Radiocarbon Dating of Human Burials from Raqefet Cave And

an Bocquentin Fanny a Bermatov-Paz Gal myBarzilai Omry Carmel Mount at traditions Natufian contemporaneous and Cave Raqefet from burials human of dating Radiocarbon ∗ 6 5 4 3 2 1 antiquity 2017 Ltd, Publications Antiquity © utrlmnfsain utb osdrdi n uuercntuto fteNatufian. the of reconstruction Keywords: future any co-existing but in diverse considered of be implications must social manifestations the cultural thought; previously than complex more therefore, N 0 eateto rhsoyadAcaooy nvriyo ikl,Eytmáo,H31 ikl,Hungary Miskolc, Cedex, H-3515 Nanterre Egyetemváros, Miskolc, 92023 of l’Université, University de Archaeology, allée and Prehistory 21 of 7041, Department UMR Israel Research, 3498838, Scientific Haifa France Avenue, for Aba-Hushi Center 199 D.F., Haifa, National México of French University 04510 Archaeology, Universitaria, of Ciudad Institute México, Zinman de Autónoma Radiocarbon Nacional Mexico Universidad Israel D-REAMS Jerusalem, Geology, 586, Anthropology, of POB Authority, Institute and Antiquities Israel Department, Israel Archaeology Research 76100, Archaeological Rehovot Integrative Science, of for Institute Weizmann Laboratory, Center Planck—Weizmann Max uhr o orsodne(Email: correspondence for Authors m200 km 139(07:13–14doi: 1137–1154 (2017): 359 91 eat sal aee ae lWd Natufian el-Wad, Cave, Raqefet Israel, Levant, 1,2, ∗ 4 om Rebollo Noemi , Cave Raqefet 5 Jerusalem evnYeshurun Reuven , lsbtaBoaretto Elisabetta & [email protected] 1137 1,3 aiNadel Dani , itnusigbtenNtfinpae is, phases Natufian assemblages. between lunate Distinguishing some distinct at with two contemporaneous but these point, fact in that were el- indicate sites and Results Natufian; Natufian entire sequence. the the spanning of Terrace, to Wad phase assigned Late Israel: conventionally the in Cave, Carmel Mount Raqefet at neighbouring sites two Natufian from dating AMS new addressed now by is from This dates. support absolute lacks reliable chronology phases, internal Late and this Early into conven- divided Although tionally East. Near the transition in the and farming sedentism in to gathering step and hunting pivotal from a marks ( BP) culture Natufian The ; 4 [email protected] yryLengyel György , 1 4 , 10.15184/aqy.2017.136 c. 6 , 51. acal ka 15–11.5 )

Research Omry Barzilai et al.

Introduction The Natufian was a semi-sedentary hunter-gatherer culture that occupied the Levant during the Terminal Pleistocene (e.g. Belfer-Cohen 1991; Valla 1995). Natufian sites in the Mediterranean woodland area of the southern Levant include curvilinear structures with stone foundations, intensively used cemeteries with diverse burial customs, ground stone tools and bedrock features, decorated art objects and evidence for dog domestication (Davis & Valla 1978; Belfer-Cohen 1988; Valla 1988; Weinstein-Evron 1998; Bocquentin 2003; Dubreuil 2004; Rosenberg & Nadel 2014). As such, the Natufian culture was innovative in many ways. Natufian subsistence relied on systematic plant gathering and processing, evidenced by flint sickle blades and ground stone tools, and by the intensified hunting of gazelles and small game (Unger-Hamilton 1991; Dubreuil 2004;Munro2004; Edwards 2006;Bar-Ozet al. 2013;Yeshurunet al. 2014). These practices are considered to have played a major role in initiating the ‘agricultural revolution’ in the Near East, thereby lending special importance to the accurate determination of their chronologies (e.g. Valla 1995; Belfer-Cohen & Bar-Yosef 2000). The geographic expansion of the Natufian is broadly divided into two provinces: the Mediterranean woodland area and the more arid belt (Belfer-Cohen & Goring-Morris 2013; Goring-Morris & Belfer-Cohen 2013; Richter et al. 2014). The settlement pattern in the Mediterranean area, where Raqefet Cave is situated, includes semi-permanent settlements and other sites that were probably designated for burials (Figure 1). The latter are considered indicators of “boundaries between various regional groups” (Goring-Morris et al. 2009: 205). Some of the Natufian graves display complex funerary practices reflecting an elaborate social system (Garrod & Bate 1937: 14–19; Belfer-Cohen 1988;Byrd& Monahan 1995; Bocquentin 2003; Grosman et al. 2008;Nadelet al. 2013).

Natufian chronology The rich archaeological record is used for determining the relative Natufian chronology and is conventionally divided into Early and Late phases, although some scholars (e.g. Valla 1995) divide it into three phases: Early, Late and Final. This paper follows the two-phase division that combines the Late and Final into a single phase. The most commonly used criterion for distinguishing between these phases is that of the microlithic lunates, which were originally part of composite hunting tools (Bocquentin & Bar-Yosef 2004; Yaroshevich et al. 2013). Larger lunates shaped by bifacial retouch, known as Helwan lunates, are typically attributed to the Early Natufian, whereas smaller backed lunates characterise the Late Natufian (e.g. Bar-Yosef & Valla 1979; Valla 1984; Goring-Morris 1987). This chronological scheme is based upon the stratigraphic sequence of two major sites, Eynan and el-Wad Terrace (Garrod & Bate 1937; Valla 1984; Kaufman et al. 2015), and is often used for determining the chronology of undated Natufian sites. Natufian radiocarbon chronology is based on more than 120 radiocarbon dates, which supposedly represent the entire Natufian sequence (Maher et al. 2011: tab. 3; Grosman 2013: appendix). Many dates, however, are on materials from poorly defined contexts or were produced by old dating techniques, such as decay counting. Recent attempts to refine © Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2017

1138 h aua hoooybsdo ulse aaapidsvrlsreigciei oreduce Maher to criteria errors. screening several and applied uncertainties data published on based and chronology Cave Natufian Raqefet the Levant. Southern the of area core Mediterranean the in sites red. in Natufian marked major are el-Wad showing Map 1. Figure ae rmteraayi hthdlresadr eitoso nla archaeological unclear or deviations standard large had old that and dates analysis single contexts; their from dates rmodecvtosa eih) oee,wr o xldd oevr ocnrlwas control provided were no details Moreover, no charcoal preservation. and excluded. charcoal or effect), on not wood Hatoula, old and were (i.e. characteristics however, Raqefet charcoal at Jericho), regarding applied excavations at old excavations the old from from bones burnt (e.g. dating for aua n 8dtsatiue oteLt aua.I sntseie hc ae were (Grosman dates database which the specified not but is scheme, It chronological Natufian. Late the the from to excluded attributed dates 78 and Natufian ya,Hynm aa rn(ape rmntawy lal endcnet)and Lengyel contexts) see defined contexts; clearly unreliable always with not excavation from (old (samples Cave Oren Raqefet Nahal Hayonim, Eynan, eepeae eoetebgnigo h 90;o )teaersl s20 er le or they older b) years 2000 years); is 300 result than age (more the c) range or error 1980s; expected. large the than a of younger a) beginning the conditions: before three prepared of were one met they if eysmlrt hto Maher of that to similar very h hoooypooe yGomn( Grosman by proposed chronology The lclyadPnai( Pinhasi and Blockley aicro aigo ua uil rmRqftCave Raqefet from burials human of dating Radiocarbon 2011 14 tal. et eemntoswr loecue.Mtrasproblematic Materials excluded. also were determinations C eysll nfu aua ie o hi chronology: their for sites Natufian four on solely rely ) tal. et ( 2011 ( 2011 : 1139 2013 a.3 tab. : a.3 tab. eiso 3dtsatiue oteEarly the to attributed dates 23 on relies ) .Dtswr xlddfo h analysis the from excluded were Dates ). ,freape xldd3 published 34 excluded example, for ), niut ulctosLd 2017 Ltd, Publications Antiquity © 2007 2013 .I u view, our In ). pedx is appendix) :

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Figure 2. Plan of burials in the first chamber, Raqefet Cave. Bn = dated bone; Ch = dated charcoal. this scheme, based exclusively on four sites, does not represent the entire range and nuances of the Natufian radiometric chronology. To avoid such limitations, we chose to focus on recently produced dates from two nearby sites from Mount Carmel as a case study for Natufian chronology, which are from well- defined, high-quality contexts. Accordingly, we here present new dates obtained from the recent excavations at Raqefet Cave and compare them to the published dates from el-Wad Terrace (Eckmeier et al. 2012; Weinstein-Evron et al. 2012; Caracuta et al. 2016). The dates from these sites, excavated using similar modern methods, and with samples extracted from secure contexts, enable us to establish a radiometric chronological framework into which the lunate assemblages from these sites can be incorporated.

Raqefet Cave Raqefet Cave is situated in an inner wadi (Raqefet) on the south-eastern side of Mount Carmel (Figure 1). The site was ﬁrst excavated between 1970 and 1972 (Noy & Higgs 1971). Renewed excavations from 2004–2011 (Nadel et al. 2008, 2009, 2012; Lengyel et al. 2013) revealed that the Natuﬁans used the site primarily for burials, as evidenced by 29 adult, child and infant interments (Figures 2–5;Nadelet al. 2012). Four graves had direct © Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2017

1140 s fsoeojcs n h lbwt umr ntop. on cupmark a the with slab Note the visible. and objects, are south-east. stone individuals of looking use several excavation, of during bones 1 Human Locus 3. Figure .1)( 0.019) ahnmclyi h td ftefua ean rmlcs1 hs odremains refuse food Natufian these domestic 1; than examined (Yeshurun locus graves however, rather the from was, of feasts, digging remains fills the funerary to faunal the prior representing accumulated in the as materials of interpreted the study were with the burials. burials the in in the included taphonomically been of have to relationship earlier or The contemporaneous either be must lithics Such aeoyicue ohuioa n ioa pcmn,adamxueo oh( assemblage both lunate of mixture the the a of loci and specimens, cent these bipolar per In and unipolar respectively. 6.4 both 3 and includes category and 7.9 encompass 1 Tools loci (n blades. from than assemblages common lithic more times four ih pcmn hthv ohHla n oearp eoc.Acrigt the to According retouch. abrupt ( some specimens and Valla retouched Helwan & Bar-Yosef (e.g. both chronology partially Natufian relative have and used commonly that fully specimens include eight lunates Helwan The rprino butybce uae lgsteRqftasmlg ihteLt Natufian Late the with assemblage Raqefet the phase. aligns lunates backed abruptly of proportion hw httefre uae r infiatylre hntelte ( latter the than larger significantly are lunates former the that shows ln rmtegaefil a o edrcl soitdwt h ae ua remains. human dated the with associated directly be not may fills grave the from Flint oprn opeeHla (n Helwan complete Comparing = 0)i oiae ytearpl akdtp 8. e et.Teabrupt The cent). per (89.5 type backed abruptly the by dominated is 200) al 2 Table ). aicro aigo ua uil rmRqftCave Raqefet from burials human of dating Radiocarbon = 2 n butybce uae(n lunate backed abruptly and 12) 1141 ae fpatmtra,icuigsage including material, (Nadel plant thick flowers a of of composed layer lining, a of evidence ftebdok(ae Lengyel & (Nadel Nadel out bedrock hollowed the features of of variety wide the rmsvrlde otr (Power mortars 2014 deep (or several mortars recoveredfrom were rock-cut phytoliths larger, and shafts), the deep of few a 2016 sebae.Baeesaeapproximately are Bladelets total the assemblages. of cent per 50 over product, just dominant comprising the are In flakes whole. loci, viewed a both as be cemetery from should the representing or and as graves, pits the burial within immediate the the of from surroundings recovered was flints 000atfcs n scretyun- currently (Nadel 2008 analyses is detailed and dergoing artefacts, 000 20 n )wr nlsda ato the of part as (1 analysed loci ( research were richest current 3) the from and samples Two ute seto oea h ieis site the at note of aspect further A h itasmlg otisover contains assemblage flint The ). in found were edge on set Stones ). Lengyel ; tal. et tal. et niut ulctosLd 2017 Ltd, Publications Antiquity © 2015 tal et 2013 2009 al 1 Table . ae Rosenberg & Nadel ; 1979 ). Lengyel ; 2013 t (114) .Ti opsof corpus This ). Valla ; ). = = iue7 Figure 0)lengths 104) –2.377, tal. et 1984 iue6 Figure 2013 ,and ), 2009 ,this ), tal. et tal et p = ). ). . ;

Research Omry Barzilai et al.

Figure 4. The double burial of Homo 25 and Homo 28.

Figure 5. Homo 19 during excavation.

1142 pcrsoy hc eemndtersltigfco n h rsraino collagen of preservation the and factor splitting their ( determined which samples Terrace el-Wad spectroscopy, the for used also (Eckmeier was that procedure water-acid-base-acid standard from burials. three the and adolescents), with two association and in adults found (three pieces individuals charcoal five to belonging bones long olwn h lrfitainmto fBokRamsey Bronk prepared of were samples method Bone ultrafiltration analysed. the was composition following mineralogical their and screening ol 66 7–96 1496 100% 1400 117 – 35 1477 2.3% 100% 1360 35 – 58.4% 88 874 17 6% 88 857 30.9% 52.6% 777 28 463 63 749 400 8.3% 34.2% (see dates radiocarbon eight 505 obtained We 124 66 dates 16 radiocarbon The 439 7.2% 108 % 107 Total 23 Tools Debitage 84 3 Locus % Total Tools Debitage 1 Locus the Note Cave). (Raqefet blanks to according 3 and loci. 1 two loci the from between samples similarity flint high of breakdown A 1. Table h utblt ftedtdsmlswscridotfrec ape l aicro dates radiocarbon All sample. (Reimer each for IntCal13 out using carried was calibrated samples were dated the of suitability the okbsn trigfo h ot,ajcn otewl ftecv,adcontinuing and cave, the the of in wall burials the the to of adjacent progression (Lengyel north, northern diachronic south the (Homo the the the cluster in from towards confirm southern burial starting the dates lowest in basin, the These burial rock of uppermost 6541). dating the RTK 1 the and 6481) locus from 9, RTK is derived 15, phase is used (Homo burial range cluster was earliest This site BP. The the cal generations. years that many indicate over dates ground ( radiocarbon burial and Natufian burials a as the of distribution spatial xetfrRK63,wihdtst rud1 0 a P( BP cal 000 12 around to Institute dates which Weizmann 6638, RTK the for except at Dating Radiocarbon for Science. of D-REAMS Spectrometer Mass 2009 hwta hslcto a sdfrbra o prxmtl 0 er,adpossibly and years, 500 approximately for burial results radiometric for The BP. used cal year was 940 140–12 location more. 13 this to location that this show of use the extend may Rebollo iue3 Figure h hrolseieswr aooial dnie n r-rae olwn the following pre-treated and identified taxonomically were specimens charcoal The h e e fdtsfo aee aecutr ewe 400ad1 0 a BP, cal 000 13 and 000 14 between clusters Cave Raqefet from dates of set new The .Alsmlswr rprdadmaue tteDnorRsac Accelerator Research Dangoor the at measured and prepared were samples All ). ,wihswtebra fa es e niiul ewe 400ad1 480 13 and 010 14 between individuals ten least at of burial the saw which ), tal et tal et forthcoming . . 2012 ldsBaeesFae oe Total Cores Flakes Bladelets Blades aicro aigo ua uil rmRqftCave Raqefet from burials human of dating Radiocarbon .Tefiebnswr r-cenduigFuirtasominfrared transform Fourier using pre-screened were bones five The ). .Sdmnsahrn otebnswr eoe eoepre- before removed were bones the to adhering Sediments ). tal. et 2013 .Dtn fcaca rmtesuhr cluster southern the from charcoal of Dating ). al 3 Table tal et 1143 . o eal)fo aee:fiefo human from five Raqefet: from details) for 2013 n xa 42(rn Ramsey (Bronk v4.2 OxCal and ) tal et niut ulctosLd 2017 Ltd, Publications Antiquity © .( iue8 Figure 2004 .Qaiycnrlof control Quality ). .Testratigraphy, The ).

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Figure 6. Lunates from Raqefet Cave. 1: Abrupt (locus 1, C12a, 222–228); 2: abrupt and bipolar (locus 3, 195–200); 3: bipolar (locus 3, C15d, 190–195); 4: Helwan (locus 3, E15a, 210–214); 5: Helwan and abrupt (locus 3, 193–200).

Other dated graves were double interments in the adjacent locus 3. The double grave containing Homo 18/Homo 19 was dated to 13 640–13 160 cal BP and the double grave of Homo 25/Homo 28 was dated to 12 400–11 600 cal BP.

Discussion Recent evaluations of available radiocarbon dates have proposed that the Natuﬁan lasted approximately 3500 years, between c. 15 000 and 11 500 cal BP (e.g. Goring-Morris © Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2017

1144 iue7 E mg faHla uae(ou ,B12d, 1, (locus lunate Helwan a of 223–238). image SEM 7. Figure 2.16 4.9 15.54 Mean Abrupt Cave). (Raqefet type to according 3, and 1 loci from lunates complete of mm) (in Dimensions 2. Table oa en1.9492.14 1.96 4.9 4.91 15.79 17.9 Mean Mean Total Helwan w pems aua ees r h lss oRqftCv nteHla:abrupt Helwan: the in the Cave are Raqefet which to W0, closest and the 1–2 are units levels, Terrace El-Wad Natufian (Kaufman sites. uppermost lunates the two Helwan between differences large shows by dominated from clearly assemblage lithic is The contexts al. architecture. et Natufian no with ( Early levels layer the occupation thick overlying a and by floors, represented Mediterranean is the Terrace in el-Wad sequences Natufian (Weinstein-Evron best-dated area and detailed core most the of one provides osqety h aeNtfinlti sebaea aee aeflswti the within falls Cave Raqefet at (Goring-Morris Natufian assemblage Early the lithic of range time Natufian accepted commonly Late the Consequently, aua ieo lWdTrae oae 0mt h et( west the to 10km located Terrace, el-Wad of site Natufian 2011 oprsnbtentelnt sebae rmRqftCv n lWdTerrace el-Wad and Cave Raqefet from assemblages lunate the between Comparison hscrnlg sspotdb oprn h aee aerslst h neighbouring the to results Cave Raqefet the comparing by supported is chronology This ). 2015 ). 1 1 116 0.52 104 116 0.41 1.26 0.52 116 104 1.03 3.31 1.29 104 2.4 deviation Standard 3.32 N deviation Standard N121212 deviation Standard N aicro aigo ua uil rmRqftCave Raqefet from burials human of dating Radiocarbon tal. et 2012 Kaufman ; 1145 eghWdhThickness Width Length Pinhasi al et r endb hi uaeassemblages. lunate phases their two by the if defined BP, are to cal Carmel 000 Mount 14 beginning at around the Natufian Late sets the graves, of the in backed in of burials, lunates proportion Cave the with Raqefet radiocarbon association the from The dates than Late suggested. earlier to occurred previously Early have from may Natufian shift postulated the that new demonstrate Cave Our Raqefet BP. from cal results 500 13 occurred approximately have at The to Natufian. considered is Late major changeover and two Early (mainly into the typology) phases: divided lithic further on based usually is span > m otiigsrcue ihliving with structures containing 1m) . tal et 2009 2011 . 2015 Bar-Yosef ; niut ulctosLd 2017 Ltd, Publications Antiquity © ;Grosman iue1 Figure .TeEryNtfinat Natufian Early The ). tal et 2011 .E-a Terrace El-Wad ). 2013 . 2009 lcly& Blockley ; .Ti time This ). ;Bar-Yosef

Research Omry Barzilai et al. σ 2 ± range 11 880–11 840 (4%) : 820–21). 13 620–13 280 (94%) ), the el-Wad dates from 2012 2013 et al. .( σ 1 et al ± 11 660–11 650 (2.9%) 12 320–12 310 (3.5%) 12 270–12 240 (9.3%) 11 860–11 850 (0.3%) 12 160–11 970 (66.3%) 12 240–11 940(80.4%) 11 840–11 700 (42.8%) 11 520–11 500 (1.3%) 13 560–13 380 (68.2%) 13 710–13 680 (1.4%) 87 86 14 000–13 780 (68.2%) 14 140–13 740 (95.4%) 45 12 220–12 220 (1.9%)45 12 380–12 270 12 (11%) 530–12 380 (55.4%)60 12 550–12 140 (95.4%) 13 100–12 960 (68.2%) 13 120–12 830 (95.4%) 45 11 950–11 870 (22.5%) 12 030–11 600 (94.1%) 7083 13 100–12 940 (68.2%) 13 13 140–12 320–13 820 140 (95.4%) (68.2%) 13 410–13 090 (95.4%) 125 14 030–13 720 (68.2%) 14 160–13 560 (95.4%) 120 125 13 740–13 490 (68.2%) 13 950–13 380 (95.4%) 120 13 360–13 130 (68.2%) 13 470–13 060 (95.4%) 115 12 400–11 960 (67.9%) 12 550–11 710 (95.4%) 125 ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± C age BP Calibrated Calibrated 14 RTK 6480combine 11 725 11 630 ). Eight samples from el-Wad were excluded from this table as they were either too old (RT ) ) ) 2016 .( Quercus Prunus Prunus ( ( ( et al Sample Laboratory (68.2% range ) and Caracuta 2012 ( et al. C dates from Raqefet Cave and el-Wad. The Raqefet Cave dates of Homo 18, 19 and 28 from Nadel 14 Raqefet under Homo 26, L. 3 LNEl-Wad charcoal Unit Ib RTK 6795.1El-Wad Unit I /II 12El-Wad 056 LN Unit I /II charcoal LN charcoal RTD 6963 LN RTD 6954 charcoal 10 295 RTD 6964 10 460 11 150 El-Wad Unit Ib LN charcoal RTD 6976 10 140 Raqefet Homo 15, L. 1 LN human bone RTK 6481 11 995 Raqefet Homo 19, L.3Raqefet Homo 9, L. 1 LN human bone LN RTK 6540 human bone RTK 6541 11 540 11 790 Raqefet Homo 18, L. 3 LN human bone RTK 6607 11 405 Raqefet L. 3 LN charcoal RTK 6798.1 11 402 Site Context Period type number conﬁdence) year BP year BP Table 3. Raqefet Homo 28, L. 3Raqefet Homo 9, L. 1 LN human bone LN RTK 6638 charcoal 10 RTK 320 6479 11 155 Weinstein-Evron 6097-2, RTD 6957 and RTD 6958) or their cultural context was not secure (RTT 6114, 6095-2) (Weinstein-Evron

1146 Table 3. Continued. 14C age BP Calibrated Calibrated Sample Laboratory (68.2% range ±1σ range ±2σ Site Context Period type number conﬁdence) year BP year BP

El-Wad Unit II LN charcoal RTD 6955 11 825±50 13 720–13 590 (68.2%) 13 766–13 540(95%) Cave Raqefet from burials human of dating Radiocarbon 13 498–13 490 (0.4%) El-Wad Unit II EN bone RTT 5786 11 370±115 13 310–13 100 (68.2%) 13 450–13 040 (95.4%) El-Wad Unit II EN charcoal RTD 6959 11 445±50 13 350–13 220 (68.2%) 13 410–13 160 (95.4%) El-Wad Unit II EN charcoal RTD 6956 11 460±45 13 370–13 260 (68.2%) 13 420–13 200 (95.4%) El-Wad Unit II EN bone RTT 6115 11 570±75 13 460–13 320 (68.2%) 13 560–13 270 (95.4%) El-Wad Unit II EN charcoal RTT 6116 11 640±70 13 550–13 410 (68.2%) 13 590–13 300 (95.4%) El-Wad Unit II EN charcoal RTT 6106 11 840±100 13 760–13 560 (68.2%) 13 940–13 890 (2.9%) 13 860–13 460 (92.5%) 1147 El-Wad Unit II EN charcoal RTT 6105 11 935±100 13 930–13 900 (5.7%) 14 050–13 550 (95.4%) 13 860–13 600 (62.5%) El-Wad Unit II EN bone RTT 5790 11 965±125 13 990–13 710 (61.8%) 14 130–13 540 (95.1%) 13 670–13 630 (6.4%) 13 500–13 500 (0.3%) El-Wad Unit II EN charcoal RTD 6975 12 140±50 14 110–13 940 (68.2%) 14 160–13 820 (95.4%) El-Wad Unit II EN charcoal RTT 6117-2 12 300±70 14 420–14 090 (68.2%) 14 690–14 030 (95.4%) El-Wad Unit II EN charcoal RTT 6096-2 12 340±85 14 560–14 140 (68.2%) 14 840–14 050 (95.4%) niut ulctosLd 2017 Ltd, Publications Antiquity © El-Wad Unit II EN charcoal RTD 6960 12 350±50 14 490–14 160 (68.2%) 14 700–14 110 (95.4%) El-Wad Unit II EN bone RTT 6107 12 350±100 14 620–14 150 (68.2%) 14 930–14 040 (95.4%) El-Wad Unit II EN charcoal RTT 6098-2 12 430±80 14 750–14 280 (68.2%) 14 990–14 160 (95.4%) El-Wad Unit II EN human bone RTT 6114 11 570±75 13 460–13 320 (68.2%) 13 560–13 270 (95.4%) El-Wad Unit II EN charcoal RTT 6095-2 11 610±80 13 540–13 510 (9.3%) 13 582–13 280 (95.4%) 13 490–13 350 (58.9%) El-Wad Unit II EN charcoal RTT 6097-2 14 150±140 17 440–17 025 (68.2%) 17 610–16 760 (95.4%) El-Wad Unit II EN charcoal RTD 6957 14 266±55 17 490–17 270 (68.2%) 17 570–17 160 (95.4%) El-Wad Unit II EN charcoal RTD 6958 15 350±60 18 710–18 560 (68.2%) 18 770–18 480 (95.4%)

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Figure 8. Probability distribution of the calibrated radiocarbon dates from Raqefet Cave and el-Wad Terrace. Colour codes refer to material type: red: human bone; orange: animal bone; black: charcoal.

ratio. The latter, however, has a higher proportion (almost 25 per cent) of backed lunates (Table 4). Hierarchical cluster analysis of the proportions of the two types of lunates in each assemblage shows two groups (Figure 9). The smaller group includes Raqefet Cave and el-Wad units 1–2 and W0; the rest of the el-Wad assemblages comprise the larger group. © Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2017

1148 tal et cuainfrteEryNtfinbten1 0 n 320clB ( BP cal 200 13 and 000 15 between Natufian Early the for occupation oa on 6 7 1042 86 579 283 182 59 63 463 210 39 131 71 27 42 21 73 29 97 51 39 13 21 count 200 117 10 35 32 count 21 34 8 count Total 62 count W7 El-Wad count 179 W6 El-Wad 83 count W5 El-Wad count W4 El-Wad count W3 El-Wad count W2 El-Wad count W1 El-Wad count W0 El-Wad 1–2 Unit El-Wad Raqefet (Kaufman sequence el-Wad the along lunates backed and Helwan of Frequencies 4. Table ogitreit hs ewe h al n h aeNtfindrn hc h two the which during Natufian Late the a and was Early there that the is communities between difference two typological phase the the are intermediate that for explanation long possibility sites plausible the One exclude two interact. to chronological not seem the did reflecting would sites as from the interpreted between dimensions) Caracuta distance be lunate (e.g. setting and cannot distinct ecological in they frequencies Similarity The phases. thus type and assemblages. of synchronous lithic apparently terms contemporaneous (in the compositions between differences Cave the Raqefet of Natufian Late Thus, BP. earliest cal the 000 and 13 Terrace contemporaneous. and el-Wad are 000 of shows 14 Natufian el-Wad around Early of between latest it chronology absolute years, the absolute the 1000 date, Natufian approximately between Early single of comparison Raqefet overlap the A a from an and outlier. dates Cave Being an Natufian Raqefet not Natufian. Late of is new chronology Late sample el-Wad the RTK-6955 Now, the at the outlier. (charcoal) suggest and an RTK-6955 Cave be Early sample to the of suspected however, age between was, early there The BP. overlap cal shows 800 700–11 13 to dates h lWdpae eercnl aicro ae n lal hwacontinuous a show clearly and dated radiocarbon recently were phases el-Wad The h eletbihddtn eut rmteetostsrieaqeto concerning question a raise sites two these from results dating well-established The . 2012 Weinstein-Evron ; aicro aigo ua uil rmRqftCave Raqefet from burials human of dating Radiocarbon ihnasmlg 445. 100 100 100 55.6 100 68.6 100 74.2 72 44.4 100 31.4 100 66.7 25.8 100 74.4 assemblage within % 28 100 54.9 assemblage within % 33.3 100 61.9 assemblage within % 25.6 100 36.1 assemblage within % 45.1 29.1 assemblage within % 38.1 10.5 assemblage within % 63.9 assemblage within % 70.9 assemblage within % 89.5 assemblage within % assemblage within % assemblage within % tal et . 2012 .Eiec o h aeNtfini preand sparse is Natufian Late the for Evidence ). 1149 uaetypes Lunate tal et akdHla Total Helwan Backed . 2016 niut ulctosLd 2017 Ltd, Publications Antiquity © n h iie geographic limited the and ) iue7 Figure (Eckmeier ) tal et . 2015 ).

Research Omry Barzilai et al.

Figure 9. Hierarchical cluster analysis of Raqefet Cave and el-Wad Terrace using the proportions of abruptly backed and Helwan lunates. lunate types coexisted (Kaufman et al. 2015). Although the presence of the two types together in Natuﬁan sites has usually been interpreted as a mixture of two chronological phases, this aprioriassumption has been questioned for several sites in the southern Levant (Olszewski 1986, 1988; Barzilai et al. 2015). The use of lunates as a relative chronological marker has been further challenged by the discovery of small lunates modiﬁed by Helwan © Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2017

1150 eoc tteoe-i ie fHfSaa n hbya1(Marder 1 Shubayqa and Shahaf Hof of sites open-air the at retouch iue1 ntRgvGsspeae iue ,6ad7 etakN aafo h ai nlssand Analysis Basin the from Taha N. prepared thank We Birkenfeld 7. Michal burials. and the 6 of 2, excavation Figures the prepared Regev-Gisis in assisted Anat Panades, Cabellos Bosset 1. Teresa the Figure Gabrielle excavation. and The and the 8915-11) Authority. (grant supported Lambert Parks Society and generously Aurore grant Nature Geographic 7481-2008) Israel National (ISF (grant the the E.B. Foundation of Foundation, Wenner-Gren G-34/2010 by permits Archaeological G-64/2008, supervised and CARE Authority, G-34/2006, O.B., Levi-Sala Antiquities G-2004/50, by Irene Israel numbers the conducted licence of project under G-22/2011 research out and post-doctoral carried a was Fieldwork of 475/10). part forms work This ifrne nlnt ye,cmol sda rjcie (Yaroshevich projectiles as used commonly style types, projectile lunate that show in studies differences Wiessner Ethnographic (e.g. sphere. information social social convey the can in found be may Terrace dating. radiocarbon of lack al et hra lWdTraewsastlmn nldn wlig,brasadavreyof variety a and burials ground, dwellings, burial including Natufian settlement a Bate & as a (Garrod primarily features was functioned Terrace Cave el-Wad Raqefet whereas identity. social to attest aesuiswl nac h eouino u aigo h aua,adtu further communities thus Acknowledgements sedentary and East. of Near Natufian, the establishment the in the agriculture of to of dating development led the our that and of processes additional possible complex resolution that hoped the wherever the is illuminate and enhance It dates. will schemes, radiocarbon studies dating context-specific case relative to to compared such sufficient secure be considered in from should (and be they incorporated retrieved phases not Natufian specimens be should dating only should for places) Furthermore, contexts proxy chronology. and a high-precision periods as a other types support in tool implications phases of have use also may but the probably zone, Hence Mediterranean regions. the other to applies for This Natufian. the of dating 000 14 between period the for BP. region cal Carmel 000 13 Mount cemetery and the Cave in Raqefet marker the the chronological that that and suitable shows centuries study many Our for floors. secure used same living was materials the and retrieve from graves typologies) to as lithic therefore, such and crucial, radiocarbon contexts, Mediterranean (e.g. is dating It relative the processes. and were absolute taphonomic in for that of contexts sites variety archaeological a Natufian include to and subjected chronologies. complex stratigraphically absolute are zone and woodland relative of east. integration the to valleys types) the lunate also (i.e. maybe tradition that and lithic two Carmel possible at different between Mount is its distinguished burials within it with that Thus of each marker latter. presence communities, geographic the Natufian the of a co-existing represents site as burial cemetery well the Cave between as not Raqefet difference el-Wad, was the The former and nearby. the Cave settlement that Natufian Raqefet suggest el-Wad, a at for assemblages place lunate burial the a as used been have (Nadel Cave Raqefet at found was nte xlnto o h yooia ifrne ewe aee aeadel-Wad and Cave Raqefet between differences typological the for explanation Another u eut hrfr usinterlaiiyo h omnyue uaebsdrelative lunate-based used commonly the of reliability the question therefore results Our the namely, problem: archaeological common a highlights study case current The . 2014 .Terpsto ihnNtfincrnlg scretyukondet the to due unknown currently is chronology Natufian within position Their ). aicro aigo ua uil rmRqftCave Raqefet from burials human of dating Radiocarbon 1937 Weinstein-Evron ; tal et . 2008 osldirecteur fossil 1151 , 1983 2009 1998 .Tu,i spsil httetypological the that possible is it Thus, ). , 2012 , 2009 fteNtfin h uae snta not is lunate, the Natufian, the of , 2013 .Ta ostlmn evidence settlement no That ). niut ulctosLd 2017 Ltd, Publications Antiquity © ugssta h iemust site the that suggests ) tal et tal. et . 2013 2013 Richter ; ,may ),

Research Omry Barzilai et al.

Petrophysical laboratory (PetroLab) at the University of Haifa, and N. Waldmann and R. Reshef for their help in documenting the lunates. E. Gershtein prepared the photographs of lunates.

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Received: 8 June 2016; Accepted: 30 August 2016; Revised: 10 September 2016

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