THE ECCLESIOLOGY OF LUMEN GENTIUM AND GAUDIUM ET SPES, AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES FOR SOKOTO DIOCESE

Diplomarbeit Zur Erlangung des Grades eines Magisters der Theologie an der Katholische-Theologischen Fakultät Universität Innsbruck

Eingereicht von: Victor Chukwudobe Mordi

Beim Studiendekan der Kath-Theol. Fakultät Dr. Liborius Olaf Lumma

Betreut von: Assoz.-Prof. Dr. Nikolaus Wandinger

Innsbruck, June 2021

DEDICATION To Anthony Julius Mukolu Mordi my Father, who taught me to learn. Continue to rest with God.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

To God the Almighty, the fount of life and knowledge be all the Glory! I thank the immediate Past Rector of The Collegium Canisianum Rev. Fr. Friedrich Prassl, SJ for the opportunity to further my studies. I also thank the present Rector Andreas Schermann, SJ, Studies Prefect Edmund Runggaldier, SJ, Spiritual Director Josef Thorer, SJ, and the staff of Canisianum for their support and assistance thus far.

To my Bishop, Most. Rev. Dr. Matthew Hassan Kukah who has been a Father and Model, I say Nagode for giving me this opportunity to further study and grow.

I am very grateful to my supervisor Assoc. Prof Nikolaus Wandinger for painstakingly guiding me through this work, sharing his time and knowledge with me, and encouraging me work harder till the end.

I thank the Rector Very Rev. Fr. Habila Dabo, and staff of the Good Shepherd Major Seminary Kaduna for affording me the opportunity of a scholarship. I am most grateful to Aid To The Church In Need (Kirche In Not) for giving me this scholarship to study.

The community of brothers in the Collegium Canisianum has been of immense support and like a Family to me. Thank you dear brothers for your friendship and support.

I am most grateful to my Family. To my Father Anthony Mordi who passed on very recently, my mother Josephine Mordi, my siblings Chinonyelim, Bieliose, Nnebuogor and my niece Anwulika. Thank you for the beauty of our Home.

To all who have been of immense support and have assisted me in cash and kind, morally and materially, thank you for everything. May God bless and keep you all.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION ...... I

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... II

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... III

CHAPTER ONE

1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1

1.1 ECCLESIAL, POLITICAL AND PERSONAL BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY ...... 1 1.2 AIMS OF THE STUDY ...... 6 1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ...... 7 1.4 STUDY METHODOLOGY ...... 8 1.5 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY ...... 8

CHAPTER TWO

2 THE CONCILIAR DOCUMENTS AS GUIDES ...... 10

2.1 LUMEN GENTIUM ...... 13 2.1.1 BACKGROUND ...... 14 2.1.2 THE ECCLESIOLOGY OF LUMEN GENTIUM ...... 18 2.1.2.1 The Church Is A Mystery ...... 18 2.1.2.2 The People Of God ...... 22 2.1.2.3 A Family With A Hierarchical Structure ...... 24 2.1.2.4 The Laity ...... 31 2.1.2.5 We Are Called To Holiness Of Life ...... 33 2.1.2.6 Resumé Of Lumen Gentium ...... 35 2.2 GAUDIUM ET SPES ...... 35 2.2.1 BACKGROUND ...... 36 2.2.2 THE ECCLESIOLOGY OF GAUDIUM ET SPES ...... 38 2.2.2.1 Every Person Has Dignity In The Community Of Mankind ...... 39 2.2.2.2 The Human Community And Human Activities In The World ...... 43 2.2.2.3 The Church Has A Role To Play ...... 46 2.2.2.4 Marriage And The Family ...... 49 iii

2.2.2.5 Culture ...... 50 2.2.2.6 Socio-Economic Life ...... 53 2.2.2.7 The Political Community ...... 55 2.2.2.8 Peace And The Community Of Nations ...... 57 2.3 A DIALOGUE BETWEEN LUMEN GENTIUM AND GAUDIUM ET SPES: CHURCH AND WORLD AFTER VATICAN II ...... 59 2.3.1 DOCTRINAL IDENTITY AND PASTORAL EXPRESSION ...... 59 2.3.2 HISTORY AND URGENCY ...... 60 2.3.3 CHURCH AND WORLD/ STATE RELATIONSHIP: THE EMPOWERMENT OF SOCIAL TEACHING ...... 62 2.4 SPECIAL FOCUS: THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF THE COUNCIL’S TEACHING IN THE CONTEXT OF LUMEN GENTIUM AND GAUDIUM ET SPES...... 63

CHAPTER THREE

3 CONSEQUENCES AND CHALLENGES OF THE DOCUMENTS FOR THE DIOCESE OF SOKOTO ...... 68

3.1 CONTEXTUALIZING THE COUNCIL WITH AFRICA ...... 68 3.1.1 THE LIMITED ROLE OF AFRICA AT THE COUNCIL ...... 69 3.1.2 AFRICAN SOCIO-POLITICAL LANDSCAPE AT THE TIME OF THE COUNCIL ...... 70 3.2 CONSEQUENCES OF THE DOCUMENTS FOR THE DIOCESE OF SOKOTO ...... 72 3.2.1 ECCLESIOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES ...... 72 3.2.1.1 RENEWED SENSE OF ECCLESIA ...... 72 3.2.1.2 AFRICAN ECCLESIAL COLLABORATION ...... 73 3.2.1.3 ECUMENISM ...... 74 3.2.1.4 INTER-RELIGIOUS DIALOGUE ...... 74 3.2.2 PASTORAL CHALLENGES ...... 75 3.2.2.1 INCULTURATION ...... 76 3.2.2.2 CATECHESIS ...... 77 3.2.3 SOCIO-POLITICAL CHALLENGES ...... 78 3.2.3.1 POLITICAL PARTICIPATION AND CHURCH AND STATE RELATIONS ...... 79 3.2.3.2 CHURCH AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ...... 81 3.3 CONCLUDING REMARKS ...... 82

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 84 iv

CHAPTER ONE

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Ecclesial, Political and Personal Background of The Study

The Ecclesiastical jurisdiction known as Catholic Diocese of Sokoto covers four States: Sokoto, Zamfara, Kebbi and Katsina – all located in the North-West and Muslim dominated region of Nigeria. The headquarters of the diocese is at Sokoto, the seat of the Muslim Caliphate, a product of the Sokoto Jihad. This Sokoto Jihad of 1804 led by the Charismatic Islamic Scholar Usmanu Danfodiyo that culminated into the historic establishment of the Sokoto Caliphate, remained a defining reference point in West African history and in Nigeria in particular as it created, among other things, the biggest Islamic empire in the sub- region in the 19th century. Though one may not say the revolution in Hausa land was a total success, its legacies or imprints have remained indelible in the historic edifice of the Nigerian State 210 years later.1 The Caliphate is the Seat of the Sultanate (which is the Seat of the Muslim Sultan, the head of the Muslim Community in Sub Saharan Africa), and the “Religious Capital” to over 80 Million Muslims in Nigeria. This makes Sokoto strategic in the Nigerian narrative at all levels - Religious, Political, Economic, Social and Intellectual. What this translates into, is the conscious effort by the Caliphate to perpetuate this tradition and dominance which it has inherited from the Jihad of Usman Danfodiyo.

An interesting point to note, however, is that there are strong suggestions that Christianity in Hausa land in present day Northen Nigeria, pre-dates the Jihad. According to the opinions of historians like J. J. Onotu, Raymond Hickey, and Joseph Kenny, the first attempt to evangelise this part of northern Nigeria was made in the late 17th century, in other words, before the Sokoto Jihad.2 One could assert, on the grounds of probability, that the earliest presence of a Christian missionary in the region would be that of Belgian Franciscan Brother, Pieter Fardé in 1686. We learn from letters attributed to Fardé of his captivity in Agadez and of his transit through Gobir and Sokoto shortly after his liberation.3 When Fardé left his country, his intended destination was not Africa. He was not sent to Africa as a missionary. He was sent to the Holy Land. But the

1 Munir A., Odeh .G.O. (2014). The Establishment of the Nigerian Sokoto Caliphate: An inquest into the Background History of the 1804 Jihad in Hausa Land, 210 years After. The Al-Qualam Journal, 61. 2 Onotu, J., Hickey, R., & Kenny, J. (1981) as cited in Akinwale, A. (2014). Are There Chistians In Sokoto? A History of Catholicism In The Caliphate, Paper presented at the Synod of the Diocese of Sokoto, September 21- 24, 2014, 2. 3 Onotu, J.J. (1982) “Milestones in the Growth of the Catholic Church in Northern Nigeria” in The History of the Catholic Church in Nigeria, Eds A. O. Makozi and G. J. Afolabi Ojo (Lagos: Macmillan, 1982), 55-70.

1 insecurity of the route, his capture by pirates, to be specific, brought him to Africa. What happened on the trip to Agadez would be of enormous significance in the history of Christianity in northern Nigeria. It is the story of how a captured slave became the first Christian missionary in northern Nigeria. During the trip Pieter gained the confidence and friendship of his master, who promised him and his friend Daniel their freedom once Pieter finished directing the construction of an Italian style villa for him. He used this opportunity to baptize as many as 200 slaves. Some of the black slaves he baptized would have been the first Hausa Christians. After he regained his freedom, Brother Farde traveled south from Agadez passing through present day Sabon-Birni, Shinkafi, Gusau and Kankara then to Kano. Also, in 1870 two Franciscan Priests from Agadez traveled down to Katsina. No significant pastoral work was done then; moreover death was not so sympathetic with them.4 This brief historical account is situated within the period Akinwale notes as the second moment of evangelisation of Africa as a whole, which could be dated from 1500-1800s . The first era was in the very beginning of Christianity itself, approximately 62-1500 CE [a period of 1,438 years? this is not a reasonable concretization]!. The Pentecost narrative in the second chapter of the Acts of the Apostles listed various nations present to hear the original proclamation of the Gospel by the apostles. Among them were people from “Egypt and the parts of Libya round Cyrene” (Acts 2:10). In that first era, Egypt, North Africa, Nubia and Ethiopia, owed their evangelization to the initial apostolic fervour of early Christianity, not to missionaries originating from western Europe or North America. The evangelist Mark is unanimously venerated by Egyptian tradition as having founded the apostolic see of Alexandria, ordaining Annianus its first bishop in 62 CE.5 That was before European merchants and colonialists came to Africa.

The second era which is of main concern to this work, was when evangelisation came to sub- Saharan Africa in simultaneity with merchants from Portugal. Then the Portuguese, with approval from the Holy See, established ecclesiastical jurisdiction over territories reached by their merchants and sea explorers. One cannot completely dissociate this second wave of evangelisation from the commercial interests of the economic superpowers of the era. It was a period of three centuries of Christianisation of a huge portion of sub-Saharan Africa during which the kings of the Kongo, Mwene Mutapa king of Zimbabwe, the kings of Benin, Warri, Mombasa were converted to Christianity. There were Christian Churches on the islands of Cape Verde and Sao Tome, in Elmina, Luanda and Mozambique. The belief was that the conversion of the king

4 Catholic Diocese of Sokoto: Diocesan Directory 2017. 5 Baur, J. (2009). 2000 Years of Christianity in Africa: An African Church History. Nairobi, Pauline Press, 42. 2 would lead to the conversion of his subjects. But with greater attention paid to commerce than to evangelisation, with the resistance of the African traditional religions to assimilation and supplantation, and in the absence of a carefully crafted programme of inculturation of the faith, this second attempt collapsed after three hundred years. It would seem the Fulani jihadists of the 19th century understood this quite well. For, in a move unprecedented in the history of conquests, they, the conquerors, did not impose their language, Fulani, on the conquered. Instead, the conquerors adopted Hausa, the language of the conquered.6 This may explain why Christianity dwindled and Islam flourished in this part of the Continent. We thus find ourselves as a Diocese, in a Muslim dominated environment, which has a culture, tradition, history and influence to protect. It was during this second era that the geopolitical area covered by Sokoto diocese first had contact with the Catholic Faith.

It is worth noting, that the jihad of Uthman dan Fodio was driven by two intricately interwoven motives namely, political expansionism and religious puritanism [Puritans are a special Christian group; I doubt whether the term can be applied to Muslims]. Sokoto was and still is the most difficult and hostile terrain for Christianity and Catholicism in Northern Nigeria. In trying to describe this reality based on the experiences of the early Catholic Missionaries to the area, Hickey notes that the task confronting the newly-arrived missionaries in Sokoto and Katsina was indeed formidable. Sokoto was the centre of the former Fulani Empire and both Sokoto and Katsina were centres of Islamic culture and learning. There were no small traditional tribes in these far-northern Provinces and over ninety percent of the population was Muslim. The few non- Muslim Hausa people - called Maguzawa - were dispersed throughout the countryside and it would be a difficult task to form Christian communities among them. The Protestant Serving in Mission (SIM) missionaries had been working for many years in both Provinces but had met with almost total failure. The Sultan of Sokoto exerted enormous moral influence over the population which formed in effect a totally Islamic society. Some years previously an attempt to establish a Catholic mission at Argungu had been abandoned. The only Catholics in the vast area were the few hundred migrant workers from the Southern Provinces of Nigeria.7

Socio-Politically, despite Nigeria’s democratic credentials, perhaps one should say despite her claim to belong to the comity of democratic nations, the religious question persists within her boundaries especially in some states in the north. The question is: whether the constitutional

6 Akinwale, A. Op. Cit. 6 - 7. 7 Ibid. 3 provision for freedom of worship accorded every Nigerian in the federal constitution can be put to practice in a society where one religion is practiced by the majority and another practiced by a minority living side-by-side? This is the situation in the territory of the current Catholic Diocese of Sokoto which is somewhat contiguous with the defunct Sokoto Caliphate. The fact that, after the first wave of erection of parishes in the early years of Sokoto as a Prefecture, which was difficult even as it coincided with the colonial era, erection of new parishes is even more difficult today; the fact that it is a lot easier to build a Mosque than it is to build a Church; the fact that it remains difficult for Christians to buy landed property on which to build Churches; the fact that the few existing Church buildings are often targets of arsonists; the fact that Christians’ access to state-owned media remains an uphill task; the fact that Christian indigenes of states within Sokoto Diocese are discriminated against - these and related matters raise an even more fundamental question: whether a Nigerian can have his or her full humanity and citizenship acknowledged, protected and respected wherever he or she is within the borders of the country around the Niger - Nigeria? It is a way of saying that the challenge of peaceful co-existence of Nigerians within a common boundary is the challenge of human and civil rights, the rights of the Nigerian as a human being and a citizen. Consequently, every attempt at evangelisation and promoting our faith has been viewed with suspicion, and always treated as a threat to Islam and the Caliphate’s hold to power. This explains why a diocese which covers a wide expanse of land (Four States) has less than 30 Parishes. There has been a systematic denial of approval for land to build Churches, subtle but sustained denial of rights to proper worship, destruction of Churches and killing of Christians by arsonists in the name of Islam, among many others.

As it stands presently, no public school owned by Sokoto, Katsina and Zamfara States, whether Primary, Secondary or University offers Christian Religious Studies as a subject for Study. Pupils and Students in many State Government owned schools are forced to wear the Islamic veil (Hijab) as part of their school Uniforms. Meanwhile, both Islamic Religious Studies and Christian Religious Studies are being offered in Catholic Schools and other Private Schools.

As a child, most of my growing up was in this part of the Country. My Primary and Secondary School education was in Sokoto and Zaria (Kaduna State, northern Nigeria). I also had my Theological Studies at the Major Seminary in Kaduna. So from childhood, I have had first-hand experience of the challenges and difficulties that Christians face in Northern Nigeria. I have seen the violene which results from riots and how places of worship are being attacked at the slightest

4 hint of conflict. This discrimination is extended to little children in schools, from the point of admission to the point of completion of studies.

Working as the Director for The Justice Development and Peace Commission (CARITAS) of my Diocese from 2012-2017, and the Chaplain of The Catholic Community in Usmanu Danfodiyo University in Sokoto within the same period, I have had personal contact with these realities. Several times we have been denied justice by Law enforcement authorities and even Law Courts when basic rights of our members were being violated. There had been more than 6 different cases of underaged girls who were abducted by Islamic Groups who claim the girls have decided to convert to Islam. These girls were taken from their Parental Homes and kept for some periods of time at different locations, including the Sultan’s Palace. Attempts to get these girls freed and returned to their Parents through the Police were further frustrated by the Police themselves, until the Press was contacted and the news went viral. One of such cases is that of 14-year-old Patience Paul (A case which I personally was part of).8 There was also the case of 14-year-old Habiba Isiyaku whose Family accused the Emir of Katsina (A State in Sokoto Diocese), of forcefully abducting and giving out in marriage to a much older man without their consent.9 Myself and two other Parishioners narrowly escaped the lynching by a mob in 2011, as a result of violence that erupted after the General elections in Nigeria (an election which was generally viewed from a religious perspective by many in the North). During the post-election violence, three of our Churches in Funtua (Katsina State), Daura (Katsina State), and Tsafe (Zamfara State) were burnt down. Church property was destroyed and part of our Diocesan Health Centre in Malumfashi (Katsina State) was destroyed.

The Federal University in Sokoto has 13 Mosques, but no single Church Building. Having worked as the Chaplain of this community, I can attest to the fact that Mass is being celebrated in a Lecture Hall, and our times for worship are strictly regulated by the University authorities. In fact, no single University – Federal or State – within the Geo-Political Area covered by Sokoto Diocese has a Church Building. All attempts to secure land have failed. As Chaplain of the University, I had had several meetings with the Vice Chancellor and My Bishop concerning land for the building of a Church. Despite all assurances by word, nothing has materialized. This is a

8 Nnadozie, E., Duru, P., Kumolu, C. (2016, 3rd March). Another 14-year-old Benue Girl Abducted In Sokoto. Vanguard News Nigeria. Retrieved from https://www.vanguardngr.com/2016/03/another-14-yr-old-benue-girl- abducted-in-sokoto/ on 27th November, 2019. 9 Obi, P. (2016, 13th October). Family Accuses Emir of Katsina of Abducting, Forcefully Marrying A Christian Minor. This Day Newspaper. Retrieved from https://www.thisdaylive.com/index.php/2016/10/13/family- accuses-emir-of-katsina-of-abducting-forcefully-marrying-a-christian-minor-2/ on 27th November, 2019. 5

University which is over 40 years old, and whose pioneer Academic Staff had a considerable number of Christians.

It is within these realities that the Church in Sokoto exists. It is in this arena that the mission of People of God is being carried out. This mission of the Church is inextricably interwoven with the essence, means and methods that facilitate it. It requires the proper adaptation of the eternal, unchanging truth of the Gospel to the material, changing World, as well as the environment and circumstances in which she finds herself. Asuzu observes that all through the ages, Christians and the Church leaders in particular have this mission by means of structures and instruments that are at her disposal.10 This provokes the question: what does the future hold for the Church in Sokoto Diocese? What should be the response of the Church to this prevailing situation? Can we rise above these challenges as a people? Are the Conciliar Documents instruments can we can use? What do the Conciliar Documents of the Church say as regards who we are as a Church, a people, and how we can approach the peculiarities, complexities and realities of our World today?

My personal choice of this topic stems from the experiences I have had as a child growing up in this area up to adulthood, and as a Priest who has worked in this part of Nigeria. I am convinced of the enormous zeal and faith of the members of the Church in Sokoto, but I am not oblivious to the fact that faith alone may not be enough. I have therefore looked at the Documents of the Vatican II Council, the Council upon which the Church as we have it today has built her Teachings. The clarifications needed to promote our identity as a people, and the guidelines needed to evangelize and engage society within the environment we find ourselves are contained in the Council Documents.

1.2 Aims of The Study

Today more than ever before, there is a great awakening sweeping through Africa of a profound cultural, social, economic and political renaissance, which the church does not ignore.11 This entails an authentic presentation of the Gospel message, not only to those who have never heard it, but also to those who have lost touch with it and those who oppose it. The Church thus should present herself as a veritable and efficient force for the actualisation of the potentials of this movement within the African Continent and Nigeria in Particular.

10 Asuzu, N. B. (1987). Communications Media In The Nigerian Church Today. (Unpublished Masters/ Licentiate Thesis). Tipografia Ugo Detti, Rome, 45. 11 Catholic Bishops’ Conference of Nigeria, (2004). I Chose You: The Nigerian Priest In The Third Millenium. A document issued to Priests, n. 2. 6

The thrust of this work, therefore, is to attempt firstly, a theological exposé of the Conciliar documents Lumen Gentium and Gaudium es Spes. This work will try to explore the foundations that these documents lay for an African perspective and model for the Church in Sokoto diocese (which is not totally different from the essence of the ecclesiology of the Vatican II Council, but rather draws from it). An attempt will be made to clearly state what the Council Documents say- First on what the Church is, and then how the Church should engage (as a Body) with the World in which She is called to exist and minister.

Then the work would enquire whether or not there are grounds from the principles of the Council Documents for a conscious Socio-Political Programme for the Church in Sokoto Diocese. In other words, what does the guiding general principles of the Council Documents say about how the Church within a local jurisdiction should engage with the realities of the world in which She is situated. Another question would be to ask if there is an ecclesiological model which the Church in Sokoto diocese can adopt, based on the general guidelines and principles of the Council Documents.

Effort will be made to then highlight the implications of this ecclesiological model for the diocese, with a view to proposing clear steps to actualising the socio-political aspirations of her members and promote the salvific mission of the Church; bearing in mind the complexities and limitations of this noble imperative.

1.3 Significance of The Study

This project is urgently imperative because we in Nigeria live in an age where beliefs, opinions, ideologies, and the general mode of thought are directly or indirectly influenced by religion. As a typically communitarian people, we are molded from birth and in existence by the groups or Communities we identify with – in this sense, The Church. It is the responsibility of this Community to nurture, nourish and promote the interests of her members, as well as ensure that their wellbeing. This project seeks to add to the already growing library which maintains that the Church, especially in Sokoto Diocese, needs to make use of the opportunities presented by the guiding ecclesiological and Pastoral principles of the Conciliar Documents, to chart a defined course in and socio-political engagement with the World (in this case, the peculiarity of the situation in Northern Nigeria). It does not subscribe entirely to everything in practise in the fight for social Justice, relevance and Human rights in our World today. On the contrary, it tries to

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assimilate and develop them, to live them with magnanimity and joy and to perfect them by the mysterious and ennobling light of the gospel.

The location of Sokoto diocese is also strategic, since it is embedded in the epicenter of Islam in Sub-Saharan Africa. This study attempts to help add to the growing consciousness of members of the Church on their roles in ensuring that the Church thrives amidst the challenges she faces in the World. It is the position here that this can be achieved if we have a clear understanding of who we are as a believing community, guided by the voice of the Council Documents.

1.4 Study Methodology

This work shall employ primarily the Documentary/ Library research as its sources. It intends to use the Council Documents Lumen Gentium and Gaudium et Spes as the major documents from the Vatican II Council. These documents will be interpreted to know if there are grounds contained in them for contextualizing a particular Model for the Church in Sokoto, drawing from the teachings of the Council. In other words, the general principles and teachings of the Council documents would be employed and applied within the context of a particular Church (Sokoto Diocese).

For the main part of interpreting the Council Documents, I would employ the use of the following commentaries: - Herbert Vorgrimler’s Commentary On The Documents of Vatican II, Volumes 1 and 5 (English versions) - Karl Rahner and Vorgrimler’s Kleines Konzilskompendium These will be used because they are two among the most elaborate commentaries so far on the Council. Also, Karl Rahner’s immense contributions to the theology of Vatican II and the development of Lumen Gentium makes his contributions important for any work on the Council documents. Furthermore, the fact that Vorgrimler and Rahner worked together on one of the commentaries helps with the cohesiveness of thought for this work.

1.5 Limitations Of The Study

I am aware that this work is limited, in that it is selective. Theologically, this work will focus on some selected parts of two Conciliar Documents of the Second Vatican Council, Lumen Gentium and Gaudium et Spes. These selected numbers are directly in consonance with the topic and aims of this study. However, references would be made to other Conciliar Documents for emphasis and correlation. In the same vein, only the commentaries mentioned in section 1.4 above would 8 be used. This work is therefore limited in the number of commentaries that would form the basis of Chapter 2, which would be the main chapter.

Furthermore, this study will only cover the area of the Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction of Sokoto Diocese in Nigeria, West Africa. References may be made to the Province of Kaduna, Nigeria (under which Sokoto Diocese is situated). Also, the preoccupation of this work will be the Catholic Church. Other ecclesial communities are, for reasons of focus, time and space, outside the ambients of this work.

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CHAPTER TWO

2 THE CONCILIAR DOCUMENTS AS GUIDES

The second Vatican Council is unquestionably the most significant theological, ecumenical and pastoral event for the Roman Catholic Church in the twentieth century. It formed a watershed in the flow of theological thought: commentators and theologians regularly divide the century into the pre-Vatican II and post-Vatican II eras. Robert Schreiter notes that central to that division was the Council’s attempt to engage the modern world after a century in which the church had seen itself as a bulwark against that very same world.12 This is further echoed in the voice of the Council Fathers in their message to Humanity, issued October 20, 1962: “In this assembly, under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, we wish to inquire how we ought to renew ourselves, so that we may be found increasingly faithful to the gospel of Christ. We shall take pains so as to present to the men of this age God’s truth in its integrity and purity that they may understand it and gladly assent to it. Since we are Shepherds, we desire that all those may have their longing satisfied who seek God … . Hence … we as pastors devote all our energies and thoughts to the renewal of ourselves and the flock committed to us, so that there may radiate before all men the lovable features of Jesus Christ.” (Opening message to Humanity, issued October 20, 1962).13 For the First time in the history of the Councils, a Council addresses itself to all people, not just to Christians. Thus “it would a positive, optimistic Council, bent on construction, not condemnation; blessings, not anathemas; love, not fear; dialogue, not monologue; union, not separation; drawing people through kindness, not repelling them through severity; vital intelligible communication of revealed truth, not the mere complicated preservation of a rigidly maintained deposit.”14

12 Cf. Schreiter, R.J (2002) The Paradox Of Vatican II: Theology In A New Millennium, Paper Presented At The Inauguration Of The Vatican Council II Chair The Bernardin Center At Catholic Theological Union, April 14, 1, from https://preciousbloodspirituality.org/spirituality-and-theology/paradox-vatican-ii-theology-new- millennium, accessed on 6th November 2019. 13 The message of the Council Fathers as quoted in Abbott, M.W. (1966). Documents of Vatican II. New York, Guild Press, 3-4. 14 Kloppenburg, B. (1974). Ecclesiology of Vatican II. Chicago, Franciscan Herald Press, 5-6. 10

Moreover, coming to fruition as it did in the 1960s, it intersected with powerful social and cultural influences that magnified its effects in many parts of the world.15 The Church is a pilgrim, set down in the midst of history and therefore inevitably and deeply marked and conditioned by events.16

St. John XXIII announced plans in January 1959 to convoke the Second Vatican Council, the 21st ecumenical council of the church’s long history. An ecumenical council calls all the church’s bishops together. With the pope’s approval, its decisions are binding. Past ecumenical councils often devoted themselves to doctrinal issues. But the Second Vatican Council typically is described as a pastoral council, since it so greatly focused on the lives and mission of the church’s people.17

This does not however mean that there were no doctrinal clarifications. “Such new explications are indeed not lacking as instanced by its Dogmatic Constitutions on the Church which includes explications on the Episcopate and the Presbyterate. There are as well plenty of doctrinal teachings in all the decrees.”18 This Council will differ from others based on its Pastoral character and not primarily its doctrinal substance. When the council began Oct. 11, 1962, John XXIII insisted its “salient point” would not be “discussion of one article or another” of church doctrine. However, he added, “the substance of the ancient doctrine of the deposit of faith is one thing, and the way it is presented is another.”19

Looking ahead to the council, St. John XXIII wrote in December 1961 that it would be “a demonstration of the church, always living and always young,” a church that “feels the rhythm of the times” and “radiates new light,” yet remains “identical in herself, faithful to the divine image impressed on her by Christ.”20 He states: “Nowadays… the Spouse of Christ prefers to make use of the medicine of mercy rather than that of severity; she considers that she meets the needs of the present day by demonstrating that validity of her teaching rather than by condemnations … . The Catholic Church, raising the

15 Cf. Schreiter, R.J. Op. Cit. 16 Cf. Kloppenburg, B. Op. Cit. 2. 17 Cf. Schreiter R.J. Op. Cit. 18 Kloppenburg, B. OP. Cit. 7. 19 John XXIII, Opening Speech to The Council, October 11, 1962 in Abbott W.M. Op. Cit. 715. 20 John XXIII Apostolic Constitution Humanae Salutis in Abbott, W. M. Op. Cit. 706. 11

torch of religious truth by means of this Ecumenical Council, desires to show herself the loving mother of all, benign, patient, full of mercy and goodness towards the brethren who are separated from her.”21

Among these documents are two dogmatic constitutions, two constitutions, nine decrees, and three declarations that cover most of the areas of Christian life and most of the urgent problems facing the Church at the end of the second millennium.22 These documents are to guide the life of the Church in her understanding of self and in her engagement with an ever-changing world. Sakvuk, drawing from Rahner and Dulles, indicates two aspects of the Council’s Hermeneutics that lend credence to this fact: first is the internal consistency that emanates from the documents of Vatican II as a unified body of doctrine, and secondly, the subordination of all the conciliar texts to the Council‘s greatest concern, which was a reassessment of the Church‘s inner nature and her salvific mission.23 The convocation of this great Council initiated by John XXIII would remain significant. “Its significance lies in its call for Church renewal: returning to sources (ressourcement) and bringing the Church in all aspects of its life up to date (aggiornamento). Vatican II looked at the structure and image of the church and found it greatly wanting. As an ecclesial event that articulated a paradigm shift in the Church’s self-understanding, Vatican II was a conciliar event of lasting importance.”24

In two key documents on the church, Lumen Gentium, the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, and Gaudium et Spes, the Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World, the council forged a whole new image and vision of church. The former document is clearly devoted to describing the nature of the Church in her deepest identity, while the latter is pastorally oriented toward her specific situation in the modern age, and her mode of action in contemporary circumstances. Tellingly, the two documents on the Church (again, one dogmatic, the other pastoral) are by far the longest. Each is roughly twice as long as any of the other documents. Clearly these two enshrine the Council’s most central and important purpose, which may be described as bringing the Church to a fuller understanding of herself so that every member of the faithful might more effectively contribute to the fulfilment of her mission in the world.

21 John XXIII, Opening Speech to The Council, October 11, 1962 in Abbott W.M. Op. Cit. 716. 22 Cf. The Documents of Vatican II: Vatican Translation, published by the Vatican, January 2009. 23 Cf. Sakvuk, Y. (2011) Seven Criteria for The Assessment of The Ecclesial Identity And Vocation Of A Particular Church: The Development Of An Interpretative System Based On The Ecclesiology Of Vatican II And Verified Against The Work Of The Kyivan Church Study Group (Doctoral Thesis). Saint Paul University, Ottawa, Canada, 49, referring to DULLES, The Reshaping of Catholicism, pp. 132-133, and 149-153 and RAHNER, The Church After, pp. 37-38. 24 Kavunkal, J. et al., Vatican II: A Gift and A Task, 7. 12

Commenting on these documents, Rahner and Vorgrimler aptly note that what a Council is in general according to the Catholic understanding of faith can only be made understandable from the teaching of the Church about the nature of this Church itself. For here the nature of the Church is described by the Church herself, in so far as this is possible given the character of mystery that pertains to the Church, and in this context this Dogmatic Constitution itself speaks in its third chapter of the nature of a general Council of this Church.25

It should be noted, as stated in the first chapter of this work, that treating these two documents will not be exhaustive. Rather, thematic areas which bear directly on the theme of the work will be highlighted. This work is primarily aimed at understanding the socio-political dynamics of the problem in Northern Nigeria and Sokoto diocese, in the light of two important ecclesial documents.

2.1 LUMEN GENTIUM

As the third document issued by the Second Vatican Council, on November 21, 1964, after the Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, Sacrosanctum Concilium, 4 December 1963 and the Decree on the Media of Social Communications, Inter Mirifica, 4 December 1963, it is arguably the center or pivot of all the other documents from a theological and doctrinal point of view. This is based on the fact that it addresses primarily, the identity and nature of the Church. Lakeland would note that it is not difficult to argue that the text of this Document is the most authoritative teaching on the Church which has not yet been surpassed. It continues to be the theological basis for current teachings on the Church.26 Gerard Philips would opine that there has been a general impression since the opening of the Council that this document would be the great achievement of the Council. He would go on to describe it as “the vitally important center to which the other decrees must be referred.”27

25 Rahner, K, Vorgrimler (1998). Kleines Konzilskompendium. Freiburg. Herderbucherei. 13:“Was ein Konzil im allgemeinen nach katholischem Glaubensverständnis ist, kann nur verständlich gemacht werden von der Lehre der Kirche über das Wesen dieser Kirche selbst her... Denn hier wird das Wesen der Kirche von der Kirche selbst beschrieben, soweit dies bei dem Geheimnischarakter der Kirche möglich ist, und in diesem Zusammenhang spricht diese dogmatische Konstitution in ihrem dritten Kapitel selbst vom Wesen eines allgemeinen Konzils dieser Kirche.“ 26 Lakeland, P. (2013). The Council That Will Never End, Collegeville – Minnesota, Liturgical Press. Xiii. 27 Philips, G. in Vorgrimler, H. (1967). Commentary on The Documents of Vatican II Vol. 2, New York, Herder and Herder, 105. 13

2.1.1 BACKGROUND During his speech at the reconvening of the Council, September 29th, 1963, Pope Paul VI formulated a clear four-point program for the Council. The first task of the council was to deal with the Church’s interpretation of its own nature. The second of these was the renewal of the Church, the third the reestablishment of unity among Christians, and the fourth the Church’s dialogue with contemporary man. 28 Lumen Gentium became a major springboard to the achievement of this program.

On 27 October 1960, a sub-commission of the Theological Preparatory Commission, De Doctrina Fidei et Morum headed by Cardinal Ottaviani, had been established to compose a schema of the future Dogmatic Constitution on the Church. The work on the document entitled Aeternus Unigeniti Pater lasted two years and in its final draft included eleven chapters and an appendix on the Virgin Mary, Mother of God and Mother of Men. The greatest emphasis of the first schema’s eleven chapters, among other themes, had been placed on the nature of the Church militant, membership in the Church as the most important condition of salvation, the role of the episcopate as the highest grade of the sacrament of the orders, and on the essential role played by priests, religious and laity. A great deal of attention had been dedicated to the magisterium of the Church, the question of authority and obedience, the relationship between Church and state, and the necessity of proclaiming the Gospel to all peoples. The Church was asked about itself and to speak first to Catholics and then to those who did not belong to the outward form of Catholicism. It was to be from the Ecclesia ad intra to the Ecclesia ad extra. It was during one of the sessions in this first draft that Cardinal Suenens suggested the title Lumen Gentium.29

Generally, the Council Fathers were quite appreciative of the work of the first draft but were reserved in their praise and affirmation of it. They acknowledged the areas treated, but most thought that these thematic areas were not properly tackled. They noted that there was no “intrinsic connection” between the chapters, which did not give a clear picture of the whole corpus. So they were a “disconnected series rather than an organic development.”30 The Fathers also had issues with the general language of the draft, preferring a more Pastoral approach which does neither neglect the dogmatic substance. This attitude was clearly in concordance with the desire of the Pope at the opening of the Council. There was also the desire by the Fathers for new

28 Ratzinger, J. (2009). Theological Highlights of Vatican II. New York, Paulist Press. 68. 29 Philips, G. in Vorgrimler, H. Op. Cit. 106 – 110. 30 Ibid. 14 perspectives. Some opined that the juridical and scholastic assertions which consists mainly of abstract terms were not in question. What was needed was a deeper reflection of the Church and a pastoral explication oriented to the outside world. Another thing some of the Fathers found inadequately present in the draft was a biblical and Patristic spirit. Bishop Hakim specifically noted that the Church Fathers of the East were almost completely missing from the list of authorities. Other comments included the need for a missionary spirit, the plight of underdeveloped countries and suffering people, paternal role of the Bishop, collegial nature of the Episcopate, the ecumenical spirit, and the eschatological nature of the pilgrim Church.31 There was thus the need for a new draft for document.

The commission responsible for the document began work on an entirely new text which was composed by the Belgian theologian Gérard Philips. One of the most significant aspects of this new draft was a change in the title of the first chapter from the “Church Militant” to the Church as “Mystery”.32 This new wording indicated a renewed emphasis on the spirit and sacramental dimension of the Church, and a fundamental shift in how the Council fathers understood the reality of the Church and wanted to convey it.33 The new draft contained four chapters, the first of which proposed an entirely new approach to the role played by the Church as a mystery of the Holy Trinity, the sign telling the world of salvation in Christ, and an instrument by which salvation continues to be communicated to the world. The second on the hierarchical constitution of the Church and the episcopate in particular. The third was on the people of God and the Laity in particular. The Fourth was on the call to holiness in the Church.34 The issue of “collegiality” was hotly debated. On one side were those who contended that the Pope and Bishops all belong to a college which exercises authority over the affairs of the Church.35 They argued that the Pope and the college of Bishops are not contrasting and rival powers, but an organic union, linking the supreme head with the Bishops as a group. So, alluding to the Gospels, The Church is erected on the rock of Peter, but also founded on the group of the Apostles. Bishops Charue and Heuschen both provided sufficient proofs from Biblical and Patristic sources respectively, and this view was also supported by Archbishop Parente from the Curia, Bishop Bettazzi of Bologna, Cardinal Meyer and Cardinal Lienart.36 On the other side were those who argued that sharing of his

31 Ibid. 32 Cf. Lavin, M. (2012). Vatican II: Fifty Years of Evolution and Revolution In The Catholic Church, Mumbai, St Pauls Publications. 33. 33 Ibid. 34 Cf. Philips, G. in Vorgrimler, H. Op. Cit. 110. 35 Cf. Lavin, M. Op Cit. 34. 36 Cf. Philips, G. in Vorgrimler, H. Op. Cit. 114-115. 15 authority by the Supreme Pontiff would diminish his authority and his ability to effectively lead the Church.37 Patriarch Gori and Bishop Staffa, who were thinking on purely juridical lines about the term “college”, remained reserved about this teaching on collegiality. This was also the sentiment of Cardinal Siri and Bishop Morcillo, as well as some of the Council fathers from Spain and Italy.38 After much debates and arguments, an “orienting vote showed overwhelming support for collegiality.”39

Another strongly debated issue was whether the true church of Christ was identical with the Roman Catholic Church. According to Lavin, “the first draft stated clearly that there is only one true Church of Jesus Christ, entrusted to St. Peter and his successors the Roman Pontiffs. Therefore, only the Roman Catholic Church has the right to be called “Church”.40 This stance obviously excluded other Christian Churches and was viewed by many of the Council fathers as inappropriate. This led to the replacement of the Latin word est with subsistit in.41 The Fathers maintained that the Church of Christ subsists in the Catholic Church. In other words, it exists or lives in the Catholic Church, but not exclusively. “Elements of truth and sanctification can also be encountered in non-catholic Christian communities as well.”42

Cardinal Suenens would later suggest that the Chapter on “The People of God and the Laity” be moved before the Chapter on the Hierarchy in the Church. His argument was that speaking of the hierarchy before the People of God would present the Church simply as a hierarchical and possibly juridical institution rather than a unified society of the baptized. A society spiritually and biblically rooted, a sacramental reality of laity and clergy united by one baptism. So it would be better to remove anything that dealt with the people of God in general from chapters 1 and 3, and making it one chapter on the people of God. Although this suggestion was vehemently opposed by some Bishops, it would be accepted by the Coordinating Commission.43 This decision would consequently increase the number of Chapters to five.

During discussions on the fourth Chapter on the call to holiness, many religious began to feel that they had been sidelined, given that chapters on the Hierarchy (and the Episcopate in particular)

37 Cf. Lavin, M. Op Cit.34. 38 Cf. Philips, G. in Vorgrimler, H. Op. Cit. 115. 39 Lavin, M. Op. Cit. 34. 40 Ibid. 41 Ibid. 42 Hahnenberg Edward, P. quoted by Lavin, M. Op. Cit. 35. 43 Cf. Philips, G. in Vorgrimler, H. Op. Cit. 110. 16 and the Laity respectively were drafted. They felt that one of the surest signs of vitality in the Church, which is the consecrated life, might lose some of its value in the eyes of the Faithful. Despite efforts to persuade them that everything was intrinsically tied to the Call to Holiness and living the life of Christian consecration, many superiors of orders and Bishops from the rank of the regular clergy were not entirely satisfied.44 This question was left till the third session. There also arose the question on what form the Chapter on the Blessed Virgin Mary should take and where it should be inserted.

At the third session Abbot Gut, O.S.B. zealously presented and defended the case for a special chapter dedicated to the Religious Life, which was accepted by the Assembly.45 So the Chapter on the Call to Holiness would then become two Chapters (with the Chapter on Religious Life coming after the Call to Holiness). This then increased the number of Chapters to six. It was at this third session that discussions on the eschatological character of the Church and the theme on the Blessed Virgin Mary were extensively done. Both would be eventually added as separate chapters, bringing the number to eight. The Fathers noted the need to remind the Christian pilgrim Church of her strong bond with the saints and union with the heavenly Church, where the Blessed mother of Christ has a pre-eminent place. 46

In spite of the exceedingly large number of amendments and constructively critical suggestions proposed in both oral and written form by the council fathers, the draft was commonly recognised as an adequate foundation, deserving to be transformed into the final conciliar document on the inner nature and mission of the Catholic Church. After the careful synthesising of all the comments and observations it was voted upon chapter by chapter during the Third Session until it was finally approved by nearly all of the council fathers at a solemn assembly of the Council presided by Pope Paul VI on 21 November 1964.47 With 2,151 votes in favour and 5 opposed, Alberigo notes that the unanimity of the voting was a reward for the firmness with which the great majority of the Fathers had upheld the renewed ecclesiology contained in the constitution, and also the long and patient work of mediation on the part of Paul VI.48

44 Cf. Philips, G. in Vorgrimler, H. Op. Cit..121-125. 45 Cf. Philips, G. in Vorgrimler, H. Op. Cit. 131. 46 Cf. Philips, G. in Vorgrimler, H. Op. Cit.131-133. 47 Lavin, M. Op. Cit. 35. 48 Cf. Alberigo, G. (2006). A Brief History of Vatican II, Maryknoll New York, Orbis Books, 82. 17

2.1.2 THE ECCLESIOLOGY OF LUMEN GENTIUM

In treating this section, this work will dwell on the chapters of the document that deal directly with the topic and focus of this work. Within these limits, this work shall attempt to underline certain aspects of the theme that strike me as more significant. Therefore, the first five chapters will be treated.

2.1.2.1 THE CHURCH IS A MYSTERY The document begins in chapter one by identifying Christ as the light of the nations and the Church as the sacrament of Christ’s presence in the World. This designation is very important because it sets the tone for the programme of reform envisaged by the Council, and its general structure and theme. Pope John XXIII had used this theme of light as a central point of his messages before opening the council; Christ being the light and the Church being the instrument through which this light will shine on peoples. Grillmeier notes that this is basic for the ecclesiology of the Constitution.49 This gives a Christocentric idea of the Church, which can only be properly understood in relation to Christ. According to Kloppenburg, “if the Church is absolutized, separated from Christ, considered only in its structures, viewed only in its history, and studied only under its visible, human, and phenomenological aspects, it ceases to be a mystery.”50 To further explain this teaching, the imagery of the Sun and the Moon is employed. Only Christ is the light of the World. He is the Sun which is the sole source of light. Close to Christ is the Church like the Moon which receives all light from the Sun.51 So like a light in the darkness of our World, the Church shines, only in the measure, and to the extent that it reflects the light of Christ. This vocation of the Church makes it the Sacrament of Christ; a visible sign that can be seen by all people on earth of the inner workings of Christ in the world. Therefore, the Church is a mystery.

The Council Fathers deliberately describe the Church as mystery as an effort at a synthesis between the visible element of the Church through Christ and the invisible, the outer manifestation and the inner reality, the mystical and the physical.52 This term “mystery” as applied to the Church in this document, occurs only in numbers 1 and 5, 39, 44 and 63. It will also appear in Gaudium et Spes numbers 2 and 40.53 Mystery does not indicate that a thing is unknowable or hidden, but points to a transcendent reality that is in a sensible way revealed.

49 Cf. Grillmeier, A. In Vorgrimler, H. Op. Cit. 139. 50 Kloppenburg, B. Op. Cit. 19-20. 51 Ibid. 52 Cf. Grillmeier, A. In Vorgrimler, H. Op. Cit. 138. 53 Kloppenburg, B. Op. Cit. 14. 18

Taken from Scriptures, this word suitably describes the Church like the holy human nature of Christ in its external visibility, which both conceals and reveals the inner divine reality.54 This is equivalent to the meaning of sacrament. In this context it is worth remembering that the original Greek term mysterion can be translated into Latin as mysterium but also as sacramentum.55 The council here is using both terms – mystery and sacrament – to describe the reality of the church. So even though the Church has a transcendent and divine source, it is a reality which is visibly present among people. As Sacrosanctum Concilium puts it: It is of the essence of the Church that she is both human and divine, visible yet invisibly endowed…, present in this world and yet not at home in it. She is in all these things in such a way that in her the human is directed and subordinated to the divine, the visible likewise to the invisible…, and this present world to that city yet to come, which we seek. (SC. 2) So Grillmeier further explains that the Church “stems from a free act of God’s grace, from his election and his sovereign gift of grace. Thus, it is first and foremost something instituted from on high.”56 This inevitably links the mystery of the Church to the mystery of the Holy Trinity. As Lavin explains, “the Church is a people united as one in the unity of the Trinity, the loving communion of God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. 57 Instituted as a free act of grace from on high by God the Father, the Church is instituted on earth by Christ who transforms the calamitous act of Adam for mankind into salvation. The Holy Spirit which proceeds from the Father and the Son would then perfect this salvific work. The council Fathers point to two events within history that are essential to understand this growth of the Church: the death of Jesus on the Cross, and Pentecost.58

The sacrificial death of Christ with blood and water flowing from his side is symbolically represented by the Eucharist, which itself is the sacramental enactment of the work of salvation. This continues to be the foundation of the Church. At Pentecost God communicates himself to the World through the visible Church gathered at prayer. This self-communication of God through the Spirit works in various ways in the Church through gifts, charisms and various forms

54 Ibid. 55 Cf. Nocke, Franz-Josef: Allgemeine Sakramentenlehre. In: Schneider, Theodor (Hg.): Hand-buch der Dogmatik 2. Düsseldorf 21995, 188-225, esp. 196f. 56 Grillmeier, A. In Vorgrimler, H. Op. Cit. 141. 57 Lavin, M. Op. Cit. 35-36. 58 Cf. Grillmeier, A. In Vorgrimler, H. Op. Cit. 141 – 142. 19 of service. This thus gives the ecclesiology of the council a Pneumatological element.59 This lends credence to the teaching on the trinitarian nature of the Church and how closely bound the Council’s perspective is to the opening up of a conversation on the importance of other gifts and services in the Church, outside the clerical responsibilities. To do this, the council Fathers in number 6 highlight the Familial nature of the Church as the Mystical Body of Christ which has an eschatological destiny. The Church is the family of God; a Family that strives to work in the world, knowing that the final goal is the Kingdom of God which Christ came to preach on earth. “Thus the Church, in Christ and the Spirit, is the organ of the realization of the reign of God.”60 The Council Fathers teach that the Church is a body in the real sense, only in Christ. Though the members of this body are evidently naturally different, there is a unity which has Christ as its source and is realized supernaturally in the Holy Spirit. This makes Christ the Head of the Body and the Holy Spirit the soul of the body. In this body there is a multiplicity of gifts which is seen in the different offices and charisms, as well as the natural gifts of the members. So, the true life of this body demands that both its unity and diversity be personally lived by its members. This also holds true in the local and regional Churches, especially the missions with their rich cultures and diversities.61 The Council Fathers also use the designation of “Body of Christ” to finally express and teach the aspect of the Church as mystery. This aspect would eventually culminate in the clarification of the ‘subsistit’ debate.

The Constitution deliberately identifies the visible aspect of the Church (found in its visible assembly and hierarchy) and the invisible (as the mysterious body of Christ), as one complex reality which cannot be separated or seen as distinct. The Fathers use two analogies: the incarnation of Christ, and the instrumentality of a sacrament.62 There is a parallel between the Church and the incarnation, the mystery of the incarnate word. So, Lumen Gentium notes that, “Christ the one Mediator, established and continually sustains here on earth his holy church, the community of faith, hope and charity, as an entity with visible delineation through which he communicated truth and grace to all. But the society structured with hierarchical organs and the Mystical body of Christ, are not to be considered as two realities, nor are the visible assembly and the spiritual community, nor the earthly Church and the Church enriched with heavenly things; rather they form one complex reality which coalesces from a divine and a human

59 Ibid. 60 Cf. Grillmeier, A. In Vorgrimler, H. Op. Cit. 143 61 Ibid. 62 Cf. Grillmeier, A. In Vorgrimler, H. Op. Cit. 146. 20

element. For this reason, by no weak analogy, it is compared to the mystery of the incarnate Word.” (LG. 8)

Sacramentally, the Spirit of Christ works through the Church, including in the Church’s social structure. The Spirit of Christ works through a number of persons in the Church. So Grillmeier notes that the “invisible divine principle which makes use of the Church is that same Spirit which also animates the humanity of Christ, the Logos’s instrument of salvation, to make it supremely effective, above all in the sacrifice of the Cross.”63 This undoubtedly gives the Church a universal and all-embracing element. The Church becomes according to Grillmeier, “the deposit of the whole of salvation, of revealed truth and of sanctification in all the fullness constituted by Christ.”64

This Church subsists in the Catholic Church, which is governed by the Pope, who is the successor of Peter, in union with the Bishops. According to Grillmeier, there are two points that stand our clearly: the true Church exists as a concrete and definable fact of history, despite its mysterious character. Also, the concrete form of this existence of the Church is the Catholic Church which is no longer said that it “is” the Roman Church, but also other local Churches with their Bishops, united under the Pope, who is the Bishop of the local Church of Rome (which is a part of the whole Church). This removes exclusive judgement, which was earlier held, stating that the Church of Christ “is” the Catholic Church. Stating that the Church of Christ subsists in the Catholic Church does not want to create any obscurity, but rather takes into account the reality that outside the Catholic Church, other elements of sanctification and truth do exist. Therefore, ‘ecclesiality’ does not exclusively reside in the Catholic Church, but other Christian faith communities. This is so because of the foundations laid by Christ which have been preserved in various degrees despite separations.65 In other words, these other Churches and communities derive their ecclesiality through sharing in the one foundation of Christ.

The Church is then called to be a mediator in its concrete historical, earthly experience by identifying with the poor and rejecting triumphalism. The Council also clearly states that the church is a church of sinners. Therefore, the Church is both holy and always in need of purification. Sin by members of the Church and leaders too, diminishes the light of Christ which is supposed to shine through the Church. Hence the Church must always take the path of renewal

63 Grillmeier, A. In Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 148-149. 64 Ibid. 65 Cf. Grillmeier, A. In Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 150. 21 individually and collectively.66 Finally, the Fathers teach that persecution is part of the life of the Pilgrim Church in line with the example of Christ. The Church however should be consoled by the victory of Easter and strive to always witness to the world, despite the difficulties it faces and the burdens she bears in areas of the world where the Church is persecuted. This teaching will be very essential to the Christians in Sokoto diocese, where the Church is presently a persecuted Church.

2.1.2.2 THE PEOPLE OF GOD According to Rahner and Vorgrimler, Chapter 2, with 9 articles on the People of God, was written with the intention to first of all establish the unity of the whole Church before all hierarchical differences.67 So this designation does not separate the faithful from the hierarchy but refers to the Church as a whole. Lavin aptly notes that this chapter discusses how the mystery of the Church which has earlier beeen discussed, has been lived out in human history.68 So while chapter one discusses what Komonchak describes as the great span of the Church from before creation in the mind of God until its fulfillment in heaven,69 chapter two discusses the unfolding of this plan in concrete terms within human history. This means that there is a conscious effort by the Fathers not to divorce the lived human experiences of the World from the mystical aspect of the Church. The visible aspect of human existence is finely intertwined with the spiritual core of our being, and the eschatological destiny of humanity. This part of the document acknowledges the common identity and equal dignity of each member of the Church.

It is worth stating that the image of the people of God as used in the Council is a Biblical concept. According to Vornier, “the term People of God is not just frequent in Christian literature, but primarily scriptural. It is used in the New Testament; it is used as frequently as the word ‘Church’ and fills every page of the Old Testament.70 This gives credence to the necessity of beginning any discussion on the People of God from Scripture. This is also given the fact that the whole goal of Vatican II was to try to re-root the doctrines and teachings of the Church back in Scripture. It was an attempt to go back to the source (ressourcement). So, beginning with the chosen people of Israel in the Old Testament, the Fathers trace the historical development of this designation of

66 Grillmeier, A. In Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 152. 67 Cf. Rahner, K, Vorgrimler, H, Op. Cit. 107. 68Cf. Lavin, M, OP. Cit. 37. 69 Cf. Komonchak, J. (1999). The Ecclesiology of Vatican II, essay delivered at the Catholic University of America, April 22nd, 1999. 2. 70 Cf. Vornier, A. (1952). The Collected Works of Abbot Vornier II, London, Burns & Oates. 137 22

People of God within Scripture.71 God first chose the people of Israel and established a covenant with them through Abraham, making them a holy people. They were to be God’s own ‘special’ people, apart from other nations around them, thereby giving the notion of election. All this was a way of preparation for the new covenant to be ratified by Christ Jesus. According to Grillmeier this demonstrates “the continuity and also the difference between the Old and New Testaments, between the constitution of the covenant and the fulfillment of the promise.”72 It also demonstrates the Church as communion which goes beyond the juridical understanding of Christ founding a Church at a point in history, but rather as God working in the history of salvation,73 which goes way before the New Testament and extends way beyond it. The Council Fathers put the accent primarily on the fact that there is a link between what they described as the “people of the new covenant” or “new people of God” signified by the Church, and the stock of Abraham or the Old covenant signified by Israel in the Old Testament. The new covenant receives a precious heritage from the old, which we cannot ignore or neglect, calling to mind that Christ reconciled Jews and Gentiles by his Cross.74 We should nevertheless avoid a one-sided understanding of this link that could lead to a false understanding of the designation of the new people of God. In other words, we should not reduce the New Testament understanding of ‘Church’ to the Old Testament understanding of the “People of God.” 75

Consequently, this has huge implications for ecumenism, different degrees of Church membership and the Church’s relation to those outside of it. Grillmeier notes that salvation takes the form of the constitution of a community. With the coming of Christ however, there is also a deeply inward and personal dimension to salvation on the basis of the outpouring of the Holy Spirit. This new community is not based on nationality, but on the covenant sealed by Christ’s sacrificial death and acceptance by the individual in faith by baptism and re-birth from the Spirit. This does not end at the individual level. Rather, this acceptance by the individual leads to sanctification, which makes this person a member of the new people and community of the baptized.76 So, this membership of the new people is not confined to any nation, culture or people, but open to all people who are willing to be saved. Also, participation in the sacramental life of the Church is essential for those who are part of this community. The document enlarges its understanding of the people of God beyond the Catholic faithful. This is because Christians not

71 Cf. Lavin, M, OP. Cit. 37. 72 Grillmeier, A. In Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 153. 73 Cf. Grillmeier, A. In Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 154. 74 Cf. Kloppenburg, B. Op. Cit. 41. 75 Cf. Grillmeier, A. In Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 154. 76 Ibid. 155 23 in communion with the Pope still share some sacraments and are baptized with faith in the Triune God. Article 16 of the document actually deals with non-Christians, seen in four groups: “Jews, Muslims, peoples who are ignorant of the God of Jewish-Christian revelation but still believe in a God of providence and judgement, and then atheist, or rather, those who profess themselves without religion but in reality seek and affirm absolute justice and peace, that is, absolute values.”77 This is based on the principle that Christ has redeemed all people and guide all to the Church.78 The Jewish people, Christians and Muslims adore the one God. Grillmeier further explains that “the belief in the one Creator, the God of mercy and the Judge, the fact that they share the revelation made to Abraham, unites Jews, Christians and Muslims.”79 Those seeking the unknown God can perceive his voice in their conscience and can do his will under the influence of his grace. Some others who inculpably fail to acknowledge God expressly but try to live good lives with the help of God’s grace, are also related to the people of God. So those who have not yet received the gospel are also related to the people of God. Whatever good they have is a preparation for the Gospel.80 The constitution primarily concerns itself here with showing that all relationships to God are orientated to his salvation and so are included in the people of God.81 The Council - while affirming that all the baptized, by virtue of their baptism, share in the threefold ministry of Christ as Priest, Prophet and King - also differentiates (in anticipation of the third chapter) between the ministerial and the common Priesthood. So even though we share in the Priesthood of Christ by virtue of our union with him, we do so in different ways.

2.1.2.3 A FAMILY WITH A HIERARCHICAL STRUCTURE In the third chapter of this document with 12 articles, the Council Fathers treat the Hierarchical Structure of the Church, especially the Episcopate. Lavin argues that “it contains the most important doctrinal affirmations in the constitution: namely, the sacramentality of episcopal consecration and the collegiality of bishops.”82 The Council’s continuity with tradition is reiterated as Lumen Gentium affirms the hierarchical constitution of the Church. The Council notes: This Sacred Council, following closely in the footsteps of the First Vatican Council, with that Council teaches and declares that Jesus Christ, the eternal Shepherd, established His holy Church, having sent forth the apostles as He

77 Grillmeier, A. In Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 182. 78 Ibid. 79 Grillmeier, A. In Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 183. 80 Cf. Lavin, M, OP. Cit. 38. 81 Cf. Grillmeier, A. In Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 183 – 184. 82 Lavin, M, Op. Cit. 39. 24

Himself had been sent by the Father; and He willed that their successors, namely the bishops, should be shepherds in His Church even to the consummation of the world. And in order that the episcopate itself might be one and undivided, He placed Blessed Peter over the other apostles, and instituted in him a permanent and visible source and foundation of unity of faith and communion. And all this teaching about the institution, the perpetuity, the meaning and reason for the sacred primacy of the Roman Pontiff and of his infallible magisterium, this Sacred Council again proposes to be firmly believed by all the faithful. (LG, 18)

The chapter begins with an introduction on the various ministries in the Church. The ministries referred to here are those which come from a sacred power, different from the charisms earlier stated in the chapter on the People of God. A distinction is here made between the terms ‘office’ and ‘power’, even though this distinction according to Rahner was not elaborated or fully explained.83 In the episcopal office, both are present. The ministries are based on a sacred power which is conferred by consecration. And the goal of these ministries is the attainment of salvation in the Church.84 The chapter then goes on to give a biblical foundation or origin of the existence of the college of Bishops. This origin is found in the College of the Apostles who were called by Christ - the twelve. This means that Christ is the origin of this college; a college which was permanent under one head (Peter) set forth by Christ himself. The Apostles were given a charge, as a way of participating in the power and mission of Christ on earth. They would be conferred with the Holy Spirit, not as an additional confirmation, but as another constitutive element of their office, power and mission. The Apostles in turn executed their mission of establishing the universal Church, even though Rahner notes that the text did not go into details as to how and to what extent each of the twelve contributed to this mission. He notes that the term “Apostles” was treated in general, and care was taken to avoid specifics as to what the term means and how it is used in scripture – on whether it is used strictly to refer to the Twelve or used generally to refer to all who were sent on mission by the historical Jesus.85 The major aim of the Council Fathers according to Rahner, was to establish the Biblical origin of the College of Bishops and Papal primacy by concentrating on the twelve Apostles and Peter, though Paul would be implicitly inserted later.86 This means that the attention was paid more to questions of Dogmatic foundations and relevance, than the question of historicity in the biblical explication of this teaching. The text

83 Cf. Rahner, K. In Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit.188. 84 Ibid. 85 Cf. Rahner, K. In Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit.190 – 191. 86 Ibid. 25

“not merely affirms, in effect, that the biblical office of Peter persists legitimately in the Roman primacy, and that of the Apostles (the Twelve) in the episcopate. It also presupposes, without any reserves, that in both cases the biblical origin and justification are the same.”87

The chapter in article 21 explicates the exact nature of the episcopate and its sacramental basis. Christ is present and active in the Bishop who is his minister. The Bishops’ service does not replace Christ but makes Christ’s activity in the Church sacramentally and historically tangible through being valid and fruitful. The validity and fruitfulness therefore come from the office, even though the fruitfulness is not guaranteed by the office alone. It should be noted that the active presence of Christ in the ministry of the Bishop is not exclusive to the Bishop. Christ only acts primarily through their ministry. Referring to the outpouring of the Holy Spirit on the Apostles at Pentecost, and the installation of office-bearers by the imposition of hands on them by the Apostles, the Council Fathers allude to a biblical basis for the sacramental nature of the episcopate. This is further confirmed from the liturgy and Tradition in the early Church. The effect of this sacrament is the grace of the Holy Spirit and the sacramental character (which enables the Bishop to represent Christ in a tangible and historical way), as well as the bestowal of the threefold office (to sanctify, to teach, and to govern). All these three powers are conferred by consecration. The theological implication of this is that no distinction is then clearly made between Titular and Auxiliary Bishops, and Diocesan Bishops. But because it treats the episcopate as a whole, it affirms that all belong to the college of Bishops. It also follows theologically that titular Bishops can take part in episcopal conferences as long as thy share in some way, the responsibility for the region in question.88 Rahner summarily explains that “the constitution teaches the unity of all official authority in the Church, its sacramental basis and its pneumatic nature, which extends to its legal powers.”89

On the issue of Collegiality or the College of Bishops, Rahner observes that it is one of the central themes of the whole council. It should be noted from the onset that the text of this constitution has been able to explicitly propound a doctrine never before so done by the extraordinary Magisterium.90 This does not mean however that the doctrine itself is entirely new. It simply means that it is the first time that this doctrine has been explicitly stated and comprehensively tackled. It eventually led to the insertion of a note (commonly known as nota Praevia) at the end

87 Ibid. 88 Cf. Rahner, K. In Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit.193 – 194. 89 Ibid. 90 Cf. Ibid. 26 of the document by the Theological Commission, at the behest of the Pontiff. This was aimed at providing further clarification on the meaning of ‘Collegial’, the importance of the “hierarchical communion”, and the relationship between the collegial authority of the Bishops and the primacy of the Pope.91 Now, since the dogma of Papal primacy had also been taught at Vatican I, there was a need to outline the doctrine of the status of the episcopate as a whole and its relationship to the Pope. What was the “bone of contention?” What were the possible misunderstandings? The objections to the eventual clarification of the teaching of collegiality was voiced by those who believed that the authority of the college of Bishops could endanger the primacy of the Pope and subordinate the pope to the college of Bishops. They viewed the college of Bishops as distinct from the Pope. These fears were addressed with arguments from historical, biblical and patristics lines.92 According to Philips, “it was not a matter of contrasting two rival powers, but of describing the organic union, unique in its kind, which links the supreme head of the church hierarchy with the bishops as a group.”93

The Fathers teach that there exists a College of bishops. This is also called the Body of Bishops or the Order of Bishops. This does not however mean that all members of this unity have exactly the same powers. As no further definition or explanation of college is given, it can be presupposed that its meaning is akin to that in ordinary language; it receives its concrete meaning from what is said about this college. Certainly, it is to be understood that this college precedes the individual Bishop. So, the power of the individual Bishop is gotten insofar as he is a member of the college, sharing in its power.94 The Bishop is incorporated into the college by legitimate consecration and his function both as an individual and a member of the college should be reciprocal to each other.

This presupposes that the college is to be made up most importantly of the heads of the local Churches. Lavin explains that “this college is not to be understood in a strictly juridical sense as a group of equals who entrust their power to a President, but a stable group whose structure and authority is to be deduced from revelation.95 This college is a continuation of the college of the Apostles in their function of ruling the Church. This college also has full authority in the Church and cannot be otherwise, since it derives its legitimacy and right from divine institution – Christ himself. Christ himself willed that his church should continue till the end of time and the

91 Lavin, M. Op. Cit. 41. 92 Cf. Philips, G. in Vorgrimler, H. Op.Cit. 113 - 115 93 Philips, G. in Vorgrimler, H. Op.Cit. 113 94 Cf. Rahner, K. In Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit.198. 95 Lavin, M. Op. Cit. 27

Apostolic college as a permanent group, be constituted and persist in the college of bishops. Another point to note is that this college exists only as long as the Pope is its head because this is seen as an essential element of its constitution and being. Without the Pope, it is only a mere number of Bishops. According to Rahner however, this only applies to the jurisdictional aspect. The Pontiff is not the only principal element of the unity of this college. The college, Rahner explains, has a unity in spirit, love faith and other manifestations of communion. He gives an example with the death of a Pope. When a Pope dies, the Church does not cease to be a unity. Rather, the Church still maintains its unity, with the obligation to give itself a new head.96 Rahner further notes, referring to the nota praevia, that “one may not distinguish between the bishops (as a college) and the Pope, but only between the college with the Pope as its head and the Pope alone. That is, insofar as the Pope has primatial powers and the capacity and the freedom to act even without any action on the part of the college which would be a strictly collegiate act. Also, the exercise of authority of the college must be done in a legally determined way (a collegiate act), and in cooperation with the Pope. His consent is not to be seen as superimposed from outside, but rather of intrinsic nature to the act itself. In other words, he acts in communion with his brothers the Bishops. This act can take place at an ecumenical council, but there is no need for the bishops to physically assemble, provided that the action or act is truly collegiate. 97

The fathers then go on in article 23 to discuss two subjects concerning individual bishops. First is the relationship of the individual Bishop to the whole church in a strictly collegial manner, and to his own and other local churches. Secondly, is what Rahner refers to as “the resulting actual or possible institutions of positive church law by which this relationship is realised in the concrete.”98 It should here be noted that the dioceses in this document are called “Churches.” The fathers note that each individual Bishop has real power of jurisdiction only over his own diocese, but in solidarity with the church each has to take care of the good of the whole church. The bishops have the obligation of defending the faith, of promoting unity amongst members of the church and to promote among the faithful the love of the whole church as well as suffering members, and to encourage common action throughout the whole church for missionary work. Bishops are encouraged to put priests in their dioceses at the disposal for work in missions. The Bishop’s authority in his diocese is the power, not just to rule, but most importantly to serve.99 The document then goes on to explain the teaching office of the Bishop in his diocese. The Bishop

96 Cf. Rahner, K. In Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit.199. 97 Cf. Rahner, K. In Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit.202 – 204. 98 Ibid. 99 Ibid. 28 is first of all a teacher, which also implies that he is to preach the word of God, he is a preacher of the word. The believer is also expected to obey the teachings of the Bishop - obedience given to the Bishop insofar as he teaches as a witness to the faith of the whole church and teaches the mind of the church bearing on matters of faith and morals.100 After the office of teaching comes the office of sanctification. According to the document, the Bishop is the real Priestly superior of the local communities in the diocese in all aspects of their sacramental life. It is his responsibility to see to the spiritual wellbeing of the faithful in his diocese and grant faculties to the priests for the administering of the sacraments. The third aspect of the episcopal function is the office of ruling. Rahner states that “it is the office whereby he is lawgiver, judge and guide of his diocese.”101 The Bishop rules in Christ’s name and it is his duty to engage in charitable works as well as encourage ecumenical and missionary endeavour.

Articles 28 and 29 of this constitution were dedicated to the offices of the priesthood and the diaconate. Many of the bishops wanted the initial draft of the texts on these offices expanded because they thought that the initial drafts were too short. The bishops believed that the priests play a conspicuous role in the way of the Lord and in the missionary work within the church. According to Rahner, the teaching on the priesthood was to be done under four basic headings: a) the relationship of the priest to Christ, b) to his Bishop, c) to his brothers in the ministry, d) to the faithful. Although the fathers of the council avoided the historical origins of the priesthood, they however noted that as early as the New Testament or the Apostolic age there had been the hierarchical tradition in the church whereby there were gradations and divisions of power in church authority. There was in the early church a conscious transfer and distribution or transmission of power within the structure of the church.102 This teaching of the council fathers is totally in line with the general idea or the general teaching of Lumen Gentium, and that is that the church is the people of God and so the office of the priesthood is intertwined with this general picture and idea of the church as the people of God. The fathers in explaining the relationship of the priest to Christ, start with the theological foundation, avoiding a strictly historical approach. It notes that the priesthood is a participation in the consecration of Christ Jesus himself and his mission to the world. Just like Christ who is the figure of the sacrament of the priesthood, the priest is chosen, set apart, and sanctified with special and corresponding grace to carry out his mission. The priest does not possess the highest degree of the priesthood, unlike the Bishop, but shares in this ministry. This also implies that the priests share in the threefold power of preaching,

100 Cf. Rahner, K. In Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 208. 101 Rahner, K. In Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 217. 102 Cf. Rahner, K. In Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 218 – 219. 29 sanctifying and ruling “in such a way that the consecrated priesthood is truly realized in them and their title of priest is used in no merely metaphorical sense.”103 This threefold act is rooted in sacramental ordination through which the priest is empowered. Within the Ministry of the Priesthood, the celebration of the eucharist is at the center. In this, the priest partakes in the unique mediation of Christ – from God to man and from man to God. All this is to be done in the spirit of service, just like with the episcopate. It is a service to the Church as the people of God.104

As to the relation of the priest to his bishop, the fathers teach that both orders form a single Priesthood which can also be seen from the point of view of the common priesthood of all the faithful. This is important because it continues the trend in this constitution of emphasizing the general picture of the people of God and how these specific offices fit into the structure of the faithful in the Church. It is the opinion of this work, that this triad of specific offices (Episcopate, Ministerial Priesthood and Diaconate) are all in service of the entire faithful and situated within the Family of the People of God. Lavin explains that the Priest is a collaborator with the Bishop,105 indicating as Rahner notes, “partnership as well as subordination.”106 The priest represents the Bishop, who is the Chief Pastor in the gatherings of the faithful in a Parish, thus fostering the relationship between the parish community, the diocese, and the church as a whole. The priest is also to work with his brothers in the ministry, a relationship which links them together by virtue of ordination. As to the faithful, the priest should note that his life is dedicated to the people of God. The priest is not only a father, but also a brother to the faithful, just as Christ by his incarnation became a brother to humanity.107 Bearing in mind that they are at the frontline of pastoral engagement with the faithful and others outside the Church, the priests should remember that they will always be responsible for the image the world has of the pastoral office and the Church.108

On the office of the deacon, the Fathers following the tradition of Trent and Pius XII, note that the diaconate is part of the hierarchy of the Church but at a lower level. It is part of the one whole office whose fullness is found in the episcopate.109 It is noteworthy that the council reinstated the diaconate to a proper and permanent rank of the hierarchy.110 So like the office of the Priest, the

103 Rahner, K. In Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 221. 104 Cf. Grillmeier, A. In Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 222 – 223. 105 Cf. Lavin, M. Op. Cit. 42. 106 Grillmeier, A. In Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 223. 107 Cf. Grillmeier, A. In Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 224 – 225. 108 Cf. Grillmeier, A. Op. Cit. 224. 109 Ibid. 227 110 Cf. Lavin, M. Op. Cit. 43. 30 diaconate exists in view of the whole assembly of the people of God, in communion with the Bishop and his Priests. It is very important therefore to state that in the mind of the fathers of Vatican II, “there is one full office in the Church, which serves the people of God in three different ways111 – the Episcopate, Priesthood, and Diaconate. This position gives a clear sacramental status to the office of the deacon. The text then goes on to outline the duties of the deacon as regards liturgy, the word, charitable works and administration – 10 different duties are outlined.112 It should also be noted that the council kept in mind the possibility of married men of solid character to serve in the Church as deacons.113

As stated earlier, the whole aim of this section of the Constitution is to explicate in clear terms the one office which operates at three different levels in the Church. This office exists mainly in service to the People of God and within its structure. This is why the chapter on the people of God comes first before the chapter on the hierarchy. It is now important to look at another constituent and very important part of the assembly of God’s people – the Laity.

2.1.2.4 THE LAITY Chapter four of the document speaks of the Laity in 9 articles. Lavin notes that no Ecumenical Council had earlier addressed the mission and role of the laity in the Church. The Fathers of Vatican II however, felt the need for this, based on the demands of the time.114 How so? Klostermann notes that the theological presentation of the Church as a mystery and the Church as the people of God (two complementary images of one and the same reality), inevitably also required a teaching on the Laity who are part of the people of God and make up the much greater majority of this body.115 The layperson as understood in this chapter, is a further specification of a wider and more general term like “Christian” or “believer”. “These terms (Christian or Believer) express the basic condition, the primal state, the common element, the most important aspect, indeed the very reason why there exists a divine plan for the human creature. It is in this common foundation on which all else rests, that the greatness, dignity, and newness brought by Christ properly reside.”116 Kloppenburg further explains that before someone is looked upon as either layperson or deacon or Priest or bishop or even pope, one should be considered first of all as a Christian or member of God’s people. The point in this statement is of great importance to this

111 Rahner, K. In Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 229. 112 Cf. Dogmatic Constitution on The Church Lumen Gentium, Op. Cit. 113 Cf. Vorgrimler, H. in Vorgrimler, H. Op.Cit. 230 114 Cf. Lavin, M. Op. Cit. 43 115 Cf. Klostermann, F. in Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 233 116 Kloppenburg, B. Op. Cit. 310 31 work, being that it posits that one of the core aims of the ecclesiology of Lumen gentium and Gaudium et spes, is the intended collective destiny of all people by God. The thrust of this teaching by the Council Fathers is that God has always willed to save the human race as “People”. This point shall be further elaborated in the section on Gaudium es spes. This part of the constitution, apart from ensuring that the place of the layperson in the Church is seen in due perspective, also brings to light the inner bond between the people as individual members of the new people of God and their office-bearers, as well as the fundamental equality of both as it concerns vocation, dignity, and commitment. So, the clergy is no longer considered as totally apart from the Laity.117 This explains why this chapter comes in fourth place and why those who make up the hierarchy are deliberately and consistently presented as servants of the people of God. They are not the owners of the Church nor are they masters to be served.118

Having noted the special status given to the layperson, the layperson is acknowledged to have certain gifts and charismata which are to be used to ensure the unity of the Church. So, the Pastors are not to take the whole responsibility of the Church alone, but rather shepherd, guide and nourish the gifts of the laity for the good of the community. The Document then goes to explain what is meant by “Laity”. The fathers had first given a generic element, which is the layperson as a member of the people of God.119 The Fathers then give a negative element by describing more, not who a layperson is, but who is not a layperson. A layperson is “one of Christ’s faithful who is neither a member of the clergy nor a religious as recognised by the Church.”120 Thirdly, the layperson has a specific and functional element which provides a basis for the lay mission in the World. The layperson has a secular character and quality. 121 This secular nature is considered by the Council as specially important for the layperson’s exercise of the threefold offices of Christ which is shared as a result of baptism, confirmation, and consecration into the common Priesthood of the people of God. This mission is carried out, not only in the world, but in the church as well. Clerics too can sometimes engage in secular professions. The council continues by giving the three sections of God’s people (Clergy, lay and religious) their underlying definition by their relation to the world.122 This speaks also to the aim of the council – to bring the Church closer to an engagement with secular society and emphasise the shared destiny of all people. Article 32 specifically maintains with clarity and force that all members of the Church are unified

117 Cf. Klostermann, F. in Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit.234. 118 Cf. Kloppenburg, B. Op. Cit. 310. 119 Ibid. 120 Cf. Klostermann, F. in Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 234. 121 Cf. Kloppenburg, B. Op. Cit. 313 122 Cf. Klostermann, F. In Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 237 - 238 32 in a special communion which consequently obliterates inequalities based on nationality, sex, race, or social position. In our different identities, there is a unifying identity – the body of Christ.123 The different charisma, ministries and works are for the unified body of Christ.

The mission of the layperson is not limited to bearing witness to Christ in secular society, but is also of a spiritual and liturgical nature in the Church. The layperson shares extensively, and participates actively in the Priestly, prophetic, and Royal offices of Christ. By their rebirth and by their anointing with the Holy Spirit at baptism is the layperson consecrated into a Holy priesthood. By being members of Christ’s body, the layperson continues the prophetic proclamation of the kingdom of Christ in family and daily social life. By sharing in the Royalty of God’s children, the layperson is called to help order the world and rid the world of sin in their various secular disciplines, thereby ensuring the reign of Christ here on earth.124 Finally the document also talks about laypeople cooperating in the apostolate pf the hierarchy. “Here laymen take over apostolic work and responsibilities which in themselves belong to the hierarchy, but which can be entrusted to laymen because neither the power of order nor the power of jurisdiction is required.”125 There is no doubt that this document (even though it has not been totally successful) significantly involved the Laity in the activities of the Church; and this has helped increase lay participation in the Ecclesiastical, liturgical and Prophetic life and mission of the Church.

2.1.2.5 WE ARE CALLED TO HOLINESS OF LIFE Chapters 5 and 6 of this constitution essentially form one whole. The call to Holiness which encompasses every member of the people of God is also for the specific admonition to holiness for religious and all those in the consecrated life. This is so because the fathers of Vatican II ensured that no unnecessary dichotomy is made between the Clergy/ Religious, and the Laity. In other words, all are called to holiness, but there are different ways to reach this holiness. Friedrich Wulf acknowledges that two ways of salvation have always been accepted in the Church: following the ten commandments and living out the evangelical counsels, with the lay faithful admonished to live the former and the monks and virgins dedicated more to living the latter. The latter has been seen as a fuller Christian way of living than the former for a long time. But the council sought to place both at the service of the people of God, owing to the Church’s new

123 Ibid. 124 Cf. Kloppenburg, B. Op. Cit. 315 - 328 125 Ibid. 33 attitude towards the world in which it exists.126 They were initially one chapter titled “The States of Evangelical Perfection to be Acquired”. But after objections from some Bishops that the religious life was being ignored, another chapter was created to deal specifically with that topic.127 It was deemed in order by the Council Fathers to first discuss the two basic states of life in the Church and afterwards the religious state, which is theologically speaking, part of the Church’s charismatic life.128 The sense here is that both chapters 5 and 6 form one organic theological unity, but emphasises the different ways in which this holiness can be achieved. So this work will focus generally on the call to live out Holiness, which is the main theme of both chapters.

Chapter V seeks to establish a link between the image of the Church as a saintly community, and the task before every member of this community to actually strive for that perfection which the Church mirrors. It sets out from the beginning to acknowledge the holiness of the Church in article 39. This holiness is does not come from moral perfection or heroic virtue, but from the love of God who willed to save us all – so essentially only God is holy. The Church as a holy entity shares in this holiness through Christ who descended in human form to show us the holiness of the Father. This speaks to the teaching on the Church as a sacrament of Christ. So, our holiness is sharing in the holiness of Jesus Christ in the Holy Spirit.129 However, we receive this holiness only through the Church which is the community of God’s people. Wulf notes that the “Church is something antecedent to the individual, pre-existent in God’s eternal election and predestination, in a sense, a personal being. Yet she is also the concrete, historical people of God.”130 This explanation echoes the earlier stated teaching on the Church as invisible mystery from the beginning, and the Church as visible sacrament in time and history. This Church is constantly purified by God through the sacraments. The Church in turn sanctifies her members as the sacrament of Christ. The direct ethical consequence of this reality is the need for the individual to strive for holiness, based on our Lord’s command to us all to strive to be holy. In the Church, we are introduced into this life of holiness through faith and baptism, and sustained by the grace of God.131 The effects of this holiness are: promotion of a more humane society here on earth, and the abundance of good within the Church.

126 Cf. Wulf, F. In Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 254 - 259 127 Lavin, M. Op. Cit. 45 128 Cf. Wulf, F. In Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 253. 129 Cf. Wulf, F. In Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 263. 130 Wulf, F. In Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 264 131 Cf. Wulf, F. In Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 263. 34

The text then goes on to enumerate the various ways this holiness can be lived out according to one’s life circumstance, the special gifts and graces one has received, and within the two states of clerical and lay. Despite these various ways, we all have a single goal to holiness. Christian holiness is thus summarily described as the effect of divine grace and human response to this grace. The text goes on to note that love is the first grace and gift we should respond to. It is the bedrock of the Christian way of life. Other graces and gifts are virginity or celibacy, poverty, humility and obedience all pertaining to priestly and religious life. All Christians are then called to observe and live in the spirit of the counsels.132 This chapter succeeds in drawing up a very good foundational teaching on the dynamism of the Christian life (which fully includes the laity), and how charismatic we can be as a Church or the people of God.

2.1.2.6 RESUMÉ OF LUMEN GENTIUM Despite the seeming lack of clarity of some statements and teachings of this document, we must be thankful to the Fathers of this council for the desire and courage to embark on a project to redescribe the Church. As Alberigo notes, this constitution “generally represented a clear step forward with respect to both the decisions of Vatican I and the increased rigidity of the Papal magisterium in the decades following it. Contrary to what had been foreseen, the council Fathers were not content simply to place recognition of the rights of the bishops beside the prerogative of the Pope. Not limiting itself to the legal-institutional dimension, the document’s great spiritual and theological dynamism brought forth an image of the Church as a mystery, while respecting this living body that is continually growing under the impulse of the Holy Spirit. The distinction made between the kingdom of God and the Church, and between the one Church of Christ and the different ecclesial traditions, overcame the complacency from which a large part of anti- reformist theology had suffered during past centuries.”133 This was an impressive first step and set the tone for a better understanding of the Church, especially for, with and by the Laity.

2.2 GAUDIUM ET SPES

Pope John XXIII sensed that the time was past when the Church could afford to confine its attention exclusively to itself. This was a new challenge for a Church that had previously addressed itself only to its own faithful. Thus, Gaudium et Spes, Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World, was an entirely new type of document. The major challenge facing

132 Ibid. 133 Alberigo, G. Op. Cit. 85. 35 the Council now was to work from within the Catholic Tradition in a way that could speak to contemporary humanity.134 So inaugurating the second period of the Council’s work on September 29, 1963, Paul VI indicated four objectives: the expression of the Church’s theology, its interior renewal, the promotion of Christian unity, and the dialogue with the contemporary world.135 Gaudium et Spes became the product of the fourth objective. This was also the only document for which the Council Fathers had no prior preparation, but it grew out of the process of the council itself.136

Another distinguishing characteristic of this document is that it was the only document drafted in a modern language. While all of the other documents were drafted in Latin, this one was drafted in French. “The rationale for drafting it in French is that modern thought could be clearly expressed only in a modern language. It was thus the only document translated and circulated to the bishops in the modern languages of French, English, German, Spanish and Italian. As was usual however, the final document was promulgated in Latin.”137

2.2.1 BACKGROUND Norman Tanner states that Gaudium et Spes “emerged only gradually from the womb of the Council.”138 He further notes that “neither the vota nor the draft decrees […] in the published Acta of the Council showed much anticipation of the eventual format of Gaudium et Spes”.139 Though there was consensus on the need for the Church to engage the World, there was clear difference on what approach should be adopted and from what perspective. “The responses of those who emerged as the conservative minority in the council showed plenty of concern for the contemporary world, but their approach was largely to lament and condemn recent developments, such as the rise of communism or the loss of the church’s influence in political and social affairs. On the other hand, the replies of many of those who emerged as the progressive majority saw reform of the church as the key, so the dynamic advocated was that a Reformed Church would be better able to confront the contemporary world, rather than that the Church (or the council, or Christians more generally) should listen to what the world of the time (including the non-catholic and non-christian world) was saying and doing, whether for good or for evil. ”140 One of the

134 Cf. Lavin, M. Op. Cit. 57 135 Cf. Alberigo, G. Op.Cit. 43 136 Cf. Lavin, M. Op. Cit. 57 137 Lavin, M. Op. Cit. 58 138 Tanner, N. (2005). Rediscovering Vatican II, The Church and The World: Gaudium et Spes, Inter Mirifica, New York, Paulist Press. 3 139 Ibid. 140 Tanner, N. Op. Cit. 4 36 factors that influenced the document was Pope John’s encyclical on catholic social teaching Mater et Magistra, which was promulgated in May 1961, the seventieth anniversary of Pope Leo XIII’s social encyclical, Rerum Novarum. “Though Mater et Magistra was essentially still traditional in that it maintained many traditional formulations, it had new ideas and approaches. Its method was more inductive than deductive, taking as a starting point concrete and current issues rather than a code of somewhat abstract principles. It spoke of some social issues which would later be treated in Gaudium et Spes, including issues like colonialism and economic development, issues especially relevant to the so-called third World.” 141

At the first period of the council (October 11 – December 8, 1962), 70 decrees were presented by the preparatory commission and rejected by a majority of the Council. The decrees were later reduced to 20, and then in January 1963 after the end of the first period, to 17. The last of these 17 (therefore known for a long time as schema XVII) was entitled “The Presence of The Church in The Modern World.” This was the decree that later developed into Gaudium et Spes. Though work was done on Schema XVII during the intermission (the period between the end of the first session and the second session), it was far from satisfactory. One difficulty arose as a result of the very many issues the Document would address.142 Within this time also, John XXIII published his last encyclical Pacem In Terris, “in which he urged peace among nations on earth based on justice, truth, charity and freedom. Addressed to all peoples, it called for an end to the Arms race, a ban on nuclear weapons and eventual disarmament in the face of the threat of nuclear catastrophe. This message resounded and was widely lauded. This would later influence the content and style of Gaudium et Spes.”143 The pope died soon after this encyclical was published. Paul VI succeeded John XXIII in June 1963 and according to Tanner, his interest was more on Lumen Gentium. It was only in November 1963 when it was clear that there would be a third session of the council that interest in Schema XVII arose again. When debates resumed, there was a divide between those who preferred a theological approach, chiefly represented by the Jesuit Karl Rahner (for the German Theologians), and those who wanted a more sociological approach, chiefly represented by the Dominican Yves Congar (for the French Theologians). It was the latter that would eventually prevail to a larger extent.144

141 Tanner, N. Op. Cit. 6 142 Cf. Tanner, N. Op. Cit. 143 Ibid. 8 144 Ibid. 9 - 10 37

Following a reordering of planned decrees, Schema XVII became to be known as Schema XIII. This would become the centrepiece of the third session which lasted from September 14 to November 24, 1964. In the meantime, the very existence of Gaudium et Spes as a decree of the Council appeared to be threatened. Apart from the dislike of and tension over the contents of the decree, there was a feeling that discussions on it would take up a lot of time that it would be impossible to conclude before the end of the third session thereby warranting another session. This opposition was led by Archbishop Felici, the Secretary-General of the Council, who had much influence over the council’s agenda. But this further strengthened the resolve of the proponents of the Schema, who were in the majority. When discussion resumed on the document, it occupied a lot of time. Tanner notes that altogether nearly 200 speeches were made, and the same number of statements submitted.145 Almost all the speakers eventually seemed to accept the importance of what was being discussed. Basically, every region of the World had an input to make in the final document. It was promulgated by Pope Paul VI on December 7, 1965, the day before the Council ended.146

Without denying the Church’s fundamentally supernatural mission, the Council Fathers made clear that the Church also has much to offer to the temporal world, and that Catholics share certain moral aspirations in common with other men of good will. This constitution is divided into 2 major parts. “The introduction and part one with the condition of humanity in the contemporary world, the dignity of the human person, human activity in the world, and the role of the church in the world. The second part addresses world issues of special urgency: marriage and family, the proper development of culture, economic and social life, the political community, and the fostering of peace and the establishment of the community of nations.”147 This work will draw out major teams from the whole constitution that addresses the theme of this work.148

2.2.2 THE ECCLESIOLOGY OF GAUDIUM ET SPES The preface and Introductory Statement of the council Fathers set the tone for the ecclesiology of the whole document and introduces the theme that would dominate post-conciliar developments as regards the human society and option for the poor: The Dignity of Every Human.149 From these opening words also, the Council sets a tone of balance between positive

145 Ibid. 10 - 16 146 Ibid. 147 Lavin, M. Op. Cit. 148 Cf. Lavin, M. Op. Cit. 59 149 Lavin, M. Op. Cit 62 38 and negative aspects of our World and a clear purpose for solidarity between the Church and the earthly World in which she exists: The joys and the hopes, the griefs and the anxieties of the men of this age, especially those who are poor or in any way afflicted, these are the joys and hopes, the griefs and anxieties of the followers of Christ. Indeed, nothing genuinely human fails to raise an echo in their hearts. For theirs is a community composed of men. United in Christ, they are led by the Holy Spirit in their journey to the Kingdom of their Father and they have welcomed the news of salvation which is meant for every man. That is why this community realizes that it is truly linked with mankind and its history by the deepest of bonds. (GS. 1)

2.2.2.1 EVERY PERSON HAS DIGNITY IN THE COMMUNITY OF MANKIND The Ecclesiology of Gaudium et Spes is primarily anthropocentric. This is grounded in the Christian belief that humanity was created by God, and that each person is created in God’s image. This means that the human person and humanity as a whole is at the center of the Church’s concern, and this reality stems from man’s source in God from where we derive our inherent human dignity. Ratzinger notes that this anthropocentrism, which determines the whole theological conception of the text, probably represents its most characteristic option.150 According to Kavunkal, Gaudium et Spes “above all, offers a challenging vision of the human person, irrespective of race, gender, religion; and emphasises the bonds of connectedness that Christians have with the rest of humanity. The vibrant vision of Christian anthropology makes the Church to take every person with due respect. The chapter starts off with the statement that humans are created in God’s image, emphasizing the goodness of humanity and of all creation with the underlying principle of communion and responsibility to creation.”151 The Fathers say: For Sacred Scripture teaches that man was created “to the image of God,” is capable of knowing and loving his Creator, and was appointed by Him as master of all earthly creatures that he might subdue them and use them to God’s glory. “What is man that you should care for him? You have made him little less than the angels, and crowned him with glory and honour. You have given him rule over the works of your hands, putting all things under his feet.” (GS, 12) From its very beginning, it situates the crux of its teaching on the inherent dignity of the human person, who is not just a member of the ecclesial body, but a member of the universal human

150 Cf. Ratzinger, J. in Vorgrimler, H. (Ed). (1969). Commentary on The Documents Of Vatican II, Volume 5. New York. Herder & Herder. 117 151 Kavunkal, J. Op. Cit. 119. 39 community. All things on earth are related to man as their center and peak. That is to say, all the earth’s resources are under the stewardship of man.152 Ratzinger is quite explicit in his thoughts as he notes: “Then it is said even more explicitly that the Council’s pronouncements will show that the Church’s mission is religious and by that very fact supremely human in character. What is to be demonstrated, therefore, is that precisely by Christian faith in God, true humanism, i.e man’s full development as man, is attained, and that consequently the idea of humanism which present-day atheism opposes to faith can serve as the hinge of the discussion and a means of dialogue… The whole Pastoral Constitution might therefore be described in this light as a discussion between Christian and unbeliever on the question who and what man really is.”153

This sets in place the starting point of the Council’s teaching on the human person (and by extension - the People of God) in the Modern World - The dignity of the Human Person. For Lavin, in order to create a new world order and a new humanity, there has to be dialogue within the whole human Family. Such dialogue demands a common starting point. In identifying this starting point, the Council begins with a discussion of the dignity of every human person.154 What is more fundamental than our common humanity? We are the crowning gem of God’s creation.

But as an essential theme in the biblical doctrine of man, the Council Fathers briefly treat the reality of sin as a dent to this dignity in article 13. Although the fathers do not treat the problem of original sin comprehensively, they acknowledge that the general sinfulness of humanity is evident within human history, in human experience. This is important because to speak to the theological anthropology of this document the connection between human experience and faith is repeatedly highlighted by the council fathers. In this case, it is the drama between man and God, the creator, as it regards man’s revolt through sin. According to Ratzinger, “the linking of experience with faith, or the insight that faith provides the key to the meaning of our human experience, is of course a presupposition of dialogue between faith and unbelief. Only if faith throws light on experience and proves to be the answer to our experiences, can talk about man's humanity lead to talk about God and with God.”155 Christ has triumphed over sin and this gives the human person as body and soul great dignity. So, the council fathers maintain in article 14

152 Cf. Lavin. M. Op. Cit. 64. 153 Ratzinger, J. in Vorgrimler, H. Op. Cit. 118. 154 Cf. Lavin, M. Op. Cit. 155 Ratzinger, J. in Vorgrimler, H. Op. Cit.126. 40 that man as both body and soul (each not separate from the other) has an inseparable corporeal- spiritual unity. Therefore, man’s body should seek to glorify God and not itself, for the body can either be a means of adoration or an instrument of rebellion.156

Articles 15 to 17 continue with the theme of man as the center of God’s redemptive work and the meaning of human spirituality in relation to God by treating three aspects: intellect, conscience, and freedom. The intellect is a participation in the light of the divine mind. Acknowledging the advances of modern science, the human person should also know that science is only one aspect of the human mind which does not exhaust its capacity. It should be guided and humanized by wisdom, for not all scientific advances are necessarily humane.157 This then introduces the need for the human person to be formed by conscience***. Ratzinger notes that “since Newman and Kierkegaard, conscience has occupied with new urgency the centre of Christian anthropology.”158 The council fathers highlight the theme of conscience, attributing to it a transcendental character with God as its source.159 The dignity of the person allows for freedom of conscience. This opposes the ideological error that human dignity consists in freedom from all restraint. On the contrary, such a position could distort the essence of the human person. Conscience is also non- arbitrary and objective, capable of producing objective norms for moral actions and disclosing the fundamental values of human existence. And even when conscience errs, it does not lose its dignity.160 So the fathers also note that the need for freedom of choice is intertwined with conscience. As a free being, a person must make decisions free from either external coercion or the compulsion of instinct. The fathers beautifully summarise it thus: In fidelity to conscience, Christians are joined with the rest of men in the search for truth, and for the genuine solution to the numerous problems which arise in the life of individuals from social relationships. Hence the more right conscience holds sway, the more persons and groups turn aside from blind choice and strive to be guided by the objective norms of morality. Conscience frequently errs from invincible ignorance without losing its dignity. The same cannot be said for a man who cares but little for truth and goodness, or for a conscience which by degrees grows practically sightless as a result of habitual sin. (GS, 16)

156 Cf. Ratzinger, J. in Vorgrimler, H. Op. Cit. 126 – 130. 157 Cf. Ratzinger, J. in Vorgrimler, H. Op. Cit. 130 – 134. 158 Ratzinger, J. in Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 134. 159 Ibid. 160 Ratzinger, J. in Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 135 - 136 41

The Fathers would address the challenge of atheism in its various forms and what the Church’s response should be. It is interesting that in article 21 the council, while saying No to atheism as a position, it acknowledges that atheism should be allowed to question the Church. This is because it could help the Church understand its own message better. For atheism would not have gained such a grip on many people if it did not stem from a human question, human experience and the dissatisfaction of many with Christian preaching in the form it actually assumed. This point stays faithful to the desire of the fathers of the council to relate the message of the church to human experience.161 Christ becomes the answer to these questions and the question of being human. Ratzinger notes that the document in article 22 would now return to the point made in article 12 of Christ being the true image of God and man finding meaning to the questions of human experience only through Christ.162 So the document goes further to a Christocentric approach by situating the mystery of man within the mystery of the incarnation and the salvation in Christ. Xavier describes this as a “Christological anthropology”.163 Christ is seen as the new Adam that renews humanity and the key to the human riddle, bringing new status to man. Christ is the eschatological Adam to whom the old Adam points. This Christ-Adam dialectic is aimed at establishing a basis for the Christocentric anthropocentrism which the Fathers attempt to explain in this document.164 This opens up a whole new possibility in the attempt of the Church to dialogue with the world, even as it concerns non-believers. For Ratzinger notes that “The attempt to pursue discussion with non-believers on the basis of the idea of humanitas, here culminates in the endeavour to interpret human being Christologically and so attain the resolutio in theologiam which, it is true, also means resolutio in hominem (provided the sense of homo is understood deeply enough). We are probably justified in saying that here for the first time in an official document of the Magisterium, a new type of completely Christocentric theology appears. On the basis of Christ this dares to present theology as anthropology and only becomes radically theological by including man in discourse about God by way of Christ, thus manifesting the deepest unity of theology. The generally theologically reserved text of the Pastoral Constitution here attains very lofty heights and points the way to theological reflection in our present situation.”165

161 Ratzinger, J. in Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 147 - 151 162 Ratzinger, J. in Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 159 - 16 163 Cf. Xavier, J. (2010). Theological Anthropology of "Gaudium et Spes" and Fundamental theology, Gregorianum, 91(1), 124-136, 130. 164 Ibid. 165 Ratzinger, J. in Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 159. 42

2.2.2.2 THE HUMAN COMMUNITY AND HUMAN ACTIVITIES IN THE WORLD The second and third chapters of the first part of the document take up the human person in relation to other humans and the human person in relation to human activities in the world. This is important since the human person develops in encounter with community. The document notes the importance of technology in bringing people closer to each other, stating that this technology should be used in the service of humanity. Three features of human life are discussed in relation to each other, forming a theological basis for the theme of this chapter. There is the vertical dimension of man’s existence showing that we are all made in the image of God, forming a community in God’s sight. Then there is the horizontal dimension which naturally flows from the vertical. It notes that as a community, we have relations with each other and are called to love the other, for there is no separation between love of God and love of neighbour. The third aspect combines the unity of love of God and of neighbour.166 The document notes that this thinking “stands in the forefront of the biblical account of man’s creation, for immediately after the statement that God created man to his image and likeness there follows the statement: man and woman he created them. This is intended to stress that different though men and women are, they are both in God’s image. Consequently, no other difference*** racial, national, individual or religious can destroy this fundamental community of likeness to God. At the same time, it is implied that all have a common goal. That may at first sight seem a parallel equality, but there derives from it an essential community which links people together in a family and demands a fraternal spirit between them.”167

Gaudium et Spes finds its model for community in the biblical foundation of the Trinity. The document states: Indeed, the Lord Jesus, when He prayed to the Father, “that all may be one … as we are one” (John 17:21-22) opened up vistas closed to human reason, for He implied a certain likeness between the union of the divine Persons, and the unity of God’s sons in truth and charity. This likeness reveals that man, who is the only creature on earth which God willed for itself, cannot fully find himself except through a sincere gift of himself. (GS, 24)

166 Semmelroth, O. in Vorgrimler, H. Op. Cit. 166. 167 Ibid. 43

Like the mutual union in of the Trinity, every human being should respect every other person, as one would respect self. Also, “whatever is opposed to life itself, whatever violates the dignity of the human person, whatever insults human dignity poisons society and dishonours the creator.”168 From the Biblical foundation and implication of the Trinitarian union, the document then outlines the social principles of the human community in the concern for the common good. This is extended into the arena of human activity in the world.

Human activity in the world is a topic of necessity. This is because the community of the people of God which is the church is made up of human beings who engage in human activities in the world, the real world. The third chapter of the document attributes this discussion on human activity to two factors: first is humans’ efforts to master the universe through scientific enterprise, thoughts and technical skill, and secondly by the fact of socialization - the fact that man in spite of his mastery of the world has to use this in social society to interact with each other.169 Humanity is evolving in knowledge of the world, and consequently, society is changing and developing. This development brings certain questions: “what values are inherent in this development? In what direction is it leading? How can it continue to serve the well-being of the human person and of human society?”170 This is where the church has something to give. It is important to note that the church in this document does not claim to know all or much about specific scientific and technical aspects of human activity, rather the Fathers made an honest attempt to combine the lights of revelation through the church with universal human knowledge and experience. The belief in the creation of the world provides the first take off point for the teaching of the fathers on this issue. The creation of the world has been the divine plan of God. This plan by God assigns to humans a double vocation. Humans, created in God's image and likeness have to take care of creation in dominion, justice and in holiness and also take care of one another within society. This subjection of created things to human beings is actually a recognition of the glory of God in creation. This really means that in recognizing creation and the need for man to act within creation, we also recognize the creator himself who is God who created the world through the ‘Word’ who is Christ (thereby giving it a Christological element). So human beings and their activities in the world do not stand in rivalry or in opposition to God. The council fathers however caution that advancements in human activity should not endanger social relationships. The

168 Lavin, M. Op. Cit. 66. 169 Cf. Auer, A. in Vorgrimler, H. Op. Cit.185. 170 Ibid. 44 advancement of technical command of matter should be commensurate to the advancement of social relationships in human society.171

In article 36 of the document the council fathers deliberately emphasized the autonomy of various aspects of secular life. This is of great significance because it acknowledges the intrinsic value of things in the world and human activity. “The theological interpretation regards this autonomy as based on the ‘Word’ of creation. Because the world was created through the ‘Word’, all things are endowed with their own ontological consistence, truth, goodness, their own laws and orderly structure.”172

While article 37 acknowledges that human activity has been infected by sin and by the failing of humans to properly take care of creation, article 38 teaches that human activity in spite of sin, can find perfection and redemption in the paschal mystery. How so? The council fathers situate this theologically in the ability of human activity to partner with the divine will of God the creator. By a partnership with the Creator, humans have the capacity to tackle the problems created by sin. Auer notes that this partnership with God in the building up of the human society is also a building of the body of Christ. Article 38 specifically situates this partnership within the context of the incarnation. Christ who is the incarnate son of God comes down to earth in creation to share in our humanity, in our human activity and in redeeming and saving the world. This saving work of Christ finds perfection in the resurrection. Article 39 of the document then teaches that human activity will find its eschatological perfection at the end of time, the final state of humanity.173

Auer declares that credit should be given to the fathers of the council for paying attention to specific spheres of human activity in this document. The teaching or the attempt to theologically give foundation and significance to human activities within society or within social context should also be lauded. The church in this document has also taken a humble stand in trying to engage the world in which it exists. These are the positives that should be taken from this part of the document. The consequence of the teachings of the fathers in this part of the document is to bring the Church closer to secular society. It has also succeeded in giving a higher place to human activity and not diminishing its significance for Christians in the world. This is a strong case for the anthropocentric character of this document, which speaks directly to the aims of the Council.

171 Cf. Auer, A. in Vorgrimler, H. Op. Cit. 188 – 190. 172 Ibid. 173 Cf. Auer, A. in Vorgrimler, H. Op. Cit. 194 – 197. 45

This is achieved by giving a Christocentric basis to human activity which is a very salient point in the teachings of this document and plays properly into the central thematic principle of Gaudium et Spes – which is to “present to the modern audience an authentic vision of the human person understood in light of the mystery of Christ, with an emphasis on common human experience as it points toward our need and capacity for redemption.”174 In other words, we can properly understand our humanity only through Christ. Christ is the model for what we should aspire to – to be fully human. So what is the role of the Church in this human societal drama?

2.2.2.3 THE CHURCH HAS A ROLE TO PLAY In chapter 4 of the Document, the council Fathers clearly outline the role of the Church in today’s World. According to Lavin in referring to the document, “the Church and the world are mutually related. What has been said about the dignity of the human person lays the foundation for this mutual relationship and provides the basis for the dialogue between them. The Church acknowledges the good to be found in the social dynamism of the world, especially in progress toward unity, health, socialisation, and civil and economic cooperation. This encouragement of unity is in harmony with the deepest mission of the Church as a sacrament - a sign, that is, of communion with God and the unity of the entire human race.”175 Yves Congar explains further that although the primary task of the Church as it concerns the World is to convert it to the Gospel and make the people become members of the people of God (as noted in Lumen Gentium), there is another aspect of this mission as it concerns the world – “namely the function it exercises in the world and for the world in the latter’s own structures and activities, but leaving the world as world in its order.” 176

The foundation of the second function of the Church according to Congar is both theological and Christological. Referring to the Old Testament, he notes that God’s intervention in the world stems from him creating the world. In the New Testament, especially in the Pauline writings, sovereignty is attributed to Christ who is the head both of the Church and all things.177 … Coming forth from the eternal Father's love, founded in time by Christ the Redeemer and made one in the Holy Spirit, the Church has a saving and an eschatological purpose which can be fully attained only in the future world. But

174 White, T. J. in Lamb, M. L. & Levering, M. eds. (2017). The Reception of Vatican II, New York, Oxford University Press. 115. 175 Lavin, M. Op. Cit. 67. 176 Congar, Y. in Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 203 -204. 177 Ibid. 205. 46

she is already present in this world, and is composed of men, that is, of members of the earthly city who have a call to form the family of God's children during the present history of the human race, and to keep increasing it until the Lord returns… (GS, 40)

Congar continues to analyze, “What then is the basis for the relations between the Church and the World? The basis is man (humanity), the fact that Christianity concerns man and that the articles of faith affect him. This fact is actually made clear from the start. The Church is inserted into the history of men because it is formed of men; therefore the world is both the scene of human history and the realisation of God’s saving plan. It is a matter of saving man; man asks himself the question to which the gospel has an answer; faith then throws light on man’s destiny. Because Christianity concerns man, it has, taken all in all, the same material to work on and the same goal as the world: to make man’s future a success. But there is something in man that transcends what is merely earthly; this is what the Pastoral Constitution understands as man’s integral vocation, and this something declares its presence even on the plane of observable facts. Thus, humanity proves to be religious, just as religion proves to be human.”178 It is on this subject- matter, represented by man himself, that the Pastoral Constitution bases what it has to say about the task of the Church in the World of today. The Church is tasked with the responsibility of bringing humanity to a better understanding of the mystery of God, since man is made of body and spirit. The anthropocentrism which the council seeks to give a theological foundation is the basic principle for this engagement. The church seeks to give human activity and humanity ultimate meaning. This meaning can only be found in the mystery of God. And it is the task of the church to proclaim and teach this mystery.

Congar explains that the fourth chapter of this document is structured in a very simple way: While Article 40 connects it to the previous parts, articles 41-43 take up themes that have been treated in chapters 1-III, but now wonders what the church could contribute to the world in these matters. Article 44 highlights a very unprecedented and important viewpoint of the fathers of the council. This viewpoint is the acceptance and teaching that the church also receives something from the world. The church receives from the world the advance of sciences, the various forms of human culture and the language through which the church can engage in these cultures. The Church also receives from the world the structures already laid down in social society that enables its work for peace in the world. The council even admits that it stands to learn from the opposition it faces

178 Congar, Y. in Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 207. 47 in the world which is not always negative.179 This marks a very significant and pivotal point in the church’s attempt to engage the world. The council's humbling admittance that the church has something to learn from the world gives a message not just of humility, but also of hope. Part one of the document ends with article 45 which gives a Christological angle to the need for the church’s engagement with the world. This is obviously a thread that runs through the document. Congar notes that alluding to Lumen Gentium 1, 8, 15, and 17, the council teaches that since Christ is the sacrament of God made visible in human form, the Church as the Sacrament of Christ in the World has the character of Christ to lead the World to its ultimate goal. The Church has the duty of serving this plan.

In its mutual relationship with the world which has been established, the Fathers of the Council go on to show the Church’s commitment to collaborating with humanity in addressing some of the urgent problems the world faces. This is clearly in line with the wish of the Council in recognsing the signs of the times and addressing specific human issues, as already stated in number 4 of this constitution: To carry out such a task, the Church has always had the duty of scrutinizing the signs of the times and of interpreting them in the light of the Gospel. Thus, in language intelligible to each generation, she can respond to the perennial questions which men ask about this present life and the life to come, and about the relationship of the one to the other. We must therefore recognize and understand the world in which we live, its explanations, its longings, and its often dramatic characteristics. Some of the main features of the modern world can be sketched as follows. (GS, 4)

In identifying these problems, the document discusses marriage and family, the development of culture, economic and social life, the political community, and the fostering of peace together with the establishment of a community of nations. However, this work will concentrate on the issues of culture, social life, the political community and the fostering of peace - issues that bear directly on the topic.

179 Ibid. 48

2.2.2.4 MARRIAGE AND THE FAMILY Marriage and Family are for the Council Fathers important for personal well-being, human society and the Christian community; a fact that forms a link between Christians and non- Christians. It is a community of love which is “ordained for the procreation and education of children and find[s] in them their ultimate crown” (GS 48). As “God Himself is the author of matrimony, endowed as it is with various benefits and purposes”, marriage and family have high dignity. This is obscured by divorce, polygamy, so-called free love and other disfigurements (cf. GS 47). So, it becomes important to defend and foster the dignity of marriage and its sacred value. In article 48 the documents stresses love as the essence of Marriage and the meaning of the matrimonial consent. The blessings, purposes and properties of marriage are all grounded on the intrinsic nature of this love. The conjugal nature of love is described by the document in a way that is accessible to all people irrespective of religious conviction or affiliation. It then takes a specifical Christian element by making reference to the covenant of love between Christ and the Church.180 Related to the conjugal love between the married couple is personal sanctification and the proper fulfilment of their vocation as Parents.181 Thus, the solidarity between parents and children is mutual.

In article 49, the document deliberately teaches conjugal love as the first end of marriage, and then the procreation (as against the older teaching that dealt first with procreation) – noting that marriage and marital love are “essentially and intrinsically ordained to the creation of life.”182 Responsible parenthood is treated in article 50. The Fathers first begin by teaching that marriage and married life regarded as a whole are essentially and intrinsically ordained to the creation of life. Responsible parenthood is not an abandonment to chance or the functioning of biological laws. It is rather the responsibility of making conscientious decisions based on trust in God's Providence and on given facts, by adopting an attitude of response to the gifts of God and the risk of their decisions. The other side of responsible Parenthood is also ensuring that procreation does not contribute to population problems (overpopulation). Demographic problems of under- population and over-population arise from the lack of capable people or too many people who lack appropriate training and education. So the married people themselves have to make decision in clear Christian conscience. An emphasis on education and collaboration among married people is made in article 52. The document also highlights the need for the father’s presence in the home as well as the legitimate social progress of women. Still on the social aspect, “the family must be

180 Cf. Häring, B. in Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 228 - 235 181 Ibid. 182 Häring, B. in Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 241 49 conscious of its social responsibility, and society and the State must make it their business to organize social life in ways which further the family.”183 Priests are reminded of their duties which include proper preparation for family pastoral work, ensuring proper preparation for marriage.184

2.2.2.5 CULTURE “Making the dignity and the well-being of the human person, both personally and communally, its foundation, Gaudium et Spes opened the door for a renewed consideration of culture.”185 According to Tanner, culture has been a central topic to Christianity throughout its history. He explains that although it is integral to the theology of the Incarnation, as a word and concept it had not been much used in the teaching documents of the Church. At the start of Vatican II, there was no developed theology of it that was in any way comparable to teaching on, for example, marriage and the Family or the social teachings of the Church. In this sense, Gaudium et Spes was breaking new ground.186 Chapter two of the second part of the document begins with a broad definition of the term: The word “culture” in its general sense indicates everything whereby man develops and perfects his many bodily and spiritual qualities. He strives by his knowledge and his labour to bring the world itself under his control. He renders social life more human both in the family and the civic community, through improvement of customs and institutions. Throughout the course of time he expresses, communicates and conserves in his works, great spiritual experiences and desires, that they might be of advantage to the progress of many, even of the whole human family. …the word “culture” also often assumes a sociological and ethnological sense. According to this sense we speak of a plurality of cultures. Different styles of life and multiple scales of values arise from the diverse manner of using things, of labouring, of expressing oneself, of practicing religion, of forming customs, of establishing laws and juridic institutions, of cultivating the sciences, the arts and beauty. Thus, the customs handed down to it form the patrimony proper to each human community. (GS, 53)

183 Häring, B. in Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 245 184 Cf. Häring, B. in Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 245 185 Lavin, M. Op. Cit. 69. 186 Cf. Tanner, N. Op. Cit. 52 - 53 50

The document thus acknowledges the reality of a diversity of cultures. This means that all human cultures have validity and should not be discarded if the Church is to properly engage the World. “At the same time, the document recognises that rapid cultural diffusion was homogenising cultures, creating a worldwide culture that was threatening traditional ones. The Church must try to balance the advantages of modern cultures, on the one hand, with the legacy and wisdom of ancient tradition on the other (GS, 54, 56).”187 The conclusion that this work can draw from this is that the Council Fathers here allude to the fact that no human culture per se is better than the other, and that care should be taken to avoid the undue dominance of one culture over others. Another aspect in recognising the plurality of cultures is the relationship between diversity and unity in culture. “While cultures differ, we have a responsibility to advert to unification in order to build a better world in truth and justice.”188 Lavin believes that some questions arise from this assertion: “How can intercultural exchanges be fruitful rather than destructive? How can all peoples gain cultural values when the advanced cultures are constantly becoming more complex? How is cultural autonomy to avoid being merely worldly and irreligious humanism?”189

There has to be an integral relationship between faith and culture.190 The document thus emphasises that every effort should be made to “discover the full meaning of cultural activity and its place in man’s integral vocation in the light of the mystery of the Christian faith.”191 So drawing from the principle of the incarnation within human history as well as the Church’s existence as the visible sign of Christ in the World, the Fathers hold that only a proper understanding of the message of the Gospel can channel human culture to good ends. Still drawing from these principles, the Fathers teach that the universal mission of the Church harmonizes two principles: being the embodiment of the message of salvation, and the transcendence of this message as it relates to particular cultures.192 Care must however be taken by the Church not to exaggerate this transcendence because it may “prevent the church from opening itself to the true values of modern culture or of ancient non-Christian cultures; it may limit the universality of the church’s language, divide rather than unite, repel many more men than it attracts and convinces."193 the church must therefore find some balance in its engagement with the cultures of the world. The Council Fathers state:

187 Lavin, M. Op. Cit. pg 70 188 Ibid. 189 Ibid. 190 Ibid. 191 Tucci, R. in Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 262 – 266. 192 Ibid. 193 Ibid. 267 51

…the Church, living in various circumstances in the course of time, has used the discoveries of different cultures so that in her preaching she might spread and explain the message of Christ to all nations, that she might examine it and more deeply understand it, that she might give it better expression in liturgical celebration… But at the same time, the Church, sent to all peoples of every time and place, is not bound exclusively and indissolubly to any race or nation, any particular way of life or any customary way of life recent or ancient… The Gospel of Christ constantly renews the life and culture of fallen man, it combats and removes the errors and evils resulting from the permanent allurement of sin. It never ceases to purify and elevate the morality of peoples. By riches coming from above, it makes fruitful, as it were from within, the spiritual qualities and traditions of every people of every age. (GS, 58)

In article 59 the council fathers outline some principles that will help in guiding the development of an authentic human culture. This contribution of the fathers to culture stems mainly from the desire of the church to defend and promote the dignity of the human person. These guiding principles are a) the endeavour to preserve the metaphysical ability of man to wonder, create and contemplate, and then b) the liberty of man.194 The spiritual dimension of man is essential to culture, for without it, there could be no appreciation of beauty in art, love of truth in science, or any moral refinement in our relations with others. Highlighting these two principles the document states: Culture, because it flows immediately from the spiritual and social character of man, has constant need of a just liberty in order to develop; it needs also the legitimate possibility of exercising its autonomy according to its own principles. It therefore rightly demands respect and enjoys a certain inviolability within the limits of the common good, as long, of course, as it preserves the rights of the individual and the community, whether particular or universal. (GS, 59)

The Fathers of the Council would then outline the duties of Christians in regard to culture. Education is key. Ignorance is presented by the council fathers as something that diminishes the

194 Tucci, R. in Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 269 52 value of the human person. The fathers in this document declare the right of all people to an appreciable degree of culture and education worthy of the dignity of the human person. No one should be deprived on the grounds of race, sex, nationality or social status from obtaining proper education. Attention is paid to people who may find it difficult to take advantage of cultural opportunities, particularly rural people and manual workers and women, who “should be able to play their full part according to their disposition”.195 The need for the promotion of secular and theological learning was highlighted in article 62 of this document. “The laity in particular must be encouraged to undertake theological studies on a really scientific level and to distinguish themselves in secular disciplines also.”196 Christians have a duty to harmonize science and scientific endeavours with morality and Christian thought. Tucci also notes that the fathers of the council stressed the need for the promotion of artistic expression in culture, studies and in worship.

2.2.2.6 SOCIO-ECONOMIC LIFE In the Third Chapter, the Council Fathers dedicated time and space to socio-economic life. This section of the document deals with “social economy”, which means economic development oriented toward social ends, meeting the needs of all. Oswald von Nell-Breuning, drawing from the Latin title of this section, suggests that it means what we should call economic life as a social process, not the prerogative of individuals or the actions of the various economic agents, but the social economy, the interaction of all that these individuals do and cause to be done and of all the ways in which they mutually affect one another.197 The theological anthropocentrism which had been the main thread of this document is maintained because the Fathers view the human person as the center of all economic enterprise. So having given glowing praise to the dynamism and expansion of economies around the world, the fathers also maintain that human dignity and the common good should remain at the center of economic life. The Council accordingly reminds us that economic activity is not an end in itself but is oriented toward the individual and collective good of human persons. This obviously stems from the teaching that human beings have a divine origin which should be respected and treasured. The fundamental finality of [economic] production is not the mere increase of products nor profit or control but rather the service of man… with regard for the full range of his material needs and the demands of his intellectual, moral, spiritual, and religious life; this applies to every man whatsoever… Consequently,

195 Cf. Tucci, R. in Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 272 - 274 196 Tucci, R. in Vorgrimler, H. OP. Cit. 279 197 Cf. Nell-Breuning, O. in Vorgrimler, H. Op. Cit. 291 53

economic activity is to be carried on according to its own methods and laws within the limits of the moral order, so that God’s plan for mankind may be realized. (GS, 64)

To this effect, the document proposes certain principles that should guide the economic sphere. The first is labour. The Council forcefully affirms the priority of labour in economic life. Not relying solely on the argument from natural law,198 the Council Fathers also engage the topic from a theological and Christological point of view by noting that “labour not only contributes to perfecting the work of creation but even shares in the redemptive work of Jesus Christ if it is offered to God in the right way.”199 Jesus who dignifies labour “when at Nazareth He worked with His own hands.” (GS, 67) The second Principle is the principle and right of free Association. These include trade and labour unions. These groups are to further the interests of the workers and where necessary, a strike can be a recourse. Although this view was not palatable to some of the fathers of the council it was eventually highlighted after several arguments and debates.200

The Fathers then go on to reaffirm the right to private property and the need for proper distribution of wealth. Material goods are intended for all and all should have access to them and share in them.201 Nell-Breuning states what the advantages of this, according to the Council Fathers are: “It contributes to the development of the personality and makes it possible for a man to take his place in society and economic life; it provides an area of freedom indispensable to personal life and even more to Family life, and is therefore to be regarded as an extension of human freedom; consequently it is a condition of civil freedom.”202 The Fathers however cautioned on the abuse of this privilege, especially when people lose sight of each other’s dignity, especially in underdeveloped states where “large or even extensive rural estates which are only slightly cultivated or lie completely idle for the sake of profit, while the majority of the people either are without land or have only very small fields.”203 Our shared humanity as members of the human Family should help us guard against such unfortunate tendencies.

It is the view of this work that this part of the document should not be understood as a “theology of economics” or as the church’s attempt to delve into an area of which she is not specialised but

198 Cf. Nell-Breuning, O. in Vorgrimler, H. Op. Cit. 298 199 Ibid. 200 Cf. Nell-Breuning, O. in Vorgrimler, H. Op. Cit. 298 - 300 201 Cf. Nell-Breuning, O. in Vorgrimler, H. Op. Cit. 309. 202 Ibid. 310 203 Pastoral Constitution on The Church in The Modern World Gaudium et Spes, n. 71 54 should be viewed in the context of the aim of the whole document and the theological themes which is seeks to elucidate. The theme of the Christological foundations of theological anthropocentrism or anthropology, and the theme of the Church in her mission to be an instrument of the salvation of the World. It does this by staying faithful to the social teachings of Popes (Mater et Magistra, Rerum Novarum, Quadragesimo Anno).

2.2.2.7 THE POLITICAL COMMUNITY The Political sphere of human existence is the central theme of chapter 4 of the second part of Gaudium et Spes. Margaret Lavin, commenting on the document notes that “since human beings are social creatures, they incarnate their yearnings in political structures and, because of the necessity to conform society to human dignity, political structures ought to exist for the common good.”204 So the source of political legitimacy is the ordering of the political community toward the common good. This also the goal of political and public community. Here the common good according to Nell-Breuning is used in two senses, “as a value in itself and as a means to an end.”205 As a value in itself, it is a comprehensive term for all the values which belong to fully developed humanity, the full exercise and realisation of all the potentialities and faculties inherent in man in society; as a relative value and means to an end, it is the sum of all the general presuppositions or conditions which the individual cannot provide for self and which must be already available to the person.206 This simply means that the idea and reality of a political community is grounded on human nature and so belongs to the divine order of things. The State is a natural society.

Having established the natural and divine foundations of the political community, the document goes on to assert the responsibility of the state to the people. Nell-Breuning notes that the keener awareness of human dignity - a concept of particular importance to the Council - impels people to create constitutional conditions which will safeguard personal rights and freedoms. As examples, the right of assembly, of association, of free expression of opinion, and of religious profession are mentioned. Only if personal rights are adequately protected can the citizens as individuals or in groups take an active part in the life and government of the State.207 Therefore, the Fathers caution against political systems and structures that deprive people of their rights, noting that “There is no better way to establish political life on a truly human basis than by fostering an inward sense of justice and kindliness, and of service to the common good.” (GS,

204 Lavin, M. Op. Cit.72 205 Cf. Nell-Breuning, O. in Vorgrimler, H. Op. Cit 318. 206 Ibid. 207 Ibid. 317 55

73) What then happens when the authorities of State do not respect and ensure the protection of rights, but rather oppress and subjugate the people? The document asserts in this case, the right of the people to resist; it is however interesting that the document does not assert the duty of the people to resist. The Fathers offer a rather general principle for the right to resist oppression and tyranny, for “it is legitimate for them to defend their own rights and the rights of their fellow citizens against the abuse of this authority, while keeping within those limits drawn by the natural law and the Gospels.” (GS, 74)

Then the council teaches the importance of political participation. The Fathers in article 75 praise the advantages of democracy and the idea of the sovereignty of the people, though the document does not go as far as formerly endorsing it. The document notes that “it is in accordance with human nature to create juridical and political structures which offer all citizens the real possibility of sharing more fully and actively, without discrimination or hindrance, in establishing and developing the constitution, in dealing with government affairs, in the various branches of administration, and not least in choosing office holders.”208 This system of government should be founded on just laws and facilitated by the civic responsibilities of the citizenry. Citizens are called to cultivate the virtue of love and respect for God, family, and nation; a patriotism that is not narrow-minded, but takes account of the whole human Family. Participation in party politics is encouraged, while political parties are encouraged to form their programmes in line with the common good. Kavunkal notes that “a real concern and genuine care for the weak, the poor and the oppressed cannot be achieved fully without associating ourselves with political life. The empowerment of the weak and dispossessed cannot be attained without political collaboration. So today we need a kind of political spirituality.”209 The Fathers then encourage the need to engage young people in political activity and education.

Finally, the Council fathers examine the relationship between the Church and the State. The document accepts the present-day reality of pluralistic states. It notes that the state and the church while different from each other in their own fields, are concerned with the human person and its welfare in the world. While the Church is concerned primarily with man’s supernatural goal, the state concerns itself with humans’ earthly welfare. The Church also needs material means to fulfil its function in leading people to God. The subject of both institutions of Church and state should be the basis of cooperation for both. This is why it is pertinent for the state to respect the freedom

208 Nell-Breuning, O. in Vorgrimler, H. Op. Cit 321 209 Kavunkal, J. et al. Op. Cit. 123. 56 of religion. In the Declaration on Religious Freedom Dignitatis Humanae the Fathers situate this liberty in human dignity stating thus:

This Vatican Council declares that the human person has a right to religious freedom. This freedom means that all men are to be immune from coercion on the part of individuals or of social groups and of any human power, in such wise that no one is to be forced to act in a manner contrary to his own beliefs, whether privately or publicly, whether alone or in association with others, within due limits. The council further declares that the right to religious freedom has its foundation in the very dignity of the human person as this dignity is known through the revealed word of God and by reason itself.210

It is also required by this document that the Church should be free to pass moral judgement on political affairs especially when it is necessary for the defence of human rights or the salvation of souls.211

2.2.2.8 PEACE AND THE COMMUNITY OF NATIONS In its last chapter, the Council dedicates some parts of this document to encouraging peaceful coexistence among peoples and nations. With good reason, the Council warned that “the whole human family faces an hour of supreme crisis in its advance toward maturity.” (GS, 77) Schuijt observes that this message was against the backdrop of a world that was recovering from the devastation of the second world war and the dominant worldwide anxieties aroused by the high probability of the first serious confrontation between two nuclear powers (the United States of America and the Soviet Union) since after World war II.

The Fathers begin by describing the nature of peace and order. They are not mechanically imposed by despotic order, but is an “inner force of justice and love.”212 This description is deliberate in keeping with the inner nature of human dignity and the human person. The document then notes that the teachings of the Church on international morality which enhances peace is built on natural law and the gospel. A Christological and trinitarian character is then given to this

210 Declaration On Religious Freedom, Dignitatis Humanae , Promulgated By His Holiness Pope Paul VI On December 7, 1965, from http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decl_19651207_dignitatis- humanae_en.html, accessed on 18th November, 2020. n.2 211 Cf. Nell-Breuning, O. in Vorgrimler, H. Op. Cit 327. 212 Coste, R. in Vorgrimler, H. Op. Cit. 348 57 teaching as the document emphasises the peaceful nature of Christ’s message in the New Testament, as well as the peaceful coexistence of the persons of the Trinity. According to Coste, “it is first and foremost the inner peace of the God-man himself, fundamentally a participation in the peace of the living God, the total communication, infinite love and perfect harmony of the three divine persons.”213 So the reconciliation accomplished by Christ made it possible for all people to be of one body. Thus the love of neighbour and human solidarity essential to earthly peace come from the peace of Christ.

Consequently, the document does not just condemn war, but proposes a theology of peace based on solid Christian norms of love of God and love of neighbour. In doing this, the document recognises both non-violence and the right to self-defence when all available avenues for peace have been exhausted. The establishment of peace is not only he prerogative of politicians and military people, but the responsibility of every human person. The individual actions of people in society can bring about peace or destroy it.214 In article 84, the document makes an appeal to International organisations to help foster peace and development, especially in the third world. In articles 85 to 87, the Councils Fathers treat the issues of development and the world population challenge. The council encourages massive aid to third world countries, but also admonishes underdeveloped countries to create proper structures and institutions that would ensure a steady path to permanent growth and development.215

The crowning achievement of Gaudium et Spes is seen in the willingness of the council fathers to engage the world not just as a project or something to be spoken to, but as a partner in its mission of enthroning the Kingdom of God here on earth. The fathers of the council engaged with the world from a position of humility, a position of selflessness, a position of Brotherhood. This is the sign of a self-aware church which is willing to look both inwards and outwards. James Hanvey aptly opines that Gaudium et Spes “represents a cultural and political realignment and underpins this with a theological method and hermeneutic. Both method and hermeneutic emerged throughout the council itself and taken together, they not only represent a way of engaging the world in terms of its praxis and understanding; they make ‘the World’ integral to the Church’s own self-understanding. […] Gaudium et Spes commits the Church to the on-going task of self-interpretation in the light of the World and its changing situation.”216

213 Coste, R. in Vorgrimler, H. Op. Cit. 349 214 Ibid. 357 - 361 215 Ibid. 216 Hanvey, J. in Brigham, E. ed, (2015). The Church In The Modern World: Fifty Years After Vatican II, Maryland, Lexington Books, 3. 58

2.3 A DIALOGUE BETWEEN LUMEN GENTIUM AND GAUDIUM ET SPES: CHURCH AND WORLD AFTER VATICAN II

When Vatican II is discussed today, this discussion usually centres on the Church, particularly the documents Lumen Gentium and Gaudium et Spes. One of the purposes of the Council was to help us realise and understand what the Church really is and how the Church exists in the World. The documents could therefore be described as two sides of the same coin. As noted earlier in this work, the Council Fathers needed to first clearly outline an understanding of the Church, a salient definition of self. Then they went on to show how this self-identity and self-consciousness translates into existence and engagement with the Modern World. That was the intention of the council Fathers, drawing from the opening address of Pope John XXIII. This work will now attempt to outline and explain certain thematic areas that highlight the dialogue between the two documents Lumen Gentium and Gaudium et Spes.

2.3.1 DOCTRINAL IDENTITY AND PASTORAL EXPRESSION It must be noted, that Lumen Gentium provided an ecclesiological basis for Gaudium et Spes. The Church as a community of humans exists also in the world which is a community of humans. The Church is not an institution parallel to the world or an abstract institution but is in the world. “However, Gaudium et Spes, as the final Constitution of the Council, understands the mystery of the Church in a way consonant with the previous Council documents that dealt with the Church, principally Lumen Gentium (LG), although looking closely at the Church in terms of her necessary insertion in the modern world and looking closely at the consequences of her being in the world.”217 The theological and ecclesiastical teachings of Lumen Gentium would then create a sound doctrinal foundation for the Pastoral recommendations of Gaudium et Spes.

In the same vein, the theological anthropology which runs as a strong theme through Gaudium et Spes should be seen in the light of the Christological element which was in Lumen Gentium. The teaching of the Fathers on Christ as the Sacrament of God, and the Church as the Sacrament of Christ in the world, which has been instituted by the divine will of the Father for the purpose of the salvation of all people, and which is daily renewed and revived through the Holy Spirit. This captures the description of the theological strand that hold both documents together and gives

217 Hummes, C. (2006). Theological and Ecclesiological Foundations of Gaudium et Spes. Journal Of Catholic Social Thought, Vol.3, N.2. 238 59 them concordance. Lumen Gentium gives us the full extent of the Church’s nature in itself and its primary mission, and Gaudium et Spes gives us the way in which this nature re-orients the Church to the world. So, it is a case of Identity, mission and Expression; the identity of the Church, and how this identity and mission is expressed.

2.3.2 HISTORY AND URGENCY The role that history plays in the dialogue between these two documents, and how the Church would engage the World subsequently is worth noting. After all, the great Roman orator Cicero once declared that those who do not understand their history remain children forever. The question of the relationship between the Christian Church and the world, understood as humanity in its historical existence with all the social, political, and economic structures which shape that existence, has not always been an issue for Christians. The earliest Christians took for granted that the Church was predominant, an attitude neatly summed up in the second century Didache: “Comes grace and the world passes.”218 All that really counted was the spiritual world. Then a long development ensued, so that the situation changed quite a bit. “But the growth of the autonomy of temporal realities and the consequent emergence of genuine pluralism in the nineteenth century accentuated the theological discussion of the relationship between ecclesiastical and natural, including political, power. This theological discussion was very much highlighted with the Second Vatican Council, which boldly and clearly acknowledged the autonomy of temporal and natural realities.”219 This can be seen in Gaudium et Spes no. 36. White would state that “at the heart of Gaudium et Spes lies its Christocentric vision of human existence and its profound Catholic realism regarding the potentially transformative power of grace and charity in the life of each person and culture in human history.”220 In both documents the Church has effectively taken leave of the defensive position it was accustomed to, adopting an evangelical position in a new historic context and making a constructive attempt to articulate the principles of evangelical engagement at the dawn of a new era.221 This outlook was primarily inspired by the admonition of Pope John XXIII in the Bull Humanae Salutis which convened the Council, to recognise the “signs of the times.”222 In this speech the pope mentions the distinction between the Church ad intra and the church ad extra – the inner vitality of the Church and the outer vitality

218 Lawler, M.G., Salzman, T.A., & Burke-Sullivan, E. (2014). The Church in the Modern World: Gaudium et Spes Then and Now. Collegeville, Minnesota: Liturgical Press. 1 219 Ibid. 2 220 White, T. J. (2017). Lamb, M. L., Levering, M. eds, The Reception of Vatican II, New York. Oxford University Press. 134. 221 Ibid. 222 Moeller, C. in Vorgrimler, H. Op. Cit. 7. 60 of the Church in relation to the demands of history in the nations.223 This inner vitality relates to Lumen Gentium while the outer vitality relates more to Gaudium et Spes. This means that the Church cannot shy away from the realities of the human city for it is bound to these realities.

Lawler et al explain in their prologue: “By 1959 when the announcement of the convocation of the Council was made, the historical events of the previous several decades had left the world in a traumatised state. Europe had recently emerged from a war of unparalleled savagery and was still reeling from that horror. The end of that war had given way to a “cold war” between the Western allies and the Soviet Union, a war that reached its moment of greatest anxiety shortly after the opening of the council in a standoff between the Soviet Union and the United States of America. Colonialism was crumbling worldwide, with the former colonial powers leaving behind chaotic and poor countries. The former French colony of Vietnam collapsed under the strain of nationalism into a civil war, which was already being waged when the council opened. The omnipresent scourge of racism was rampant, and civil rights struggles were being violently resisted in many places, the United States and South Africa being the most publicised. The world was living in fear and asking both what could be done and who could do it—ecclesiastical powers, political powers, or some combination of both.”224 It was within this historical context and realities that the Council was convened. It was therefore fitting that a Church, which exists within this space and time, spoke on its nature and its role in the World. It was quite timely, that the Church which exists within this reality of uncertainty and tension spoke to the world. The point here is that the historical urgency of that time necessitated a voice to speak to the World; a voice that identified itself and spoke to the world in which it exists. This voice did not end with the second Vatican Council, but still speaks to our World today. The purposeful endeavour to embark on a “Theology of History” will always be one of the hallmarks of the Fathers who convened in Rome based on the call of the Pope-Saint inspired by the Holy Spirit.

The council initiated a process - theological, spiritual and practical- of which it is also a part. The Church is part of this history and that means it must not only understand its own need to change in order to be faithful to Christ and the mission entrusted to it, but also that it can realise its own historical agency as the ‘universal sacrament of salvation.’ So Hanvey opines that one of the most important achievements of the Council was its grasp and assimilation of the historical

223 Cf. Moeller, C. in Vorgrimler, H. Op. Cit. 8. 224 Cf. Lawler, M.G. et al. Op. Cit. 5. 61 consciousness of modernity. It did this by rediscovering the dynamic nature of tradition and reading it within the scriptural horizon of salvation history and the doctrines of Catholicism.225

2.3.3 CHURCH AND WORLD/ STATE RELATIONSHIP: THE EMPOWERMENT OF SOCIAL TEACHING Bryan Hehir notes that two developments came out of the conciliar efforts of the Fathers: “the ecclesiological legitimation of social ministry, and the conciliar and post-conciliar legitimation of the local Church as a social actor. Both affirmations had roots and precedent in Catholic history, but the formulation given them at Vatican II and the convergence of the two themes in post-conciliar Catholicism have substantially changed the public posture of the Church in the world from the papacy to the parish. The properly ecclesiological contribution of Vatican II to the Church's social ministry followed upon the developments in papal social teaching of the twentieth century. A striking feature of the social teaching from Rerum novarum (1891) through Pacem in terris (1963) was its lack of an explicitly ecclesiological foundation. […] this theological lacuna has had powerful practical consequences; in effect, if not in intention, it contributed to a process of keeping the social ministry at the margin of the Church's life rather than at its center. Social ministry was understood (or tolerated) as an extension of the Church's life, but not always seen as decisively something of the Church's nature. The decisive contribution of Vatican II was to provide a description of the Church's role in the world which was properly theological and ecclesial in tone and substance.”226 Hehir also quotes Rahner's comments, which show the significance of this development: “In Gaudium et Spes and Dignitatis Humanae the church sought to define its relation to the world. This description derives from the church's very nature, and not merely from the pressures of external circumstances.”227

“The new perspective involves a recasting of church-state doctrine so that it fits as a subordinate element in a broader church-world relationship. The subordination does not denigrate the importance of the church-state question but sees it as an instrumental issue in the Church's wider role in secular society. The primary thrust of the conciliar teaching was to impel the Catholic community more deeply into the history of the modern world. A secondary element of this movement involved redefining the Church's relationship with the modern state. The effect of this

225 Cf. Hanvey, J. (2013). D’Costa, G., Jane, E. eds Vatican II: For The Life Of The World, in The Second Vatican Council: Celebrating Its Achievements. London. Bloomsbury. 48 226 Hehir, B. (1986). Church-State and Church-World: The Ecclesiological Implications. CTSA Proceedings. US Catholic Conference. Georgetown University. 55. 227 Ibid. quoting Rahner, K. (1980). The Lasting Significance of Vatican II, The Theology Digest. 28 62

twofold development has been to render the Church "more political" in broad social terms and "less political" in its juridical relationship with the state.”228 This summons of the gospel to the Church involved what Yves Congar described as the shift from a juridical to an anthropological conception of the Church's relationship to the world.229 The anthropological approach places the human person at the point of intersection of church and world.230 The first ecclesiological consequence of the council was to summon the Church to maintain the balance of a religiously rooted but politically significant style of ministry. This feat was achieved to a very large extent by the formulations of the teachings of both documents in view in this work.

The post-conciliar response to the summons “includes the emergence of theological positions like the theology of liberation and political theology as well as pastoral strategies built around human rights ministry and basic ecclesial communities. The results from the post-conciliar period have been quite dramatic. From Latin America to Eastern Europe, from Africa to San Salvador and from Warsaw to Washington the litany of the Church's public involvement reads like a briefing book of political conflict.”231 In many countries in Africa, the Church has continued to stand for the principles of these conciliar documents in relations to the socio-political and socio- cultural realities in which she exists. It is thus correct to say that the conciliar teaching of Lumen gentium and Gaudium et spes has shaped a consensus within the Church’s hierarchy about the necessity for and the style of social ministry in the Church. After Vatican II, the Church has become more involved in the affairs of the World, while still being conscious of her distinct identity as an ecclesial body.

2.4 SPECIAL FOCUS: THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF THE COUNCIL’S TEACHING IN THE CONTEXT OF LUMEN GENTIUM AND GAUDIUM ET SPES.

The tradition of Catholic social teaching emphasises the inherent dignity of the human person, imago dei, and that in a redeemed world all people have an inherent dignity given by God and that human life is ordered towards fulfilment in the community. It is in the community that people achieve the realisation of their basic human rights. It is within the community one learns how to support the quest for human rights, achievement of the common good, and avoid the excesses of

228 Hehir, B. (1986). Church-State and Church-World: The Ecclesiological Implications. CTSA Proceedings. US Catholic Conference. Georgetown University, 56. 229 Cf. Congar, Y. in Vorgrimler, H. Op. Cit. 208. 230 Vorgrimler, H. Op. Cit.208 231 Hehir, B. Op. Cit. 55 63 individualism which often preclude a commitment to the common good. The documents in focus in this work unequivocally and succinctly express this fact and complement each other thus.

As noted earlier in this work on the section on the ecclesiology of Lumen Gentium, the document in outlining the identity of the Church from the very first number notes that she is in Christ like a sacrament, with the mission to preach the gospel to all nations and show Christ to the World. Being in the world, she, whose model is Christ, is constituted as a sign and instrument of the unity of the human race (LG 1). This means that the human race, the community of humankind, the collective reality of individuals within society, is the primary focus of the Church. Even though her origin is situated in God, her mission and purpose of existence is the human social race, the social order. “Today, in a world that more and more is globalised and interconnected thanks to the advances of communication technologies, the Church’s mission, if it is to be an instrument of unity for the human race, becomes more relevant and has new possibilities and challenges.”232 In the desire to present the correct relationship between the Church and the world, Gaudium et Spes begins with an anthropological synthesis, the fundamental elements of which are the following: man, created by God, created in the image and likeness of his Creator, created as a social being (male and female), one being composed of matter and spirit (body and soul), endowed with intellect, freedom and moral conscience as essential elements of a spiritual interiority and of a capacity to transcend the material world in which he has his roots, but at the same time with an internal division, rent from within by the wound of sin from the very beginning of human history.233 All this drama in the reality of human existence, is played out within a social context. The society is the stage where the script is written.

In highlighting this subjectivity and a consequent anthropocentric vision of the world, the Council prompts the Church to take a decisive step in the direction of modernity and the social realities it presents. According to Hummes, “Gaudium et Spes follows the anthropological and anthropocentric themes of modernity, and in presenting the fundamental components of the human subject it makes a distinction between freedom/autonomy (GS 17), equality (GS 29) and brotherhood (GS 32), the inviolable dignity and authority of the depths of moral conscience. These are components of human subjectivity situated within the framework of the community dimension of the person (GS 24-26).”234 Modernity itself is not just an individual enterprise, but its aim and goal is societal and sociological. What this means is that the human person, living

232 Hummes, C. Op. Cit. 238 233 Ibid. 235 234 Hummes, C. Op. Cit. 236 64 within a community, constitutes the starting point of the social dimensions of these conciliar documents. It is not only about the human person as an individual, but the human person existing in relation to others at various levels of the social arena. So, the unifying theological theme of both documents is the human person and the communal nature of the human person. And even though the Church’s goal remains single-mindedly supernatural and all that she receives from and gives to the world is subordinate to this aim, this goal is expressed and lived within the realities of human social existence.

The implications of the social realities of humanity and the principles of Catholic Social teaching in line with this mission of the Church therefore, would be a Church that seeks to liberate the human person from negative social and political shackles. It should be a Church that is adequately prophetic and a Church that seeks to entrench justice, equality and peace in her engagements. This further means that the Church must speak to various issues that affect the human society and seek the best ways to address these issues without missing its divine and ecclesiological identity. This includes also a preferential option for the poor, a stand against corruption in public life and the promotion of cultural values that are important for better living conditions of peoples. This also includes in a very special way, the mission of engaging people of other religions and cultures, especially in the view that we all are part of the human community of God’s children. As explained earlier in this work in the sections on “The people of God” as well as on “Culture”, the missionary dimension of the Church compels it to acknowledge, respect and engage peoples based on our shared common humanity, dignity, and origin.

So in relation to the African Worldview and scenario, Bujo notes that “the liberating dimension of African religion starts from the life-concepts of African clan society.”235 In other words, life and the human person is so central to the African society, as well as the communitarian space where this life is lived. The human person exists because the community exists. The individual person is in all respects intricately intertwined with the community. This therefore translates into an active engagement in every aspect of societal or communal life, between the human person and the community. The social issues which the Council documents Lumen Gentium and Gaudium et Spes address find bearing in the day to day life of the African. So just like the starting point of Catholic Social Teaching, the authentic African religious worldview begins from an anthropological essence. Although the African worldview mostly begins from the community to the individual as against a mostly Eurocentric worldview which begins from the individual to the

235 Bujo, B. (1992). African Theology In Its Social Context. Nairobi, Kenya. Pauline Publications. 17 65 community, the emphasis here is on the human person – whether as individual or community- as the subject on convergence between the social teaching of the Church and the African societal principle. In fact, it is the opinion of this author, that the success of the human rights and freedom movements of Black America, South Africa and some countries in West Africa was in a sense, a result of liberation theology - it lends its efficacy in some sense to the concordance between the principles of Catholic Social thought (exemplified in the two conciliar documents), and the African social worldview. According to Bujo, some of these themes in the African ethic include the transcendental origin of human life, the place of duty to others in social life, the right to life, the responsibility to propagate the human race through responsible sexuality and Family life, the right to property and its protection, right to moral and responsible speech, and a core moral principle of pure thought.236 This work will take a closer look at the relationship between the African traditional anthropocentric conception and the anthropomorphism of Lumen Gentium and Gaudium et Spes subsequently.

Summarily, the social fabric of most African communities is generally interwoven with two realms of existence: Religion and Politics. This is even more true in Northern Nigeria which is the area this work seeks to concentrate on. We as humans and Christians are encouraged to be involved in both. A real concern and genuine care for the weak, the poor and the oppressed cannot be achieved fully without associating ourselves with political life. It cannot be attained without political consciousness and collaboration. We have to ask ourselves how we can give hope to our people, especially the downtrodden – a task which the Church accepts and gives to its members. This task is and should be guided by the principles of Catholic social teaching, enshrined in the documents of this study. The actualisation of this hope is a matter of grave concern, especially in the Diocese of Sokoto, Northern Nigeria. In the light of the praxis of Jesus, we cannot push that hope to a sheer eschatological level, something that happens ‘when we die’. The Christian life is not an alternative to this world. It is a guide to live well in this world so that this world itself is transformed into the pre-figuration of the world to come. Kavunkal notes that “we have to insist on the salvific character of history and life in history. Our historical involvement must make God’s presence effective.”237 It is a question of the relation between salvation and liberation. The limits of this work will not accommodate further and detailed explication of the strong concordance between the African tradition and the core principles of Catholic social thought which can be hewn out of the documents in focus. However, there is a strong indication of certain

236 Ibid. 31-36 237 Kavunkal, J. Op. Cit. 124 66 points of agreement. The main point here is that the documents, as will be shown in the next chapter, give favourable ground for the mission of the Church to help liberate people from the shackles of unjust socio-political systems, borrowing also from certain principles of the African worldview.

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CHAPTER THREE

3 CONSEQUENCES AND CHALLENGES OF THE DOCUMENTS FOR THE DIOCESE OF SOKOTO

We have already introduced the diocese of Sokoto in chapter 1.1. Here we will take a look at the particular challenges facing it, and how the documents might contribute to a solution. As a local Church united with the Church of Rome and part of the Universal Church, Lumen Gentium and Gaudium et Spes have certain implications for the diocese of Sokoto. Speaking generally on the achievements of the Council, Schreiter credits Vatican II noting that, “there emerged an understanding of the Church as consisting of a communion of particular or local churches, in communion with and under the leadership of the Church of Rome. Within that communion, each local church (understood as a diocese) represented the fullness of what it meant to be Church, even though it did not represent the entire Church.”238 With such an understanding, there is more awareness both among the clergy and the laity as to the bond between ‘Rome’ and ‘Sokoto’. This is further buttressed by the growing awareness of the pluralistic reality of the Church in the sense that more attention was paid to local Churches outside Europe and the situation of peoples in these areas. The beauty of the different cultures, traditions and peoples that make up the People of God in the Church was better acknowledged by these documents of the council. Although this may not necessarily apply to all areas (as will be explained later in this chapter), the second Vatican council was a step in the right direction in acknowledging the beauty of the ‘plurality’ both of the Church and also of the World.

However, before the consequences are discussed, it is important to briefly discuss the challenges that the body of Christ in Sokoto faced and is still facing; a challenge which is tied in many ways to the challenges of the Church in Africa, Sokoto being part of that region.

3.1 CONTEXTUALIZING THE COUNCIL WITH AFRICA

It is interesting and worth noting here that at the time when the Council was convened, Sokoto was still a Prefecture and would later be made a diocese shortly after the Council ended. This historical fact would have implications for the challenges the Church in Sokoto would face at that stage of its growth and probably still faces.

238 Schreiter, R. J. Op.Cit. 4 68

3.1.1 THE LIMITED ROLE OF AFRICA AT THE COUNCIL A very salient element to note in the challenge the diocese faced is the very minimal role (if at all there was any) that Africa played at the Council. Patrick Kalilombe would write that “the presence of Africa at Vatican II was marginal and mostly by proxy. Although technically and juridically the Church was no longer ‘missionary,’ it is hardly possible to imagine that the African Church counted very much as an influence on the Council. Apart from regular interventions from the principal spokesman, Cardinal L. Rugambwa, only sporadic voices were heard from Africa. It is obvious from an examination of the sixteen documents that the Council was largely a forum for the concerns of the Churches of Europe and America in the 1960s. Africa’s problems and preoccupations, therefore, came only indirectly: they did not determine the central perspective from which the Council’s deliberations were moving. Moreover, real acquaintance with the documents must not be exaggerated, even though efforts were made to publish them and diffuse their message widely in the African continent.”239

Apart from the insignificance in number, there was a certain level of theological unpreparedness from the African bishops especially as regards to the theological themes discussed at the Council. According to Denis, “most observers agree that the African bishops failed significantly to influence the work of the Council itself. The African representation - 260 of a total 2,358 at the first session in 1962 - had relatively little weight in the final outcome of the Council. The themes discussed were perceived as “too European” not only by the 61 African-born bishops present at the opening of the Council, but also by the missionary bishops. Those who had a major voice were expatriates either as Council Fathers or as periti.”240 There is no doubt that at this point, the Church in Africa was still very young, after the relative success of the missionaries. As for Sokoto diocese, the Church was still very missionary (as noted in Chapter one at this point in time).

This unpreparedness can be traced to certain factors. As at the time of the Council, the Church in Africa could hardly be qualified as “African”. O’Malley would agree that “in terms of leadership and direction, the church in Africa prior to and during Vatican II represented a native outpost of a Eurocentric ecclesial organization. Understandably, therefore, the concerns of the universal church as outlined and debated at the council barely intersected with the pressing issues that the

239 Kalilombe, P. A. (1991). The Effect of the Council on World Catholicism: Africa, in Hastings, A. ed Modern Catholicism: Vatican II and After, London, SPCK, 310 – 311. 240 Denis, P. (2005). “Historical Significance of Hurley’s Contribution” in Hurley, D. Vatican II: Keeping the Dream Alive, Pietermaritzburg, Cluster, 197–98. 69

“young” churches in places like Africa had to contend with. Thus, as the conciliar drama unfolded in the aula, and European and North American ecclesiastical grandees fought running battles across doctrinal and ideological lines, African bishops watched variously as spectators and voting bloc.”241 African Theology was at that time still in its formative years and there was no concerted and coordinated “African Agenda” for the Council. “Consequently, at this watershed event, Africa lacked the theological expertise and institutional capacity to engage the pertinent issues on Vatican II’s agenda. A telling illustration of this lacuna appears in the composition of the African delegation. Alongside the majority of expatriate bishops the corps of periti was exclusively European and North American.”242 So, the African continent did not have the rich pool of theologians, historians and personnel which was available to Europe and North America. So, for a young church that was not yet a diocese at that time, Sokoto – just like Africa as a whole – did not have adequate representation, preparation and involvement in what was an event of great proportions and whose deliberations would in no small way influence how the young diocese would grow.

Despite this limited role Africa played at the council, and the even more reduced function of Sekoto, one could argue that the council provided an intrinsic potential for the young diocese. The Council and its deliberations and teachings would create a better opportunity and provide more impetus for the development of an African Theology – something that would also influence Sokoto as a diocese. Commenting on this, Jagoe notes that “Vatican II brought to Africa a theology and a catechesis whose central themes showed how the power of Jesus Christ supplanted the power of local gods. This theology became concrete in the church’s sacramental system where signs and words expressed initiation, maturity, healing, forgiving, and nourishment.”243

3.1.2 AFRICAN SOCIO-POLITICAL LANDSCAPE AT THE TIME OF THE COUNCIL To evaluate the consequences of the Council documents for the Church in Sokoto, an understanding of the socio-political situation, context and challenges in most parts of Africa at that time is also required. The convening of the council coincided with cultural and political revolutions for independence in many parts of Africa. According to Orobator, “Vatican II

241 Cf. O’Malley, J. W. (2008). What Happened At Vatican II. Massachusetts, Harvard University Press. 291 - 295 242 Hastings, A. (1986). The Council Came to Africa, in Stacpoole, A.ed. Vatican II: By Those Who Were There, London, Geoffrey Chapman, 316. 243 Cf. Orobator, A. E. (2013). "After All, Africa is Largely a Nonliterate Continent": The Reception of Vatican II in Africa. Marquette University journal Theological Studies, Vol. 74. No. 2. 289.

70 occurred at a momentous time in the history of Africa when nationalist tumult and agitation slowly and intensely rose to a combustible crescendo. During the conciliar years, that movement would culminate in precipitated transfer of political power from bewildered and beleaguered colonialists to exuberant and inexperienced African leaders. Thus the religious excitement occasioned by the sudden announcement and convocation of the council coincided with the secular excitement over Africa’s political emancipation. Symbolically, Pope John XXIII’s radical objective of aggiornamento bore notable resemblance to aspirations for political independence in several African countries in the 1960s.”244 Yet, this correlation of hope and promise would not live up to the expectations as Nigeria would eventually fight a civil war a few years after the close of the council (from 1967 to 1970), which adversely affected the diocese of Sokoto and the efforts at putting the teachings of the Council into practice. The tension between the Muslim dominated north and the Christian dominated south of Nigeria would play out as soon as the British left. In the aftermath of independence, tension surfaced almost immediately between the missionary church and nascent political regimes around issues of ownership of schools, political systems, and an elitist cast of ideologues eager to appropriate the spoils of independence.245

Coupled with this scenario is the fact that different kingdoms during the pre-colonial era – some of which had nothing to do with the other – were brought together for purely administrative convenience (implicitly missionary also) and nothing more. The present entity known as Nigeria existed as different kingdoms before the British colonisation and the eventual amalgamation of the Southern and Northern protectorates in 1914.246 The resultant effect of this political structure was a tussle for political power and control between ethnicities, often resulting in violence and intolerance of other beliefs and religions from both sides. The situation earlier explained in Chapter one of this work is a consequence of this “original sin” committed by the British. So, the Church in Sokoto finds itself in an environment that treats everything Christian as suspicious and as a threat by the Christian West to Islam. It is a spilling over of the earlier tensions, insecurities, suspicions and mistrusts of the early colonial era from the amalgamation in 1914 until independence in 1960.

244 Orobator, A. E. Op. Cit. 285 245 Cf. Hastiings, A. (1979). A History of African Christianity, 1950–1975. New York, Cambridge University. 167 - 168. 246 Falola, F. & Heaton, M. 2008, A History of Nigeria, United Kingdom [??], Cambridge University Press. 71

3.2 CONSEQUENCES OF THE DOCUMENTS FOR THE DIOCESE OF SOKOTO

In outlining the consequences of these documents for the Church in Sokoto, attempts will be made to first show the challenges which exists within the context of the diocese that could be hindrances for the actualization of the teachings of the Council. Despite these challenges, there is a lot of opportunity for the diocese to live out the spirit of Vatican II.

3.2.1 ECCLESIOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES There is the need for a proper understanding and reception of the recommendations of these two documents of the second Vatican council. It is important that we intellectually and practically bring the documents to our people in different ways and forms. Ecclesiological consequences of these documents are both for within the diocese out and outside the diocese in. So, an attempt will be made to not just treat this from Sokoto diocese alone, but how regional and national bodies also influence Sokoto diocese.

3.2.1.1 RENEWED SENSE OF ECCLESIA Firstly, there needs to be a very clear understanding of the meaning of “Ekklesia” in all its ramifications and sense and a practical effort to live out what it means. According to the International Theological Commission, these are: “(1) the gathering of the community, (2) each of the local communities, and (3) the universal Church.”247 There should then be a concerted effort to structure the diocese based on this understanding. From the small Christian communities in different geographical areas of the diocese, to the Parish communities, all in bond with the Cathedral seat of the Bishop who is united with the Episcopal Conference and the Seat of Peter in Rome. The Bishop and Clergy are then called to transmit this understanding to the Laity and properly structure their Parish communities to reflect this understanding. In 2012, the Bishop of the diocese, Most Rev. Dr. Matthew Hassan Kukah, convened a diocesan synod which came out with a ten-year strategic Pastoral plan for the diocese. Part of the plan was to ensure that more small Christian communities are created in places where Catholics lived, more Parishes are also created, and more efforts are made to educate the people on their roles in ensuring that the mission of the Church to evangelise continues to spread. In other words, effort was to be made to make the Church reach the most remote parts of the diocese, and make the laity understand what their

247 International Theological Commission, Select Themes of Ecclesiology On The Occasion of The Twentieth Anniversary of The Closing of The Second Vatican Council. Accessed from https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/cti_documents/rc_cti_1984_ecclesiologia_en.html, on 2nd April, 2021. 72 roles are in ensuring that the mission of the Church continues to grow stronger. Catholics are to meet to pray together, study the Bible and the teachings of the Church, facilitate initiatives at evangelisation, all with the aim of strengthening the bond that holds us together as a believing Christian community, and making that bond a veritable tool in promoting the mission of the Church in Sokoto. Although this effort has not been very successful so far, there is a blueprint at the diocesan level that can facilitate a better ecclesiological understanding which will in turn translate into a better Pastoral approach. Added to this understanding is the need for the diocesan clergy to know what their roles are and how they are to carry out these roles at a personal, interpersonal and public level (Cf LG, 21, 23, 28, 29).

3.2.1.2 AFRICAN ECCLESIAL COLLABORATION Another important offshoot of Vatican II is the realization by African Ecclesial leaders that they belong together and should work more in collaboration. Emerging from this awareness was the creation of continental and regional platforms. “The collegiality experienced by the African bishops at Vatican II generated action for some form of permanent episcopal association, linking all African countries. One example of this episcopal association is the Symposium of Episcopal Conferences of Africa and Madagascar (SECAM), founded in 1969. For several decades SECAM has served as the umbrella body for episcopal conferences on the continent in areas of evangelization, theological formation, social action, leadership development, and pastoral initiative.”248 The momentum for creating and sustaining pan-African movements inspired the establishment and development of fledgling regional and national bodies. Others like the Association of Episcopal Conferences of Anglophone West Africa (AECAWA), Regional Episcopal Conference of West Africa, and the Anglophone West Africa Catechetical Commission are some of the regional bodies of which Sokoto diocese is part of. A concrete example of the effects of such collaborations is the establishment of the Catholic Institute of West Africa by AECAWA in 1981, a higher Ecclesiastical Institute dedicated to the study of theology and related disciplines in the socio-cultural context of West Africa.249 This Institute located in Nigeria has been at the forefront of promoting theological studies within an African context. Several Priest of Sokoto diocese have studied and are currently studying there. Such institutions and forums are clear expressions of the implications of the Council documents that trickle down to the diocesan level.

248 Orobator, A. E. Op. Cit. 299. 249 Cf. https://www.ciwafrica.org/about-ciwa/ accessed on 2nd April, 2021. 73

3.2.1.3 ECUMENISM Ecumenism is another area that is worth mentioning and explaining. The question of how we can relate as a Church with other Christian communities and denominations is of significant importance for the Church in Sokoto. This is even more pertinent due to the shared challenges we all face as Christians in a Muslim dominated area of Nigeria. Present tensions in different parts of sub-saharan Africa between Christians and Muslims calls for a more unified Christendom, not only at the level of social politics, but more importantly at the level of discussions on doctrinal issues of faith. As a matter of fact, there are more Protestant/ Pentecostal Christians in the states that make up Sokoto diocese than Catholics. So, we cannot exclude ourselves from the greater number and walk the walk alone. The subsistit clarification and the teaching in Lumen Gentium that ecclesiality does not reside solely in the Catholic Church but can be found in other believing Christian communities, gives us impetus to engage other Christians at a doctrinal, pastoral and practical level for ecumenism. The provisions and teachings of Lumen Gentium also provide a proper basis for the teachings of the Fathers in the Decree on Ecumenism, Unitatis Redintegratio. The existence of the Christian Association of Nigeria (a recognized association of all registered Churches throughout Nigeria) also provides a forum and opportunity for ecumenism and joint action to take place. Interestingly, two Priests of the diocese are chairmen in Sokoto and Zamfara - two of the four states that make up Sokoto diocese. There are great potentials for realizing a better understanding of the doctrinal issues, where they intersect and where they diverge. Our cooperation should not only be confined to political activity, but also a basic or fundamental platform for doctrinal understanding.

3.2.1.4 INTER-RELIGIOUS DIALOGUE As a Church, the teachings of the Council Documents provide a proper theological and even practical foundation for engagement with other religions. As noted earlier on the commentary on article 16 of Chapter 2 of Lumen Gentium, the Council opens up great possibilities for constructive interreligious engagement. Incidentally the Bishop of the diocese, Matthew Hassan Kukah was first appointed a consultor and later a member of the Pontifical Council for Inter- Religious Dialogue. “Kukah is Chairman, Dialogue Committees of both the Regional Episcopal Conference of West Africa (RECOWA) and the Catholic Bishops’ Conference of Nigeria (CBCN). He was a member of the official Delegation of the Holy See that met with the Emir of Qatar when that country opened diplomatic relations with the Holy See in 2002. In 2016, he was nominated by the Vatican to represent Africa on the Advisory Board of the Vienna-based, King Abdulazeez International Interfaith and Intercultural Dialogue, KAIICID. KAIICID is the fruit

74 of the collaboration between the governments of Saudi Arabia, Austria and the Holy See for the promotion of worldwide dialogue between world religions.”250As the head of the diocese, this puts us at great advantage to engage Islam constructively. However, beyond the pictures that adorn newspapers and the beautiful speeches made, this effort has been very tasking especially at the grassroot level of everyday people.

The diocese of Sokoto has no option but to engage the Muslim community at all levels to ensure peaceful coexistence and harmony. There are Muslim students and Pupils being educated in our schools, Muslim women are treated in our medical facilities, Muslims work in our establishments and institutions, and our people live with Muslim neighbours. The call by the Council documents for a more open relationship with other religions and the secular World spells clear for the Church in Sokoto. Also, the strategic position that Sokoto has (not just in Nigeria but in sub-Saharan Africa) as the Seat of the Islamic Caliphate, provides us with opportunities to play a key role in interreligious dialogue in Nigeria as a whole.

3.2.2 PASTORAL CHALLENGES This aspect is arguably the most challenging and problematic. This stems from the tension that has always existed between how the Christian Religion came to us in Africa, and our cultural values and beliefs. As noted above, there was no “African Church” before the Council and the Bishops from Africa were quite unprepared. The resultant effect is an almost syncretic pastoral approach. “Vatican II’s program for ‘young churches’ produced a carbon copy of Eurocentric ecclesiology laden with all the trappings and flaws of the Western church.”251 In the African church, a key challenge of Christianity is how to fashion a constructive relationship with indigenous African religion. “In many instances, ignorance and antagonism dominated the relationship and skewed the process, judging by the approach of missionaries obstinately commited to their avowed mission to demonize, oppose, and eliminate all manifestations of indigenous religion, culture and worship.”252 A prayer of the Society of African Missions Congregation went thus: “O my God, behold us humbly prostrate in thy presence beseeching thee through Jesus Christ, Thy Son, to have pity on infidel Africa. Change the hearts of its unhappy children and save their souls.”253 Vatican II however, inaugurated a new approach that

250 Akhaine, S. (2021). Kukah Gets New Appointment in Vatican. The Guardia online Newspaper. Accessed from https://guardian.ng/news/kukah-gets-new-appointment-in-vatican/, on 30th March, 2021. 251 Donovan, V. J. (2003). Christianity Rediscovered. Maryknoll, NY, Orbis, 131. 252 Orobator, A. E. Op. Cit. 253 Directory of the African Missions, Guy & Company Ltd., Cork, 1957, 44. 75 acknowledged the claims of other religions and attempted fresh interpretation and reassessment of interreligious encounter. Orobator suggests that the Council did not just accept other cultures to be refined by Christianity, but actually acknowledges something good, true and holy in them.254 Consequently, there should be an effort to allow the Gospel to really become flesh within African culture.

Furthermore, the challenge of literacy is of great concern for the diocese. Vatican II produced a corpus of constitutions, decrees, and declarations of varying themes, degrees of authority, lengths, and styles for dissemination, study, and implementation in the church. “For a continent steeped in orality and unremarkable for its literacy levels, this factor constituted a formidable challenge. The texts of Vatican II delivered in high ecclesiastical Latin would have been incomprehensible to the vast majority of African Christians and clergy in the post conciliar years.”255 So for the average Catholic in rural areas, it becomes very difficult to understand what the Council is saying and what should be done. Even in the process of translation, there is the normal challenge of loss of meaning and the difficulty in finding exact concepts or words to pass the message clearly. According to Orobator, there was also no sustained imitative after the initial excitement with which efforts were made by theologians (especially the clergy) to explain the mind of the Church to our people. “While this practice would have been common in the postconciliar years, it gradually declined as the excitement of renewal and reform ebbed, and as interest in the study of Vatican II’s documents receded to the exclusive domain of seminary formation.”256

3.2.2.1 INCULTURATION Naturally, inculturation has created a rich terrain for evaluating the depth and extent of renewal generated by Vatican II in Africa. It is a central topic that claimed the attention of the post- conciliar generation of African theologians who have been concerned with defining its meaning, delineating the scope, and regulating its application.257 In matters of the sacraments, liturgy, and theology in general, the new orientation and outlook of inculturation should propel rich pastoral opportunities. Pastoral approaches should have this in mind as the Church seeks to be more rooted within the culture it finds itself. This also means that efforts should be made by the clergy in their

254 Orobator, A. E. Op. Cit. 296. 255 Orobator, A. E. Op. Cit. 291. 256 Ibid. 257 Orobator, A. E. Op. Cit. 297. 76

Pastoral engagement to ensure that the radiating light of the Gospel shines on aspects of culture that do not promote the dignity of the human person and human society.

3.2.2.2 CATECHESIS A very good inculturation can have a very positive effect on Catechesis. We as a diocese can make the effort to situate our catechesis within the context of our culture and the understanding of our people, using signs, symbols, concepts and language that makes more sense and meaning to them, and still adhering to the principles of Catholic Orthodoxy. This can be achieved through more training of lay people or catechists, who in turn can help support the efforts at proper catechesis. The diocese has a Catechetical Training Centre for the training of Catechists, which is a very laudable achievement. However, it is important that the Curriculum for teaching at the Centre reflects the reality of the challenges and the context of the area in which the church in Sokoto exists. Though a daunting task due to funding and finding competent personnel, this Centre can be upgraded to a Theological Institute strictly for Religious and lay people. The idea is to raise a generation of lay people who have studied theology and can assist the church in areas where the Priest is not available. Recently the Pope with a new Apostolic letter which was issued motu proprio, established a Ministry of catechist, which also speaks to the need for more lay people to be involved in the mission of the Church, in fidelity to the past and responsibility for the present challenges.258 This new development can also serve to encourage lay people in the diocese to be more willing to get involved in the mission of the Church at Catechesis. It is also a laudable development that priests are being taught theology in many parts of Europe and America by lay Professors. Sokoto diocese should not be left out in the effort to train lay people who are willing to study theology and teach it in institutions of learning. It is a development that this work finds good and encouraging. When we have more lay people involved in studying and teaching theology in the diocese of Sokoto, it will help in addressing the challenge of inadequate personnel for teaching Catechism, training theologians, and taking the mission of the Church to very remote villages in the diocese. As a welcome consequence, it could also forestall shortage of theologians in the future. The shortage of Priests in Europe, led to lay people taking up the teaching of theology. If the Church in Africa should experience this same shortage on the future, it will then help a great deal if there are lay people who are willing to teach Theology. We can begin to

258 Piro, I. (2021). Pope Establishes Ministry of Catechists, Accessed from https://www.vaticannews.va/en/pope/news/2021-05/pope-establishes-ministry-of-catechist.html, on 29th May, 2021 77 prepare now. Married men who are willing, can also be trained to become deacons so that the missionary work of the Church in Sokoto is not short of personnel and is thriving positively.

3.2.3 SOCIO-POLITICAL CHALLENGES Northern Nigeria is a hotbed of socio-political intrigues. It is not farfetched to say that Sokoto diocese actually finds itself in the midst of these intrigues and many times at the receiving end of the negative consequences of these intrigues. The situation described in Chapter one about the injustices, deprivations and attacks suffered by Christians in northern Nigeria is no fluke. It is more serious when it is backed by political authority and becomes systemic. The breakdown of the rule of law has birthed a “might is right” mentality which is embedded in the very fabric of socio-political life in Northern Nigeria. This has prompted the question: is the north a region or a religion?

One factor responsible for this scenario is the almost impossible task of separating religion from politics in the way Islam is practiced in Nigeria. This mentality is taught to the Muslim child at a very young age. It is almost like a form of indoctrination for the child. Religion, politics, power and other aspects of social life are intertwined in the worldview of most Nigerian Muslims. There is no difference between the State and the Religion. The Religious leader holds sway in influencing the populace and commands the respect, attention and loyalty of the people. Politicians then seize on such a situation to infuse religious sentiments and elements in their campaigns for political power. The present Nigerian president said in an interview as a candidate in 2014: “I will continue to show openly and inside me the total commitment to the Sharia movement that is sweeping all over Nigeria … God willing, we will not stop the agitation for the total implementation of the Sharia in the country.”259 The Sharia which is Islamic Law is seen by most Muslims in northern Nigeria as superior to the Nigerian Constitution. This is so in a country that is supposed to be a secular State. Today the man who made that statement is President amidst a nation torn by conflict, injustice and continuous mistrust among groups. A nation where religion has become a vital tool of legitimation for political leaders. So, there is an intricate symbiosis between religion and politics which has played out to be more harmful than good. Whoever controls political power, controls every other facet and institution of national life, including the Rule of Law. The resultant effect of this is a vigorous clamour for political power, which in turn

259 Oyewole, B. Iinsurgency and Buhari’s Call For Full Sharia. Vanguard Online Newspaper. Accessed from https://www.vanguardngr.com/2014/12/insurgency-buharis-call-full-sharia/, on 3rd April, 2021. 78 leads to ethnic mistrusts, unnecessary rancour among groups and a winner-takes-it- mentality. Every weapon – whether physical or ideological – is used to this end.

Illiteracy is another bane in northern Nigeria. According to a Statista 2018 report, Northwest Nigeria (where Sokoto diocese is located) has a 59% literacy rate for males and 29% for females between 15 – 49 years, as compared to the southern regions with over 80% for both males and females of the same age.260 The void created by low literacy is then filled by extremist religious ideologies in their bid to perpetuate control over the people. It is also a logical consequence that northern Nigeria is economically poor. Despite huge daily amounts of income from crude oil and other mineral resources, Nigeria is the “poverty capital of the world”, with approximately 105 million people living in extreme poverty. This represents about 51% of the population. Approximately 65% of those living in extreme poverty are in the north.261 This means that the northern part of Nigeria is mostly in extreme poverty, a situation that sets the stage for all kinds of tendencies, especially negative ones. With illiteracy and poverty as the order of the day, many young people easily become willing tools in the hands of political, traditional and religious leaders for nefarious ends. To abdicate their culpability and incompetence in handling the human developmental aims of their people, these leaders have to search for substitutes; groups or people to blame for the situation. In Northern Nigeria, Christians who are mostly southerners and non- indigenes always a ready victim. So, to deviate from the real issues, the mimetic process of scapegoating comes into play. Someone or some people have to take the blame for the bad situation. The expansion of terrorist groups like Boko Haram owes their recruitment of willing young men and women to the poverty at all levels in the Northern part of Nigeria where Sokoto diocese is located. This socio-political scenario has some implications for the Church in Sokoto.

3.2.3.1 POLITICAL PARTICIPATION AND CHURCH AND STATE RELATIONS The documents in view in this work, especially Lumen Gentium, encourages Christians to be actively involved in the political process and the Church to play a role in making society better. Chapter four of Gaudium et Spes teaches that the Church has roles to play because whatever concerns humans concerns the Church. Maintaining the anthropocentrism which characterises the document, the human community should be at the center of the Church’s mission. The fourth chapter of the second part of Gaudium et Spes stresses the need for the Church to encourage

260 Literacy rate in Nigeria in 2018, by zone and gender. Accessed from https://www.statista.com/statistics/1124745/literacy-rate-in-nigeria-by-zone-and-gender/, on 3rd April, 2021. 261 World Bank Report 2020, https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/lsms/brief/nigeria-releases-new-report- on-poverty-and-inequality-in-country , accessed on 3rd April 2021. 79 people to be very much involved in the political process, as this is a way of achieving deep seated yearnings within human society.

The goal of this venture is to ensure that the dignity of every person is respected and protected. It is the view of this work that more needs to be done by the Church in Sokoto to encourage well- meaning Catholics (especially indigenes of the states that the diocese covers) to get involved in active party politics. It is going to be very tough, but not impossible. This can be achieved by programmes that can sensitise the people and educate them politically. In 2015, the Justice, Development and Peace Department (CARITAS) of the diocese went as far as organising a townhall meeting between the two Muslim candidates competing in the election as for Governor, and the Christian community. We convinced them to lay out their plans before they could get our votes. The Bishop as well as representatives of different Christian communities were in attendance and for the first time in Sokoto State, a debate was organised between the two Candidates. Following his victory in the election, the present governor, who is serving a second term, has been more tolerant and open to the Church, especially by allowing for the building of churches in some areas. This is a step in the right direction, although there is still very much more to be done.

During the 2015 elections in Nigeria, the CARITAS of Sokoto diocese employed the services of both Muslim and Christian Youth to observe elections and report irregularities. Trainings and workshops were organised for these young people to make them understand that bad governance affects everyone regardless of religious affiliation. What is needed is the concerted effort of youth to push for accountability and be fully involved in the political process. This yielded very positive results as the young people were able to see beyond religion and tribe to push for good governance and proper democracy.

It is also not out of place for the diocese to organise peaceful protests and prayerful demonstrations to voice out opinions and rights. After the kidnap of the Chibok girls by Boko Haram in 2014, the Church in Sokoto went on a peaceful and prayerful protest on the streets, demanding that government did something to ensure release of the girls. The document Gaudium et Spes acknowledges the right of people to resist and protest injustice by government (cf. GS, 43). We as a Church in Sokoto can also protest unjust laws and practices and ‘fight’ for our rights.

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Being that the Church and State are both concerned with the common good and the human person, the diocese can strive more to better foster its relationship with the State. So far, the relationship has been cordial at the level of leadership. The challenge is at the grassroot level where people are being discriminated against and even attacked physically as a result of their religion. Until the cordiality trickles down to the common person on the street, more needs to be done. This could involve several community projects around areas where Christians and Muslims live; projects that can bring people together like sports, environmental sanitation, and women livelihood projects to increase their capacity to generate sources of livelihood.

This urgent task of Christians to cooperate with government in development is motivated by the humanist principle of the equal worth of all human beings and the dignity therein. It is also embedded in the recommendations for cooperation between the Church and Civil authorities by the document Gaudium et Spes. This task, though more difficult in a diocese like Sokoto, is even more pertinent. This difficulty also makes the possibilities very interesting and the results potentially beneficiary to all.

3.2.3.2 CHURCH AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT The documents in focus in this work are clear that the primary subject of the Church’s mission is humanity and the yearnings of people all over the world. This concern is about the wholistic and integral development of the human person. The working committee of the second Synod on Africa expresses concerns in the 4th chapter of the lineamenta about the plight of the poor and suffering people of Africa.262 The call to compassion and the preferential option for the poor is a Christian imperative and not just a reserve of the “saintly” of “holy”. Afterall, we are all called to holiness.

Sustainable development has also become an important issue on the African conversation. So, the task of not just developing, but practicalising the demands of a proper Catholic hermeneutical principle that the Church uses to respond to the human needs of our people and the development of the African continent is absolutely urgent. According to Emeka Obiezu, “the metaphor of ‘family’ used by the post synodal Apostolic exhortation Ecclesia in Africa to describe the church in Africa, provides a critical hermeneutic for a fruitful and effective Christian witness of

262 2nd Special Assembly For Africa, The Church In Africa In Service To Reconciliation, Justice And Peace, Lineamenta, Vatican City, 2006. Accessed from http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/synod/documents/rc_synod_doc_20060627_ii-assembly- africa_en.html#CHAPTER%20IV, on 3rd April, 2021 81

compassion in the world of politics and economy in Africa.”263 This is in consonance with the point earlier noted in this work about the centrality of the communal space in which the African lives - the importance of community and Family, which is further backed by the teaching of the Council on the Church as Family of God and People of God. Our shared communal identity should propel the Church in Sokoto to work for human development of people within the diocese. The lifting of Families out of poverty, ensuring proper healthcare for, assisting families with sustainable livelihoods should be at the forefront of the Church’s mission too. The CARITAS of the diocese (of which I was once Director) has been making a lot of efforts in partnership with national and international agencies to ameliorate the plight of the poor in Africa. These efforts however fall short because they address the symptoms and not the disease. The structures of injustice, communal mistrust, religious bigotry and extremism, as well as corruption at the highest echelons of public office have stunted the achievements of all these initiatives. There is need to address these root cause so that it becomes easier to address the consequences and reduce to the barest minimum, the poverty that has stricken our communities.

There is also a strong need for focusing on women and their plight in terms of discrimination and injustice. Women and children are mostly the ones who bear the brunt of conflict and a failed system, especially in Africa. At all levels, there is need to empower them and give them worth and a sense of direction.

3.3 CONCLUDING REMARKS

The Church in Africa has to thank Pope John XXIII for the Council that he convoked: the Second Vatican Council. It has a great legacy in Africa which will echo for ages. The willingness of the Council to be open to the God-given values in African traditional religion and culture, has initiated a new era for the Church in Africa, when Christianity will no longer appear as a foreign religion but as one that brings to fulfilment the deepest longings of African religiosity. Decades upon decaeds after the Council the optimism expressed by African people and theologians – though continuously challenged – remains alive. Despite our insignificant contributions given the circumstances of the time, the possibilities that that event has for us is worth applauding.

263 Obiezu, E. (2011). In Ilo, S.C., Ogbonnaya, J., Ojacor, A. eds. The Church As Light And Salt (African Christian Studies Series). Oregon, Pickwick Publications. 36. 82

The currents of hope, reform, praxis and renewal which the council has put forward by its teachings and recommendations in the documents Lumen Gentium and Gaudium et Spes continue to wax stronger in the heart of the Church in Africa despite the challenges of negative legalism and conservatism. The reception of the documents of this council and their implementation has the bishops and clergy as focal points and there is great onus on this group of Churchmen. Their responsibility to guide the faithful and guard the legacy of the council is incontestable. There is need to sustain the theological creativity that has been an offshoot of the Council within the bounds of orthodoxy and to keep the flame alive. Despite the difficulties of the letters of the documents to many people in rural areas in the diocese of Sokoto, the spirit of the Council continues to animate, motivate, and support the demographic and theological flourishing of the church. Adopting Adrian Hastings’s words, we can sum up the theological and ecclesiological achievement of Vatican II in Africa as follows: “The Catholic Church of Africa of the 1980s is unthinkable without Vatican II and the many great endeavours which followed close upon it.”264 Hastings’s claim holds true not only for the 1980s but also for present times.

Consequently, we must have a conversation in northern Nigeria as to the socio-political question of what drives governance and how religion plays a role in the whole conversation. The recommendations of the documents in focus in this work lays a solid foundation for us in Sokoto diocese, not just in engaging the issues, but also defining ourselves as a Church and how this proper definition of identity can facilitate our involvement in the conversation on the common good of our people and the dignity of the Mensch.

264 Hastings, A. (1982). Opting for Vatican II Plus, Journal of Theology for Southern Africa, Vol. 41, 26.

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