Bank necropolis. Hawwâs, the Secretary General of Egypt’s Supreme Council of Antiquities, and the head of the mission, finally succeeded in completely excavating the 174m long tunnel after several seasons of work that began in November 2007. The tunnel was cut into the bedrock near the end of the beautifully decorated tomb of Seti I. In addition to excavating the tunnel, the team braced the walls and ceiling with metal supports. They also built a wooden walkway over the original stone staircase of the tunnel to preserve it and installed a mining car system to remove rubble from the team’s excavations. During their work, the mission uncovered many shabtis and pottery fragments that dated to the Eighteenth Dynasty (1569-1315 BC). Several limestone ostraca fragments, as well as a small boat model made of faience were also found. During their excavation of the staircase, the team found that three of the steps were decorated with red graffiti. The only other excavation of the tunnel took place in 1960 under the direction of Sheikh ‘Alî ‘Abd al-Rasûl. His team was able to reach a depth of 130m but they had to stop their excavation because it was too hard to breath. Upon reaching the end of the 136 meter section, which had been partially excavated by ‘Abd al-Rasûl’s workmen, Dr. Hawwâs’s team were shocked to uncover a descending passage, which measures 25.60m in length and 2.6m wide. The mission eventually uncovered a fifty-four steps, descending staircase. After the first descending passage, a second staircase measuring 6 meters long was cut into the rock. At the beginning of this passage the team found a false door decorated with hieratic text that reads: “Move the door, jump up and make the passage wider.” These written instructions must have been left from the architect to the workmen who were carving out the tunnel. Hawwâs said that when he went inside the tunnel of King Seti I for the first time, he noticed that the walls were well finished and that there were remains of preliminary sketches of decoration that would be placed on the walls. Unfortunately none of this was completed. Hawwâs added that he was very surprised to find a second staircase inside the tunnel. It appears that the last step was never finished and the tunnel ends abruptly after the second staircase. Hawwâs believes that the workmen and artists first finished the original tomb of Seti I during his twelve-year reign and then began to construct the tunnel. It appears that Seti I was trying to construct a secret tomb inside a tomb. It is likely that when Seti I died his son, Ramesses II (1304 1237BC), had to stop the work and bury his father. Hawwâs believes that Ramesses II continued where his father had left off and constructed his own tunnel within his tomb in the Valley of the Kings. The Egyptian mission is currently working in the tomb of Ramesses II to preserve the wall paintings and to look for a similar tunnel to the one in the tomb of Seti I. (Hassan Saadallah, “Secrets of Seti I tunnel unlocked”, The Egyptian Gazette, June 30, 2010. Voir également Usâma Fârûq, 1er « Les trésors de Séthi à portée des mains », Akhbâr al-Adab du 2128 mars ; février Zâhî Hawwâs, “Dig Days: Seti, please tell us your secret I”, Al- Ahram Weekly, July 8 ; Nevine El-Aref, “Make it wider”, Al-Ahram Weekly, July 8).
Tombe d’Harwa (TT 37 ) Harwa was a mysterious figure in ancient Egypt. He lived in the seventh century BC, when Egypt was controlled by the Nubians of the 25th Dynasty. He held the position of Great Steward of the Divine Votaries; a position that allowed him to manage the huge resources of the state of Amun-Re of Karnak. This position was held for three centuries by members of the clergy and controlled the whole of southern Egypt. The importance of Harwa lies in his tomb in the Theban necropolis on Luxor’s West Bank where eight statues of him in various positions were discovered. These statues are now scattered among the Egyptian collections in different parts of the world — in Cairo, Aswân, Paris, London and Leipzig. There is a statue of him with his wife and daughter, the three of them depicted with physical imperfections. At a recent lecture organised by the Italian Archaeological Institute in Cairo Francesco TIRADRITTI, president of the Italian archaeological mission in Luxor, talked about the institute’s discoveries in the tomb of Harwa. Excavations have been carried out at Harwa’s tomb by the Italian Archaeological Mission to Luxor since 1995. The finds indicate that Harwa was not only a dignitary with vast power, but was the actual ruler of the whole of southern Egypt, ruling on behalf of the pharaohs of the Nubian Dynasty. This conclusion is supported by a limestone ushabti, discovered in 1997 into the tomb, showing Harwa holding in his hands the crook and the flail, that is to say the regalia, the characteristic emblems of the pharaonic royalty. Harwa may thus have been the first king in the Renaissance Period, a term used to describe the 25th Dynasty. The Renaissance movement in art especially began in Harwa’s tomb then spread widely in Egypt. Old images were painted in a new style. “For example,” Dr TIRADRITTI explained, “in paintings of earlier periods we would find scenes of servants taking a calf to slaughter and all the cows would be looking at him sadly. In Harwa’s tomb, the calf is also sad, as if he knew his fate.” It is clear that the artists who decorated Harwa’s tomb came from Upper Egypt. Harwa’s tomb is similar to a temple built by Pharaoh Taharqa, one of the 25th Dynasty kings, in northern Nubia. (Mary Fikry -Antoun Milad, “Archaeoscope”, Watanî, January 17, 2010). Monastère de Saint - Antoine
Earlier this month, a large celebration was held by the Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA) to mark the completion of the second phase of restoration at St Antony’s Monastery. St Antony (Anba Antonious), whose long life spanned the years 251 to 356, is credited with being the father of monasticism in a region long renowned for its tradition of holy men who chose to withdraw from society and live singly in the rocky desert hills. It was St Antony who drew these hermits together to share their lives and prayers. Founded in the fourth century, this is the oldest active Christian monastery in the world, lying in the Eastern Desert 155kms southeast Cairo and not far from the Red Sea coast. The first phase of restoration took three years from 2001 to 2004 and included BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010 restoring the monastery buildings and cells at a cost of some EGP25 million. This phase included fixing cracks in the domes, wooden roofs, windows and doors, as well as piling and damp proofing. The second phase began in June 2008 and was finished last September, with expenses totalling to EGP80 million. Sayyid Bakr, manager of Islamic and Coptic monuments at the SCA says the second phase included total change of the electrical and lighting systems and communications, with telephones installed to serve visitors and monks. He added that modern buildings — mostly industrial units — close to the monastery had been removed to outside monastery borders, and large tanks had been built outside the monastery to collect drainage water. The old irrigation network was removed to make way for a new one to water the monastery’s trees and plants by dripping, and generators were installed for use in case of interruptions in electricity supply. During the restoration work, workmen and conservators came upon the ruins of an ancient building lying underneath the Church of the Apostles, which is the main church of the five in the monastery. The Church of the Apostles — topped with 12 domes and a bell tower — houses the relics of St Yûsuf, who died in 1826, preserved in a glass sarcophagus. Traces of a cell belonging to one of the monastery’s earliest monks were found at a depth of 2.5m underneath this church. The cell consists of two overlapping rooms, with a small oven in the first room. On one a wall in the second room is one of the oldest inscriptions in the Coptic language. There was also a drain made of fired clay. The cell is thought to be the oldest one belonging to Christian monks ever found. According to initial studies on the building of cells, it seems they were covered with domed roofs that have been destroyed by time. The monastery contains murals and icons dating back to the sixth, ninth, 13th and 19th centuries. Other buildings have since been added. Anba Antonious lived in the monastery until 285. In 305 he was known to be living in Fayyûm where he founded another monastery. Anba Antonious later moved to Alexandria. He died in 356 at the age of 105. The SCA recently announced that technical, archaeological, and financial committees were being set up to conduct studies for the third phase of restoration, which will include excavations to unearth the archaeological extension of the monastery as it was in the sixth century. (Sanâ’ Fârûq, “Recent restorations reveal that Anba 91
Antonious Monastery is… Older still and older”, Watanî, February 21, 2010).
Wâdî Sûra Archaeologists are studying prehistoric rock drawings discovered in a remote cave in 2002, including dancing figures and strange headless beasts, as they seek new clues about the rise of Egyptian civilization. Amateur explorers stumbled across the cave, which includes 5,000 images painted or engraved into stone, in the vast, empty desert near Egypt’s southwest border with Libya and Sudan. Rudolph KUPER, a German archaeologist, said the details depicted in the “Cave of the Beasts” indicate the site is at least 8,000 years old, likely the work of hunter-gatherers whose descendants may have been among the early settlers of the then-swampy and inhospitable Nile Valley. The cave is 10 km from the “Cave of the Swimmers” romanticized in the film The English Patient, but with far more, and better-preserved image. By studying the sandstone cave and other nearby sites, the archaeologists are trying to build a timeline to compare the culture and technologies of the peoples who inhabited the area. “It is the most amazing cave… in North Africa and Egypt,” said Karin KINDERMANN, a member of a German-led team that recently made a trip to the site 900 km southwest of Cairo. “You take a piece of the puzzle and see where it could fit. This is an important piece,” she said. The Eastern Sahara, a region the size of Western Europe that extends from Egypt into Libya, Sudan and Chad, is the world’s largest warm, dry desert. Rainfall in the desert’s centre averages less than 2 millimeters a year. The region was once much less arid. About 8500 BC, seasonal rainfall appeared in the region, creating a savanna and attracting hunter-gatherers. By 5300 BC, the rains had stopped and human settlements receded to highland areas. By 3500 BC, the settlements disappeared entirely. “After 3-4,000 years of savanna life environment in the Sahara, the desert returned and people were forced to move eastwards to the Nile Valley, contributing to the foundation of Egyptian civilization, and southwards to the African continent,” said KUPER, an expert at Germany’s Heinrich Barth Institute. The mass exodus corresponds with the rise of sedentary life along the Nile that later blossomed into pharaonic civilization that dominated the region for thousands of years and whose art, architecture and government helped shape Western culture. “It was a movement, I think, step by step, because the desert didn’t rush in. The rains would withdraw, then return, and so on. But step by step it became more dry, and people moved toward the Nile Valley or toward the south,” KUPER told Reuters. KUPER and his team are recording the geological, botanic and archaeological evidenced around the cave, including stone tools and pottery, and will compare it to other sites in the Eastern Sahara region, adding new pieces to a prehistoric puzzle. “It seems that the paintings of the Cave of the Beasts pre-date the introduction of domesticated animals. That means they predate 6000 BC,” said KUPER, who led his first field trip to the cave in April 2009. “That is what we dare to say.” (Patrick WERR, “Sahara cave holds clues to Ancient Egypt”, Egyptian Mail, May 25, 2010).
Royaume de Makourie « Nous sommes en quête des forts dressés sur le Nil que les rois de Makourie avaient fondés », explique Mariusz DRZEWIECKI, membre de la mission polonaise dirigée par le professeur Bogdan ZVRAZSKI qui opère au nord du Soudan depuis 1997 et l’adjoint du chef du bureau de l’Université de Varsovie au Caire. Établi dès le Ve siècle de notre ère, le royaume de Makourie était situé entre les IIIe et Ve cataractes. Commencée depuis 6 ans, cette recherche occupe une extrême importance pour les membres de la mission. Ainsi ont-ils dégagé jusqu’à présent 65 forts répartis sur toute la Haute-Nubie et datés de différentes époques. Mais depuis trois ans, la mission a concentré ses travaux sur la zone de la IVe cataracte qui sera submergée par l’eau lorsque le projet de la fondation d’un barrage sera mis en vigueur au début de l’an 2010. En gros, une dizaine de forts seront affectés, voire noyés sous l’eau du lac qui en résultera. « Notre mission s’occupe de trois forteresses seulement », reprend DRZEWIECKI. Au cours des trois dernières saisons, les membres de la mission ont enregistré les vestiges architecturaux et ont dégagé différentse pièces et objets que renfermaient ces forts et qui sont innombrables. Quant à leurs fonctions, elles sont variées.
En effet, les formes des forteresses varient entre rectangulaires, cylindriques et irrégulières. Une différence due à la nature géologique du sol. Dans les plaines se trouvent les forts rectangulaires comme à Banganarti au sud-est du Vieux Dongola. Les forteresses cylindriques, elles, sont fréquemment trouvées aux sommets des collines. Quant au troisième groupe, il est dressé dans la région de la IVe cataracte où les rochers dominent. À cet emplacement, l’état des murailles des forts est très bon. Ceci s’explique par la bonne construction des murailles certes mais aussi par le fait que la région de la quatrième cataracte est rocheuse et humide. « Les rochers sont érodés par les ondes du fleuve reçues. Cependant, ces formations naturelles protègent ainsi tous les bâtiments qui sont érigés au sein du site. D’ailleurs, toutes les murailles sont construites sur les sommets des collines », reprend DRZEWIECKI. Quant aux édifices qu’elles entourent, ils sont démolis. Construits en brique crue, ces fragments de monuments n’ont pas pu résisté contre l’humidité de l’atmosphère de la IVe cataracte. Malgré cette détérioration, la mission a pu distinguer les composants architecturaux de ces forteresses. On y trouve des églises, des bâtiments administratifs, des hôpitaux ainsi que d’autres bâtiments. Et tout cet ensemble est protégé par d’épaisses murailles ainsi que de tours cylindriques. Au centre se dresse toujours une église de style basilique, dans la plupart des cas afin de répondre aux besoins religieux de la communauté qui y habitait. Ainsi, ces églises sont-elles ornées de belles fresques religieuses mais aussi représentantes des rois et hauts fonctionnaires du royaume de Makourie en compagnie de Jésus-Christ. Ce genre de fresques symbolisait une sorte de protection voire de bénédiction à ces personnages qui avaient financé la restauration de ces églises. Uniques qu’elles soient, ces fresques sont d’une importance ultime. D’ailleurs, ces églises comprennent des salles où étaient soignés les malades et les blessés des différentes guerres. Selon DRZEWIECKI, ces salles étaient de simples hôpitaux dont la présence était urgente au sein des forteresses. Outre l’église et les salles de soins, la forteresse comprenait d’autres bâtiments de différentes fonctions. Certaines étaient des cuisines où étaient préparés les différents plats servis aux armées, et ce sans oublier les cours d’entraînement où les armées et les soldats suivaient les différentes méthodes de combats. Aussi, il y avait un système efficace de contrôle effectué grâce aux tours cylindriques dressées aux murailles qui encerclaient ces bâtiments. Églises, salles de soins, maisons et tours de contrôle. Tous ces éléments architecturaux avaient besoin d’un système administratif adéquat afin de les gérer, surtout dans les moments délicats des invasions. Raison pour laquelle toutes les forteresses étaient enrichies d’édifices administratifs qui comprenaient les offices du chef de l’armée, du comptable et surtout du directeur de la forteresse qui gérait les routes et la transportation de l’eau obtenue et sa distribution aux différents établissements de la forteresse. « Il paraît que le transport de l’eau était l’une des fonctions primordiales de ces forts. Ce qui l’explique, c’est la trouvaille d’une grande quantité de poteries de différents volumes et formes », renchérit DRZEWIECKI. Aussi les membres de la mission polonaise ont dégagé de ces bâtiments des matériaux organiques comme les céréales, des fragments des mobiliers en bois, des sandales ainsi que des vêtements trouvés dans les tombes annexées aux forteresses. Quant aux tours de contrôle, elles comprenaient des flèches et un arc en vrac. Une trouvaille précieuse aux yeux des archéologues. « Les souverains du royaume de Makourie étaient présentés avec ces arcs en vrac, comme signe de la royauté et de la bravoure. Mais c’est la première fois que l’on trouve cet instrument », explique l’adjoint. Selon lui, Cette arme était fameuse à l’époque de Makourie. D’ailleurs, lors de l’invasion islamique en 642, l’armée musulmane s’est retirée à cause de l’utilisation habile de l’arc en vrac par les soldats makouriens. Mais pourquoi les souverains du royaume de Makourie avaient-ils construit 65 forteresses, toutes dressées au sein de la vallée du Nil ? Selon Mariusz DRZEWIECKI, cette quantité était entamée afin de protéger les carrières d’or qui s’y trouvaient. Également, il paraît que ce royaume se composait de 13 petits royaumes ou gouvernorats couronnés chacun d’un roi local. Ces petits rois sont subordonnés au roi dont la demeure et le palais royal étaient dans la capitale Dongola. Alors chacun de ces petits gouvernorats avait sa forteresse de peur des invasions des voisins. Quant à leur édification dans la vallée du Nil, « parce que le Nil était l’axe primordial de la transportation et de l’échange de différentes productions locales entre ces petits royaumes », reprend-t-il. Et par la suite établir l’épanouissement financier et commercial pour aboutir à la stabilité économique. D’ailleurs, le Nil était le moyen le plus fréquent de la communication entre l’Égypte et le Soudan. Certes, mais il représentait un grand danger pour le royaume de Makourie à cause des invasions égyptiennes successives et celles des tribus nomades indiquées par les documents historiques. Si les forteresses de la IVe cataracte sont attentivement et minutieusement traitées, les autres du royaume restent intactes. Et elles sont nombreuses. Aussi, le royaume de Makourie, voire la Haute-Nubie, comprenait des cités qui renfermaient des palais royaux, des églises, des maisons, des secteurs économiques et des cimetières renfermant des secrets à dévoiler. Raison pour laquelle le royaume de Makourie demeure malgré les fouilles menées un chantier vierge et fertile qui a besoin de beaucoup plus d’intérêt de la part des archéologues. Il reste autant à relever afin de combler les grandes lacunes de l’histoire soudanaise et ses relations avec ses voisins, notamment l’Égypte. Mais il y a d’innombrables entraves qui freinent les activités de différentes missions archéologiques comme les guerres ou les décisions politiques, dont le projet de l’installation de trois barrages fait partie. Mais il est temps de prêter plus d’attention et de soin à cette partie du globe terrestre qui va certainement enrichir l’histoire du continent noir, voire du berceau de la civilisation humaine. (Doaa Elhami, « Protection tous azimuts », Al-Ahram Hebdo du 6 janvier 2010).
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VII – CONFÉRENCES & COLLOQUES
3 The Temples of Millions of Years & the Royal Power at Thebes in the New Kingdom Science & New Technologies applied to Archaeology, International Colloquium, Mubârak Public Library, Luxor, 3-5 january 2010 : 3 Zâhî Hawwâs, [Égypte], “The Egyptian Mission working in the Valley of the Kings”, 3/01/2010. 3 Christian LEBLANC, [France], « Les temples de millions d’années : une redéfinition à la lumière des récentes recherches. De la vocation religieuse à la fonction politique et économique », 3/01/2010. 3 Angelo SESANA,« Le temple d’Amenhotep II à Thèbes-Ouest : du passé au présent », 3/01/2010. 3 Hourig SOUROUZIAN,“The Temple of Millions of Years of Amenhotep III: Past, Present and Future Perspectives”, 3/01/2010. 3 Horst JARITZ,“The House of Millions of Years of Merenptah: Recovery of an almost lost site”, 3/01/2010. 3 Rainer STADELMANN, [Allemagne], “The Temple of Seti I at Qurna, Model of a Temple of Millions of Years for the Nineteenth Dynasty, after the Amarna Schism”, 3/01/2010. 3 Zbigniew SZAFRANSKI, [Pologne], “Evolution of the Architectural and Archaeological Research in the Temple of Hatshepsut at Dayr al-Baharî”, 3/01/2010. 3 Christian LEBLANC, [France], « Bilan de vingt campagnes de recherches et d’études dans le temple de millions d’années de Ramsès II à Thèbes-Ouest », 3/01/2010. 3 Myriam SECO-ALVAREZ & ‘Atiyya Radwân,“Egyptian-Spanish Project at the Temple of Thutmosis III in Luxor West Bank: The Resulkts of two Seasons”, 3/01/2010.
3 Jean-François CARLOTTI & Philippe MARTINEZ,« Un château de millions d’années d’époque ramesside : la grande salle hypostyle du temple d’Amon-Rê à Karnak. Nouvelles observations architecturales et épigraphiques. Essai d’interprétation », 3/01/2010. 3 Ute RUMMEL,“Generating Millions of Years: Iunmutef and the Ritual Aspect of Divine Kingship”, 4/01/2010. 3 Richard H. WILKINSON,“The Memorial Temple of Tausert: Was it ever Completed?”, 4/01/2010. 3 Guillemette ANDREU, [France], « Les mystères de Dayr al-Madîna », 4/01/2010. 3 Mansûr Burayk, [Égypte], “New Discoveries in front of Karnak”, 4/01/2010. 3 Gîhân Zakî, [CSA, Égypte], “Recent Excavation of Thot Gate, North of Karnak”, 4/01/2010. 3 Charles VAN SICLEN III,“The Edifice of Amenhotep II at Karnak: an Architectural Pious Fraud”, 4/01/2010. 3 Musallam Shaltût & Amanda-Alice MARAVELIA,“The Great Temples of Thebes and the Sunrise in the Winter Solstice: applying Modern Archaeoastronomical Techniques to study the Ancient Egyptian Temples”, 4/01/2010. 3 Jean-Luc FISSOLO,« Sous le ciel de Thèbes : le plafond astronomique du Ramesseum », 4/01/2010. 3 W. Raymond JOHNSON,“The New Digital Publication Program of the Epigraphic Survey Oriental Institute, University of Chicago at Madînat Hâbû”, 4/01/2010. 3 Philippe MARTINEZ & Kevin CAIN, “A New Insight into the Ramesseum: a Decade of Interdisciplinary Research in Digital Archaeological Documentation and Dissemination”, 5/01/2010. 3 Tommaso QUIRINO, Elio NEGRI &
Angelo SESANA, “The GIS Project for the Temple of Millions of Years of Amenhotep II: Data Collection, Analysis and 3D Reconstruction Hypothesis”, 5/01/2010. 3 Adam LOWE,“The Application of Technology in Conservation and Preservation. New Recording and Display Systems Designed by Factum Arte for the Supreme Council of Antiquities”, 5/01/2010. 3 Robert VERGNIEUX,« Les constructions thébaines du règne d’Amenhotep IV revisitées par les nouvelles technologies », 5/01/2010. 3 Kusi COLONNA-PRETI & Gemma TORRA I CAMPOS,« La conservation et la restauration de l’architecture en terre crue du Ramesseum : techniques traditionnelles et nouvelles technologies », 5/01/2010. 3 Christian LEBLANC, Guy LECUYOT & Alban-Brice PIMPAUD,« Un projet de musée pour le site archéologique de Thèbes-Ouest », 5/01/2010. 3 Sandrine PAGÈS-CAMAGNA, « Analyse physico-chimique non invasive des matériaux de la polychromie des monuments égyptiens », 5/01/2010. 3 Arkadi KARAKHANYAN,“The Temple of Amenhotep III: Evidence of a Strong Earthquake between 1200 and 900 B.C.”, 5/01/2010. 3 Nicole B. HANSEN & Ilka SCHACHT,“The Theban Mapping Project Archaeological and Image Databases”, 5/01/2010. 3 Elizabeth S. BOLMAN, [Associate Professor of Medieval Art, Department of Art History, Temple University, Philadelphia], “The Red and White Monastery Projects, 2000 – 2009: Conservation, Archaeology and Interpretation”, Conseil Suprême des Antiquités, 04/01/2010.
3 Les archives. Matières et matérialités, Atelier jeunes chercheurs, Ifao, Le Caire, 6-11 janvier 2010 : 3 Christine NOUGARET, [École des Chartes, Paris, France], « Le document d’archive en son contexte », 6/01/2010. 3 Yann POTIN, [Archives nationales, Paris, France], « Du contenant au contenu, la qualification problématique des archives. Perspectives historiques et comparées », 6/01/2010. 3 Nadine PICAUDOU, [Université Paris I, France], « Sources orales et histoire du temps présent », 6/01/2010. 3 Jean-Charles DEPAULE, [Laboratoire d’anthropologie urbaine, Ivry, France], « Le look archive », 7/01/2010. 3 Sylvaine CAMELIN, [Université Paris-Ouest, France], « Monumentaliser les archives », 7/01/2010. 3 Hamit BOZARSLAN, [EHESS, Paris, France], « La part du grenier », 7/01/2010. 3 Bruno GALLAND, [Archives nationales, Paris, France], « Rendre compte et expliquer : la description des archives », 8/01/2010. 3 Ayman Fu’âd Sayyid, [Ifao, Égypte], « La codicologie des manuscrits arabes », 8/01/2010. 3 Christian GAUBERT, [Ifao, France], « Papier et parchemins d’archives d’époque fatimide issues du monastère de Naqlûn au Fayyûm », 8/01/2010. 3 Jean-Charles DEPAULE, [Laboratoire d’anthropologie urbaine, Ivry, France], « Comment décrire un document photographique ? », 8/01/2010. 3 Sylvie DENOIX, [Ifao, France], « Copie, faux, brouillon : quel est le document le plus valide ? », 9/01/2010. 3 Christine NOUGARET, [École des Chartes, Paris, France], « Validation et tradition des documents écrits », 9/01/2010. 3 Christine JUNGEN, [Laboratoire d’anthropologie urbaine, Ivry, France], « L’original et ses reproductions : la question de la ressemblance », 9/01/2010. 3 Yann POTIN, [Archives nationales, Paris, France], « Transformer les archives en textes : regards sur les effets matériels et intellectuels de l’édition des documents d’archives », 9/01/2010. 3 Hourig SOUROUZIAN,“Art and Technique at the Temple of Amenhotep III at Kom al-Hîtân”, Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology in Cairo, 12/01/2010.
BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010 3 Ahmad Fahmî, [Hilwân University, Égypte], “Archaeobotany of Food in Predynastic Hierakonpolis, Upper Egypt”, American Research Center in Egypt, 13/01/2010. 3 James WESTERMAN, [Director of the Osireion Research Project with Pennsylvania State University], “Recent Archaeological Discoveries in the Osireion in Abydos”, American Research Center in Egypt, 20/01/2010. 3 Cornelia RÖMER, [Research associate at the German Archaeological Institute, Allemagne], “The Fayyûm Survey Projet”, Deutsches Archäologisches Institut Kairo, 26/01/2010. 3 Abbès ZOUACHE, [membre scientifique à l’Ifao, France], « Retrouver la guerre : têtes mutilées et tranchées au Proche-Orient, Ve-VIe/XIe-XIIe siècles », Institut français d'archéologie orientale, 26/01/2010.
3 Sara NIMIS, [ARCE Fellow, Georgetown University], “Ijazat as a Source for the Social History of Egypt in the Nineteenth Century”, American Research Center in Egypt, 27/01/2010. 3 ‘Abd al-Halîm Nûr al-Dîn, [Professor of Ancient Egyptian Language, Faculty of Antiquities, Cairo University and Advisor to the BA Director, Egypt], “The Role of Women at the Royal Palace in Ancient Egypt”, Bibliotheca Alexandrina, 27/01/2010. 3 Thomas FAUCHER & Julien OLIVIER,« La monnaie en Égypte, d’Alexandre à Cléopâtre », Institut français d'archéologie orientale, 2/02/2010. 3 ‘Abd al-Halîm Nûr al-Dîn, [Professor of Ancient Egyptian Language, Faculty of Antiquities, Cairo University and Advisor to the BA Director, Egypt], “Women in Religious and Worldly Thinking”, Bibliotheca Alexandrina, 3/02/2010. 3 Laurent COULON, [Researcher at CNRS, France], “The Karnak Cachette Database, Joint IFAO -SCA Project”, Conseil Suprême des Antiquités, 07/02/2010. 3 Aleksander BURSCHE, [University of Warsaw, Institute of Archaeology, Poland], “Computer Animations in Polish Archaeology”, Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology in Cairo, 09/02/2010. 3 Wolfgang MAYER, [former scientific member of the German Archaeological Institute, is a Senior Conservator and the Resident Representative of the Hanns-Seidel-Foundation in Egypt], “Conservation and Preservation of Archaeological Sites – A Holistic Philosophy”, Deutsches Archäologisches Institut Kairo, 09/02/2010. 3 ‘Abd al-Halîm Nûr al-Dîn, [Professor of Ancient Egyptian Language, Faculty of Antiquities, Cairo University and Advisor to the BA Director, Egypt], “Women as a Guardian of the Throne”, Bibliotheca Alexandrina, 10/02/2010. 3 Sameh Iskander, [Ph.D., New York University], “The Temple of Rameses II at Abydos Epigraphic Project, 2010 Season”, American Research Center in Egypt, 17/02/2010. 3 ‘Abd al-Halîm Nûr al-Dîn, [Professor of Ancient Egyptian Language, Faculty of Antiquities, Cairo University and Advisor to the BA Director, Egypt], “The Role of Women in Conspiracies in Ancient Egypt”, Bibliotheca Alexandrina, 17/02/2010. 3 Olaf KAPER, [Professor of Egyptology at the University of Leiden], “Gods and Roman Emperors at Ain Birbiyeh: results of recent excavations in the Dâkhla Oasis”, Nederlands-Vlaams Instituut in Cairo, 25/02/2010. 3 Janice KAMRIN, [Ph.D., Director, Egyptian Museum Database and Registrar Training Projects, ARCE and Egyptological Consultant, SCA], “The Egyptian Museum Database and Registrar Training Projects: Toward Collections Management at the Egyptian Museum, Cairo”, Conseil Suprême des Antiquités, 01/03/2010. 3 Târiq al-Mursî, [chercheur associé IREMAMM et CeAlex], « La géomatique appliquée à la recherche archéologique en Égypte », Institut français d'archéologie orientale, 2/03/2010. 3 Rudolph KUPER, Erik BÜTTNER & Heiko RIEMER,“The Cave of Beasts -Rock Art and Landscape Archaeology in Wâdî Sûra (Gilf al-Kabîr)”, Deutsches Archäologisches Institut Kairo, 09/03/2010. 3 Sâlih Lam‘î, [President, Centre for Conservation of Islamic Architectural Heritage, Egypt], “The Rehabilitation of Qazdughli Palace, Simon Bolivar- Garden City, BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010 former American Embassy 1943-47”, American Research Center in Egypt, 10/03/2010. 3 ‘Abd al-Halîm Nûr al-Dîn, [Professor of Ancient Egyptian Language, Faculty of Antiquities, Cairo University and Advisor to the BA Director, Egypt], “The Most Important Monuments of Women and Children in Ancient Egypt”, Bibliotheca Alexandrina, 17/03/2010. 3 Gisela FOCK, [obtained her Ph.D. from Humbold University, Berlin in Islamic Studies and the History of Arts], “Neuruppin-Cairo: Orientalism in the 19th century-the Story of the Family Gentz”, Deutsches Archäologisches Institut Kairo, 23/03/2010. 3 Nasser Rabbat, [Aga Khan Professor of Islamic Architecture, Director of the Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture, MIT], “How Mamluk Architecture Co-Opted the Streets of Cairo”, American University in Cairo, 23/03/2010. 3 Scott BUCKING, [Ph.D., Associate Professor of Ancient Mediterranean Studies, Department of History, Depaul University], “The ABCs of Alphabet Graffiti from Roman and Byzantine Egypt: Case Studies from Dayr al-Baharî”, American Research Center in Egypt, 24/03/2010. 3 Ana TAVARES, [Co-Field Director of the Ancient Egypt Research Associates (AERA) excavations in Gîza], “Recent work of Ancient Egypt Research Associates (AERA) at the Town of Queen Khentkawes, Gîza”, Nederlands-Vlaams Instituut in Cairo, 25/03/2010. 3 Giuseppe FANFONI, [Italie], “Cleaning, restoration and conservation of stones”, Centro Italo-Egiziano per il Restauro e l'Archeologia, 27/03/2010. 3 ‘Izzat Zakî Hâmid Qaddûs, [Professor of Greek and Roman Monuments, Faculty of Arts, Alexandria University, Egypt], “Mosaic-A Special Feature of Roman Civilization”, Bibliotheca Alexandrina, 28/03/2010. 3 Ilario PRINCIPE, [expert in History of Art and Architecture], “The Symbology of Heaven in Decorated Ceilings and Domes”, Bibliotheca Alexandrina, 29/03/2010. 3 Vassil DOBREV, [Egyptologist•archaeologist at the French Archaeological Institute in Cairo], “Houses of Eternity at Tabbat al-Gaysh (South Saqqâra)”, Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology in Cairo, 30/03/2010. 3 Stephen P. HARVEY, [Research Assistant Professor, Department of History, Stony Brook University and Director, Ahmose and Tetisheri Project, Abydos], “The Pyramids of Abydos: Monuments of King Ahmose and his Family”, Conseil Suprême des Antiquités, 05/04/2010. 3 Krzysztof CIALOWICZ & Marek CHLODNICKI,“Excavations at Pre and Early Dynastic site at Tell al-Farkha. Recent results”, Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology in Cairo, 06/04/2010. 3 Ahmad F. Ibrâhîm, [ARCE Fellow, Georgetown University], “Utility and Legal Pluralism in Late Ottoman Cairo Courts”, American Research Center in Egypt, 07/04/2010. 3 ‘Abd al-Halîm Nûr al-Dîn, [Professor of Ancient Egyptian Language, Faculty of Antiquities, Cairo University and Advisor to the BA Director, Egypt], “The Role of Women in International Relations in Ancient Egypt”, Bibliotheca Alexandrina, 7/04/2010. 3 Muhammad ‘Abd al-Maqsûd & Mirvat Sayf al-Dîn, [CSA, Egypt], “The Recent Excavations in Kom al-Dikka, Alexandria”, Bibliotheca Alexandrina, 8/04/2010. 3 Zachary BERMAN, [ARCE Fellow, City University of New York], “Zubayr Pasha, The Slave Trade, and the End of Egyptian Control of Sudan”, American Research Center in Egypt, 14/04/2010. 3 Thierry VERDEL, [France], « Le génie des Pyramides », Centre culturel français d'Héliopolis, 17/04/2010. 3 Matilde BORLA, [conservateur de la surintendance aux antiquités du Piémont et du musée des antiquités égyptiennes], « La collection égyptologique de Turin : état de la question », Institut français d'archéologie orientale, 20/04/2010. 3 Peter LACOVARA, [Simpson Professor of Egyptology, AUC, USA], “The Place of the Sun King: Recent Works at Malqata”, American University in Cairo, 20/04/2010. BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010
3 ‘Abd al-Halîm Nûr al-Dîn, [Professor of Ancient Egyptian Language, Faculty of Antiquities, Cairo University and Advisor to the BA Director, Egypt], “The Royal Child in Ancient Egypt”, Bibliotheca Alexandrina, 21/04/2010. 3 Clara JEUTHE, [Université de Bonn], “Workshop Complex in the Palace of ‘Ayn Asîl”, Institut français d'archéologie orientale, 27/04/2010. 3 Sussan BABAIE, [Fulbright Regional Scholar, Egypt & Syria, 2009-2010 and Allianz Visiting Professor, History of the Arts, University of Munich, 2010-2011], “Domestic Architecture and Social History of Cosmopolitanism in the Middle East: Cairo, Isfahan and Aleppo (17th -18th Century)”, Conseil Suprême des Antiquités, 03/05/2010. 3 Ana TAVARES, [Co-Field Director AERA / ARCE Field-School], “Hands-on! The AERA/ARCE archaeological field-schools”, Egypt Exploration Society, 03/05/2010. 3 Seminar The Painted Desert. The Rock Art Caves of Wâdî Sûra Gilf al- Kabîr, Istituto Italiano di Cultura per la R.A.E.,04/05/2010 : 3 Barbara BARICH, [La Sapienza University, Rome, Italie], “The Conservation and Restoration Project of the Wâdî Sûra Caves in the framework of the Egyptian-Italian Environmental Cooperation Programme”. 3 Massimo FOGGINI, [Italie], “Foggini Cave: a Sensational Discovery”. 3 Muhammad A. Hamdân, [Cairo University, Egypt], “Wâdî Sûra: a Geological Perspective”. 3 Heiko RIEMER & Sabine KRAUSE, [Cologne University], “The German Archaeological and Conservation Mission to Wâdî Sûra in 2009 and 2010”. 3 ‘Abd al-Halîm Nûr al-Dîn, [Professor of Ancient Egyptian Language, Faculty of Antiquities, Cairo University and Advisor to the BA Director, Egypt], “Nutrition and Health of Ancient Egyptian Children”, Bibliotheca Alexandrina, 5/05/2010. 3 Edouard LAMBELET, [Owner of the Bookshop Lehner & Landrock], “Tutankhamun, the Power of Symbols”, Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology in Cairo, 11/05/2010. 3 Vassil DOBREV, [Ifao, France], « Les nécropoles de Tabbat al-Gaysh (Saqqâra-sud) »,Institut français d'archéologie orientale, 11/05/2010. 3 Rituals and Sanctuaires in the Archaeology of Egypt, German Archaeological Institute, Supreme Council of Antiquities, Cairo, 24-25 mai 2010 : 3 Christophe THIERS & Pierre ZIGNANI, [France], “Origin, Continuity and Transformations. The Temple de Ptah at Karnak”, 24/05/2010. 3 Andreas EFFLAND,“... fare upstream to Thinite nome, and traverse Abydos: Umm al-Qi‘âb and the Culte of Osiris”, Conseil Suprême des Antiquités, 24/05/2010. 3 Georg STAUTH,“In Search of Authenticity: Comparative Cultural Interaction at Places of Antiquity. The Case of the Delta”, 24/05/2010. 3 Mamdûh al-Damâtî, [SCA, Egypt], “The empty cartouches in the Temple of Idfû”, 24/05/2010. 3 Zbigniew SZAFRANSKI, [Poland], “The Sanctuaires at Dayr al-Baharî”, 24/05/2010. 3 Stephan SEIDLMAYER,“Religious transformations in the area of Aswân prior to the Ptolemaic period”, 24/05/2010. 3 Gîhân Zakî, [SCA, Egypt], “Syene, Elephantine and Philae: Instrumentalisation of Religion in Ptolemaic Time”, 24/05/2010. 3 Klaus SCHMIDT,“The prehistoric sanctuary at Göbekli Tepe (Turkey)”, 25/05/2010. 3 Ute RUMMEL,“Creating sacred space: Function and meaning of temple architecture in a funerary context”, 25/05/2010. 3 Iris GERLACH,“Sacred architecture of Saba (Yemen): Development and function”, 25/05/2010. 3 Ramadân al-Badrî Husayn, [Egypt], “Myth-making and the creation of ritual landscapes: the case of the Theban Sanctuaries”, 25/05/2010. BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010
3 Dietrich RAUE, [Allemagne], “Sacred practices outside of temples and tombs”, 25/05/2010. 3 Shâfya Badîr, [Egypt], “A Lintel of Ptolemy VI from Philae”, 25/05/2010. 3 Nicole Alexanian,“The religious impact of Egypt on the Arabian Peninsula -a view from Tayma (Saudi-Arabia)”, 25/05/2010. 3 Zbigniew E. SZAFRANSKI, [Director of the Polish-Egyptian Mission of the Temple of Hatshepsut at Dayr al-Baharî, Poland], “King Hatshepsut -Paving the Way for a line of Female Pharaohs”, Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology in Cairo, 01/06/2010. 3 ‘Abd al-Halîm Nûr al-Dîn, [Professor of Ancient Egyptian Language, Faculty of Antiquities, Cairo University and Advisor to the BA Director, Egypt], “Costumes of Women and Children in Ancient Egypt”, Bibliotheca Alexandrina, 2/06/2010. 3 Stephan J. SEIDELMAYER,“Rock Inscription, Sanctuaries and Landscape Archaeology in Aswân”, Conseil Suprême des Antiquités, 7/06/2010. 3 ‘Abd al-Munsif Sâlim, [Faculté de Lettres, université de Hilwân, Égypte], « Influence de l’architecture islamique sur l’architecture des églises européennes au cours du Moyen-Âge », musée Copte, 8/06/2010. 3 ‘Abd al-Gawwâd Hashîsh, [président du secteur des antiquités islamiques et coptes de Haute-Égypte], « Les monastères : lieux de visite, lieux archéologiques », musée de Louqsor, 10/06/2010. 3 Miguel John VERSLUYS, [Leiden University], “Isis on the Nile. Egyptian gods in Hellenistic and Roman Egypt”, Institut français d'archéologie orientale, 14/06/2010. 3 Edwin BROCK, [American Research Center in Egypt and Theban Mapping Project], “Protecting the Valley of the Kings. Archaeological finds from the Valley of the Kings Flood Protection Project”, Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology in Cairo, 15/06/2010. 3 ‘Abd al-Halîm Nûr al-Dîn, [Professor of Ancient Egyptian Language, Faculty of Antiquities, Cairo University and Advisor to the BA Director, Egypt], “The Mediterranean, the Red Sea and Other Water Resources in Ancient Egypt”, Bibliotheca Alexandrina, 16/06/2010. 3 La violence extrême en contexte guerrier : un outil rhétorique ?, table ronde organisée par Abbès ZOUACHE, Ifao, Le Caire, 21 juin 2010 : 3 Béatrix MIDANT-REYNES, [directrice de l’Ifao, France], « La violence à l’époque prédynastique ». 3 Yannis GOURDON, [membre scientifique à l’Ifao, France], « Ruine du nom et destruction de l’image dans l’Égypte ancienne : des armes pour anéantir l’individu ». 3 Giuseppe CECERE, [Ifao, France], « L’équilibre de la violence en islam, entre traditions juridiques et mystiques ». 3 al-Amîn Abû Sa‘âda, [Université de Tantâ, Égypte], “Violence in Muslim- Christian Warfare: a Polemical Prospect”. 3 Sylvie DENOIX, [directeur des études à l’Ifao, France], « Violences guerrières, meurtre politique et maintien de l’ordre à l’époque mamelouke ». 3 Bérangère REDON, [membre scientifique à l’Ifao, France], « Quand les mercenaires grecs au service des derniers pharaons agissaient en Barbares (VIIe-IVe siècles) ». 3 ‘Abd al-‘Azîz Ramadân, [Université de ‘Ayn Shams, Égypte], “Violence in Byzantium-Arab Warfare”. 3 Daniel BALOUP, [Casa de Velazquez], « al-Andalus, la Reconquête et les violences ». 3 Abbès ZOUACHE, [membre scientifique à l’Ifao, France], « Violences extrêmes et culture(s) de guerre aux XIe-XIIe siècles: l’impact de la croisade ». 3 Muhammad ‘Afîfî, [Université du Caire et Ifao, Égypte], « Les violences exercées à l’encontre des fallâhîn à l’époque ottomane ». 3 Yair ZAKOVITCH, [Professor of Bible at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem], “The Bible and Literary Archaeology”, the Israeli Academic Center, 22/06/2010. BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010
3 ‘Abd al-Halîm Nûr al-Dîn, [Professor of Ancient Egyptian Language, Faculty of Antiquities, Cairo University and Advisor to the BA Director, Egypt], « Antiquities in Kafr al-Shaykh and Damietta Governorates », Bibliotheca Alexandrina, 23/06/2010. 3 Colloque international « La Batellerie égyptienne », Centre d’Études Alexandrines, Alexandrie, 25-27 juin 2010 : 3 Muhammad ‘Abd al-Magîd, [CSA, Égypte], « La batellerie nilotique à l’époque pharaonique », 25/06/2010. 3 Mahmûd Sayf al-Dîn Gum‘a, [Université du Caire, Égypte], « Nil, canaux et lacs : le réseau de communication des eaux intérieures à l’époque gréco- romaine », 25/06/2010. 3 Usâma al-Nahhâs, [CSA, Égypte], “The ancient Egyptian Nile harbours from archaeological and technological points of view”, 25/06/2010. 3 Marianne BERGMANN, [Université Goettingen], “Schedia: the Alexandria harbour on the Nile”, 25/06/2010. 3 Pascal ARNAUD, [Université de Nice, France], « Le trafic nilotique à l’époque gréco-romaine d’après la papyrologie », 26/06/2010. 3 Éric RIETH, [Cnrs, Musée national de la Marine, Paris], « Pour une autre approche nilotique des origines de la construction navale sur membrure première en Méditerranée (Ve-VIIe s.) », 26/06/2010. 3 Lucien BASCH, [Bruxelles], « Alexandrie, entre navigation de mer et batellerie », 26/06/2010. 3 Harry TZALAS, [Mission archéologique sous-marine hellénique], “The Papyrella of Corfu and the Egyptian papyrus boats: similarities and differences in two attempts in experimental archaeology”, 26/06/2010. 3 Jean-Yves EMPEREUR, [directeur du CEAlex, Cnrs, France], « présentation et projection du film Les Tankwas : bateaux de papyrus du lac Tana (Éthiopie)», 26/06/2010. 3 Éric RIETH, [Cnrs, Musée national de la Marine, Paris], « La batellerie du Nil (fin XIXe-début XXe s.) à travers les collections du Musée national de la Marine », 26/06/2010. 3 Christian GAUBERT & Nessim Henein, [Ifao, Le Caire], « Les bateaux du lac Manzala et quelques exemples d’embarcations nilotiques égyptiennes : technologie et lexicographie », 26/06/2010. 3 Raymond COLLET & Patrice POMEY, [CEAlex, Cnrs, France], « présentation et projection du film Les voiles de Borollos », 26/06/2010. - - BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010
VIII -WHO’S WHO ? Voici la liste alphabétique des principaux responsables égyptiens régulièrement cités dans le BIA :
Wagdî ‘Abbâs Directeur de la zone archéologique de Bâb al-Wazîr Ahmad ‘Abd al-‘Âl Directeur général des Antiquités du Fayyûm Fahmî ‘Abd al-‘Azîz Directeur des Antiquités de Râs Sidr Muhammad ‘Abd al-‘Azîz Directeur des Antiquités d’al-Buhayra et de Rosette Sa‘îd ‘Abd al-‘Azîz Directeur de la zone archéologique de Sayyida Zaynab Sabrî ‘Abd al-‘Azîz Président du Secteur des Antiquités égyptiennes Ahmad ‘Abd al-Fattâh Superviseur général des Antiquités d’Alexandrie Nûr ‘Abd al-Ghaffâr Directeur de la zone archéologique d’al-Qurna Sayyid ‘Abd al-Ghaffûr Directeur du Secteur des projets de Haute-Égypte Muhammad ‘Abd al-Latîf Directeur général du Comité permanent des Antiquités islamiques et coptes Ibrâhîm ‘Abd al-Magîd Directeur général de l’administration des Antiquités restituées Muhammad ‘Abd al-Maqsûd Président de l’administration centrale des Antiquités de Basse-Égypte Ayman ‘Abd al-Mun‘im Ex-directeur du projet de développement du Caire historique ; ex-président du Fonds du développement culturel Hasan ‘Abd al-Mun‘im Directeur du Centre de documentation archéologique de la Citadelle Muhammad ‘Abd al-Râfi‘ Directeur général des Antiquités de Kafr al-Shaykh Muhsin ‘Abd al-Rahmân Directeur de l’administration générale des Antiquités juives Nûr al-Dîn ‘Abd al-Samad Directeur général de l’administration des sites archéologiques Muhammad ‘Abd al-Samî‘ Directeur général des Antiquités du Nord-Sinaï ‘Abd al-Salâm Hasan ‘Abdallah Directeur général de l’inspectorat d’Idfû
‘Âtif ‘Abd al-Wahâb Abû al-Dahab Président de l’administration centrale des Antiquités du Caire et de Gîza ‘Abd al-Salâm Hasan ‘Abdallah Directeur général de l’inspectorat d’Idfû Muhammad ‘Abdallah Abû Rî‘î Inspecteur en chef de l’Unité archéologique à l’aéroport du Caire Magdî ‘Âbdîn Directeur général des antiquités islamiques et coptes d’Aswân Amîra Abû Bakr Directrice générale des restaurations en Alexandrie Muhammad Abû Si‘da Directeur du Fonds de sauvetage des monuments de la Nubie Bahgat Abû Sidayra Directeur de la zone archéologique de la Nouvelle Vallée ‘Abdallah Abû Zahra Inspecteur en chef de la zone archéologique d’al- Munûfiyya Nâdî ‘Adlî Directeur de l’administration architecturale des Antiquités d’Alexandrie et de Basse-Égypte Mahmûd ‘Afîfî Directeur général des Antiquités de Gîza ‘Abd al-Sattâr Ahmad Directeur général des Antiquités d’Asyût Magdî Sulaymân Ahmad Directeur général des Antiquités d’al-Ghûriyya Nûbî Mahmûd Ahmad Directeur général des Antiquités de Suez Ashraf al-‘Ashmâwî Conseiller juridique auprès du CSA Târiq al-‘Awadî Inspecteur en chef d’Abû Sîr ‘Abd al-Rahmân al-‘Âydî Président de l’administration centrale des Antiquités de Moyenne-Égypte ‘Alî al-Asfar Directeur général des Antiquités de la rive Ouest de Louqsor Muhammad al-Biyalî Directeur général des Antiquités d’Aswân et de Nubie Nabîl al-Buhayrî Directeur général de la zone archéologique de l’imâm al•Shâfi‘î Nabîl al-Fâr Inspecteur en chef des Antiquités de Qwisnâ Magdî al-Ghandûr Directeur général des Comités permanents et de l’administration des missions étrangères ‘Abd al-Gawwâd al-Haggâgî Directeur général des Antiquités islamiques et coptes de Louqsor ‘Abd al-Gawwâd Hashîsh Président du secteur des antiquités islamiques et coptes de Haute-Égypte Sâmî al-Husaynî Directeur de la zone archéologique de Dahshûr et de Lisht
BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010
Mukhtâr al-Kasabânî Professeur d’archéologie islamique et copte à l’Université du Caire ; Conseiller archéologique auprès du CSA Fawzî al-Khûlânî Directeur général des Antiquités d’Alexandrie Târiq al-Naggâr Directeur général des Antiquités islamiques et coptes du Sud-Sinaï Muhammad al-Rashîd Superviseur technique du projet du Caire historique Ahmad al-Râwî Directeur de l’Unité archéologique à l’aéroport du Caire ‘Imâd al-Shâyib Directeur de la zone archéologique d’al-Gharbiyya Usâma ‘Abd al-Salâm al-Shîmî Directeur de la zone archéologique de Saqqâra Sawsan al-Shinnâwî Directrice générale de la publication scientifique Muhammad al-Shishtâwî Directeur général de la documentation archéologique du secteur des Antiquités islamiques et coptes Rif‘at al-Tâhir Directeur général des Antiquités de Qantara Ashraf al-Tarbîshî Directeur de la zone archéologique de Suhâg Sud Muhammad Sa‘îd ‘Alî Directeur de la citadelle de Qâytbây en Alexandrie Muhsin Sayyid ‘Alî Président de l’administration centrale de Moyenne- Égypte Samîr Anîs Directeur général des Antiquités de Minyâ Mustafa Anwar Directeur général des Antiquités de l’Est du Caire ‘Âtif William As‘ad Directeur des Antiquités d’al-Munsha’a et de Girgâ ‘Alâ’ ‘Âshûr Directeur des Antiquités de Khân al-Khalîlî Nâdya ‘Âshûr Directrice générale des Antiquités de Banî Swayf Zaynab Badawî Directrice générale des monuments islamiques à Ismâ‘îliyya Mustafa Badîr Directeur de la zone archéologique de Hilwân Mu‘tamida Bakr ‘Abd al-Rahmân Directrice des Antiquités d’al-Qalyûbiyya Mansûr Burayk Radwân Directeur général de la zone archéologique de Louqsor Khâlid Dâwwûd Directeur du secteur de la publication scientifique Farag Fadda Président du secteur des Antiquités islamiques et coptes Ingî Fâyid Directrice de l’administration du développement culturel Husâm Fûda Superviseur de l’Unité architecturale du cabinet du président du CSA pour les projets du Caire historique Mâhir Galâl Directeur général des Antiquités de Daqahliyya et de Damiette
BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010
Thamrât Hâfiz Directeur général de la documentation archéologique du Secteur des Antiquités islamiques et coptes Hassân Hammâd Directeur de la zone archéologique d’Abû Mînâ Tâhir Harîdî Directeur général des projets des Antiquités islamiques Muhammad Hasan Directeur de l’Administration des études et de la documentation archéologiques Mustafa Hasan Directeur général des Antiquités de la Citadelle Yahya Hasânayn Directeur général des Antiquités de Moyenne-Égypte Zâhî Hawwâs Secrétaire général du CSA Sayyid Higâzî Directeur général des Antiquités d’al-Sharqiyya ‘Alî Hilâl Président du Secteur des projets Rabî‘ Himdân Directeur général des Antiquités de Qinâ Ragâ’î Husayn Directeur général de la zone archéologique d’al-Gamâliyya Fârûq Husnî Président du CSA ; ministre de la Culture Wahîd Ibrâhîm Directeur général des Antiquités islamiques d’Alexandrie ‘Abd al-Fattâh ‘Îd Directeur général des Antiquités de Kafr al-Shaykh Muhammad ‘Îd Directeur des Antiquités de Rosette ‘Antar Ismâ‘îl Directeur de la documentation archéologique à Rosette Sayyid Ismâ‘îl Directeur général de la zone archéologique d’al-Azhar et d’al-Ghûrî Mustafa Khalîfa Hasan Directeur général des Antiquités de la Citadelle de Sal-ah al-Dîn al-Ayyûbî au Caire ‘Abd al-Hamîd Ma‘rûf Directeur général du Centre de documentation archéologique Khidr Madbûlî Directeur général de la zone Ouest d’al-Gamâliyya pour les Antiquités islamiques et coptes Gamâl Mahgûb Président du département de la restauration et de la maintenance Muhammad Mahgûb Directeur général des Antiquités du Vieux-Caire et de Fustât Khâlid Mahmûd Directeur des entrepôts muséologiques de la zone archéologique de Saqqâra ‘Alâ’ Mahrûs Directeur général de l’administration des Antiquités sous- marines en Alexandrie
BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010
W H O ’ S W H O ? Târiq Mîlâd Directeur de l’administration architecturale des Antiquités de Haute-Égypte Gamâl Muhammad Mu‘awwad Directeur général des Antiquités de l’Ouest de Louqsor ‘Abd al-Khâliq Mukhtâr Directeur général des Antiquités du Sud du Caire ‘Imâd Muqlid Président du Secteur du financement Nûr al-Dîn Mursî Directeur général de l’inspectorat de l’Ouest du Caire Ahmad Mustafa Président du département des Antiquités restituées Nagîb Nûr Directeur général de l’inspectorat de Daqahliyya ‘Abd al-Hamîd Qutb Ex-président de l’administration centrale pour les affaires architecturales Muhsin Sayyid Rabî‘ Directeur général de l’administration des Antiquités juives ‘Abd al-Ma‘bûd Radwân Directeur général des Antiquités de Basse-Égypte ‘Atiyya Radwân Président de l’administration centrale des Antiquités de Haute-Égypte Muslih Ragab Directeur des Antiquités de la rue al-Mu‘izz l-Dîn Allâh al- Fâtimî ‘Abd al-Rahîm Rayhân Directeur de la zone archéologique de Dahab Khâlid Sa‘d Directeur de l’administration des Antiquités préhistoriques Taha Sâbir Directeur de l’inspectorat d’al-Khalîfa et de Sayyida Zaynab ‘Alî Ahmad Sâlih ‘Abdallah Directeur de la zone archéologique de Mît Rahîna Muhammad Ahmad Saqr Directeur général de la Détention archéologique Mahmûd Yâsîn Shahbû Directeur général de la zone archéologique d’al-Dab‘a et de Mârînâ Sâmî Sharî‘î Directeur général des Antiquités de Bahariyya Sâbir Silîm Directeur général des Antiquités de l’Ouest d’Alexandrie et de la côte Nord Ibrâhîm Sulaymân Directeur général de la zone archéologique d’al-Sharqiyya al-Gharîb Sunbul Directeur général de la restauration à l’Est du Delta et du Sinaï ‘Imâd ‘Uthmân Directeur général de la zone archéologique de Bâb al-Wazîr Mansûr ‘Uthmân Directeur de la zone archéologique d’al-Khârga Nasr ‘Uwayda Directeur général des Antiquités de Haute-Égypte Kamâl Wahîd Directeur de la zone archéologique de Gîza
BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010
Mustafa Wazîrî Directeur de la zone archéologique de la Vallée des Rois à Louqsor Muhammad Ridâ Yûsuf Directeur de l’administration architecturale des zones archéologiques de Basse-Égypte et du Sinaï ‘Abdallah Zahra Inspecteur en chef des Antiquités de Munûfiyya ‘Abd al-Ghanî Zakî Directeur général des Antiquités du centre du Delta
Muhammad ‘Abbâs Silîm Directeur général du musée d’Art islamique Hâfiz ‘Abd al-Fattâh Directeur du musée Imhotep à Saqqâra Muhammad ‘Abd al-Fattâh Président du Secteur des musées Shâdiya Muhammad ‘Abd al-Qâdir Directrice générale du musée Sa‘d Zaghlûl Ahmad ‘Âtif ‘Abd al-Rahmân Conservateur du musée archéologique de la faculté de Lettres, Université de Suhâg Fârûq ‘Abd al-Salâm Superviseur général du projet du Grand Musée Égyptien Usâma ‘Abd al-Wârith Directeur général du musée de la Nubie à Aswân Ahmad Hishâm al-‘Urâbî Directeur du musée Muhammad ‘Alî à Manyal ‘Abd al-‘Azîz al-Dimîrî Directeur du musée archéologique de Sîwa ‘Âdil al-Halwagî Directeur du musée archéologique de Tantâ Salâh al-Milîgî Président de l’administration centrale des musées et des expositions Sâmya al-Mursî Directrice générale du musée archéologique de Suez Usâma al-Nahhâs Président de l’administration architecturale des musées au sein du ministère de la Culture Ibrâhîm al-Nawâwî Professeur d’égyptologie à l’Université du Caire ; Conseiller auprès du CSA pour les affaires des musées Wafâ’ al-Siddîq Directrice générale du Musée Égyptien du Caire ; présidente de la commission des expositions archéologiques à l’étranger Ibrâhîm Darwîsh Directeur général des musées et des Antiquités d’Alexandrie
BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010
W H O ’ S W H O ? Bahgat Fânûs Directeur général du musée Copte Muhammad Ghunaym Directeur exécutif du projet du Grand Musée Égyptien Nabîla Habîb Directrice générale des musées historiques Sâra Hâshim Directrice du musée Suzanne Mubârak pour l’enfant Khâlid Husayn Directeur du musée archéologique de Tâbâ Ahmad Kâmil Directeur du musée archéologique de Sharm al-Shaykh Nâdya Luqma Directrice générale de la restauration des monuments du Grand Caire ; responsable de la restauration au Grand Musée Égyptien ‘Isâm al-Dîn Mahmûd Directeur de la bibliothèque du Musée Égyptien Farîd Mansûr Président de l’Association des amis du Musée copte Kâmilya Makram Conservatrice de la bibliothèque du musée Copte Ahmad Mikkâwî Directeur du musée ethnographique du Caire ‘Abd al-‘Âtî Muhammad Directeur du musée national d’al-Sharqiyya Magdî Nâfi‘ Directeur du musée national de Rosette Muna Ramadân Directrice générale du musée des Bijoux royaux en Alexandrie Mirvat Sayf al-Dîn Directrice générale du Musée gréco-romain d’Alexandrie Ahmad Sharaf Directeur général des musées régionaux Muna Sirrî Directrice du musée archéologique de la Bibliotheca Alexandrina Muhammad Yahya ‘Uwayda Directeur du musée de la Momification à Louqsor Yahya Gâd Zakariyyâ Responsable du laboratoire ADN du Musée Égyptien
Su‘âd Sayyid ‘Abd al-‘Âl Chef du département d’Archéologie de la faculté d’Archéologie du Caire Hâfiz ‘Abd al-‘Azîm Directeur de l’Engineering Center for Archaeology, faculté de Polytechnique, Université du Caire
BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010 Khâlid ‘Abd al-Hâdî Professeur d’Architecture à l’Université de Banhâ Amâl al-‘Imrî Professeur d’archéologie islamique à la faculté d’Archéologie du Caire ‘Abd al-Fattâh al-Bannâ Professeur de restauration à la faculté d’Archéologie du Caire Mâhir al-Dumyâtî Président de l’Université de Zaqâzîq Ahmad Magdî al-Guharî Président de l’Université du Fayyûm Sa‘îd al-Guharî Professeur à la faculté d’Archéologie du Caire ; membre du Comité permanent du CSA Yahya al-Masrî Président du département d’Archéologie de la faculté de Lettres, Université de Suhâg Ra’fat al-Nabrâwî Chef du département d’archéologie islamique à la faculté d’Archéologie, Université du Caire Ahmad al-Sâwî Professeur d’archéologie islamique à l’Université du Caire Ahmad al-Zayyât Professeur d’archéologie islamique à l’Université de Tantâ ; membre du Comité permanent des Antiquités islamiques ‘Abdallah ‘Atiyya Chef du département d’Archéologie, faculté de Lettres, Université de Mansûra ‘Abdallah Barakât Président de l’Université de Hilwân Abû al-Hamd Mahmûd Farghalî Doyen de la faculté d’Archéologie de l’Université de Ganûb al-Wâdî Tuhfa Handûsa Professeur d’archéologie égyptienne à la faculté d’Archéologie du Caire Suhayr Zakî Hawwâs Professeur à la faculté de Polytechniques de ‘Ayn Shams ; Vice-présidente du National Organisation for Urban Harmony (NOUH) Haggâgî Ibrâhîm Chef du département d’Archéologie de la faculté de Lettres de Tantâ Mahmûd Ibrâhîm Chef du département d’Archéologie islamique à l’Université du Caire Muhammad al-Sayyid Ibrâhîm Président de l’Université de Suhâg Muhammad Husâm Ismâ‘îl Professeur d’archéologie à l’Université de ‘Ayn Shams Mustafa Kamâl Président de l’Université d’Asyût ‘Abdallah Kâmil Professeur à la faculté d’Archéologie, Université Ganûb al-Wâdî ; ex-président du secteur des Antiquités islamiques et coptes Husâm Kâmil Président de l’Université du Caire
BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010
‘Abd al-Halîm Nûr al-Dîn Professeur de philologie à la faculté d’Archéologie du Caire ; conseiller auprès du directeur de la Bibliotheca Alexandrina Lû’ay Mahmûd Sa‘îd Professeur d’Archéologie à l’Université du Fayyûm ‘Alâ’ al-Dîn ‘Abd al-Muhsin Shâhîn Doyen de la faculté d’Archéologie du Caire ‘Alî ‘Umar Doyen de la faculté de Tourisme et d’Hôtellerie à l’Université de Hilwân Muhammad ‘Abd al-Sattâr ‘Uthmân Professeur d’Archéologie et doyen de la faculté de Lettres, Université de Suhâg Muhammad Yûsuf Président de l’Université de Banî Swayf Mustafa ‘Abd al-Latîf Gouverneur de Port Sa‘îd Yahya ‘Abd al-Magîd Gouverneur d’al-Sharqiyya Walîd ‘Abd al-Nâsir Ambassadeur d’Égypte au Japon ‘Izzat ‘Abdallah Gouverneur de Banî Swayf Ahmad Zakî ‘Âbidîn Gouverneur de Kafr al-Shaykh Ahmad Abû al-Ghayt Ministre des Affaires étrangères Fâyza Abû al-Nagâ Ministre de la Coopération internationale ‘Alî Abû Shâdî Secrétaire général du Conseil Suprême de la Culture Mustafa Ahmad Gouverneur d’Aswân Habîb al-‘Âdlî Ministre de l’Intérieur ‘Abdallah al-‘Attâr Conseiller archéologique auprès du ministère de la Culture Nabîl al-‘Izabî Gouverneur d’Asyût ‘Abd al-Galîl al-Fakharânî Gouverneur d’Ismâ‘îliyya Husayn al-Gindî Directeur du Fonds du développement culturel dépendant du ministère de la Culture Muhsin al-Nu‘mânî Gouverneur de Suhâg Hâzim al-Quwaydî Gouverneur de Hilwân
BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010
Sayyid ‘Abd al-‘Azîz al-Shahhât Gouverneur de Gîza ‘Abd al-Hamîd al-Shinnâwî Gouverneur d’al-Gharbiyya Hâzim ‘Atiyya Conseiller touristique égyptien à Vienne Magdî Ayyûb Gouverneur de Qinâ Ahmad Diyâ’ al-Dîn Gouverneur de Minyâ Ihâb Fawzî Ambassadeur d’Égypte en Autriche Muhammad Sayf al-Dîn Galâl Gouverneur de Suez Zahîr Garâna Ministre du Tourisme Magdî Georges Ministre d’État aux Affaires de l’Environnement ‘Alî Gum‘a Grand Muftî de la République Sâmî ‘Imâra Gouverneur de Munûfiyya Nâsir Kâmil Ambassadeur d’Égypte à Paris Sa‘d Khalîl Gouverneur de Marsa Matrûh ‘Âdil Labîb Gouverneur d’Alexandrie Ahmad Mukhtâr Salâma Gouverneur de la Nouvelle Vallée Yâsir Murâd Ambassadeur d’Égypte en Espagne Galâl Mustafa Gouverneur du Fayyûm Ahmad Nazîf Premier ministre Shâdya Qinâwî Ambassadrice d’Égypte auprès de l’Unesco Magdî Qubaysî Gouverneur de la mer Rouge Fathî Sa‘d Gouverneur du Six Octobre Samîr Sallâm Gouverneur de Daqahliyya Hâtim Sayf al-Nasr Ambassadeur d’Égypte à Londres Muhammad Sha‘râwî Gouverneur d’al-Buhayra Muhammad ‘Abd al-Fadîl Shûsha Gouverneur du Nord-Sinaï ‘Abd al-‘Azîm Wazîr Gouverneur du Caire Hasan Yûnis Ministre de l’Électricité et de l’Énergie Mahmûd Hamdî Zaqzûq Ministre des Waqf-s Nihâd Zikrî Ambassadrice d’Égypte en Suisse
BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010
‘Isâm ‘Abd al-Hâdî Directeur du Misr Company for Sound & Light and Cinema Muhammad ‘Abd al-Râziq Directeur du bureau de l’Unesco au Caire Gamâl al-Ghîtânî Rédacteur en chef de l’hebdomadaire littéraire Akhbâr al- Adab Muhammad al-Kahlâwî Secrétaire général de l’Union des Archéologues arabes ; professeur d’archéologie et d’architecture islamiques à la faculté d’Archéologie du Caire Mâgid al-Râhib Président du Conseil d’administration de l’Association pour la préservation du patrimoine égyptien Sâbir ‘Arab Président du Conseil d’administration de Dâr al-Kutub wa- l•wathâ’iq al-qawmiyya Khâlid ‘Azab Vice-directeur du Manuscript Center de la Bibliotheca Alexandrina Samîr Gharîb Président du National Organisation for Urban Harmony (NOUH) Husayn Ahmad Husayn Ex-directeur du Nubian Antiquities Salvage Fund Sâlih Lam‘î Président du Centre de ressuscitation du patrimoine architectural islamique Ibrâhîm Mahlab Préisdent du Conseil d’administration du Arab Contractors Osman Ahmed Osman & Co Ahmad Migâhid Président de l’Organisme général des Palais de la Culture ; ex-directeur du Fonds du développement culturel ‘Alî Radwân Président de l’Union des Archéologues arabes ; président de l’Union des archéologues égyptiens & membre du Comité du patrimoine mondial de l’Unesco Fathî Sâlih Directeur du National Center for Documentation of Cultural and Natural Heritage (CULTNAT) Ismâ‘îl Sirâg al-Dîn Directeur de la Bibliotheca Alexandrina Yûsuf Zaydân Directeur du Manuscript Center de la Bibliotheca Alexandrina
- - - BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010 112
IX -INDEX
A ADN ...... 12,13,52,80,108 Aéroports Aéroport du Caire ...... 59 Agences Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) ...... 15,19 Agences de presse Agence France Presse (AFP) ...... 39,56,60,63,65,69,70,71 Egypt State Information Service ...... 45,60,71 Reuters...... 54,70,92 The Associated Press (AP) ...... 74 Xinhua ...... 52 al-Azhar ...... 15,105 Amphore ...... 85 Amulette...... 74,82,83 Ankh...... 87 Apôtre ...... 88 Aqueduc ...... 34,35 Armée...... 14,56,66,69,77,82,83,93 Armes
Flèche ...... 93 Fusil ...... 78 Artères historiques Rue al-Mu‘izz l-Dîn Allâh al- Fâtimî ...... 21,30,31,32,33,34,106 Rue al-Salîba...... 37 Associations Union des Archéologues arabes ...... 57 Astronomie ...... 21 Autoroute ...... 27
B Bâb-s Bâb al-Futûh ...... 33 Bâb al-Tawfîq ...... 79 Bâb al-Wazîr ...... 79,102,106 Bâb Zuwayla ...... 33
Bactérie ...... 15 Bains...... 10,34,73 Hammâm al-Ashraf Inâl...... 34 Barques ...... 17,20,74,82,83,90,101 Barque solaire ...... 20 Barrages
Haut Barrage d’Aswân ...... 25,26,27,51 Basilique ...... 93 Bassin ...... 34,88 Bateau ...... 101
Bibliothèques ...... 36,47,50,108 Bibliotheca Alexandrina ...... 10,30,48,51,97,98,99,100,101,108,110,112 Dâr al-Kutub wa-l-wathâ’iq al-qawmiyya ...... 112 Mubârak Public Library ...... 89,95
Bière ...... 11,17
Bijoux...... 15,16,22,71 Bracelet ...... 22,54 Collier...... 70
Bustes ...... 63,64,67,70 Buste de Néfertiti...... 48,55,57,59,60,61,62,63,67
C Cachette de Karnak ...... 97 Canneaux Canal de Suez ...... 58,77 Cartographie ...... 11,17,21,29,35,47,50,69 Cartouche ...... 44,88,89,99 Casino ...... 57 Cataractes...... 92,93,94 CD-ROM ...... 11 Centres de Culture
Istituto Italiano di Cultura per la R.A.E. (iiccairo) ...... 99 Centres de recherches American Research Center in Egypt (ARCE) ...... 97,98,99,100 Centre d’Études Alexandrines (CEAlex)...... 101 Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) ...... 69,97,101 Engineering Center for Archaeology & Environment...... 108 Manuscript Center de la Bibliotheca Alexandrina (MsC)...... 112 National Center for Documentation of Cultural and Natural Heritage (CULTNAT) ...... 112 Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology in Cairo (PCMA)...... 84,96,97,98,99,100 Unesco World Heritage Center...... 45 Céramique...... 17,21,70,72,74 Cercueil ...... 65 Céréales...... 93 Chaînes de télévision ...... 11,61,74
BBC ...... 57
Discovery Channel ...... 12 Chambre funéraire...... 12,50,82 Chandelier...... 84 Chapelles...... 43,44,66,71,76,83,89 Chicago House ...... 27 Cimetière...... 29,40,71,76,77,80,86,94
BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010
Citadelles ...... 21,53 Citadelle de Qâytbây ...... 104 Citerne...... 44,73 Clergé ...... 86 Clubs Lions Club...... 44 Collectionneur ...... 56,57 Colloque...... 10 Colonnes ...... 36,37,38,43,86,89 Colosses ...... 29,76 Colosse de Ramsès II ...... 29 Colosses de Memnon ...... 29,50 Comités Comité permanent des Antiquités du CSA ...... 76,102,109 Commerce...... 33,57,58 Conseil Suprême de la Culture ...... 110 Conseil Suprême des Antiquités .9,12,13,14,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,26,27,28,29,30, 31,34,35,37,38,39,40,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,54,56 , 57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68,70,71,72,7 3,74,76,77,78,79,80,81,83,86,87,89,90,91,95,96, 97,98,99,100,101,102,103,104,105,107,109 Conservation ...... 19,20,25,33,42,52,96,98 Cosmétique ...... 16,17,22 Couleurs blanc ...... 79,85,88 bleu ...... 33 jaune ...... 79 noir...... 12,31,43,62,74,88,94 rouge...... 88 vert...... 88 Croix...... 47,86,87,88 D Demeures bourgeoises Bayt al-Sitt Wasîla...... 29 Bayt Ibrâhîm al-Sinnârî...... 30 Dépôt de fondation ...... 52 Déserts...... 46,85,92 Désert Occidental ...... 22,23,30,67,69,92 Marsa ‘Alam ...... 34 Nouvelle Vallée ...... 103,111 Wâdî Sûra...... 92,97,99 Désert Oriental...... 91 Disque solaire ...... 38 Divinités Amon...... 72,83,87,88 Amon-Rê...... 43,90,95 Bastet...... 73 Harpocrate...... 73 Hathor...... 72,77,87 Horus ...... 42,43,66,70,71,72,77,87 Isis ...... 43,70,74,75,77,100 Khensou ...... 43,83 Khnoum...... 72,87 Osiris ...... 17,43,74,75,76,99 Ptah ...... 44,73,83,99 Seth ...... 43,75
Sobek...... 52,86 Thot ...... 17,70,95 Zeus Amon...... 83 Dôme...... 29,32,37 Dromos...... 43,44,45,46,84,88,89 Dynasties IVe dynastie...... 79 XIIe dynastie ...... 84 XIXe dynastie...... 51,71,83 XVIIIe dynastie ...... 13,43,70,71,72,78 XXIe dynastie...... 65 XXVIe dynastie...... 81,89
E Eau souterraine ...... 14,25,29,31,35,36,39,75 Églises ...... 44,46,47,53,87,89,91,93,94,100 EHESS ...... 96 Enchères...... 26,58 Entreprises Egyptian Sound and Light Show Company (ESLSC) ...... 42,112 The Arab Contractors Osman Ahmed Osman & Co...... 112 Époques byzantine ...... 10,76,98 chrétienne ...... 87 copte 14,20,21,30,31,40,47,84,86,87,88,89,91,104,10 8 gréco- romaine ...... 14,16,42,71,74,75,76,84,85,101,108 grecque ...... 30,40,53,54,62,73,74,75,76,83,98 hellénistique ...... 10,100 islamique ..14,20,21,22,29,34,38,93,100,104,107,109,112 abbasside ...... 20,21,84 ayyoubide ...... 20,79 fatimide...... 20,21,30,79,96 mamelouke . 20,30,31,34,35,36,37,79,82,98,100 omeyyade ...... 20,21,72 ottomane ...... 20,21,31,35,37,50,66,83,98,100 Moyen- Âge ...... 40,79,82,84,100 pharaonique Ancien Empire ...... 69 Deuxième Période Intermédiaire ...... 78 Moyen Empire ...... 44,84,86,87 Nouvel Empire ...... 13,44,69,82,86,87,89,95 prédynastique...... 22,23,24,66,97 préhistoire ...... 14,66,67,83,92,99,106 ptolémaïque ...... 42,53,70,71,73,74,75,76,84,85,86,88,89,99 ramesside...... 95 romaine .10,16,20,30,44,54,64,71,73,74,75,76,77,81,85, 87,89,97,98,100 Ermitage...... 46,47 Érosion ...... 25 Esclave ...... 37,79,80,81 Exposition archéologique BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010
14,17,19,21,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,62,64,65,74,75 ,79 F Famille royale Behenu...... 82 Bérénice ...... 73 Hétephérès...... 20 Néfertiti ...... 12,48,53,55,57,59,60,61,62,63,67 Tiy ...... 12 Fausse porte ...... 70,80,90 Fertilité...... 85 Figurine ...... 23,83 Fondations Aga Khan Trust for Culture (AKTC) .15,21,79,98 The Levantine Foundation ...... 30 Fonds Fonds du Développement culturel.....102,110,112 Nubian Antiquities Salvage Fund...... 112 Social Fund for Development (SFD) ...... 42 Fontaine ...... 31,32,37 Forteresses ...... 46,93 Fouilles 10,16,23,24,25,28,44,49,50,54,55,56,57,62,63,70 , 73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,85,86,87,88,8 9,90,91,94,97,98 Fresque...... 88,93 G Graffiti...... 90 Grand Prêtre...... 86 Grenier ...... 46,85,96 Grotte ...... 87 Guerre ...... 53,59,61,63,75,78,93,94,97,100
H Hammâms ...... 34 Harem...... 37 Hiératique ...... 90 Hiéroglyphes...... 9,11,12,70,71 Humidité ...... 25,26,37,50,93 Hyksôs...... 71,73,77,78
I Icône...... 31,46,47,56,57,88,91 Îles ...... 74 Antirhodos...... 74 Chypre ...... 60 Éléphantine ...... 99 IMAX ...... 45 Incendie...... 19,33,44,84 Instituts Deutsches Archäologisches Institut Kairo (DAIK) ...... 48,97,98,99 Institut français d’archéologie orientale (Ifao) ...... 10,79,96,97,99,100,101 J. Paul Getty Institute ...... 29 Nederlands-Vlaams Instituut in Cairo (NVIC) ...... 97,98 Internet ...... 11,26 Irrigation ...... 91 Islam...... 10,21,40,100 Ivoire ...... 22,36,67 J Jardins ...... 16,27,29,35,38,39 Parc al-Azhar ...... 15 Jarre ...... 23,24,67 Judas...... 88 Juif...... 31,39,40,62,81
K Khôl...... 59,83 Kom-s Kom al-Ahmar ...... 97 Kom al-Dikka ...... 73,98 Kom al-Hitân ...... 70,96 Kuttâb- s...... 31
L Lacs ...... 84,92,101 Lac Manzala...... 101 Lac Nâsir ...... 25,27,51 Lac Qârûn...... 83,84 Lampe ...... 21,47,75,84,85 Le Caire fatimide...... 30,31,32,79,102,104 Ligue arabe ...... 39 Lin ...... 23,53,72,86 Livre des Morts ...... 52,72,77,86
M Madrasa-s...... 31 Maladies Paludisme...... 13 Malédiction des pharaons ...... 14,75 Mammifères...... 12,22,23,41,52,53,92 Âne ...... 33 Baboin ...... 17,70 Babouin ...... 70 Chameau...... 41 Chat ...... 53,54,73 Chauve-souris ...... 30 Cheval ...... 30,41,80,88 Hippopotame...... 43 Lion ...... 43,84 Singe...... 70 Vache...... 77,91 Manuscrit ...... 36,47,50,96 Marina ...... 45,46 Masque...... 49,55,65,71,89 Mastabas ...... 81 Matériaux de construction Béton ...... 28,33 Bois .19,21,22,23,31,33,34,36,37,41,43,55,63,65,72, 83,86,87,90,91,93 Brique ...... 47,81,84,87,93 Plâtre...... 36,48,71,79
BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010
Sable ...... 86 Mausolées ...... 31,36 Médecine...... 54 Mers Mer Méditerranée ...10,54,69,73,75,76,84,88,96,97,98,99,100,101 Marsa Matrûh...... 111 Mer Rouge ...... 26,27,46,66,91,100,111 al-Qusayr ...... 72 Dahab...... 106 Hurghada ...... 27 Sharm al-Shaykh...... 14,34,108 Tâbâ ...... 108 Métaux ...... 21,22,33,76,90 Argent...... 15,21,31 Bronze ...... 21,37,70,73,74,83,84,89 Cuivre ...... 23,81 Or...... 15,21,31,51,52,54,55,59,71,72,79,82,84 Mihrâb...... 36 Minaret...... 27,35,36 Minbar...... 36 Mobilier ...... 38 Moine ...... 30,47,91 Momies 12,13,14,19,20,41,49,52,53,65,67,71,72,76,81,82 ,86,87 Momification ...... 12,17,53 Monastères...... 46,47,87,88,91,96,100 Dayr al-Ganâdla...... 87,88 Dayr al-Malah ...... 84 Monastère Blanc ...... 96 Monnaie ...... 21,66,70,71,72,74,76,83,84,89,97 Montgolfière ...... 11 Mosaïque...... 16,21,98 Mosquées ...... 21,27,30,31,37,44 Mosquée al-Aqsa ...... 40 Moulin...... 46 Muftî...... 111 Muraille...... 66,86 Musée de plein air ...... 32,33,34,43,45 Musées British Museum ...... 50,52,55,57,59,60,61,67 Grand Musée Égyptien (GEM) ...... 15,18,19,20,107,108 Musée archéologique de la Bibliotheca Alexandrina ...... 108 Musée archéologique de Sharm al-Shaykh 14,108 Musée archéologique de Suhâg ...... 14 Musée archéologique de Tantâ ...... 107 Musée Copte ...... 100,108 Musée d’Art islamique...... 21,107 Musée de la Mosaïque...... 16 Musée de la Nubie...... 51,107 Musée des Bijoux royaux...... 15,16,108 musée des Textiles...... 20 Musée du Louvre...... 21,55,56,60,61,63,66 Musée Égyptien ...... 14,15,17,18,20,49,50,54,65,107,108 Musée gréco-romain...... 16,108
Musée Imhotep ...... 107 Musée national de la Civilisation égyptienne....14 Musée Rietberg...... 52,54 Musée royal de Mariemont ...... 70 Musée Suzanne Mubârak pour l’enfant ...... 108 Museu Egipci de Barcelona ...... 64 Neues Museum ...... 57,60,62,63 Roemer-und Pelizaeus-Museum d’Hildesheim 48 Saint Louis Art Museum (SLAM)...... 55,65 The Metropolitan Museum of Art ...... 44,52,54,63 Muséologie ...... 14 Musique ...... 20,42,43 Instruments de musique Harpe ...... 17 N Naos ...... 44 National Geographic Society...... 30,65 National Organisation for Urban Harmony (NOUH) ...... 109,112 Navigation...... 66,68,101 Navire...... 66 Nécropoles ...... 26,28,55,69,71,76,79,80,81,82,90 Nécropole thébaine...... 26,90 Niche ...... 47,79,88 Nil 10,11,14,20,22,23,25,26,27,34,35,42,43,44,45,49 , 66,71,73,77,78,80,83,85,92,93,100,101 Nilomètre ...... 89 Noms de lieux Afghanistan ...... 67 Algérie...... 85 Allemagne ...... 48,53,59,60,61,62,63,92,95,97,100 Berlin ...... 48,55,57,60,62,63,67,98 Bonn...... 99 Hildesheim ...... 48 Munich...... 99 Arabie Saoudite ...... 31 Autriche...... 60,69,111 Vienne...... 111 Belgique Bruxelles...... 101 Bolivie ...... 60 Chine ...... 51,60,67 Hong Kong ...... 81 Shanghai ...... 51 Confédération suisse ...... 52,54,61,67,111 Égypte Abû Mînâ...... 105 Alexandrie 9,10,15,16,27,28,40,48,54,66,70,71,73,74,75 , 76,78,88,89,91,98,101,102,103,104,105,106 ,107,108,111 al- Shatbî...... 16 Héraklion ...... 54,73 Port Est ...... 74 Sîdî Gâbir...... 9,15 Delta.... 10,23,51,58,70,73,77,80,85,99,106,107 Buhayra...... 102,111 BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010
Damiette ...... 101,104 Daqahliyya...... 104,106,111 Kafr al- Shaykh ...... 101,102,105,110 Mansûra ...... 66,109 Munûfiyya ...... 27,72,103,107,111 Qwisnâ ...... 103 Qalyûbiyya ...... 27,78,104 Rosette 23,55,56,57,59,60,61,67,102,105,108 Sharqiyya...... 77,78,105,106,108,110 Tanis ...... 20,51,78 Tantâ ...... 100,107,109 Zaqâzîq ...... 109 Gîza 18,19,20,26,27,29,41,43,48,49,55,72,79,80,8 1,82,98,103,106,111 Abû Sîr...... 75,103 Dahshûr...... 41,42,103 Memphis ...... 26,42,70,72,80,82,83 Mît Rahîna...... 106 Saqqâra 27,28,42,55,64,69,81,82,83,98,104,105,10 7 Haute-Égypte ...... 23,25,27,30,43,80,88,91,97 Abîdus...... 17,97,98,99 Abû Simbil ...... 26,29,43,48,50,51,56 Aswân 25,27,28,29,36,51,71,84,90,99,100,103,10 7,110 Philae...... 43,51,99,100 Asyût...... 23,28,30,87,103,109,110 Dandara...... 30,66 Dayr al- Baharî...... 95,98,99,100 Dayr al- Madîna ...... 95 Drâ’ Abû al- Nagâ...... 50 Girf Husayn ...... 29 Idfû...... 42,43,99,102,103 Kalâbsha ...... 29 Louqsor 11,25,26,27,28,29,30,43,44,45,46,56,57,60 , 67,68,70,71,76,88,89,90,95,100,103,104,1 06,107,108 al- Marîsî...... 45,46 al- Qurna ...... 46,72,95,102 Karnak ..... 26,43,44,45,46,70,88,89,90,95,97,99 Madînat Hâbû ...... 95 Thèbes ...... 25,26,45,78,88,95 Nubie...... 25,26,27,29,49,51,91,103,107 Qinâ...... 22,23,24,59,66,105,111 Suhâg ...... 14,28,59,87,104,107,109,110 Le Caire ...... 17,29,30,34,49,67,79,96,100,101 al- Darrâsa ...... 15,79 al- Gamâliyya ...... 32,33,34,105 Fustât...... 21,29,35,105 Héliopolis ...... 35,44,74,98 Hilwân ...... 33,38,97,100,104,109,110 Ma‘âdî...... 23 Matariyya...... 27,29 Vieux- Caire ...... 29,35,39,105 Moyenne-Égypte Banî Swayf ...... 14,27,66,104,110 Fayyûm 22,27,41,59,72,77,83,84,85,86,87,91,96,97 ,102,109,110,111 al-Lâhûn ...... 72,86,87 Naqlûn...... 84,96 Qasr Qârûn...... 84,85,86 Minyâ...... 28,104,111 Sinaï ...... 10,106,107 Nord-Sinaï ...... 102,111 Qantara Est...... 16 Sud-Sinaï ...... 104 Suez ...... 16,23,58,77,103,107,111 Taposiris Magna ...... 53,54,71,74,75,76,89 Wâdî al-Natrûn...... 30,72 Espagne ...... 60,64,111 Barcelona...... 64 Madrid ...... 64 États-Unis .39,40,42,52,53,54,55,59,60,63,64,65,69,72,75, 82,98 Boston...... 41 California...... 53 Chicago...... 27,62,95 Las Vegas ...... 57 Miami ...... 55,64,65 New York ...... 44,52,53,54,55,63,65,97,98 Philadelphia...... 53,74,96 Washington ...... 65 Éthiopie ...... 101 France 22,25,45,60,63,66,69,90,95,96,97,98,99,100,10 1 Paris ...... 21,56,90,96,101,111 Grèce ...... 55,57,59,60,61,67 Athènes...... 59 Hongrie...... 53 Budapest ...... 53 Inde...... 60 Iran...... 16,22 Iraq...... 60,67 Israël ...... 39,40,62,69,100 Jérusalem...... 40,100 Italie...... 25,49,51,55,57,60,82,98,99 Rome...... 51,76,85,99 Turin ...... 55,98 Japon...... 15,18,19,110 Libye...... 55,60,92 Maroc ...... 20 Mexique Mexico ...... 60,67 Palestine ...... 24,40 Pays-Bas...... 25,30,82 Pérou...... 55,60,67 Pologne...... 60,95,97,99,100 Royaume-Uni ...... 11,22,25,30,52,58,59,60,63,66,67,69 Londres...... 45,52,55,57,59,61,65,66,67,90,111
BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010
Soudan...... 31,51,92,94,98 Suisse Bâle ...... 68 Genève...... 31,82 Zurich ...... 52,54,67 Syrie ...... 20,60,99 Tunisie...... 68,85 Turquie ...... 22,99 Yémen ...... 99 Noms de personnes ‘Abd al-‘Azîz (Sabrî) ...... 71,83,89,102 ‘Abd al-Fattâh (Ahmad)...... 102 ‘Abd al-Fattâh (Muhammad) ...... 16,107 ‘Abd al-Magîd (Ibrâhîm) ...... 102 ‘Abd al-Maqsûd (Muhammad) ...... 29,58,73,77,78,98,102 ‘Abd al-Mun‘im (Ayman)...... 102 ‘Abd al-Salâm (Fârûq) ...... 19,20,31,107 ‘Afîfî (Mahmûd) ...... 103 ‘Arab (Sâbir)...... 112 ‘Azab (Khâlid) ...... 112 ‘Azîz (Murqus) ...... 66 Abû Bakr (Amîra) ...... 16,103 al-‘Agîzî (‘Ulâ) ...... 82,83 al-‘Attâr (‘Abdallah) ...... 31,110 al-Asfar (‘Alî) ...... 103 al-Biyalî (Muhammad)...... 103 al-Damâtî (Mamdûh)...... 99 al-Ghandûr (Magdî)...... 103 al-Halwagî (Mahmûd) ...... 107 al-Kahlâwî (Muhammad)...... 9,112 al-Kasabânî (Mukhtâr) ...... 104 al-Maghrabî (Ahmad)...... 19 al-Nabrâwî (Ra’fat) ...... 109 al-Nawâwî (Ibrâhîm) ...... 107 al-Sâwî (Ahmad) ...... 109 al-Siddîq (Wafâ’) ...... 17,49,107 ANDREU (Guillemette) ...... 95 ARNOLD (Dorothea) ...... 44 Badîr (Salâh) ...... 100,104 BANDARIN (Francesco) ...... 45 BARICH (Barbara)...... 99 BIETAK (Manfred) ...... 78 BOLMAN (Elizabeth) ...... 96 BONAPARTE (Napoléon) ...... 61 BOUSSAC (Marie-Françoise) ...... 10 BROCK (Edwin) ...... 100 Burayk (Mansûr) ...... 70,71,88,89,95,104 CAMPBELL (Thomas)...... 44 CARTER (Howard) ...... 45,52,56 CHAMPOLLION (Jean-François)...... 49,50 CIALOWICZ (Krzysztof)...... 98 COLLOMBERT (Philippe) ...... 82 COULON (Laurent)...... 97 Darwîsh (Ibrâhîm) ...... 107 DAVID (Rosalie)...... 12 DE LESSEPS (Ferdinand)...... 38 DENOIX (Sylvie) ...... 96,100 EMPEREUR (Jean-Yves) ...... 101
Fadda (Farag)...... 104 FANFONI (Giuseppe) ...... 98 Farag (Samîr) ...... 11,44,45 FORSTNER-MÜLLER (Irene) ...... 73,78 Gharîb (Samîr) ...... 112 GODDIO (Franck)...... 74 GODLEWSKI (Wlodzimierz) ...... 84 Habashî (Labîb) ...... 26,78 Handûsa (Tuhfa) ...... 109 Hawwâs (Zâhî)
.9,12,13,14,16,17,19,20,26,27,29,31,37,39,40,4 1,43,44,46,47,48,49,50,52,54,55,56,57,58,59,6 0,61,62,63,64,65,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75,7 6,77,78,79,80,81,83,86,89,90,95,105,109 HÉRODOTE...... 80 Husnî (Fârûq) .9,14,16,18,19,29,30,32,33,34,35,39,40,43,57,6 3,64,67,71,72,77,83,90,105 Ibrâhîm (Haggâgî) ...... 109 IKRAM (Salima) ...... 62 JARITZ (Horst)...... 95 JOHNSON (Raymond) ...... 95 KAPER (Olaf)...... 97 Lam‘î (Sâlih)...... 97,112 LASCIAC (Antonio)...... 38 LEBLANC (Christian)...... 95,96 LECUYOT (Guy)...... 96 LEGRAIN (Georges) ...... 45 LEPSIUS (Karl Richard)...... 50 Luqma (Nâdya)...... 108 Mabrûk (Mahmûd) ...... 22,44 Mahfûz (Nagîb) ...... 33 Mahgûb (Muhammad)...... 35,105 Mahrûs (‘Alâ’) ...... 105 MARIETTE (Auguste) ...... 25 MARTINEZ (Kathleen)...... 74 MIDANT-REYNES (Béatrix)...... 100 Migâhid (Ahmad) ...... 112 Mubârak (Husnî) ...... 15,18,43,44 Mubârak (Suzanne) .16,18,19,20,30,32,34,48,108 Nazîf (Ahmad) ...... 45,111 Nûr (Nagîb)...... 106 Nûr al-Dîn (‘Abd al-Halîm)
...... 9,97,98,99,100,101,110 PAPI (Emanuele)...... 84,85 PARADINES (Stéphane) ...... 79 PENG (Shih-Fu) ...... 19 PETRIE (William Matthew Flinders) ...... 22 PIRELLI (Rosanna) ...... 51 Qutb (‘Abd al-Hamîd)...... 106 Radwân (‘Alî) ...... 57,60,112 RAUE (Dietrich) ...... 100 Rayhân (‘Abd al-Rahîm)...... 106 REDON (Bérangère) ...... 10,100 ROSELLINI (Ippolito) ...... 49,50 Sa‘d (Khâlid)...... 67,83,106 Sâlih (Ahmad)...... 106 Sâlih (Fathî) ...... 112 Sayf al-Dîn (Mirvat)...... 98,108
BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010
Sirâg al-Dîn (Ismâ‘îl) ...... 112 SOUROUZIAN (Hourig) ...... 70,95,96 STADELMANN (Rainer) ...... 95 SZAFRANSKI (Zbigniew) ...... 95,99,100 TIRADRITTI (Francesco) ...... 90 TZALAS (Harry) ...... 101 VAN SICLEN (Charles) ...... 95 Wazîr (‘Abd al-‘Azîm)...... 15,35,111 Zaydân (Yûsuf)...... 112 Ωihâb (Mufîd)...... 58 Nourrice ...... 37
O Oasis Bahariyya ...... 71,77,106 al-Bâwîtî ...... 71 Dâkhla ...... 67,97 Khârga ...... 22 Sîwa ...... 22,107 Obélisque ...... 29 Oeufs ...... 11,12 Oeuf d’autruche ...... 83 Oiseaux ...... 22,43,52 Aigle ...... 81 Autruche...... 23,83 Faucon ...... 43,54,69 Organisations internationales United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) ...... 19,27,42,49,51,59,61,67,111,112 Ossements ...... 23,67,69,76,81 Ostraca ...... 90 Ouchebti...... 83,91
P Pain...... 11,12,23,80 Palais ...... 35,37,38,39,93 Palais Za‘farâna ...... 37,38,39,46 Papyrus...... 10,17,30,53,82,83,101 Parfum...... 67 Parlement ...... 59 Particuliers Harwa ...... 90,91 Hémiounou...... 48 Imesy ...... 64,65 Imhotep ...... 107 Ka-Nefer-Nefer...... 65 Ptahmes ...... 82 Ramosé...... 71 Sénedjem...... 20 Youya ...... 20 Peinture ...... 28,50,60 Pèlerinage ...... 36 Perle ...... 88 Pierre de Rosette...... 55,56,57,61,67 Pierres 18,19,22,23,24,35,38,43,52,55,59,60,61,66,67,69 ,72,73,74,77,80,81,82,86,87,88,89,90,92,98 Calcaire ...... 71,81,84,85,87
Pigment ...... 67 Pipe...... 35 Plateau de Gîza ...... 18,19,20,41,79,80 Pluie ...... 37 Poissons ...... 33,34,80,85 Polémique ...... 46,60 Polices ...... 25,26,40,45,46,59,64 Organisation INTERnationale de POLice criminelle (INTERPOL)...... 26 Pollution...... 31,32,41 Ports ...... 46,73,74,78,101 Poterie .. 19,21,22,23,55,60,66,69,78,84,85,90,92,93 Presse Akhbâr al- Adab ...... 13,20,32,39,63,89,90,112 Âkhir Sâ‘a ...... 14,16,20,32,53 al-‘Arabî ...... 46,67 al-Ahrâm .10,13,14,16,20,22,30,32,41,46,53,54,63,72,76, 83,87,89 al-Ahrâm al-‘Arabî ...... 46 Al-Ahram Hebdo . 10,13,16,18,20,21,32,34,37,39,47,51,55,57,58, 59,60,66,67,68,70,71,73,81,82,83,85,86,88,94 Al-Ahram Weekly . 11,13,16,18,19,20,24,27,29,31,32,40,41,43,44, 47,49,51,57,58,64,65,67,70,71,72,73,75,76,77, 78,79,82,83,84,87,89,90 al- Ahrâr .13,15,18,30,37,39,44,45,63,68,70,71,72,76,83, 87 al- Dustûr...... 13,45,46,65,70,73 al- Gumhûriyya ...... 13,14,20,41,45,46,54,55,59,71,77,78,82 al-Masrî al- Yawm .15,16,29,30,34,39,40,42,45,57,58,59,63,64,65, 67,69,71,72,73,78,82 al-Musawwar ...... 16,32,34,88,89 al-Qâhira 14,15,16,29,32,33,47,53,54,67,71,72,82 al- Usbû‘...... 20 al- Wafd .9,13,15,45,67,68,70,71,72,73,76,80,81,83,87,8 9 al-Yawm al- Sâbi‘...... 18 Daily News Egypt . 13,17,18,39,47,53,59,60,63,65,69,70,71,72,74, 77,83 Egypt Today...... 57,62 Egyptian Mail ...... 13,39,47,57,71,92 Ruz al- Yûsuf ...... 13,45,49 Sabâh al- Khayr ...... 34,44,77,81 The Egyptian Gazette .9,12,13,16,18,20,22,30,41,46,47,48,49,52,53,5 4,55,58,59,60,63,64,65,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,7 6,78,80,81,82,83,89,90 Uktubar...... 14,16,47,65,71,73,77,82,89 Watanî . 13,18,21,22,30,32,35,37,39,47,58,65,68,69,70, 72,73,78,80,82,83,87,89,91,92 Pressoir...... 46 BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010
Prêtre ...... 11,12,43,44,86,89 Procession ...... 43 Projets Theban Mapping Project (TMP) ...... 96,100 Puits...... 86,87,88 Pylône ...... 26,42 Pyramides ...... 41,57,79,80,81,82 Pyramide de Chéops...... 29,48,80,81 Pyramide de Chéphren ...... 80
R Radar ...... 73,76,78 Radiations Rayons laser ...... 29,42 Radiocarbone ...... 23,69 Réaménagement ...... 32,34 Relique ...... 9,55,56,60,67,91 Reptiles Cobra ...... 38,83 Crocodile...... 54,86 Restauration 14,15,16,19,20,21,25,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37 , 38,39,40,44,46,47,49,50,77,85,87,88,89,91,93,9 6,98,99,103,105,106,108,109 Restitution...... 55,64,65,66,67 Robot...... 81 Roches Albâtre...... 70,89 Basalte ...... 55,80 Granit...... 20,36,43,44,63,70,71,73,74,75,76,80 Marbre ...... 29,31,36,37 Quartzite...... 74 S Sabîl-kuttâb...... 35,36,37 Sabîl-s ...... 20,21,30,31,36,37 Sabîl Muhammad ‘Alî...... 20,21 Saint des saints ...... 86 Salle hypostyle ...... 95 Salles d’enchères Christie’s Inc...... 45 Sang...... 88 Sarcophage...... 19,55,63,64,65,72,77,82,86,87,91 Sauvetage ...... 29,103 Scribe ...... 49,71,82,83 Sérail ...... 38 Soie...... 31 Soldat ...... 93 Son et lumiere...... 42,43 Son et lumière...... 11 Souveraines Cléopâtre ...... 44,53,54,72,73,74,75,76,88,89,97 Cléopâtre VII ...... 44,75,76,88 Hatchepsout ...... 43,44,70,89,95,100 Souverains Ahmosis ...... 78,98 Akhenaton ...... 12,13,20,67,68,83 Alexandre le Grand ...... 76 Amenhotep 1er...... 12,14,68,70,71,73,89,95,96
Amenhotep II ...... 12,14,68,70,71,73,89,95,96 Amenhotep III...... 12,14,68,70,71,73,89,95,96 Cambyse...... 69 César...... 54,74 Chéops...... 20,41,48,79,81 Chéphren ...... 79,80 Djoser ...... 69 Horemheb...... 71 Mérenptah ...... 95 Mykérinos ...... 41 Nectanébo 1er ...... 43,44 Pépi 1er...... 82 Pépi II ...... 82 Ptolémée Évergète 1er...... 71,73,75,76,83 Ptolémée Évergète II ...... 73,83 Ptolémée IV Philopator ...... 71,73,75,76 Ptolémée VI ...... 100 Ptolémée XI ...... 74 Ptolémée XII ...... 74 Ramsès 1er .. 14,17,20,29,50,70,74,77,78,82,83,95 Ramsès II ... 14,17,20,29,50,70,74,77,78,82,83,95 Séthi 1er ...... 14,74,82,83,90,95 Souverains musulmans ‘Alî (Muhammad) ...... 15,20,21,29,31,38,56,66,68,107 al-Ayyûbî (al-Nâsir Salâh al-Dîn) ...... 35,40 Barqûq (al-Zâhir) ...... 30 Fârûq...... 15,39 Ibn Tûlûn (Ahmad) ...... 21 khédive Ismâ‘îl...... 36,37,38,68 Qalâwwûn (al-Nâsir) ...... 30,31,35,37 Qâytbây ...... 35,104 Taharqa...... 91 Thoutmosis 1er ...... 71,95 Thoutmosis II...... 14,95 Thoutmosis III ...... 14,71,95 Toutankhamon ...... 12,13,20,29,45,49,52,53,56,65,67,70,75,99 Sphinx ...... 17,26,27,29,49,56,72,80,81,89 Squelette...... 67,69,80,81 Statue 17,19,20,41,43,44,48,50,54,55,59,62,63,68,70,71 ,72,73,74,75,76,77,81,82,83,84,86,88,89,90 Statuette ...... 74 Stèle...... 60,67,83 Survey ...... 27,76,78 Symposium ...... 44 Synagogues...... 39,40,62 Maimonides ...... 39,40,62
T Tell-s Tell al-‘Amârna ...... 13,20,28,62,95 Tell al-Dab‘a ...... 71,73,77,78 Tell al-Farkha...... 98 Tell al-Maskhûta...... 71,77 Tell al-Yahûdiyya...... 78 Tell Bastâ ...... 78
Temples BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010
Osireion ...... 97 Ramesseum ...... 95,96 Temple d’Amenhotep III ...... 70,96 Temple d’Idfû ...... 42,43 Temple de Dandara ...... 30,66 Temple de Dayr al-Baharî...... 95,100 Temple de Dionysias...... 85,86 Temple de Girf Husayn...... 29 Temple de Karnak ...... 26,43,45,46,70 Temple de Louqsor...... 26,27,45,89 Terracotta ...... 73 Textes des Pyramides...... 82 Textile ...... 14,19,20,21,22,31,69 The Egypt Exploration Society (EES) ...... 99
Tombe Tombe de Séthi Ier ...... 90 Tombes 26,28,29,41,45,46,51,53,59,62,69,71,72,74,76,77 , 79,80,81,82,84,86,87,89,100 KV55 ...... 12 Tombe de Ptahmes ...... 82 Tombe de Séthi Ier (KV17) ...... 90 Tombe de Toutankhamon (KV62) ...... 12,29,56 TT 37 ...... 90 Tomographie...... 12,52 Tourisme 11,14,19,20,26,27,29,30,33,34,35,41,42,45,46,47 , 56,63,78,80,83,111 Tremblement de terre ...... 31,32,54,73,74 Trône ...... 13,47,71,78,82 U Universités American University in Cairo (AUC) ..... 33,62,98 Georgetown University ...... 97,98 Leiden Universiteit ...... 30,97,100 Pennsylvania State University ...... 97 Università degli Studi di Roma ...... 99 Université d’Alexandrie...... 98 Université d’Hilwân ...... 33,97 Université de Banhâ ...... 109 Université de Mansûra ...... 66,109 Université de Zaqâzîq ...... 109 Université du Caire .9,13,72,82,83,97,98,99,100,101,104,107,108,1 09 Université du Fayyûm ...... 109,110 University College London (UCL)...... 66 University College of Los Angeles (UCLA) 66,67 University of Jerusalem ...... 100 University of Manchester...... 11 University of Oxford ...... 69 Uniwersytet Warszawski ...... 84,92 Yale University...... 55
V Vallées Vallée des momies dorées...... 75 Vallée des Rois ...... 26,46,50,53,56,60,67,76,90,95,100,107 Vandalisme ...... 26,34 Vase...... 23 Verre...... 47 Vierge Marie...... 87 Vin...... 11,44,85,89 Vizir ...... 14,71 Vol...... 25,56,58,59,60,61,64
Z Zodiaque ...... 66 Zone piétonne ...... 27,30,31,33
BIA XLI — Janvier/Juin 2010