Escola Internacional de Doutoramento
Pablo Pita Orduna
TESE DE DOUTORAMENTO
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socioecological systems in data-poor situations
Dirixida polos doutores: Sebastián Villasante Larramendi e Manel Antelo Suárez
Ano:
2020
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Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
Acknowledgments
Thanks to all those who, in so different ways, have forced me to move forward.
To Diana, Ada, and Elba
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PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
Index of contents
Acknowledgments ...... 3 Abstract ...... 5 Resumen ...... 12 1. Introduction...... 20 2. Objectives ...... 25 2.1. Socioecological changes in data-poor small-scale fisheries ...... 25 2.1.1. The case of the shell fisheries of Galicia ...... 25 2.1.2. The case of the marine recreational fisheries of Galicia ...... 25 2.2. The governance frameworks of marine recreational fisheries in Spain and Galicia ...... 26 2.3. The economic activity of recreational fishing charters in the North Atlantic ...... 26 3. Discussion ...... 27 4. Conclusions...... 31 5. References ...... 32 Annexes ...... 56 Annex I ...... 57 Annex II ...... 75 Annex III ...... 90 Annex IV ...... 105 Annex V ...... 116 Annex VI ...... 119
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PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
Abstract
Information on where and how humans use coastal environments is essential in the planning and management of marine resources. However, knowledge about the interactions between socioeconomic, governance, and ecological patterns of marine socioecological systems is largely unknown. This thesis focuses in the analyses of synergies and trade-offs between services of marine ecosystems and socioeconomic development, studying the local and global implications of how human and biophysical processes interact with the structure and function of coastal ecosystems, and how they affect the availability of food, income, employment, health and equity in coastal communities. In the different publications that make up this thesis, quantitative models and participatory approaches have been used to integrate ecological and socioeconomic dimensions to understand present and future patterns of marine socioecological systems. In this thesis it has been demonstrated that under data-poor management scenarios a combination of different sources of data can be used to document and analyze key changes in small-scale fisheries (SSF), specifically in marine recreational fisheries (MRF) and S-fisheries (small-scale, spatially-structured, targeting sedentary stocks) to inform management and policy. MRF and the shellfish fishery of Galicia (NW Spain) have been selected as cases of study because they are highly relevant fisheries in Europe that are managed in a data-poor environment with urgent needs of updated information by regional policy makers and managers to ensure socioecological sustainability. Special attention has been paid to interrelation between socioeconomic changes and resource exploitation issues. Despite its socioeconomic relevance, the shellfish fishery of Galicia is a paradigmatic example of European S-fishery that is managed in a data-poor environment, with urgent needs of updated social, economic, and ecological information. Long-term changes in the shell fisheries of Galicia were analyzed to help regional policy makers and fisheries managers to improve management. Results were published in the international journal Marine Policy (see Annex I).
In this paper (Annex I) there were reconstructed total removals of shellfish species from Galicia for 1950-2017. Data on commercial fishing fleets were obtained from the Pesca de Galicia website (https://www.pescadegalicia.gal), namely, length, power and capacity, main fishing grounds where the Galician fleet is operating (in national waters and international fishing grounds) and fishing gear used (i.e., shellfishing licenses) for all vessels in different homeports for the period 2004- 2016. Data on daily shellfish sales (kilograms, value in € and mean value in €·kg-1) by species for the first-sale markets were also collected from Pesca de Galicia for the period 2003-2015. Data on employment of on-foot shellfishers by cofradía de pescadores (fishers' organizations) were obtained for the period 1998-2017. Thereafter, recent temporary trends in fishing vessel length, capacity and power, the number of commercial shellfishing licenses, employment, catches, and sales value 5 | Page
PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations were analyzed by using generalized linear models (GLM). Different covariates, error structures and link functions were assessed in the models, which were selected based on Akaike’s information criterion. Catches and sales value were analyzed by means of hierarchical clusters to identify differences between first-sale markets. The similarity percentage, based on a decomposition of Bray-Curtis dissimilarities were used to identify the landed species that contribute most to differences.
It was shown that the shellfishing capacity of Galicia, a major fishing power in Europe, has been severely reduced in recent decades (Annex I). The number of vessels has fallen by 13%, vessel length, capacity and engine power have decreased by 10%, 7% and 3%, respectively, while the number of on-foot shellfishers has halved. Landings and sale value of shellfish species have declined in the last decade by 16% and by 13%, respectively. This decline follows a period of recovery from the mid-1980s when coastal fishery management were transferred from the Spanish to the regional government. Production of local clam species has been progressively abandoned in favor of the foreign Japanese carpet shell Ruditapes philippinarum, leading to losses in sales value and increasing market risks. Overfishing, poaching, degradation of habitats, pollution, disease outbreaks and ocean warming may be responsible for the drop in landings and sales value of key species like edible cockle Cerastoderma edule and Atlantic goose barnacle Pollicipes pollicipes. Despite the development of new fisheries, e.g., algae, anemone and harvesting of worms for recreational anglers, the overall declining trend has important socioecological implications for Galician society, because of the traditional link between shell fishing and coastal communities. The socioecological sustainability of this sector requires policies to be developed by the regional government regarding the support of multidisciplinary research, increase control over pollution and poaching, a greater focus on the production of native species, and the strengthening of co-management frameworks. In relation to MRF, in this thesis it was demonstrated that the use of fishers’ ecological knowledge (FEK) is a good approach to develop knowledge of complex socioecological systems in data-poor situations to inform management. Although FEK had previously proved to be useful as an alternative reference of biological changes in data-poor scenarios, there is a reluctance to incorporate it into the evidence base used to underpin marine management decisions. Moreover, recreational fisher knowledge has rarely been included in scientific studies despite being a major source of FEK. Results on this theme were published in the international journal Frontiers in Marine Science (see Annex II).
Very active fishers with a high degree of involvement in the recreational fishery were recruited using a snowball model, starting with a small group of informants that were initially identified by representatives of the main regional recreational fishers’ associations, and expanding through their contacts and social networks (Annex II). This was designed to recruit avid recreational fishers with a high degree
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PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations of knowledge of the fishery and ecosystem. This is because they were expected to be most aware of long-term changes, as their catches are dependent on the health of the system and fishing has been a central part of their lifestyle for many years. Face- to-face semi-structured video-recorded interviews were conducted. Semi- structured interviews were used to ensure that participants provided information on key topics, while open-ended questions and probes allowed fishers to expand on the most important items for them. Anglers and spear fishers were asked to provide their perceptions of the conservation status of fish stocks and the impacts on marine ecosystems. Specifically, fishers reported their perceptions of: (1) any changes over time in the abundances and sizes of their main target species; and (2) key changes in the marine ecosystems. The audio of the interviews was transcribed into text and analyzed by using text mining tools. The relationships among the key concepts identified were used to quantify fishers’ perceptions of changes in the conservation status of their target fish stocks and to quantify the main impacts on marine ecosystems. GLM were used to assess overall temporal trends in the conservation status of each of the fish stocks by including the fishing experience of recreational fishers as independent variables. Overfishing and habitat loss, followed by reduction in biodiversity, pollution, and warming temperatures were considered to be the main drivers of the poor status of cephalopods and finfish stocks (Annex II). Perceived temporal declines in fish stocks were consistent with available biological data, highlighting the potential for recreational FEK to be used to assess long-term ecological changes. It was important to seek opinions from different users, including fishers from traditional commercial and recreational fisheries, as these groups showed good knowledge of the impacts on natural and cultural community heritage. The poor status of ballan wrasse Labrus bergylta and kelp beds was highlighted, which was of concern due to their role as key species and habitats in coastal ecosystems. Despite the relevance of the use of recreational FEK to assess the conservation status of marine ecosystems, broader monitoring programs are needed to protect the future of these ecosystems. Moreover, this thesis has investigated the state of play of MRF in Spain and in Galicia. It was reviewed the evolution of the management frameworks of MRF in Galicia and Spain, and it has been discussed its eventual future development to ensure ecological, social, and economic sustainability. The results for Spain were published in the international journal Frontiers in Marine Science (see Annex III), while the specific situation in Galicia was published in the international journal Ocean and Coastal Management (see Annex IV). In order to analyze the state of play about research on MRF in Galicia (Annex IV), the database ISI Web of Knowledge (available at http://apps.webofknowledge.com) was searched for scientific publications by using in the title or in the theme of the publication the search string “((“NW Spain” OR Galicia) AND (marine AND recreat* AND fish*))”. In addition, experts were identified through a snowball sampling 7 | Page
PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations procedure to identify additional sources of information to be included in the analysis. Thus, scientific papers undetected by the ISI Web of Knowledge search engine, research projects, contributions to scientific meetings, master's and doctoral academic thesis, books and book chapters, and gray literature (technical and dissemination reports) were also identified and analyzed. Thereafter, a database was created with the information gathered from the publications and projects on MRF, including details of the publication (title, name and discipline of authors, year of publication and type of publication) and of the project (title, executing and financing institution and funded amount). In addition, the context of the studies were identified (years in which they were developed, geographical location and methodology), their main orientation (governance, social, ecological, economic, or legal), the main results obtained, and the species studied. This paper also analyzed, for the first time, key changes in the management framework of marine recreational fisheries in Galicia by investigating past and current regulations and research initiatives developed so far (Annex IV). Different legal engines were used to analyze legal framework about MRF. Thus, the Spanish Official Bulletin (available at https://www.boe.es/legislacion/legislacion_ava.php) and the Galician Official Journal (available at https://www.xunta.gal/diario-oficial- galicia/portalPublicoBusqueda.do?lang=es) were used to collect legal regulations on MRF, respectively, by using the search string “pesca recreativa” (recreational fishing) OR “pesca deportiva” (sport fishing) OR “pesca de recreo” (recreational fishing). European regulations on MRF were obtained from the Official Journal of the EU (available at https://eur-lex.europa.eu/advanced-search-form.html) by using the search string "recreational fishing" OR "sport fishing". In the paper it was highlighted that in addition to a powerful commercial fleet and high fisheries dependence of coastal communities, Galicia has a long and strong tradition in marine recreational fisheries, with 60 000 fishers and 4 000 boats engaged in this activity in coastal waters (Annex IV). In the paper it was shown that over the past decades, the nature of the management of marine fisheries in Galicia has changed substantially. Three periods in the management of marine recreational fisheries (1963–1982; 1983–2000; and 2001-present) were identified. The results showed that the management of MRF moved from a poorly regulated and de facto open access system under the rule of the Spanish administration in the 1980's, to a current highly regulated fishery under regional, national and European Union (EU) governments. EU regulations are being fundamental to promote the ecological and socioeconomic sustainability of MRF. However, the lack of scientific data, with only eight papers about MRF in Galicia published in international referred journals, the absence of experts in the field working in the fisheries administration and in research centers, and the lack of strong fishers' organizations are jeopardizing the sustainability of this complex socioecological system in the long term. The development of a strategic plan for MRF in Galicia is needed, including a diagnosis
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PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations of its current status in relation to other sectors sharing coastal ecosystems, like commercial fisheries, and tourism. Co-management initiatives and adaptive policies favoring both the development of commercial fisheries and the promotion of MRF- based economies to offer new opportunities to local communities are encouraged. In the case of Spain (Annex III), it was conducted a similar search to the case of Galicia to identify research gaps: the database ISI Web of Knowledge was used to select scientific publications related to MRF in Spain by using in the title or in the theme of the publication the following search string: “[“Spain” AND (marine AND blished in English until the cut-off date of the end of 2018. In addition, expert knowledge of scientists, managers,recreat∗ AND leaders fish∗)].” of recreationalThe search included fishers’ allassociations scientific articles and of puother stakeholder’s organizations related with the use of coastal seas, identified through a snowball sampling procedure was included. A database was created with the information gathered from the publications and projects on MRF, including details of the publication and the project. Moreover, challenges in relation to the governance of MRF in Spain and other European regions were identified using information derived from the discussions and presentations in the first International Symposium on MRF (ISMAREF 2018). Detailed minutes of these sessions were obtained, and their content in relation to challenges for the governance of MRF was synthesized around the same key topics used to analyze the current status of knowledge of MRF: ecology, economics and sociology. The information was subsequently analyzed to provide a basic roadmap to guide the future governance policies to promote environmental, economic and social sustainability of MRF. In this paper about MRF in Spain (Annex III), it was shown that the EU is concerned about the lack of information on the relevance of nine million Europeans engaged in MRF, committing Member States to encourage environmental and socioeconomic sustainability of the sector. The paper also provided recommendations to guide research actions and management policies in Spain, a key country because its complex administrative regimen and the intensive use of its coasts, including 900 000 recreational fishers. Also, the paper showed that in the last two decades research on MRF was remarkable (139 publications). However, public investment in research (€2.44 million in the same period) should be improved to cover knowledge gaps on socioeconomic relevance, on impacts on vulnerable species and on implications of global warming. The license system should be standardized to allow estimation of effort, catch and expenditure. Social networks, mobile applications, FEK, and citizen science programs could help to develop cost-effective research and management. Science-based, adaptive policies should improve the allocation of resources between MRF and other stakeholders, introducing co- management to reduce conflicts. In this thesis it was also performed a comparative economic analysis of two Atlantic recreational charter fisheries to assess the possibility of favoring recreational-based 9 | Page
PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations local initiatives, and to improve the well-being of coastal communities. Although the European Parliament of the EU has recently encouraged further development of recreational charter fishing initiatives to improve local economic development, particularly in rural areas and in outer regions of the EU, to date, recreational charter fishing has been little studied in the European Atlantic and the factors that trigger its potential development remained unknown. It was therefore necessary to understand the mechanisms that incentive the creation of recreational charter fishing opportunities and their survival over time. To illustrate, there were selected two case of study located in the Eastern North Atlantic, namely Galicia and Madeira Islands (Portugal). The two cases differ greatly in the socioecological attributes in which recreational charter fishing is developed (e.g., relevance of commercial fishing and tourism, and targeted species), thus these attributes have been included in the analyses. Companies dedicated to recreational charter fishing were identified through a snowball sampling in Galicia and Madeira, and information on the costs and benefits of the activity were collected by a questionnaire answered by company managers. Results were presented in the European Association of Fisheries Economists Conference 2019 (see Annex V). To increase participation of the company owners and clients an incentive program was put into force by providing feed-back on the economic performance of the charter companies to the owners (Annex VI), and offering merchandising of the project to clients. Recreational charter fisheries are thriving business widely distributed in warm coastal waters worldwide, although there are some relevant examples in temperate waters, e.g., in Australia and North America. In Europe, recreational charter fishing is a relatively important activity in the Spanish Mediterranean, the south of the continental Portuguese coastline and in the Atlantic archipelagos of Canaries, Madeira and Azores. However, in the Spanish Atlantic there are few companies dedicated to recreational charter fishing. In this thesis it was shown that the economic balance is better for companies in Madeira, but the companies' economic investments are much lower in Galicia, reducing business risks for the latter (Annex VI). Therefore, although enabling conditions to establish recreational charter fisheries are more favorable in the case of Madeira, with milder weather and calmer oceanic conditions, greater tourist access and higher presence of attractive “big game fish”, there is room for the growth of this economic activity in Galicia, and other European Atlantic regions. As a corollary, in this thesis it has been demonstrated that to effectively manage complex socioecological systems, it is necessary to abandon the current mainstream trend towards academic, institutional, and social parceling. This intellectual “smallholding” was already denounced by José Ortega y Gasset in an essay entitled La barbarie del "especialismo", published in 1929. In his essay, he explained that “most scientists push the overall progress of science locked in their laboratory cell, like the bee in their honeycomb”. The current scientist, according to Ortega y Gasset,
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PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
“is an ignorant wise, something extremely serious, because it means that he is a man who will behave in all matters that he ignores, not as an ignorant, but with all the petulance of someone who in his special question is a wise (...) without admitting - and this is paradoxical- specialists of those things.” That is why Ortega y Gasset exposed that despite the fact that the specialism “has made the progress of experimental science possible for a century, is approaching a stage where it will not be able to advance on its own unless a better generation is tasked with building a new, more powerful oven.” Therefore, science “requires from time to time, as an organic regulation of its own increase, a work of reconstitution, and, as I have said, this requires an effort of unification, increasingly difficult, which increasingly accomplishes larger regions of total knowledge.” In addition to academic institutions, the fragmentation derived from specialism also has a very negative effect on public administrations in charge of common marine resources. It is necessary to coordinate the different public agencies, which include research centers, managers and enforcement and control officers, avoiding unnecessary duplication and gaps in knowledge and action. The current trend towards excessive individualism in today's societies is also reflected in the loss of the culture of associationism. Although there are still many cofradías de pescadores in Spain, especially in the case of Galicia, the loss of socioeconomic weight of the fishing sector is a threat to future sustainability. This trend is very evident in the case of MRF, which lacks powerful and cohesive associations in most of Spain. The lack of strong fishing associations, and administrative and management fragmentation jeopardize in practice the development of co-management models that could alleviate the public contribution to fisheries management.
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PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
Resumen
La información sobre dónde y cómo la humanidad usa los espacios costeros es esencial en la planificación y gestión de los recursos marinos. Sin embargo, el conocimiento sobre las interacciones entre patrones ecológicos, socioeconómicos y de gobernanza de los sistemas socioecológicos marinos es en gran parte desconocido. Esta tesis se centra en el análisis de sinergias y compromisos entre los servicios proporcionados por los ecosistemas marinos y el desarrollo socioeconómico, estudiando las implicaciones locales y globales de cómo los procesos humanos y biofísicos interactúan con la estructura y función de los ecosistemas costeros, y cómo afectan a la provisión de alimentos, ingresos, empleo, salud y equidad en comunidades costeras. En las diferentes publicaciones que componen esta tesis, se han utilizado modelos cuantitativos y enfoques participativos para integrar las dimensiones ecológicas y socioeconómicas con el objetivo de obtener una mejor comprensión de los patrones actuales y futuros de los sistemas socioecológicos marinos. En esta tesis se ha demostrado que, bajo escenarios de gestión pobres en datos, es posible utilizar una combinación de diferentes fuentes de datos para documentar y analizar cambios clave en las pesquerías de pequeña escala (PPE), específicamente en la pesca marítima recreativa (PMR) y en las pesquerías S (a pequeña-escala, estructuradas espacialmente, y dirigidas a poblaciones sedentarias) para ayudar a su gestión y a la formulación de políticas. La PMR y el marisqueo en Galicia (noroeste de España) han sido seleccionados como casos de estudio porque son pesquerías de gran relevancia en Europa que se gestionan en entornos pobres en datos, y con necesidades urgentes de información actualizada por parte de los responsables políticos y gestores regionales para garantizar su sostenibilidad. Se ha prestado especial atención a la interrelación entre los cambios socioeconómicos y los problemas derivados de la explotación de los recursos marinos. A pesar de su relevancia socioeconómica, el marisqueo en Galicia es un ejemplo paradigmático de pesquería S europea que se gestiona en un entorno de pobreza de datos, y con necesidades urgentes de información social, económica y ecológica actualizada. Se analizaron los cambios clave a largo plazo en el marisqueo de Galicia para ayudar a los responsables de la formulación de políticas regionales y a los gestores pesqueros a mejorar su gestión. Los resultados fueron publicados en la revista internacional Marine Policy (ver Anexo I). En el artículo (Anexo I) se reconstruyeron las capturas totales del marisco en Galicia entre 1950 y 2017. Los datos sobre las flotas pesqueras profesionales se obtuvieron de la web de Pesca de Galicia (https://www.pescadegalicia.gal), en particular, longitud, potencia y capacidad, principales caladeros donde opera la flota gallega (en aguas nacionales y caladeros internacionales) y artes de pesca empleados (licencias de pesca en el caso del marisqueo) para los diferentes puertos base 12 | Page
PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations durante el período 2004-2016. Los datos sobre las ventas diarias de marisco (kilogramos, valor en € y valor medio en €·kg-1) por especie y mercado de primera venta también se recopilaron de Pesca de Galicia para el período 2003-2015. Se obtuvieron datos sobre el empleo de los mariscadores a pie para cada cofradía de pescadores (organizaciones de pescadores) para el período 1998-2017. Posteriormente, se analizaron las tendencias temporales en la longitud, la capacidad y la potencia de los buques pesqueros, en el número de licencias de marisqueo, en el empleo, en las capturas y en el valor de venta mediante el uso de modelos lineales generalizados (GLM). Se evaluaron diferentes covariables, estructuras de error y funciones de enlace en los modelos, que se seleccionaron según el criterio de información de Akaike. Las capturas y el valor de venta se analizaron mediante grupos jerárquicos para identificar las diferencias entre los distintos mercados de primera venta. El porcentaje de similitud, basado en una descomposición de las diferencias de Bray-Curtis, se utilizó para identificar las especies que más contribuyen a las diferencias. Se demostró que el marisqueo de Galicia, una importante potencia pesquera en Europa, se ha reducido severamente en las últimas décadas (Anexo I). La cantidad de embarcaciones ha disminuido en un 13%, la longitud de las embarcaciones, la capacidad y la potencia del motor han disminuido en un 10%, 7% y 3%, respectivamente, mientras que la cantidad de pescadores a pie se ha reducido a la mitad. Los desembarques y el valor de venta de las distintas especies de marisco han disminuido en la última década en un 16% y en un 13%, respectivamente. Esta disminución sigue a un período de recuperación que tuvo lugar durante la década de 1980, cuando la gestión de la pesca costera se transfirió del gobierno español al regional. La producción de especies locales de almejas se ha abandonado progresivamente en favor de la almeja japonesa Ruditapes philippinarum, lo que ha generado pérdidas en el valor de venta, al tiempo que ha aumentado los riesgos de mercado. La sobrepesca, el furtivismo, la degradación de los hábitats, la contaminación, los brotes epizoóticos y el calentamiento de los océanos pueden ser responsables de la caída de los desembarques y el valor de venta de especies clave como el berberecho Cerastoderma edule y el percebe Pollicipes pollicipes. A pesar del desarrollo de nuevas pesquerías, p.ej., algas, anémonas y gusanos para la pesca de recreo, estas tendencias generales negativas tienen importantes implicaciones socioecológicas para la sociedad gallega, debido al vínculo tradicional entre el marisqueo y las comunidades costeras. La sostenibilidad socioecológica de este sector requiere que el gobierno regional desarrolle políticas de apoyo a la investigación multidisciplinar, aumentar el control sobre la contaminación y el furtivismo, un mayor enfoque en la producción de especies nativas, y el fortalecimiento de los modelos de cogestión. En relación con la PRM, en esta tesis se demostró que usar el conocimiento ecológico de los pescadores (CET) permite ampliar el conocimiento de los sistemas socioecológicos complejos en situaciones de escasez de datos para mejorar su 13 | Page
PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations gestión. Aunque el CET había demostrado ser útil anteriormente como una referencia alternativa para evidenciar cambios biológicos en escenarios con escasez de datos, existe una cierta renuencia a incorporarlo en la base de evidencia utilizada para respaldar las decisiones de gestión pesquera. Además, el conocimiento de los pescadores recreativos rara vez se ha incluido en estudios científicos a pesar de ser una fuente importante de CET. Los resultados se publicaron en la revista internacional Frontiers in Marine Science (ver Anexo II).
Para desarrollar esta investigación (Anexo II) se reclutaron pescadores especialmente activos, con un alto grado de involucración en la pesca recreativa utilizando un modelo en bola de nieve, comenzando con un pequeño grupo de informantes que inicialmente fueron identificados por representantes de las principales asociaciones regionales de pescadores recreativos, y expandiéndose a través de sus contactos y redes sociales. De esta manera fueron específicamente reclutados pescadores recreativos ávidos, con un alto grado de conocimiento de la pesca y el ecosistema marino. Se esperaba que estos pescadores fuesen más conscientes de los cambios a largo plazo, ya que sus capturas dependen de la salud del ecosistema, y la pesca ha sido una parte central de su estilo de vida durante muchos años. Se realizaron entrevistas semiestructuradas presenciales que fueron grabadas en video. Se utilizaron entrevistas semiestructuradas para garantizar que los participantes proporcionaran información sobre temas clave, mientras que las preguntas y sondeos abiertos permitieron a los pescadores ampliar libremente los temas más importantes para ellos. Se solicitó a pescadores de caña y sedal, y a pescadores submarinos que proporcionasen sus percepciones sobre el estado de conservación de las poblaciones de peces, así como de los impactos en los ecosistemas marinos. Específicamente, los pescadores informaron acerca de: (1) cualquier cambio temporal en las abundancias y tamaños de sus principales especies objetivo; y (2) cambios clave en los ecosistemas marinos. El audio de las entrevistas se transcribió a texto y se analizó utilizando herramientas de minería de textos. Las relaciones entre los conceptos clave identificados se utilizaron para cuantificar las percepciones de los pescadores sobre los cambios en el estado de conservación de las poblaciones de peces objetivo, y para cuantificar los principales impactos en los ecosistemas marinos. Los GLM se utilizaron para evaluar las tendencias temporales generales en el estado de conservación de cada una de las poblaciones de peces mediante la inclusión de la experiencia de pesca de los pescadores recreativos como variable independiente.
La sobrepesca y la pérdida de hábitats, seguidas de la reducción de la biodiversidad, la contaminación y el calentamiento global se consideraron los principales promotores del mal estado de las poblaciones cefalópodos y peces (Anexo II). Los descensos temporales percibidos en las abundancias y de las poblaciones objetivo resultaron consistentes con los datos biológicos disponibles, destacando el potencial del uso del CET recreativo para evaluar cambios ecológicos a largo plazo. Resultó clave recabar opiniones de diferentes usuarios, incluidos pescadores con tradiciones familiares en pesquerías comerciales y recreativas, ya que demostraron un mejor conocimiento de los impactos sobre el patrimonio natural y cultural de las 14 | Page
PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations comunidades costeras. Se comprobó el mal estado de las poblaciones de maragota Labrus bergylta y lechos de grandes algas marinas, lo cual es motivo de preocupación debido a que son especies clave en los ecosistemas costeros. A pesar de la relevancia del uso del CET recreativo para evaluar el estado de conservación de los ecosistemas marinos, se necesitan programas de monitoreo más amplios para proteger el futuro de estos ecosistemas.
En esta tesis también se ha investigado el estado del conocimiento sobre PMR en España y en Galicia. Se revisó la evolución de los marcos de gestión de PMR en Galicia y en España, y se discutió su eventual desarrollo futuro para garantizar su sostenibilidad ecológica, social y económica. Los resultados para España se publicaron en la revista internacional Frontiers in Marine Science (ver Anexo III), mientras que la situación específica de Galicia se publicó en la revista internacional Ocean and Coastal Management (ver Anexo IV). Para analizar el estado actual de la investigación sobre PMR en Galicia (Anexo IV), se buscaron en la base de datos ISI Web of Knowledge (disponible en http://apps.webofknowledge.com) publicaciones científicas utilizando en el título o en el tema de la publicación la cadena de búsqueda “((“NW Spain” OR Galicia) AND (marine AND recreat* AND fish*))”. Además, se seleccionaron expertos mediante un procedimiento de muestreo en bola de nieve para identificar fuentes adicionales de información que se incluyeron en el análisis. Por lo tanto, también se identificaron y analizaron documentos científicos no detectados por el motor de búsqueda ISI Web of Knowledge, como proyectos de investigación, contribuciones a reuniones científicas, tesis académicas de maestría y doctorado, libros y capítulos de libros, y literatura gris (informes técnicos y de divulgación). Posteriormente, se creó una base de datos con la información recopilada en las publicaciones y proyectos sobre PMR, incluyendo detalles de la publicación (título, nombre y disciplina de los autores, año de publicación y tipo de publicación) y del proyecto (título, instituciones ejecutora y financiadora, y suma financiada). Además, se identificó el contexto de los estudios (años en que se desarrollaron, ubicación geográfica y metodología), su orientación principal (gobernanza, social, ecológica, económica o legal), los principales resultados obtenidos, y las especies estudiadas. Este artículo (Anexo IV) también analizaron, por primera vez, los cambios clave en el marco de gestión de las pesquerías recreativas en Galicia mediante la investigación de la normativa histórica y en vigor, y las iniciativas de investigación desarrolladas hasta el momento. Se utilizaron diferentes motores legales para analizar el marco legal sobre PMR. Así, el Boletín Oficial del Estado (disponible en https://www.boe.es/legislacion/legislacion_ava.php) y el Diario Oficial de Galicia (disponible en https://www.xunta.gal/diario-oficial- galicia/portalPublicoBusqueda .do? lang = es) se usaron para recopilar las normativas legales sobre PMR, usando la cadena de búsqueda “pesca recreativa” O “pesca deportiva” O “pesca de recreo”. La normativa europea sobre PMR se obtuvo
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PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations del Diario Oficial de la Unión Europea (UE; disponible en https://eur- lex.europa.eu/advanced-search-form.html) utilizando la cadena de búsqueda "recreational fishing" OR "sport fishing". En el artículo (Anexo IV) se demostró que, además de una poderosa flota comercial y una elevada dependencia pesquera de las comunidades costeras, Galicia tiene una larga y fuerte tradición en PMR, con 60 000 pescadores y 4 000 barcos dedicados a esta actividad en sus aguas costeras. En las últimas décadas, la naturaleza de la gestión de la PMR en Galicia ha cambiado sustancialmente. Se identificaron tres períodos principales en la gestión de la PMR (1963–1982; 1983–2000; y 2001- actualidad). La gestión de la PMR pasó de un sistema escasamente regulado y de acceso abierto de facto bajo la competencia de la administración española en la década de 1980, a una pesquería muy regulada en la actualidad, administrada por los gobiernos autonómico, nacional y europeo. La normativa de la UE ha sido fundamental para promover la sostenibilidad ecológica y socioeconómica de la PMR. Sin embargo, la falta de datos científicos, con solo ocho artículos sobre PMR en Galicia publicados en revistas internacionales, la ausencia de expertos que trabajen en la administración pesquera y en los centros de investigación, y la falta de organizaciones de pescadores fuertes están poniendo en peligro la sostenibilidad a largo plazo de este complejo sistema socioecológico. Es necesario desarrollar un plan estratégico para la PMR en Galicia, que incluya un diagnóstico de su estado actual en relación con otros sectores que comparten los ecosistemas costeros, como la pesca profesional y el turismo. Es necesario también desarrollar las iniciativas de gestión conjunta y políticas adaptativas que favorecen tanto el desarrollo de la pesca profesional como la promoción de actividades económicas basadas en la PMR para ofrecer nuevas oportunidades a las comunidades locales. En el caso de España (Anexo III), se realizó una búsqueda similar al caso de Galicia para identificar las necesidades de investigación: la base de datos ISI Web of Knowledge se utilizó para seleccionar publicaciones científicas relacionadas con la PMR en España mediante la siguiente cadena de búsqueda en el título, o en el tema de la publicación: “[“Spain” AND (marine AND recreat AND fish La búsqueda incluyó todos los artículos científicos publicados en inglés hasta el final de 2018. Además, se incluyó el conocimiento experto de científicos,∗ gerentes∗)].” pesqueros, líderes de asociaciones de pescadores recreativos y de organizaciones de usuarios relacionadas con el uso de los mares costeros a través de un procedimiento de muestreo en bola de nieve. Se creó una base de datos con la información recopilada de las publicaciones y proyectos sobre PMR, incluyendo los detalles de la publicación y del proyecto. Además, se identificaron los desafíos para la gobernanza de la PMR en España y otras regiones europeas utilizando la información derivada de las discusiones y presentaciones en el primer Simposio Internacional sobre MRF (ISMAREF 2018). Se obtuvieron transcripciones detalladas de estas sesiones, y su contenido en relación con los desafíos para la gobernanza de la PMR se sintetizó en
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PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations torno a los mismos temas clave utilizados para analizar el estado actual del conocimiento sobre PMR: ecología, economía y sociología. La información se analizó posteriormente para proporcionar una hoja de ruta básica para guiar las futuras políticas de gobernanza para promover la sostenibilidad ambiental, económica y social de la PMR. En este artículo sobre PMR en España (Anexo III), se demostró que la UE está preocupada por la falta de información sobre los impactos de los nueve millones de europeos que participan en PMR, conminando a los estados miembros a fomentar la sostenibilidad ambiental y socioeconómica del sector. En el artículo se proporcionaron recomendaciones para guiar las acciones de investigación y las políticas de gestión en España, un país clave por su complejo régimen administrativo y el uso intensivo de sus costas, incluyendo 900 000 pescadores recreativos. En el artículo se evidenció que en las últimas dos décadas la investigación sobre PMR fue notable (139 publicaciones). Sin embargo, la inversión pública en investigación (2 44 millones de euros en el mismo período) debería mejorarse para abordar vacíos de conocimiento sobre la relevancia socioeconómica, los impactos sobre especies vulnerables, y las implicaciones del calentamiento global. El sistema de licencias debe además ser estandarizado para permitir mejores estimaciones de esfuerzo, capturas y gastos. Las redes sociales, aplicaciones móviles, CET y programas de ciencia ciudadana podrían ayudar a desarrollar una investigación y gestión más rentables. El desarrollo de políticas adaptativas basadas en la ciencia debería mejorar el reparto de recursos entre la PMR y otros usuarios, introduciendo modelos de cogestión para reducir conflictos. En esta tesis también se realizó un análisis económico comparativo de dos pesquerías recreativas basadas en chárter de pesca en el Atlántico para evaluar la posibilidad de favorecer iniciativas locales basadas en actividades de recreación y mejorar el bienestar de las comunidades costeras. Aunque el Parlamento Europeo ha alentado recientemente un mayor desarrollo de iniciativas de pesca recreativa para mejorar el desarrollo económico local, particularmente en las zonas rurales y en las regiones exteriores de la UE, hasta la fecha, la pesca recreativa ha sido poco estudiada en el Atlántico europeo, y los factores que favorecen su desarrollo potencial siguen siendo desconocidos. Por lo tanto, era necesario comprender los mecanismos que incentivan la creación de oportunidades de pesca recreativa y su supervivencia en el tiempo. Para ilustrar este objetivo, se seleccionaron dos casos de estudio ubicados en el Atlántico nororiental: Galicia y el Archipiélago de Madeira (Portugal). Los dos casos difieren en gran medida en los atributos socioecológicos en los que se desarrolla la pesca recreativa (p.ej., la importancia relativa de la pesca comercial y del turismo, y las especies objetivo). Por ello, estos atributos se han incluido en los análisis. Las empresas dedicadas a los chárter de pesca recreativa se identificaron por medio de un muestreo en bola de nieve en Galicia y Madeira, y se recopiló la información sobre los costos y beneficios de la actividad mediante un
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PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations cuestionario respondido por los gerentes de las empresas. Los resultados se presentaron en la Conferencia de la Asociación Europea de Economistas de la Pesca de 2019 (ver Anexo V). Con el fin de aumentar la participación de los propietarios se puso en marcha un programa de incentivos proporcionando información sobre el desempeño económico de las compañías chárter a los propietarios (Anexo VI) y ofreciendo productos relacionados con el proyecto a los clientes. Los charter de pesca recreativa son un negocio próspero ampliamente distribuido en aguas costeras cálidas en todo el mundo, aunque hay algunos ejemplos relevantes en aguas templadas, por ejemplo, en Australia y América del Norte. En Europa, los charter de pesca recreativa son una actividad relativamente importante en el Mediterráneo español, en el sur de la costa continental portuguesa, y en los archipiélagos atlánticos de Canarias, Madeira y Azores. Sin embargo, en el Atlántico continental español hay pocas empresas dedicadas a los charter de pesca recreativa. En esta tesis se demostró que el balance económico es mejor para las empresas de Madeira, pero las inversiones económicas de las empresas son mucho más bajas en Galicia, lo que reduce sus riesgos comerciales (Anexo VI). Por lo tanto, aunque las condiciones para establecer pesquerías recreativas chárter son más favorables en el caso de Madeira, con un clima más templado y condiciones oceánicas más tranquilas, un mayor acceso turístico y una mayor presencia de peces grandes, hay espacio para el crecimiento de esta actividad económica en Galicia, y otras regiones atlánticas europeas. A modo de corolario, cabe mencionar que en esta tesis se ha demostrado que para gestionar eficazmente los sistemas socioecológicos complejos, es necesario abandonar la tendencia general actual hacia la excesiva parcelación académica, institucional y social. José Ortega y Gasset ya denunció el “minifundismo” intelectual en un ensayo titulado La barbarie del "especialismo", publicado en 1929. En su ensayo, explicó que "la mayor parte de los científicos empujan el progreso general de la ciencia encerrados en la celdilla de su laboratorio, como la abeja en la de su panal". El científico actual, según Ortega y Gasset, “es un sabio ignorante, cosa sobremanera grave, pues significa que es un señor el cual se comportará en todas las cuestiones que ignora, no como un ignorante, sino con toda la petulancia de quien en su cuestión especial es un sabio (...) sin admitir -y esto es lo paradójico- especialistas de esas cosas." Es por ello que Ortega y Gasset expone que a pesar del hecho de que la especialidad "ha hecho posible el progreso de la ciencia experimental durante un siglo, se aproxima a una etapa en la que no podrá avanzar por sí mismo si no se encarga una generación mejor de construir un nuevo asador más poderoso." Por lo tanto, la ciencia "necesita de tiempo en tiempo, como orgánica regulación de su propio incremento, una labor de reconstitución, y, como he dicho, requiere un esfuerzo de unificación, cada vez más difícil, que cada vez complica regiones más vastas del saber total." 18 | Page
PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
Además de a las instituciones académicas, la fragmentación derivada de la especialización también tiene un efecto muy negativo sobre las administraciones públicas a cargo de la gestión de los recursos marinos compartidos. Es necesario coordinar las diferentes agencias públicas, que incluyen a centros de investigación, técnicos de gestión y agentes de control, evitando duplicidades innecesarias y lagunas en el conocimiento y en la acción.
La tendencia actual hacia el individualismo excesivo en las sociedades actuales también se refleja en la pérdida de la cultura de asociacionismo. Aunque todavía hay muchas cofradías de pescadores en España, especialmente en el caso de Galicia, la pérdida de peso socioeconómico del sector pesquero es una amenaza para su sostenibilidad futura. Esta tendencia es muy evidente en el caso de la PMR, que carece de asociaciones potentes y cohesivas en la mayor parte de España. La falta de asociaciones pesqueras sólidas y la fragmentación administrativa y de gestión ponen en peligro en la práctica el desarrollo de modelos de cogestión que podrían aliviar la contribución pública a la gestión pesquera.
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PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
1. Introduction
There is general agreement that understanding where and how humans use coastal and marine environments is an essential component of coastal planning and resource management. However, the knowledge on spatial, socioeconomic and ecological patterns of many marine socioecological systems is still largely unknown (Ostrom, 2009). Notably, even though its recognized socioeconomic and ecological relevance (Cooke and Cowx, 2004), many aspects of recreational fishing are particularly unknown (Arlinghaus et al., 2016). In a similar way, despite higher social relevance and lower ecological footprint of artisanal over industrial fisheries (Weeratunge et al., 2014), scientific research has been mainly focused on the latter (Cycon, 1986; Platteau, 1989). Therefore, research on synergies and trade-offs between important, but relatively poorly studied small-scale fisheries (SSF), like recreational and artisanal fisheries, when taking advantage of services provided by shared marine ecosystems, including social and economic development, is key to reduce conflicts through science-based, adaptive management.
In the absence of traditional scientific information to guide management decisions and the construction of sound regulatory frameworks, fishers’ ecological knowledge (FEK) has begun to be used in the last decades to provide alternative references (Hind, 2014). FEK is generated from the long-term use of ecosystems, and integrates practices and perceptions influenced by local culture, differing from traditional science in the way that data are interpreted and organized (Maurstad, 2002). Despite the fact that recreational fishermen are much more numerous than commercial ones (Hyder et al., 2018; Brownscombe et al., 2019), recreational fishers represent a relatively untapped source of information on marine ecosystems (Brewin et al., 2017) (learn how this thesis contributed to improve knowledge about the use of recreational FEK in fisheries and coastal management in data-poor situations in section 2.1.2).
Marine recreational fisheries are important SSF across Europe, with almost nine million fishers involved (Hyder et al., 2018). However, research on marine recreational fishing (MRF) has been limited in Europe, especially in Southern countries (Pita et al., 2017a), despite the long cultural tradition in the region (Lloret et al., 2016). Furthermore, MRF has relevant impacts on European marine resources (Strehlow et al., 2012; Kleiven et al., 2016; Hyder et al., 2018), with up to 40% of total removals of some stocks due to MRF (Radford et al., 2018). In Spain there are approximately 900 000 marine recreational fishers and their annual recreational catch has been recently estimated in about 40 000 t of marine fishes (Gordoa et al., 2019). Spain has one of the longest coastlines in Europe, with roughly 5 000 km of continental coasts and another 3 000 km divided almost equally between the archipelagos of the Balearic and Canary Islands, in the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, respectively. Due to its geographical location, between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea, the Spanish coastal ecosystems are 20 | Page
PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations very diverse, including species of three different temperate marine biogeographical regions: Atlantic, Mediterranean and Macaronesian; with the latter including several subtropical species (Templado, 2011). Therefore, Spanish recreational fishers target a wide variety of species, mostly marine fishes, but also some invertebrates including echinoderms (Font and Lloret, 2011) and cephalopods (Morales-Nin et al., 2005; Cabanellas-Reboredo et al., 2012, 2014; Palas et al., 2017). There are relevant differences between regions and modalities about target species and catch diversity (Dedeu et al., 2019), but ballan wrasse Labrus bergylta, European seabass and white seabream Diplodus sargus are among the most caught species for recreational fishers in the Spanish Atlantic (Zarauz et al., 2015; Pita and Freire, 2016; Pita et al., 2018a), while comber Serranus cabrilla, Mediterranean rainbow wrasse Coris julis and white seabream and related species like annular seabream D. annularis and common two-banded seabream D. vulgaris are important in the Mediterranean (Coll et al., 2004; Morales-Nin et al., 2005; Gordoa, 2009; Font and Lloret, 2011). The management of MRF is based on the distribution of government competences between the Government of Spain and the autonomous governments of coastal regions. Most of these regional governments began to autonomously manage their respective recreational resources in the 80s of the 20th Century (see (Pita and Villasante, 2019) in Annex IV). The formal regulation of the activity begun in 1963, when the first Spanish regulation on MRF was enacted, creating the first license regime for MRF (Gobierno de España, 1963). Subsequently, the different regional governments created various licensing regimes, with different restrictions on spatial and temporal access and different effort and catches limitations (Morales- Nin et al., 2010; Pita and Villasante, 2019), all of which makes an extremely complex system (Pita et al., 2018b). It is not surprising therefore, that Spanish recreational fishers show a low degree of knowledge of the different regulations, which negatively affects their compliance and reinforces the poor institutional fit of this activity (Pita et al., 2017a). The European Union (EU) recognized the ecological relevance of MRF and Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) states that “recreational fisheries can have a significant impact on fish resources and Member States should, therefore, ensure that they are conducted in a manner that is compatible with the objectives of the CFP” (European Parliament and Council of the European Union, 2013). Under the EU Data Collection Framework (DCF) and Multiannual Plan (EU MAP) Member States must provide data on catches and releases of Atlantic cod Gadus morhua, Atlantic salmon Salmo salar, European eel Anguilla anguilla, European seabass Dicentrarchus labrax, pollack Pollachius pollachius, sea trout Salmo trutta trutta, elasmobranchs and highly migratory species under the management of the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT), with requirements varying between regions (European Commission, 2016; European Parliament and Council of the 21 | Page
PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
European Union, 2017). The EU MAP has led to the inclusion of MRF removals in limited number of stock assessments including European sea bass in ICES divisions 4b&c, 7a,d-h, 8a&b (ICES, 2018a), Atlantic salmon and sea trout in the Baltic Sea (ICES, 2018b) and western Baltic cod (ICES, 2018c). Therefore, it is urgent to collect standardized information on the marine recreational fisheries (Pita et al., 2016a, 2017b; Hyder et al., 2017), but in Spain it has not yet been developed a suitable framework (Molares and Freire, 2003; Macho et al., 2013; Pita et al., 2017a) to meet the information needs required by the EU (Council of the European Union, 2008; European Commission, 2008). If the European Commission considers that Spain does not comply with the reporting obligations on this issue, it could impose economic sanctions, or even block the structural funds (Article 8 of European Parliament and Council of the European Union, 2014a). However, before establishing programs for the systematic collection of information on MRF, it is necessary to carry out a rigorous analysis of the governance frameworks and of the basic socioecological attributes of the recreational fisheries (learn how this thesis contributed to this objective in section 2.2).
It is important to keep in mind that the current European requirements of information about impacts of recreational fishing are expected to be modified in the future according to scientific needs and to help to develop the activity in a sustainable way. In this regard, the last proposal to modify the current Fisheries Control Regulation (European Commission, 2018) warns that the regulation currently in force was designed prior to the last reform of the CFP and is outdated and not completely consistent with it. The new proposal includes e.g., in relation to the control of recreational fishing, that Member States should have a system to control people and vessels that practice recreational fishing (through registration or licensing), and the obligation to collect information on catches, which must be submitted to the competent authorities, including the activities of commercial companies. Furthermore, Spanish recreational fishers target a wide number of fish species, most of them have never been under scientific stock assessment. Some of these species are long-lived and slow-growing fish with low reproductive potential and a narrow geographic range distribution (Cheung et al., 2005). It is not surprising that concerns have emerged about the sustainability of some of the targeted stocks due to the lack of basic data (Lloret et al., 2016; Pita et al., 2017a). It is expected therefore that Member States will be asked in the future to provide detailed and reliable information on the recreational catches of more species, especially for those that are also targeted by commercial fishers.
It is not only expected that the list of species for which it is necessary to provide information will be expanded in the future, but the need to provide socioeconomic information is also likely to be finally addressed in Spain in order to ensure that the management of recreational fisheries is aligned with the objectives of the CFP about ensuring that this activity is environmentally sustainable in the long term and is managed in a consistent manner to achieve economic, social and employment 22 | Page
PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations benefits (European Parliament and Council of the European Union, 2013), which is also advocated by the recent European Parliament Resolution on the state of recreational fisheries in the Union (European Parliament, 2018).
There is little doubt that policy makers must ensure that the different regulation frameworks contribute to the maintenance of resilient ecosystems that provide marine resources for commercial fishers, contributing to the economies that depend on their activity and supply markets with healthy products (Verbeke et al., 2005). However, recreational fishing also contributes significantly to economic development. European recreational fishers spend almost six billion euros each year on the activity (Hyder et al., 2018). Despite the scarcity of information on the contribution of MRF to the Spanish economy, it is likely to be important as the direct expenditure of marine recreational fishers has been estimated to be €729 euros per year and fisher (Hyder et al., 2018). Moreover, annual fisher expenses in the Spanish Mediterranean recreational fleet alone were estimated to reach €534 million (Gordoa et al., 2004). Economic contribution to regional economies has been investigated in Galicia and Balearic Islands, where it was estimated to be €97 and €63 million per year, respectively (Morales-Nin et al., 2015; Pita et al., 2018a).
It is not surprising therefore, that fishing regulations in Spain and other European countries include some measures to promote recreational fisheries (Pita et al., 2018b). Furthermore, the European Parliament is also promoting MRF-based economic initiatives, recognizing that “recreational fishing has been practiced for centuries across the EU and is an integral part of the culture, traditions and heritage of many coastal and island communities”, and urges to “provide support, including financial support, for the development of recreational fishing in the tourism sector, as an important contributor to the development of the blue economy in small communities, coastal communities and islands, particularly in the outermost regions” (European Parliament, 2018). In this sense, Spain received 82 million tourists in 2018 (ranked 2nd worldwide) and the tourist sector generated 11% of the GDP, while 8 of the 10 most populated cities are in the coast (except Madrid and Zaragoza). The Spanish tourism sector is still expanding in some coastal regions, which adds complexity to the socioecological system because tourists have an increasingly stronger presence (Santana, 1997; Cortés-Jiménez, 2008). Even when MRF is not the main motivation for tourists, because they engage in many different recreational activities (Peña-Alonso et al., 2018; Depellegrin et al., 2019; Drius et al., 2019), their involvement on fishing may be increasingly relevant due to the high number of tourists and the growing number of people living in the coasts (Morales- Nin et al., 2015).
In relation to the above, recreational charter fisheries are thriving business widely distributed in warm coastal waters worldwide, although there is some relevant recreational charter fishing in temperate waters, e.g., in Australia and North America. In Europe, recreational charter fishing is a relatively important activity in the Spanish Mediterranean, the south of the continental Portuguese coastline and in
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PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations the Atlantic archipelagos of Canaries, Madeira and Azores. However, in the Spanish Atlantic there are few companies dedicated to recreational charter fishing. To date, recreational charter fishing has been little studied in the European Atlantic and the factors that trigger its potential development are unknown. To facilitate this process, it is necessary to understand the mechanisms that incentive the creation of recreational charter fishing opportunities and their survival over time. Knowledge on the contribution of commercial MRF initiatives to the Spanish economy, and on potential barriers to their development and the creation of new jobs are especially needed because it will allow better integrated management and compatibility between different users in relation to the Blue Growth Agenda of the EU (learn how this thesis contributed to this objective in section 2.3). On the other hand, the Spanish coastal seas have traditionally been exploited by one of the largest commercial fishing fleets in the world, with about 7 000 vessels involved in SSF in the different national fishing grounds (Gobierno de España, 2018). Most of these vessels are operating in Galicia (see (Pita et al., 2019a) in Annex I). Shell fisheries plays a key role in Galician culture and traditions (Cornide, 1788; Franquesa, 2005; Taboada, 2007). Galicia currently has 63 fishing guilds (cofradías de pescadores), which, along with other 11 entities (companies, associations, and cooperatives), participate since the early 1990s in a co-management procedure based in territorial user rights to fisheries (TURFs) (Molares and Freire, 2003; Macho et al., 2013). Galician shellfishers target about 60 species in coastal waters, but the most relevant are the mollusks banded carpet shell Polititapes rhomboides, common cuttlefish Sepia officinalis, common octopus Octopus vulgaris, edible cockle Cerastoderma edule, grooved carpet shell Ruditapes decussatus, Japanese carpet shell Ruditapes philippinarum, pullet carpet shell Venerupis corrugata and rayed artemis Dosinia exoleta), the echinoderm stony sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus and the arthropods Atlantic goose barnacle Pollicipes pollicipes and Atlantic spider crab Maja brachydactyla. In the last decade, annual catches in Galicia ranged from 16820 t in 2008 to 10524 t in 2014, while the annual sales value ranged between 117.5 M€ in 2008 to 77.3 M€ in 2013 (Xunta de Galicia, 2019).
Despite its socioeconomic relevance, the shellfish fishery of Galicia is a paradigmatic example of European SSF that is managed in a data-poor environment. This S-fishery (small-scale, spatially-structured, targeting sedentary stocks, following Parma et al. (2001) had urgent needs of updated social, economic and ecological information by regional policy makers and managers to ensure sustainable management (Villasante, 2009a), since the only comprehensive review of the shellfishing sector in Galicia was published almost 20 years ago (Freire and García-Allut, 2000) (learn how this thesis contributed to this objective in section 2.1.1).
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PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
2. Objectives
This thesis has a focus in the analyses of synergies and trade-offs between marine ecosystems and socioeconomic development, in the local and global implications of how human and biophysical processes interact with the structure and function of coastal ecosystems, and how they affect the availability of food, income, employment, health and equity in coastal communities. Quantitative models and participatory approaches have been used to integrate socioeconomic and ecological dimensions to increase knowledge on present and future patterns of complex marine socioecological systems. 2.1. Socioecological changes in data-poor small-scale fisheries A combination of different sources of data have been used in data-poor management scenarios to document and analyze key changes in socioeconomic and governance attributes of SSF, and in ecological features of coastal ecosystems to inform fisheries management and policy. S-fisheries and recreational fisheries have been selected because they are highly relevant fisheries in Europe with urgent needs of updated information by policy makers and managers to ensure socioecological sustainability. 2.1.1. The case of the shell fisheries of Galicia In the case of the shell fisheries of Galicia diverse available sources of information, some of them scarce, dispersed, and even difficult to access were collected to 1) obtain historical reconstructions of removals of key shellfish species; 2) analyze recent trends in catches and first sale values of shellfish species; and 3) discuss the main ecologic, economic, social and institutional implications of these results, and provide recommendations for policy makers and managers of fisheries and coastal areas. Special attention was paid to interrelation between socioeconomic changes and resource exploitation issues. Results were published in the international journal Marine Policy (see (Pita et al., 2019a) in Annex I). 2.1.2. The case of the marine recreational fisheries of Galicia In the case of the marine recreational fisheries of Galicia an evaluation on the use of Fishers’ Ecological Knowledge (FEK) to assess the conservation status of main fish species targeted by recreational fishers and their principal habitats was performed. Anglers and spear fishers were asked to provide their perceptions of the conservation status of fish stocks and of the impacts on marine ecosystems. Face-to- face video-recorded interviews were transcribed into text and analyzed using text mining tools, and key concepts were used to quantify fishers’ perceptions of changes in their target fish stocks and to quantify the main impacts on marine ecosystems. Implications to fisheries management and conservation of coastal ecosystems were
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PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations discussed, and results were published in the international journal Frontiers in Marine Science (see (Pita et al., 2020a) in Annex II).
2.2. The governance frameworks of marine recreational fisheries in Spain and Galicia The state of play of MRF in Spain was investigated and results were published in the international journal Frontiers in Marine Science (see (Pita et al., 2020b) in Annex III), while the specific situation in Galicia was published in the international journal Ocean and Coastal Management (see (Pita and Villasante, 2019) in Annex IV). In both papers there were reviewed the evolution of the governance frameworks of MRF in Galicia and Spain, and it was discussed their eventual future development to ensure social, economic, and ecological sustainability (European Parliament, 2018). In the case of Spain, a review of the state of the knowledge was performed to identify research gaps, while governance challenges were identified during the celebration of an International Symposium on MRF. In the case of Galicia, key changes in the management framework were analyzed by investigating past and current regulations and main research initiatives. 2.3. The economic activity of recreational fishing charters in the North Atlantic An economic comparative analysis of two Atlantic recreational charter fisheries was performed and results were presented in the European Association of Fisheries Economists Conference 2019 (Pita et al., 2019b); see Annex V-VI). It was specifically evaluated the possibility of favoring recreational-based local initiatives to improve the well-being of coastal communities. There were selected two case studies located in the Eastern North Atlantic, namely Galicia and Madeira Islands (Portugal). The two cases differ greatly in the socioecological attributes in which charter fishing is developed (e.g., relevance of commercial fishing and tourism and targeted species), thus these attributes were included in the analyses. Companies dedicated to recreational charter fishing have been identified through snowball sampling (Goodman, 1961) in both cases of study, and information on the costs and benefits of the activity was collected by a questionnaire answered by company managers.
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PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
3. Discussion
In (Pita et al., 2019a); see Annex I) it has been demonstrated that in data-poor situations different data sources, and even scarce, dispersed, and difficult to access information can be successfully combined to document and analyze key changes in SSF, and specifically in S-fisheries. The historical reconstruction of removals and the analysis of recent trends in landings of key shellfish species performed in this study showed that the shellfishing capacity of Galicia, a major fishing power in Europe, has been severely reduced in recent decades. Vessel numbers, but also vessel length, capacity and engine power have faced significant decreases, while the number of on- foot shellfishers has halved. Furthermore, landings and sale value of main shellfish species have also declined. These overall declining trends have important socioecological implications for Galician society, because of the traditional socioeconomic link between shell fishing and coastal communities (Freire and García-Allut, 2000). This information, which was completely unknown until now, is highly relevant to fisheries managers and policy makers, and need to be used to improve socioecological sustainability of exploited marine resources in coastal ecosystems.
In (Pita et al., 2019a) it was also proposed that the observed declines in landings in relevant species can be explained by key changes in the socioeconomic framework. This would be the case of local clam species, progressively abandoned in favor of the foreign Japanese carpet shell, leading to losses in sales value and increasing market risks, as showed by other authors (Macías Vázquez and Alonso González, 2015). On the other hand, the progressive impoverishment in ecosystem quality because overfishing and poaching, degradation of habitats, pollution, disease outbreaks and ocean warming, would explain the drop in landings and sales value of key species like edible cockle and Atlantic goose barnacle (Pita et al., 2019a).
Overfishing, habitat loss and biodiversity degradation, pollution, and ocean warming were also perceived by recreational fishers as the main drivers of the poor conservation status of coastal ecosystems (Pita et al., 2020a); see Annex II). The perceived declines in fish stocks showed in (Pita et al., 2020a) were consistent with available biological data (Xunta de Galicia, 2019) and with other studies that have also raised concerns on declining trends in key marine resources (Pita and Freire, 2014; Alonso-Fernández et al., 2019). This results highlight the potential for FEK to be used in the coproduction of scientific knowledge to inform fisheries and coastal management in data-poor situations, as advocated by previous studies in Galicia (Pita et al., 2018c).
Although the use of FEK is a good approach to develop knowledge of complex socioecological systems, broader monitoring programs were also sued by (Pita et al., 2020a) to ensure a sustainable exploitation of marine resources and ecosystems. Furthermore, (Pita et al., 2019a) showed that the socioecological sustainability of SSF requires policies to be developed by the regional government regarding the
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PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations support of multidisciplinary research. This need of multidisciplinary approaches (Arlinghaus, 2006; Arlinghaus et al., 2016; Ward et al., 2016) and more research in SSF are also recognized in the scientific literature (Arlinghaus et al., 2016; Pita et al., 2017a; Hyder et al., 2018), and by the EU (Council of the European Union, 2008; European Commission, 2016; Hyder et al., 2017) to contribute to the sustainable use of common-pool marine resources.
In this sense, the notion that sound scientific information is needed to address the management of MRF in Spain is not novel (Morales-Nin et al., 2005), and it has been highlighted in different scientific meetings (e.g., Mediterranean Congress of Marine Recreational Fishing in 2006, Transversal Workshop on the monitoring of recreational fisheries in the General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (CGPM) area in 2010, or in the first Workshop on Recreational Fishing on the Iberian Atlantic Coast in 2016. Furthermore, members of scientific institutions, fisher associations and of public administrations attended in September 2018 the first International Symposium on Marine Recreational Fishing (ISMAREF 2018) in Galicia (see (Pita et al., 2020b) in Annex III). During the different sessions of ISMAREF 2018, covering key topics on biology, ecology, economics, governance and sociology, over 100 participants from different Spanish regions and other EU countries with a wide range of expertise discussed interdisciplinary strategies to promote environmental, economic and social sustainability of MRF in Spain and other European areas. Different governance strategies and management initiatives on MRF were put in common and discussed, and key challenges were identified. After the different sessions of the ISMAREF 2018 it was clear that the capability and capacity to develop monitoring and scientific-based assessments of MRF do exists in the marine research institutions in Spain. However, a change is needed from research, management, and policy institutions, and in key stakeholders, to get the most out of the accumulated scientific knowledge and to pay due attention to the management of MRF in Spain (Pita et al., 2020b).
Moreover, it is important to note that to date there is no systematic collection of information about MRF catches in Spain, as required under the EU MAP. Furthermore, the complex socioecological context and the lack of basic data are important challenges for the assessment of ecological impacts of MRF in the different autonomous regions and at national level in a moment when different initiatives to create DCF are being designed to meet the EU data calls on MRF. It is urgently needed to strengthen coordination and coherence between the DCFs that are being designed in different autonomous regions to obtain information on MRF to help in the design of undeveloped regional DCFs, and to provide consistent information at the state level. Exchange of information between regional initiatives, including agreements on equivalent methodologies according to the final needs and the exchange of experiences between science, administrations, and stakeholders to increase collaboration are key actions that need to be performed without delay. Furthermore, and despite recommendations from the European Parliament (European Parliament, 2018), no information on expenditure and social benefits is 28 | Page
PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations routinely collected in Spain. The wide geographical dispersion of recreational fishers along the coasts, the different modalities and access platforms to the fishery, and the idiosyncrasy of each fisher make quantifying the “human dimensions” of MRF challenging. However, considering the imminent development of different regional DCFs on MRF, it is urgent to coordinate the inclusion of socioeconomic information, including private economic initiatives, based in sound scientific criteria. Information on the barriers to increase the economic contribution of MRF to the development of the blue economy of coastal communities, in line with recommendations of the European Parliament ” (European Parliament, 2018), is key information that was obtained in (Pita et al., 2019b); see Annex V). Preliminary results of the comparison between Madeira islands and Galicia (Annex VI, a brochure delivered to the companies that collaborated in the study) show that, despite the fact that the presence of “big game fish”, greater access of tourists and milder weather conditions in the case of Madeira, there is room for the growth in Galicia, and similar European regions for this sector. Although the economic balance is better for companies in Madeira, the companies' economic investments are much lower in Galicia, reducing business risks (Annex VI).
In addition to the development of coherent DCFs for MRF in Spain to ensure socioecological sustainability through adaptive management, as encouraged by the European Parliament (European Parliament, 2018), more research is needed in the future to improve the available social and economic information on MRF. In this sense, more research is needed on the contribution of MRF to the blue economy by catch and release (C&R) of live fish in commercial enterprises, as an opportunity to increase the resilience of marine ecosystems by eco-innovative practices to foster the sustainable use of fish stocks. The development of public policies to increase C&R among marine recreational fishers, fostering transition from linear to circular productive models, needs basic research on factors triggering its adoption by anglers and private companies. This knowledge will contribute to the creation of new competitive value chains based on the use of renewable resources, and to the maintenance of natural capital and ecosystem services derived from the sustainable use of fish stocks and preserved marine habitats. Furthermore, it will have direct implications on the equitable distribution of economic power and employment activities, and on the preservation of rural cultural heritage. Moreover, research initiatives on the relationship between the practice of leisure outdoor activities and human well-being need to be developed because the population of industrialized countries develops their activities in environments very humanized (Ranger et al., 2016), which has been related to different health problems (Walsh et al., 1989; Inglehart, 1990; Manfredo et al., 1996). Establishing links between consumption of fish, and the practice of these activities and people's health can help to promote active policies to promote healthy activities, and business development opportunities linked to tourism in small communities, 29 | Page
PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations coastal communities and islands, particularly in the outermost regions, in line with European Parliament’s recommendations (European Parliament, 2018). Furthermore, research on the contribution of leisure outdoor activities to improve human health is very relevant in Spain because of the high average age of the population and of marine recreational fishers in particular (Morales-Nin et al., 2005; Pita et al., 2018a; Gordoa et al., 2019). Even so, studies that analyze the relationship between health and recreational activities in blue areas are scarce (Griffiths et al., 2016). These studies would have direct implications on public policies to minimize the effects of the demographic transformation of the Spanish population (especially aging and migration to coastal areas), and dependency issues by active ageing initiatives.
New knowledge derived from this thesis will help to the development of coherent and scientific-oriented DCFs for MRF in Spain, including socioeconomic information that will help to understand interactions with socioeconomic systems. In addition, this information will support marine conservation and integral sustainable management of fish stocks, with special care on the preservation of marine biodiversity, among other ecosystem services. In the case of Galicia, conflicts between recreational fisheries and artisanal fishers need to be addressed (see (Pita and Villasante, 2019) in Annex IV). These conflicts have arisen because of the competition for marine resources and space in most Spanish regions (Cardona and Morales-Nin, 2013; Pascual-Fernández et al., 2015; Lloret et al., 2016; Pita et al., 2017a). Selling recreational catches, which is not allowed in Spain, might be a cause of conflict ween commercial fishers and poachers that use recreational licenses (Merino et al., 2008; Maynou et al., 2013; Lloret et al., 2016; Pita et al., 2017a). Finally, gender gap-related issues in MRF also need to be urgently addressed since most marine recreational fishers in Spain are men (more than 95% of total) (Morales-Nin et al., 2005; Pita et al., 2018a; Gordoa et al., 2019).
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PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
4. Conclusions
• In the last decade, the number of shellfish vessels in Galicia was reduced by 13%, overall vessel length of the fleet was decreased by 10%, capacity by 7%, and engine power by 3%. In parallel, the number of on foot shellfishers has been halved. • After recovery in the landings of shellfish species after the transfer of coastal fisheries management from central to regional, landings and sale value have declined in the last decade by 16% and by 13%. • The reductions in the number of shellfish vessels, in the jobs, and in the landings and sale value showed in this thesis, have strong ecological, social and economic implications for Galician society. • Increasing surveillance and control of overfishing and poaching, degradation of habitats, pollution, disease outbreaks and ocean warming, and promoting production of native species and co-management frameworks is encouraged to ensure the socioecological sustainability of Galician shellfisheries. • Key finfish and cephalopod stocks in Galicia have also been declining because overfishing, habitat and biodiversity losses, pollution and ocean warming. • The perceptions of experienced fishers are key information on long-term ecological impacts that support conservation of ecosystems and reduce the impact of the “shifting baseline syndrome” in the management of SSF (Pauly, 1995). • The se of FEK is a good approach to coproduce different scientific knowledge of complex socioecological systems in data-poor situations, but broader monitoring programs are needed to protect future sustainability of coastal ecosystems. • Marine recreational fisheries are important small-scale fisheries across Europe, with almost nine million fishers involved; 900 000 fishers operate in Spain, and 60 000 in Galicia. • In the last two decades research on MRF in Spain was remarkable (139 publications). However, public investment in research (€2.44 million in the same period) should be improved to cover knowledge gaps on socioeconomic relevance, on impacts on vulnerable species and on implications of global warming. Furthermore, incentives to the economic development of MRF to offer new opportunities to local communities need to be further developed. • More experts and stronger fishers’ organizations are needed to foster socioecological sustainability of MRF, while science-based, adaptive policies would improve the allocation of resources between MRF and other SSF, fostering co-management to reduce conflicts. Social networks, mobile applications, and citizen science programs could help to develop cost-effective research and management.
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PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
5. References
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PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
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PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
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PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
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PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
United States Recreational Fisheries on Marine Fish Populations. Science, 305: 1958–1960. Coll, J., M., L., García-Rubies, A., Riera, F., and Grau, A. M. 2004. Spear fishing in the Balearic Islands (west central Mediterranean): species affected and catch evolution during the period 1975–2001. Fisheries Research, 70: 97–111. Coll, M., Libralato, S., Tudela, S., Palomera, I., and Pranovi, F. 2008. Ecosystem overfishing in the ocean. PLoS one, 3: e3881. Colwell, R. K., and Coddington, J. A. 1994. Estimating terrestrial biodiversity through extrapolation. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 345: 101–118. Connell, S. D., Russell, B. D., Turner, D. J., Shepherd, S. A., Kildea, T., Miller, D., Airoldi, L., et al. 2008. Recovering a lost baseline: missing kelp forests from a metropolitan coast. Marine ecology progress series, 360: 63–72. Cooke, S. J., and Cowx, I. G. C. 2004. The role of recreational fishing in global fish crises. BioScience, 54: 857–859. Cooke, S. J., and Cowx, I. G. 2006. Contrasting recreational and commercial fishing: Searching for common issues to promote unified conservation of fisheries resources and aquatic environments. Biological Conservation, 128: 93–108. Cooke, S. J., Twardek, W. M., Lennox, R. J., Zolderdo, A. J., Bower, S. D., Gutowsky, L. F. G., Danylchuk, A. J., et al. 2017. The nexus of fun and nutrition: Recreational fishing is also about food. Fish and Fisheries, 19: 201–224. Cornide, J. 1788. Ensayo de una historia de los peces y otras producciones marinas de la costa de Galicia: arreglado al sistema del caballero Carlos Linneo. Con un tratado de las diversas pescas, y de las redes y aparejos con que se practican. Oficina de Benito Cano, Madrid. 164 pp. Cortés-Jiménez, I. 2008. Which type of tourism matters to the regional economic growth? The cases of Spain and Italy. International Journal of Tourism Research, 10: 127–139. Costello, C., Ovando, D., Clavelle, T., Strauss, C. K., Hilborn, R., Melnychuk, M. C., Branch, T. A., et al. 2016. Global fishery prospects under contrasting management regimes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113: 5125–5129. Council of the European Union. 2001. Council Regulation (EC) No 1936/2001 of 27 September 2001 laying down control measures applicable to fishing for certain stocks of highly migratory fish. Official Journal of the European Union, Brussels, Belgium. Council of the European Union. 2006. Council regulation (EC) No 1198/2006 of 27 July 2006 on the European Fisheries Fund. Official Journal of the European Union, Brussels, Belgium. Council of the European Union. 2007. Council Regulation (EC) No 643/2007 of 11 June 2007 amending Regulation (EC) No 41/2007 as concerns the recovery plan for bluefin tuna recommended by the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas. Official Journal of the European Union, Brussels, Belgium. Council of the European Union. 2008. Council regulation (EC) No 199/2008 of 25 February 2008 concerning the establishment of a Community framework for 36 | Page
PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
the collection, management and use of data in the fisheries sector and support for scientific advice regarding the Common Fisheries Policy. Official Journal of the European Union, Brussels, Belgium. Council of the European Union. 2009. Council Regulation (EC) No 1224/2009 establishing a Community Control System for ensuring compliance with the rules of the common fisheries policy. Official Journal of the European Union, Brussels, Belgium. Council of the European Union. 2015. Council Regulation (EU) 2015/104 of 19 January 2015 fixing for 2015 the fishing opportunities for certain fish stocks and groups of fish stocks, applicable in Union waters and, for Union vessels, in certain non-Union waters, amending Regulation (EU) No 43. Official Journal of the European Union, Brussels, Belgium. Council of the European Union. 2017. Council Regulation (EC) No 1100/2007 of 18 September 2007 establishing measures for the recovery of the stock of European eel. Official Journal of the European Union, Brussels, Belgium. Council of the European Union. 2018. Council Regulation (EU) 2018/1308 of 28 September 2018 amending Regulation (EU) 2018/120 as regards fishing opportunities for European seabass. Official Journal of the European Union, Brussels, Belgium. Cycon, D. E. 1986. Managing fisheries in developing nations: a plea for appropriate development. Natural Resources Journal, 26: 1–22. Darriba, S., and Miranda, M. 2006. Impacto del descenso de la salinidad en la reproducción de la navaja (Ensis arcuatus). VIII Foro dos Recursos Mariños e da Acuicultura das Rías Galegas. Daufresne, M., Lengfellner, K., and Sommer, U. 2009. Global warming benefits the small in aquatic ecosystems. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106: 12788–12793. Davis, A., and Wagner, J. R. 2003. Who knows? On the importance of identifying “experts” when researching local ecological knowledge. Human ecology, 31: 463–489. Daw, T. 2010. Shifting baselines and memory illusions: what should we worry about when inferring trends from resource user interviews? Animal Conservation, 13: 534–535. Dayton, P. K. 1985. Ecology of Kelp Communities. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 16: 215–245. Dedeu, A. L., Boada, J., and Gordoa, A. 2019. The first estimates of species compositions of Spanish marine recreational fishing reveal the activity’s inner and geographical variability. Fisheries Research, 216: 65–73. Depellegrin, D., Venier, C., Kyriazi, Z., Vassilopoulou, V., Castellani, C., Ramieri, E., Bocci, M., et al. 2019. Exploring Multi-Use potentials in the Euro-Mediterranean sea space. Science of The Total Environment, 653: 612–629. Doldán-Garcia, X. R., Chas-Amil, M. L., and Touza, J. 2011. Estimating the economic impacts of maritime port development: The case of a coruña, spain. Ocean & Coastal Management, 54: 668–677. Drius, M., Bongiorni, L., Depellegrin, D., Menegon, S., Pugnetti, A., and Stifter, S. 2019. Tackling challenges for Mediterranean sustainable coastal tourism: An 37 | Page
PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
ecosystem service perspective. Science of The Total Environment, 652: 1302– 1317. Eden, S., and Bear, C. 2011a. Models of equilibrium, natural agency and environmental change: lay ecologies in UK recreational angling. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 36: 393–407. Eden, S., and Bear, C. 2011b. Reading the river through ‘watercraft’: environmental engagement through knowledge and practice in freshwater angling. cultural geographies, 18: 297–314. Eden, S., and Bear, C. 2012. The good, the bad, and the hands-on: constructs of public participation, anglers, and lay management of water environments. Environment and Planning A, 44: 1200–1218. Edmondson, M. 2018. googleLanguageR: Call Google’s ‘Natural Language’ API, ‘Cloud Translation’ API, ‘Cloud Speech’ API and ‘Cloud Text-to-Speech’ API. Eero, M., Strehlow, H. V, Adams, C. M., and Vinther, M. 2014. Does recreational catch impact the TAC for commercial fisheries? ICES Journal of Marine Science: fsu121. Essington, T. E., Beaudreau, A. H., and Wiedenmann, J. W. 2006. Fishing through marine food webs. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 103: 3171–3175. European Commission. 2001. Commission Regulation (EC) No 1639/2001 of 25 July 2001 establishing the minimum and extended Community programmes for the collection of data in the fisheries sector and laying down detailed rules for the application of Council Regulation (EC)No 1543/2000. Official Journal of the European Union, Brussels, Belgium. European Commission. 2008. Commission Decision of 6 November 2008 adopting a multiannual Community programme pursuant to Council Regulation (EC) No 199/2008 establishing a Community framework for the collection, management and use of data in the fisheries sector and support for sci. Official Journal of the European Union, Brussels, Belgium. European Commission. 2016. Commission Implementing decision (EU) 2016/1251 of 12 July 2016 adopting a multiannual Union programme for the collection, management and use of data in the fisheries and aquaculture sectors for the period 2017-2019. Official Journal of the European Union, Brussels, Belgium. European Commission. 2018. Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and the Council amending Council Regulation (EC) No 1224/2009, and amending Council Regulations (EC) No 768/2005, (EC) No 1967/2006, (EC) No 1005/2008, and Regulation (EU) No 2016/1139 of the European P. Brussels, Belgium. European Parliament. 2018. European Parliament resolution of 12 June 2018 on the state of play of recreational fisheries in the European Union. Brussels, Belgium. European Parliament and Council of the European Union. 2008. Establishing a framework for community action in the field of marine environmental policy (Marine Strategy Framework Directive). Official Journal of the European Union, Brussels, Belgium. European Parliament and Council of the European Union. 2013. Regulation (EU) No 1380/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 December 38 | Page
PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
2013 on the Common Fisheries Policy. Official Journal of the European Union, Brussels, Belgium. European Parliament and Council of the European Union. 2014a. Regulation (EU) No 508/2014 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 May 2014 on the European Maritime and Fisheries Fund and repealing Council Regulations (EC) No 2328/2003, (EC) No 861/2006, (EC) No 1198/2006 and (EC) No 791/2007 and Regulati. 508/2014. Brussels. European Parliament and Council of the European Union. 2014b. Regulation (EU) No 544/2014 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 May 2014 amending Council Regulation (EC) No 302/2009 concerning a multiannual recovery plan for Bluefin tuna in the eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean. Official Journal of the European Union, Brussels, Belgium. European Parliament and Council of the European Union. 2017. Regulation (EU) 2017/1004 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 May 2017 on the establishment of a Union framework for the collection, management and use of data in the fisheries sector and support for scientific advice regarding the common. Official Journal of the European Union, Brussels, Belgium. FAO. 2014. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture. FAO, Rome. 243 pp. FAO. 2016. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2016. Contributing to food security and nutrition for all. Rome. 200 pp. Fernández-Vidal, D., and Muiño, R. 2014. Fact or fiction? Assessing governance and co-management of Marine Reserves of Fishing Interest in Cedeira and Lira (NW Spain). Marine Policy, 47: 15–22. Figueiras, F. G., Jones, K. J., Mosquera, A. M., Alvarez-Salgado, X. A., Edwards, A., and MacDougall, N. 1994. Red tide assemblage formation in an estuarine upwelling ecosystem: Ria de Vigo. Journal of Plankton Research, 16: 857–878. Figueiras, F. G., Pitcher, G. C., and Estrada, M. 2006. Harmful algal bloom dynamics in relation to physical processes. In Ecology of harmful algae, pp. 127–138. Springer. Flores-Moya, A. 2012. Warm Temperate Seaweed Communities: A Case Study of Deep Water Kelp Forests from the Alboran Sea (SW Mediterranean Sea) and the Strait of Gibraltar. In Seaweed Biology: Novel Insights into Ecophysiology, Ecology and Utilization, pp. 315–327. Ed. by C. Wiencke and K. Bischof. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, (eBook). Font, T., and Lloret, J. 2011. Biological implications of recreational shore angling and harvest in a marine reserve: the case of Cape Creus. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 21: 210–217. Font, T., Gil, J., and Lloret, J. 2018. The commercialization and use of exotic baits in recreational fisheries in the north‐western Mediterranean: Environmental and management implications. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 28: 651–661. Fraga, F. 1981. Upwelling off the Galician Coast, northwest Spain. Coastal and estuarine sciences, 1: 176–182. Franco, M. A., Viñas, L., Soriano, J. A., de Armas, D., González, J. J., Beiras, R., Salas, N., et al. 2006. Spatial distribution and ecotoxicity of petroleum hydrocarbons in sediments from the Galicia continental shelf (NW Spain) after the Prestige oil 39 | Page
PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
spill. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 53: 260–271. Frangoudes, K., Marugán-Pintos, B., and Pascual-Fernández, J. J. 2008. From open access to co-governance and conservation: The case of women shellfish collectors in Galicia (Spain). Marine Policy, 32: 223–232. Frangoudes, K., Marugán-Pintos, B., and Pascual-Fernandez, J. J. 2013. Gender in Galician shell-fisheries: Transforming for governability. In Governability of Fisheries and Aquaculture, pp. 241–261. Springer. Franquesa, R. 2005. Las cofradías en España: papel económico y cambios estructurales. In 12th Conference of the International Institute of Fisheries Economics and Trade (IIFET). Tokio. Freire, J., and García-Allut, A. 2000. Socioeconomic and biological causes of management failures in European artisanal fisheries: the case of Galicia (NW Spain). Marine Policy, 24: 375–384. Freire, J., Bernárdez, C., Corgos, A., Fernández, L., González-Gurriarán, E., Sampedro, M. P., and Verísimo, P. 2002. Management strategies for sustainable invertebrate fisheries in coastal ecosystems of Galicia (NW Spain). Aquatic Ecology, 36: 41–50. Freire, J., Ferreiro, R., and Pita, P. 2009. Comunidades bentónicas e de peixes costeiros nos ecosistemas litorais. Evidencias do cambio climático. In Evidencias e Impactos do Cambio Climático en Galicia, pp. 455–500. Ed. by V. P. Muñuzuri, M. F. Cañamero, and J. L. G. Gesteira. Xunta de Galicia. Consellería de Medio Ambiente e Desenvolvemento Sostible, Santiago de Compostela. Froese, R., and Proelß, A. 2010. Rebuilding fish stocks no later than 2015: will Europe meet the deadline? Fish and Fisheries, 11: 194–202. Froese, R., Branch, T. A., Proelß, A., Quaas, M., Sainsbury, K., and Zimmermann, C. 2011. Generic harvest control rules for European fisheries. Fish and Fisheries, 12: 340–351. Froese, R., and Pauly, D. 2018. FishBase: a global information system on fishes. García, A., Coo, A., Abella, E., Alcalde, A., and Parada, J. M. 2001. First data of Manila clam Ruditapes philippinarum (Adams & Reeve 1850) natural populations
Garcia Rodrigues, J., Conides, A., Rivero Rodriguez, S., Raicevich, S., Pita, P., Kleisner, K.,recruitment Pita, C., andet al. growth, 2017. in Marine Vilaxoán and zones, Coastal Ría de Cultural Arousa, GaliciaEcosyst [Spain].em Services: ICCM. knowledge gaps and research priorities. One Ecosystem, 2: e12290. Generalitat de Catalunya. 2018. Decree 118/2018, of 19 June, on the governance model for professional fishing in Catalonia. Diari Oficial de la Generalitat de Catalunya, Barcelona. Giovos, I., Keramidas, I., Antoniou, C., Deidun, A., Font, T., Kleitou, P., Lloret, J., et al. 2018. Identifying recreational fisheries in the Mediterranean Sea through social media. Fisheries Management and Ecology, 25: 287–295. Gobierno de España. 1963. Orden de 3 de diciembre de 1963 por la que se aprueba el Reglamento de Pesca Marítima de Recreo. Boletín Oficial del Estado, Madrid, Spain. Gobierno de España. 1965. Orden de 30 de julio de 1965 sobre modificación del artículo cuarto del Reglamento de Pesca Marítima de Recreo. Boletín Oficial del Estado, Madrid, Spain. 40 | Page
PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
Gobierno de España. 1980. Real Decreto 681/1980, de 28 de marzo, sobre ordenación de la actividad pesquera nacional. Boletín Oficial del Estado, Madrid, Spain. Gobierno de España. 1981. Ley Orgánica 1/1981, de 6 de abril, de Estatuto de Autonomía para Galicia. Boletín Oficial del Estado, Madrid, Spain. Gobierno de España. 1999. Orden de 26 de febrero de 1999 por la que se establecen las normas que regulan la pesca marítima de recreo. Boletín Oficial del Estado, Madrid, Spain. Gobierno de España. 2009. Orden ARM 956/2009, de 16 de abril, por la que modifica la Orden ARM 1244/2008, de 29 de abril, por la que se regula la pesquería de atún rojo en el Atlántico Oriental y Mediterráneo. Boletín Oficial del Estado, Madrid, Spain. Gobierno de España. 2017. Resolución de 28 de junio de 2017, de la Dirección General de Ordenación Pesquera, por la que se prohíbe temporalmente la pesca, tenencia a bordo y desembarque de ejemplares de atún rojo (Thunnus thynnus) para la modalidad de pesca deportiva y recreativa. Boletín Oficial del Estado, Madrid, Spain. Gobierno de España. 2018. La flota española. Situación a 31 de diciembre de 2018. Madrid. 13 pp. Goldman, M., and Schurman, R. A. 2000. Closing the ‘great divide’: New social theory on society and nature. Annual Review of Sociology, 26: 563–584. Goodman, L. A. 1961. Snowball sampling. The annals of mathematical statistics, 32: 148–170. Gordoa, A., Borrego, J. R., Caillart, B., De La Serna, J. M., Di Natale, A., Franqueza, R., Mazaudier, L., et al. 2004. Sport fishing: an informative and economic alternative for tuna fishing in the Mediterranean (SFITUM). Final Report. EC PR, 98: 34. Gordoa, A. 2009. Characterization of the infralittoral system along the north-east Spanish coast based on sport shore-based fishing tournament catches. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 82: 41–49. Gordoa, A., Dedeu, A. L., and Boada, J. 2019. Recreational fishing in Spain: First national estimates of fisher population size, fishing activity and fisher social profile. Fisheries Research, 211: 1–12. Gotelli, N. J., and Colwell, R. K. 2001. Quantifying biodiversity: procedures and pitfalls in the measurement and comparison of species richness. Ecology Letters, 4: 379–391. Gourguet, S., Briand, F., Marçalo, A., Ünal, V., Liu, Y., Kaiser, B., Katsanevakis, S., et al. 2018. Engaging marine scientists and fishers to share knowledge and perceptions – An overview. In CIESM Monograph 50. Engaging marine scientists and fishers to share knowledge and perceptions-Early lessons, pp. 5– 27. Ed. by F. Briand. CIESM Publisher, Monaco and Paris. Green, J., and Thorogood, N. 2013. Qualitative methods for health research. Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA. Griffiths, S. P., and Fay, G. 2015. Integrating recreational fisheries data into stock assessment: implications for model performance and subsequent harvest strategies. Fisheries Management and Ecology, 22: 197–212. 41 | Page
PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
Griffiths, S. P., Bryant, J., Raymond, H. F., and Newcombe, P. A. 2016. Quantifying subjective human dimensions of recreational fishing: does good health come to those who bait? Fish and Fisheries, 18: 171–184. Guénette, S., and Gascuel, D. 2012. Shifting baselines in European fisheries: the case of the Celtic Sea and Bay of Biscay. Ocean & Coastal Management, 70: 10–21. Halpern, B. S., Walbridge, S., Selkoe, K. A., Kappel, C. V., Micheli, F., D’Agrosa, C., Bruno, J. F., et al. 2008. A Global Map of Human Impact on Marine Ecosystems. Science, 319: 948–952. Hansen, K. D., Gentry, J., Long, L., Gentleman, R., Falcon, S., Hahne, F., and Sarkar, D. 2017. Rgraphviz: Provides plotting capabilities for R graph objects. Harley, C. D. G., Anderson, K. M., Demes, K. W., Jorve, J. P., Kordas, R. L., Coyle, T. A., and Graham, M. H. 2012. Effects of climate change on global seaweed communities. Journal of Phycology, 48: 1064–1078. Harvell, C. D., Mitchell, C. E., Ward, J. R., Altizer, S., Dobson, A. P., Ostfeld, R. S., and Samuel, M. D. 2002. Climate warming and disease risks for terrestrial and marine biota. Science, 296: 2158–2162. Harvey, E., Fletcher, D., and Shortis, M. 2001. A comparison of the precision and accuracy of estimates of reef-fish lengths determined visually by divers with estimates produced by a stereo-video system. Fishery Bulletin, 99: 63–71. Hauck, M., Sowman, M., Russell, E., Clark, B. M., Harris, J. M., Venter, A., Beaumont, J., et al. 2002. Perceptions of subsistence and informal fishers in South Africa regarding the management of living marine resources. African Journal of Marine Science, 24: 463–474. Hiett, R. L., and Worrall, J. W. 1977. Marine recreational fishermen’s ability to estimate catch and to recall catch and effort over time. Human Sciences Research, Incorporated. Hilborn, R., Walters, C. J., and Ludwig, D. 1995. Sustainable Exploitation of Renewable Resources. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 26: 45–67. Hind, E. J. 2014. A review of the past, the present, and the future of fishers’ knowledge research: a challenge to established fisheries science. ICES Journal of Marine Science: 341–358. Hoegh-Guldberg, O., and Bruno, J. F. 2010. The impact of climate change on the world’s marine ecosystems. Science, 328: 1523–1528. Holland, S. M., Ditton, R. B., and Graefe, A. R. 1998. An ecotourism perspective on billfish fisheries. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 6: 97–116. Hornik, K., and Grün, B. 2011. topicmodels: An R package for fitting topic models. Journal of Statistical Software, 40: 1–30. Huntington, H. P. 2000. Using Traditional Ecological Knowledge in Science: Methods and Applications. Ecological Applications, 10: 1270–1274. Hurtado, N. S., Pérez-García, C., Morán, P., and Pasantes, J. J. 2011. Genetic and cytological evidence of hybridization between native Ruditapes decussatus and introduced Ruditapes philippinarum (Mollusca, Bivalvia, Veneridae) in NW Spain. Aquaculture, 311: 123–128. Hyder, K., Rossberg, A. G., Allen, J. I., Austen, M. C., Barciela, R. M., Bannister, H. J., Blackwell, P. G., et al. 2015. Making modelling count-increasing the contribution of shelf-seas community and ecosystem models to policy development and 42 | Page
PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
management. Marine Policy, 61: 291–302. Hyder, K., Radford, Z., Prellezo, R., Weltersbach, M. S., Lewin, W. C., Zarauz, L., Ferter, K., et al. 2017. Research for PECH Committee - Marine recreational and semi- subsistence fishing - its value and its impact on fish stocks. European Parliament and Council of the European Union, Brussels, Belgium. 140 pp. Hyder, K., Weltersbach, M. S., Armstrong, M., Ferter, K., Townhill, B., Ahvonen, A., Arlinghaus, R., et al. 2018. Recreational sea fishing in Europe – Participation rates, fishing effort and expenditure in a global context. Fish and Fisheries, 19: 225–243. ICES. 2018a. Sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) in divisions 4.b–c, 7.a, and 7.d–h (central and southern North Sea, Irish Sea, English Channel, Bristol Channel, and Celtic Sea). Copenhagen. 10 pp. ICES. 2018b. Report of the Baltic Salmon and Trout Assessment Working Group (WGBAST). Turku. 267 pp. ICES. 2018c. Cod (Gadus morhua) in subdivisions 22–24, western Baltic stock (western Baltic Sea). Copenhagen. 16 pp. ICES. 2018d. Report of the Working Group on Southern Horse Mackerel, Anchovy and Sardine (WGHANSA). Lisbon. 659 pp. ICES. 2018e. ICES Advice on fishing opportunities, catch, and effort Bay of Biscay and the Iberian Coast ecoregion: Blackspot sea bream (Pagellus bogaraveo) in Subarea 9 (Atlantic Iberian waters). 6 pp. ICES. 2018f. ICES Advice on fishing opportunities, catch, and effort Bay of Biscay and the Iberian Coast ecoregion: Seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax) in divisions 8.a–b (northern and central Bay of Biscay). 9 pp. ICES. 2019. Norway special request for revised 2019 advice on mackerel (Scomber scombrus) in subareas 1–8 and 14, and in Division 9.a (the Northeast Atlantic and adjacent waters). 17 pp. Inglehart, R. 1990. Culture shift in advanced industrial society. Princeton University Press. Iribarren, D., Vázquez-Rowe, I., Hospido, A., Moreira, M. T., and Feijoo, G. 2010. Estimation of the carbon footprint of the Galician fishing activity (NW Spain). Science of the Total Environment, 408: 5284–5294. Jackson, J. B. C., Kirby, M. X., Berger, W. H., Bjorndal, K. A., Botsford, L. W., Bourque, B. J., Bradbury, R. H., et al. 2001. Historical Overfishing and the Recent Collapse of Coastal Ecosystems. Science, 293: 629–637. Jackson, J. B. C. 2008. Ecological extinction and evolution in the brave new ocean. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 105: 11458– 11465. Jones, C. M., and Pollock, K. H. 2012. Recreational angler survey methods: estimation of effort, harvest, and released catch. In Fisheries Techniques Manual, pp. 883– 919. Ed. by A. V Zale, D. L. Parrish, and T. M. Sutton. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, Md. Kelleher, K. 2005. Discards in the world’s marine fisheries: an update. FAO. 131 pp. Kersting, D. 2016. Cambio climático en el medio marino español: impactos, vulnerabilidad y adaptación. Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente. 166 pp. 43 | Page
PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
Khalilian, S., Froese, R., Proelss, A., and Requate, T. 2010. Designed for failure: a critique of the Common Fisheries Policy of the European Union. Marine Policy, 34: 1178–1182. Kleiber, P., and Maunder, M. N. 2008. Inherent bias in using aggregate CPUE to characterize abundance of fish species assemblages. Fisheries Research, 93: 140–145. Kleiven, A. R., Moland, E., Kleiven, A. R., Fernandez-chacon, A., Nordahl, J., and Moland, E. 2016. Harvest Pressure on Coastal Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua) from Recreational Fishing Relative to Commercial Fishing Assessed from Tag- Recovery data. PLoS One, 11: e0159220. Krumhansl, K. A., Okamoto, D. K., Rassweiler, A., Novak, M., Bolton, J. J., Cavanaugh, K. C., Connell, S. D., et al. 2016. Global patterns of kelp forest change over the past half-century. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113: 13785–13790. Lahuerta Mouriño, F., Vázquez Álvarez, F. X., and González González, M. 2000. Vocabulario multilingüe de organismos acuáticos. 621 pp. Langangen, Ø., Färber, L., Stige, L. C., Diekert, F. K., Barth, J. M. I., Matschiner, M., Berg, P. R., et al. 2019. Ticket to spawn: Combining economic and genetic data to evaluate the effect of climate and demographic structure on spawning distribution in Atlantic cod. Global change biology, 25: 134–143. Lewin, W. C., Arlinghaus, R., and Mehner, T. 2006. Documented and potential biological impacts of recreational fishing: insights for management and conservation. Reviews in Fisheries Science, 14: 305–367. Ling, S. D., Scheibling, R. E., Rassweiler, A., Johnson, C. R., Shears, N., Connell, S. D., Salomon, A. K., et al. 2015. Global regime shift dynamics of catastrophic sea urchin overgrazing. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B, 370: 20130269. Lloret, J., Zaragoza, N., Caballero, D., Font, T., Casadevall, M., and Riera, V. 2008a. Spearfishing pressure on fish communities in rocky coastal habitats in a Mediterranean marine protected area. Fisheries research, 94: 84–91. Lloret, J., Zaragoza, N., Caballero, D., and Riera, V. 2008b. Biological and socioeconomic implications of recreational boat fishing for the management of fishery resources in the marine reserve of Cap de Creus (NW Mediterranean). Fisheries Research, 91: 252–259. Lloret, J., Garrote, A., Balasch, N., and Font, T. 2014. Estimating recreational fishing tackle loss in Mediterranean coastal areas: Potential impacts on wildlife. Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management, 17: 179–185. Lloret, J., Cowx, I. G., Cabral, H., Castro, M., Font, T., Gonçalves, J. M. S., Gordoa, A., et al. 2016. Small-scale coastal fisheries in European Seas are not what they were: Ecological, social and economic changes. Marine Policy, 98: 176–186. Lloret, J., Biton-Porsmoguer, S., Carreño, A., Di Franco, A., Sahyoun, R., Melià, P., Claudet, J., et al. 2019. Recreational and small-scale fisheries may pose a threat to vulnerable species in coastal and offshore waters of the western Mediterranean. ICES Journal of Marine Science, fsz071. Lockwood, M., Davidson, J., Hockings, M., Haward, M., and Kriwoken, L. 2012. Marine biodiversity conservation governance and management: regime requirements for global environmental change. Ocean & Coastal Management, 69: 160–172. 44 | Page
PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
Longino, J. T., and Colwell, R. K. 1997. Biodiversity assesment using structured inventory: capturing the ant fauna of a tropical rain forest. Ecological Applications, 7: 1263–1277. L pez Veiga, E., Carballeira Tella, D., Penas, E., Caama o Cebreiro, J., Aguirre Enr quez, P., Pastor Arratia, A., Fern ndez Domonte, F., et al. 1993. Plan de ó ordenaci n de los recursos pesqueros y marisquero deñ Galicia. Conseller a de Pesca,ı́ Marisqueo y Acuicultura, Xuntaá de Galicia, Santiago de Compostela, Spain. ó ı́ Lotze, H. K. L., Lenihan, H. S., Bourque, B. J., Bradbury, R. H., Cooke, R. G., Kay, M. C., Kidwell, S. M., et al. 2006. Depletion, degradation, and recovery potential of estuaries and coastal seas. Science, 312: 1806–1809. Macho, G., Naya, I., Freire, J., Villasante, S., and Molares, J. 2013. The key role of the Barefoot Fisheries Advisors in the co-managed TURF System of Galicia (NW Spain). Ambio, 42: 1057–1069. Macho, G., Woodin, S. A., Wethey, D. S., and Vázquez, E. 2016. Impacts of sublethal and lethal high temperatures on clams exploited in European fisheries. Journal of shellfish research, 35: 405–419. Macías Vázquez, A., and Alonso González, P. 2015. Collective symbolic capital and sustainability: Governing fishing communities in a knowledge economy. Marine Policy, 53: 21–26. Manfredo, M. J., Driver, B. L., and Tarrant, M. A. 1996. Measuring leisure motivation: A meta-analysis of the recreation experience preference scales. Journal of leisure Research, 28: 188. Marchal, P., Andersen, J. L., Aranda, M., Fitzpatrick, M., Goti, L., Guyader, O., Haraldsson, G., et al. 2016. A comparative review of fisheries management experiences in the European Union and in other countries worldwide: Iceland, Australia, and New Zealand. Fish and Fisheries, 17: 803–824. Martínez-Carbajal, V. 2018. Estudio del impacto socioeconómico de la pesca recreativa en España. Universidad Politécnica de Madrid. 193 pp. Martinez-Urtaza, J., Trinanes, J., Abanto, M., Lozano-Leon, A., Llovo-Taboada, J., Garcia-Campello, M., Pousa, A., et al. 2018. Epidemic Dynamics of Vibrio parahaemolyticus Illness in a Hotspot of Disease Emergence, Galicia, Spain. Emerging infectious diseases, 24: 852. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Martinez Garcia, P. 2017. Democratization of the Sea with a Gender Perspective. The Professionalization Process of Women Shellfish Gatherers in Galicia. POLITICA Y SOCIEDAD, 54: 365–386. Marugán-Pintos, B. 2004. Y cogieron ese tren... profesionalización de las mariscadoras gallegas. Xunta de Galicia, Consellería de Pesca e Asuntos Marítimos, Santiago de Compostela. 299 pp. Maunder, M. N., Sibert, J. R., Fonteneau, A., Hampton, J., Kleiber, P., and Harley, S. J. 2006. Interpreting catch per unit effort data to assess the status of individual stocks and communities. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 63: 1373–1385. Maurstad, A. 2002. Fishing in murky waters—ethics and politics of research on fisher knowledge. Marine Policy, 26: 159–166. Maynou, F., Morales-Nin, B., Cabanellas-Reboredo, M., Palmer, M., García, E., and 45 | Page
PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
Grau, A. M. 2013. Small-scale fishery in the Balearic Islands (W Mediterranean): A socio-economic approach. Fisheries research, 139: 11–17. McLean, M. J., Mouillot, D., Goascoz, N., Schlaich, I., and Auber, A. 2019. Functional reorganization of marine fish nurseries under climate warming. Global change biology, 25: 660–674. Meltzoff, S. K. 1995. Marisquadoras of the Shellfish Revolution: The Rise of Women in Co-management on Illa de Arousa. Journal of Political Ecology, 2: 20. Merino, G., Morales-Nin, B., Maynou, F., and Grau, A. M. 2008. Assessment and bioeconomic analysis of the Majorca (NW Mediterranean) trammel net fishery. Aquatic Living Resources, 21: 99–107. Meyer, D., Hornik, K., and Feinerer, I. 2008. Text mining infrastructure in R. Journal of statistical software, 25: 1–54. Miller, D. D., Ota, Y., Sumaila, U. R., Cisneros‐Montemayor, A. M., and Cheung, W. W. L. 2018. Adaptation strategies to climate change in marine systems. Global change biology, 24: e1–e14. Molares, J., and Freire, J. 2003. Development and perspectives for community-based management of the goose barnacle (Pollicipes pollicipes) fisheries in Galicia (NW Spain). Fisheries Research, 65: 485–492. Monaco, D., Chianese, E., Riccio, A., Delgado-Sanchez, A., and Lacorte, S. 2017. Spatial distribution of heavy hydrocarbons, PAHs and metals in polluted areas. The case of “Galicia”, Spain. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 121: 230–237. Monkman, G. G., Kaiser, M. J., and Hyder, K. 2018a. Text and data mining of social media to map wildlife recreation activity. Biological Conservation, 228: 89–99. Monkman, G. G., Kaiser, M. J., and Hyder, K. 2018b. Heterogeneous public and local knowledge provides a qualitative indicator of coastal use by marine recreational fishers. Journal of Environmental Management, 228: 495–505. Monkman, G. G., Kaiser, M., and Hyder, K. 2018c. The ethics of using social media in fisheries research. Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture, 26: 235–242. Morales-Nin, B., Moranta, J., García, C., Tugores, M. P., Grau, A. M., Riera, F., and Cerdà, M. 2005. The recreational fishery off Majorca Island (western Mediterranean): some implications for coastal resource management. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 62: 727–739. Morales-Nin, B., Grau, A. M., and Palmer, M. 2010. Managing coastal zone fisheries: a Mediterranean case study. Ocean & Coastal Management, 53: 99–106. Morales-Nin, B., Cardona-Pons, F., María Grau, A., García, E., Alvarez, I., and Pérez- Mayol, S. 2013. Does angling activity influence consumer choices of fresh fish? British Food Journal, 115: 1054–1066. Morales-Nin, B., Cardona-Pons, F., Maynou, F., and Grau, A. M. 2015. How relevant are recreational fisheries? Motivation and activity of resident and tourist anglers in Majorca. Fisheries Research, 164: 45–49. Morales-Nin, B., and Alós, J. 2018. ¿La pesca recreativa cosa de hombres? In I International Symposium on Marine Recreational Fishing, p. 42. Vigo, Spain. Morato, T., Watson, R., Pitcher, T. J., and Pauly, D. 2006. Fishing down the deep. Fish and Fisheries, 7: 24–34. Morgan, M. G. 2002. Risk communication: A mental models approach. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, New York. 46 | Page
PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
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PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
Ecology and Evolution, 10: 430. Pauly, D. 2009. Beyond duplicity and ignorance in global fisheries. Scientia Marina, 73: 215–224. Pawson, M. G., Glenn, H., and Padda, G. 2008. The definition of marine recreational fishing in Europe. Marine Policy, 32: 339–350. Peña-Alonso, C., Ariza, E., Hernández-Calvento, L., and Pérez-Chacón, E. 2018. Exploring multi-dimensional recreational quality of beach socio-ecological systems in the Canary Islands (Spain). Tourism Management, 64: 303–313. Pérez-Camacho, A., González, R., and Fuentes, J. 1991. Mussel culture in Galicia (NW Spain). Aquaculture, 94: 263–278. Pérez-Matus, A., Ospina-Alvarez, A., Camus, P. A., Carrasco, S. A., Fernandez, M., Gelcich, S., Godoy, N., et al. 2017. Temperate rocky subtidal reef community reveals human impacts across the entire food web. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 567: 1–16. Perez de Oliveira, L. 2013. Fishers as advocates of marine protected areas: a case study from Galicia (NW Spain). Marine Policy, 41: 95–102. Peteiro, C., Salinas, J. M., Freire, Ó., and Fuertes, C. 2006. Cultivation of the autoctonous seaweed Laminaria saccharina off the Galician coast (NW Spain): Production and features of the sporophytes for an annual and biennial harvest. Thalassas, 22: 45–53. Phillips, B. F., and Pérez-Ramírez, M. 2017. Climate Change Impacts on Fisheries and Aquaculture: A Global Analysis. John Wiley & Sons. Pita, P., Freire, J., and García-Allut, A. 2008. How to assign a catch value to fishing grounds when fisheries statistics are not spatially explicit. Scientia Marina, 72: 693–699. Pita, P., and Freire, J. 2014. The use of spearfishing competition data in fisheries management: evidence for a hidden near collapse of a coastal fish community of Galicia (NE Atlantic Ocean). Fisheries Management and Ecology, 21: 454– 469. Pita, P., and Freire, J. 2016. Assessing the impact of spear fishing by using competitions records and underwater visual census. Scientia Marina, 80: 27– 38. Pita, P., Alonso, A., Artetxe, I., Bañón, R., Beiro, J. A., Castro, R., Diogo, H., et al. 2016a. Informe técnico del I Taller sobre Pesca Recreativa en el litoral Atlántico Ibérico. In I Taller sobre Pesca Recreativa en el litoral Atlántico Ibérico. Ed. by P. Pita and S. Villasante. Vigo, Spain. Pita, P., Fernández-Vidal, D., García-Galdo, J., and Muíño, R. 2016b. The use of the traditional ecological knowledge of fishermen, cost-effective tools and participatory models in artisanal fisheries: towards the co-management of common octopus in Galicia (NW Spain). Fisheries Research, 178: 4–12. Pita, P., Artetxe, I., Diogo, H., Gomes, P., Gordoa, A., Hyder, K., Pereira, J., et al. 2017a. Research and management priorities for Atlantic marine recreational fisheries in Southern Europe. Marine Policy, 86: 1–8. Pita, P., Gomes, P., Hyder, K., Pita, C., Rangel, M., Veiga, P., Vingada, J., et al. 2017b. Social and ecological attributes of marine recreational fisheries in the Euroregion Galicia-Northern Portugal. In VIII World Recreational Fisheries 48 | Page
PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
Conference. Victoria, Canada. Pita, P., and Freire, J. 2017. Trophic ecology of an Atlantic kelp forest fish assemblage targeted by recreational fishers: implications for coastal management. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 99: 19–29. Pita, P., Hyder, K., Gomes, P., Pita, C., Rangel, M., Veiga, P., Vingada, J., et al. 2018a. Economic, social and ecological attributes of marine recreational fisheries in Galicia, Spain. Fisheries Research, 208: 58–69. Pita, P., Villasante, S., Arlinghaus, R., Gomes, P., Strehlow, H. V., Veiga, P., Vingada, J., et al. 2018b. A matter of scales: Does the management of marine recreational fisheries follow the ecosystem approach to fisheries in Europe? Marine Policy, 97: 61–71. Pita, P., García-Allut, A., and Villasante, S. 2018c. The role of marine stakeholders in the co-production of scientific knowledge: lessons from Galicia (NW Spain). In CIESM Monograph 50. Engaging marine scientists and fishers to share knowledge and perceptions-Early lessons, pp. 55–66. Ed. by F. Briand. CIESM Publisher, Monaco and Paris. Pita, P., Fernández-Márquez, D., and Freire, J. 2018d. Spatiotemporal variation in the structure of reef fish and macroalgal assemblages in a north-east Atlantic kelp forest ecosystem: implications for the management of temperate rocky reefs. Marine and Freshwater Research, 69: 525–541. Pita, P., and Villasante, S. 2019. The building of a management system for marine recreational fisheries in Galicia (NW Spain). Ocean & Coastal Management, 169: 191–200. Pita, P., Fernández-Márquez, D., Antelo, M., Macho, G., and Villasante, S. 2019a. Socioecological changes in data-poor S-fisheries: A hidden shellfisheries crisis in Galicia (NW Spain). Marine Policy, 101: 208–224. Pita, P., Antelo, M., Gouveia, L., Martínez-Escauriaza, R., and Villsante, S. 2019b. The economic activity of recreational fishing charters in the North Atlantic: the cases of Galicia (Spain) and Madeira (Portugal). In European Association of Fisheries Economists Congress. Santiago de Compostela. Pita, P., Antelo, M., Hyder, K., Vingada, J., and Villasante, S. 2020a. The Use of Recreational Fishers’ Ecological Knowledge to Assess the Conservation Status of Marine Ecosystems. Frontiers in Marine Science, 7: 242. Pita, P., Alos, J., Antelo, M., Artetxe, I., Biton-Porsmoguer, S., Carreño, A., Cuadros, A., et al. 2020b. Assessing knowledge gaps and management needs to cope with barriers for environmental, economic and social sustainability of marine recreational fisheries: the case of Spain. Frontiers in Marine Science, 7: 23. Pitcher, T. J. 2001. Fisheries Managed to Rebuild Ecosystems? Reconstructing the Past to Salvage the Future. Ecological Applications, 11: 601–617. Platteau, J.-P. 1989. The Dynamics of Fisheries Development in Developing Countries: A General Overview. Development and Change, 20: 565–597. Pollock, K. H., Jones, C. M., and Brown, T. L. 1994. Angler survey methods and their application in fisheries management. American Fisheries Society Special Publication 25, Bethesda, Maryland. 371 pp. Provost, E. J., Kelaher, B. P., Dworjanyn, S. A., Russell, B. D., Connell, S. D., Ghedini, G., Gillanders, B. M., et al. 2017. Climate-driven disparities among ecological 49 | Page
PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
interactions threaten kelp forest persistence. Global Change Biology, 23: 353– 361. Quintela, M., Danielsen, E. A., López, L., Barreiro, R., Svåsand, T., Knutsen, H., Skiftesvik, A. B., et al. 2016. Is the ballan wrasse, Labrus bergylta, two species? Genetic analysis reveals within‐species divergence associated with plain and spotted morphotype frequencies. Integrative Zoology, 11: 85–173. R Core Team. 2019. R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. Radford, Z., Hyder, K., Zarauz, L., Mugerza, E., Ferter, K., Prellezo, R., Strehlow, H. V., et al. 2018. The impact of marine recreational fishing on key fish stocks in European waters. PloS one, 13: e0201666. Ranger, S., Kenter, J. O., Bryce, R., Cumming, G., Dapling, T., Lawes, E., and Richardson, P. B. 2016. Forming shared values in conservation management: an interpretive-deliberative-democratic approach to including community voices. Ecosystem Services, 21: 344–357. Ritchie, J., Lewis, J., and Elam, G. 2013. Designing and selecting samples. In Qualitative research practice: A guide for social science students and researchers, pp. 77–108. Ed. by J. Ritchie and J. Lewis. Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA. Rivera, A., Weidberg, N., Pardiñas, A. F., González-Gil, R., García-Flórez, L., and Acuña, J. L. 2013. Role of Upwelling on Larval Dispersal and Productivity of Gooseneck Barnacle Populations in the Cantabrian Sea: Management Implications. PLOS ONE, 8: e78482. Rocha, F., Otero, J., Outeiral, R., González, Á. F., Gracia, J., and Guerra, Á. 2006. Modelling small-scale coastal fisheries of Galicia (NW Spain) based on data obtained from fisheries: the case of Sepia officinalis. Scientia Marina, 70: 593– 601. Rocklin, D., Levrel, H., Drogou, M., Herfaut, J., and Veron, G. 2014. Combining Telephone Surveys and Fishing Catches Self-Report: The French Sea Bass Recreational Fishery Assessment. PLoS ONE, 9: e87271. Rodríguez López, C., and Vázquez Varela, J. M. 1999. El aprovechamiento de los recursos marinos en la prehistoria y la antigüedad de Galicia. 335–366 pp. Rodríguez Rodríguez, G., Villasante, S., and Carme García-Negro, M. do. 2011. Are red tides affecting economically the commercialization of the Galician (NW Spain) mussel farming? Marine Policy, 35: 252–257. Rogers, L. A., and Dougherty, A. B. 2019. Effects of climate and demography on reproductive phenology of a harvested marine fish population. Global change biology. Sáenz-Arroyo, A., Roberts, C. M., Torre, J., and Cariño-Olvera, M. 2005. Using fishers’ anecdotes, naturalists’ observations and grey literature to reassess marine species at risk: the case of the Gulf grouper in the Gulf of California, Mexico. Fish and Fisheries, 6: 121–133. Saldaña, J. 2015. The coding manual for qualitative researchers. Sage. Sandoval, V., Santolini, E., and García-Charton, J. A. 2018. Efectos del cambio climático en la pesca marítima recreativa. In I International Symposium on Marine Recreational Fishing, p. 15. Vigo, Spain. Santana, A. 1997. Antropología y turismo: ¿nuevas hordas, viejas culturas? Revista 50 | Page
PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
Española de Investigaciones Sociológicas: 223–225. Sbragaglia, V., Correia, R. A., Coco, S., and Arlinghaus, R. 2019. Data mining on YouTube reveals fisher group-specific harvesting patterns and social engagement in recreational anglers and spearfishers. ICES Journal of Marine Science: fsz100. MarXiv.
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PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
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PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
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PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
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PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
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PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
Annexes
56 | Page
PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
Annex I
57 | Page
PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Marine Policy 101 (2019) 208–224
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Marine Policy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpol
Socioecological changes in data-poor S-fisheries: A hidden shellfisheries T crisis in Galicia (NW Spain) ⁎ Pablo Pitaa,b, , Diana Fernández-Márquezc, Manel Antelob,d, Gonzalo Machoe, Sebastián Villasantea,b a Faculty of Political and Social Sciences, Av Angel Echevarry s/n, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain b Campus Do⁎ Mar, International Campus of Excellence, Spain c Consellería do Mar, Xunta de Galicia, Xefatura Territorial de A Coruña, Spain d Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, Av Burgo das Nacións s/n, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain e Departamento de Ecoloxía e Bioloxía Animal, Facultade de Ciencias do Mar, Campus As Lagoas-Marosende s/n andEstación de Ciencias Mariñas Illa de Toralla (ECIMAT) s/n, Universidade de Vigo 36200 Vigo, Spain
ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT
Keywords: We combined different data sources to analyse key changes in the shellfisheries of Galicia (NWSpain).The Small-scale fisheries shellfishing capacity of this region, a major fishing power in Europe, has been severely reduced inrecentdec- Transformative changes ades. The number of vessels has fallen by 13%, vessel length, capacity and engine power have decreased by 10%, Seafood crises 7% and 3%, respectively, while the number of on-foot shellfishers has halved. Landings and sale value of Spain shellfish species have declined in the last decade by 16% and by 13%, respectively. This decline followsaperiod of recovery from the mid-1980s, when coastal fishery management were transferred from the Spanish tothe regional government. Production of local clam species has been progressively abandoned in favour of the foreign Japanese carpet shell Ruditapes philippinarum, leading to losses in sales value and increasing market risks. Overfishing, poaching, degradation of habitats, pollution, disease outbreaks and ocean warming maybere- sponsible for the drop in landings and sales value of key species like edible cockle Cerastoderma edule and Atlantic goose barnacle Pollicipes pollicipes. Despite the development of new fisheries, e.g. algae, anemone and polychaete harvesting, the overall declining trend has important socioecological implications for Galician so- ciety, because of the traditional link between shellfishing and coastal communities. The socioecological sus- tainability of this sector requires policies to be developed by the regional government regarding the support of multidisciplinary research and surveillance, increase control over pollution and poaching, a greater focus on the production of native species and the strengthening of co-management frameworks.
1. Introduction investment, all resulting in poor marketing and coordination and little clear direction [4]. On the other hand, the shellfishing sector has tra- Fishing is a major contributor to gross domestic product (GDP) in ditionally provided sociocultural benefits to sea-dependent coastal Galicia (an Autonomous Community in north-western Spain), which is communities. Cultural practices reflect physical and cognitive interac- the main fishing region in Spain [1,2] and a key fishing sector within tions between humans and nature and, through the development of, the European Union (EU). Galicia accounts for around 40% of Spain's e.g., identities, capabilities and experiences, yield non-material benefits fleet, around 60% of total Spanish employment in fishery-related sec- from ecosystem structures, processes and functions [5]. The human- tors and 50% of catches reported by Spanish vessels fishing in EU wa- shellfishing ties in coastal communities in Galicia since the prehistory is ters [3]. an exceptional example of in-community mutual understanding based Shellfish harvesting has historically been considered a marginal on the use of marine resources [6]. activity — a complement for household incomes — under no real ad- Despite the economic and sociocultural importance of shellfishing in ministrative control [4]. It is characterized by technological back- Galicia, knowledge of the sector is still very limited [2,7]. Indeed, a wardness compared to related activities, an ageing workforce, high Web of Science search — using ‘shellfish’ AND ‘Galicia’ as search terms feminization, little professional and technical training and a lack of — in articles, books and conference proceedings published between
⁎ Corresponding author at: Faculty of Political and Social Sciences, Av Angel Echevarry s/n, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain. E-mail address: [email protected] (P. Pita). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2018.09.018 Received 27 February 2018; Accepted 23 September 2018 Available online 03 October 2018 0308-597X/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. P. Pita et al. Marine Policy 101 (2019) 208–224
1900 and the end of 2017 retrieved just 98 records (the first dating from analysis of recent trends in catches and first sale values (in volume and 1993), for a mean of four records per year. Since 1993, the number of value) of shellfish species. Thereafter, we discussed the main ecologic, studies has tended to increase, culminating in a peak of 10 publications economic, social and institutional implications of these changes in in 2016. It is clear that, despite the importance of shellfishing for Ga- shellfishing and provided recommendations for policy-makers and licia, publications are few; a similar search for ‘Galicia’ alone, for in- managers of fisheries and coastal areas. Special attention was paidto stance, retrieved 5497 records between 1900 and the end of 2017. The interrelation between socioeconomic changes and resource exploitation only comprehensive review of the shellfishing sector in Galicia was issues. published almost 20 years ago [1], although others have since in- vestigated the professionalization of women [8]; the switch from an 2. Presentation of the case study open-access to a co-management system [4]; the carbon footprint of this activity [9]; its gender dimension [10]; the role of social factors in co- 2.1. Study area management systems [11]; and the social adaptation to climate change by women [12]. Nonetheless, in addition to the need for an update of The Galician coast is particularly long because of the existence of the diagnosis of the shellfish sector made by Freire and García-Allut [1], deep sea inlets (rías)(Fig. 1), which are ancient tectonic valleys below a gap remains regarding knowledge of transformative changes experi- sea level since the last ice age. These rías are very productive due to enced by the Galician shellfishing sector in the last decade. Further- wind-driven upwelling pulses [18], which, in discrete events occurring more, there is growing recognition of the need to ensure that shell- between March and October, fertilize the coastal and shelf areas with fishing policy makers receive sound scientific data and information on deep-water nutrients. Surface wind seasonality favours biological pro- which to base decisions and ensure coherent policy. duction processes [19], explaining the high level of primary production Moreover, a common problem when analysing small-scale fisheries in the Galician rías and, by extension, the entire northwest region of is the lack of reliable long-term fishery statistics and economic data at Spain. Many of the numerous towns and villages located along the regional and local levels [13,14]. For instance, even though many po- extensive coastline are heavily dependent on fishing and fishing-related pulations located along the coastline are heavily dependent on fishing activities [1]. Fishing therefore plays a key role in Galician culture and or fishing-related activities, the Autonomous Government of Galicia traditions [20–22]. Galicia currently has 63 fishing guilds (cofradías de (Xunta de Galicia), currently in charge of shellfisheries management, has pescadores), which, along with other 11 entities (six companies, four not yet been able to establish a comprehensive information collection shellfishery associations and one cooperative), participate to some ex- framework that allow effective assessment and management of marine tent in shellfishery management decision-making processes. Shellfish resources [15,16]. can be harvested on foot or from vessels, depending on the area and the Our aim is to demonstrate that under data-poor management sce- species. On-foot shellfishing is mostly carried out by women in easily narios the combination of different sources of data can be used to accessible intertidal areas, while shellfishing from vessels is performed document and analyse key changes in S-fisheries (small-scale, spatially- mostly by men in subtidal areas [8]. structured, targeting sedentary stocks; [17]) to inform management and Xunta de Galicia has managed coastal fishery activities for the last 40 policy. We have selected the shellfish fishery of Galicia because itisa years, while the Spanish Government manages fisheries in external highly relevant S-fishery in Europe that is managed in a data-poor en- waters, i.e., outside the imaginary lines connecting the main capes of vironment with urgent needs of updated information by regional the Galician shoreline [23]. Despite recent demands for more co-man- policy-makers and managers to ensure socioecological sustainability. agement by fishery associations for some fishing sectors — e.g.,the We identified and used diverse available sources of information, some common octopus [24] — most coastal resources are managed through a of them scarce, dispersed, and even difficult to access, to obtain 1)an conventional top-down approach [16]. However, since the early 1990s, historical reconstruction of removals of key shellfish species; and 2) an some benthic and sedentary marine organisms are managed in
Fig. 1. Location of the study area, Galicia (NW Spain), and map showing the three administrative provinces (A Coruña, Lugo and Pontevedra) with coastal access, the nine fishery management zones and the location of fishers’ associations (cofradías), commercial fleet homeports and first-sale fish markets (lonjas).
209 P. Pita et al. Marine Policy 101 (2019) 208–224 accordance with territorial user rights to fisheries (TURFs), with the autonomous region, homeport and species. This decision significantly result that the associations (Fig. 1) have some degree of autonomy and reduced the availability and transparency of fishery statistics in Spain. say in decision-making, regulation, control and management in their Furthermore, data gaps also exist in the period from 1986 to whatever territory, including coastal waters and intertidal areas [15]. year that each Autonomous Community began to publish its own data. Before 1992, when the Xunta de Galicia assumed full control over In Galicia this gap lasted a decade, as official data only became avail- coastal fishing resources, shellfish management was based on‘cam- able for this region from 1997. This gap, coupled with the fact that paigns’ (a combination of open and closed seasons). More recent reg- national data do not distinguish between coastal and offshore catches, ulations introduced annual exploitation plans, drawn up by each co- makes baseline use of national data problematic [14]. fradía [25]. These plans — analysed for approval by fishery biologists Although the Galician Autonomous Government has invested a huge working for the Xunta — define economic and production objectives, amount of effort to improve the reliability of its fishery statistics inthe the number of authorized fishers, the number of working days, in- last decade, the database is often incomplete and does not provide dividual quotas and the locations of fishing grounds [16]. They also detailed information [15]. Moreover, unreported and misreported cat- include available information regarding stocks, as well as com- ches are still common, particularly for important commercial species plementary improvements, such as restocking and monitoring by the [28,29]. shellfishers themselves [14,16]. Exploitation plans are mandatory for the management of species with some certain biological, harvesting and 2.3. Reconstruction of historical landings of shellfish commercialization features (currently abalone Haliotis tuberculata, an- emones Anemonia sulcata, Atlantic goose barnacle Pollicipes pollicipes, We reconstructed total removals of shellfish species from Galicia for echinoderms, polychaetes and razor clams; [26]). Cofradías may also 1950–2017 using the standard routine globally stablished by Zeller include other shellfish species in their exploitation plans, which would et al. [30] and Zeller and Pauly [31], applying the catch-reconstruction otherwise be managed by the Xunta de Galicia under a conventional top- approach documented in previous studies [14]. Reconstruction of total down approach [25]. removals of shellfisheries in Galicia consisted of the following general Therefore, three different frameworks govern shellfishing in Galicia steps: [27]: a. Collection of time series data for landings from regional (i.e., Xunta de Galicia, cofradías), national (government bodies) and inter- 1. TURFs: Species for which an exploitation plan is mandatory (i.e., national (FAO, ICES) agencies. abalone, anemones, Atlantic goose barnacle, echinoderms, poly- b. Identification, via literature searches (e.g., [15,32–39]), and chaetes and razor clams). secondary data sources (i.e., informal interviews with fishers and 2. Top-down: Species caught with traps from vessels (i.e., crabs and fishery experts as well as heads of cofradías, newspapers and personal related species, e.g., Atlantic spider crab Maja brachydactyla, observations during visits to harbors, cofradías and first-sale fish mar- European lobster Homarus gammarus, prawns or velvet crab Necora kets) of fishery sectors (here, shellfish) and components that currently puber, and cephalopods, e.g., common cuttlefish Sepia officinalis or produce or could have produced unreported removals [40,41]. We common octopus Octopus vulgaris), and Mediterranean mussel carried out personal interviews with the head of the cofradías in which Mytilus galloprovincialis seed harvested for aquaculture. shellfish species represent a more than 60% of total reported landings. c. Collection of alternative estimates and development of temporal 3. Mixed: Mollusc species that can be included in exploitation plans anchor points for missing data. (i.e., bivalves except razor clams, e.g., cockles, clams, scallops or d. Interpolation and extrapolation between temporal anchor points oysters, and gastropods, e.g., limpets or periwinkles) and whose to estimate unreported removals when the official data is not available inclusion may even be mandatory in certain coastal areas. [31]. Otherwise, they are directly managed by the Xunta. Estimation of total shellfish removal time series as the sum ofre- ported landings and unreported removals. In accordance with Xunta de Galicia fishery regulations, we define e. For shellfish landings each year, we defined total removals ()TR as shellfish as marine organisms of commercial interest, different from the sum of total landings ()TL and total discards ()TD for S caught finfish captured using traditional fishing gears [26]. Most of these species and F number of fishing vessels and on-foot fishers, as follows: marine species have an external shell, e.g., crabs and related species, SN, clams, snails and sea urchins, but also included were algae, anemones, TR = ()TLTD+ cephalopods, sea cucumbers and sea worms. s=1, f = 1 (1)
2.2. Available data on shellfishing (TL) for S harvested species and F number of fishing vessels on boat was composed by the following elements: National data sources date back to 1829, although there are sub- SN, SN, stantial gaps. In 1932, the Spanish Institute of Oceanography (IEO) TL = ()OL+ UL = ()OL+ BM began publishing data in its Fisheries Bulletin, which gradually crystal- S=1, f = 1 s=1, f = 1 (2) lized into the format now used: regional breakdowns by fish, crusta- where OL is official landings and UL is unreported landings. is ceans and molluscs, and production figures broken down by years, composed of unreported domestic catches that go to the black market months, species, gear used, etc. The Spanish Civil War resulted in an- ()BM and illegally caught species ().IC other data gap, but fishery statistics reappeared in 1940 and, from 1950 TD for caught species and F number of fishing vessels is composed to 1986 were published annually by the Ministry of Agriculture and of the following elements: Fisheries in what was known as the Marine Fishery Yearbook. SN, At the regional level, fishery statistics for each autonomous region TD = used to be collected in the Marine Fishery Yearbooks. This information s=1, f = 1 (3) contained detailed data on the number of vessels, port capacity and taxa captured — all valuable information for understanding the reality where D is direct boat and on foot-based discards from shellfisheries. of fishing in northwest Spain. However, after Spain joined the EU,the We considered all TR elements not included in as unreported Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries decided to stop publishing these landings. To calculate TR, we collected and compiled all data available in detailed yearbooks and to only publish data on total landings by primary literature and official sites, final project reports, grey literature,
210 P. Pita et al. Marine Policy 101 (2019) 208–224 regional statistics, expert estimates, observations in harbour areas and markets and opinions of local fishers and fishery experts collected through informal interviews. As such, we do not claim that the reconstructions of the results presented here provide true catches. Rather, these catches cer- tainly represent an improvement over the present situation and thus can be closer to likely true catch levels than those previously available [31].
2.4. Recent shellfishing data and trends
In Galicia, the Xunta's Consellería do Mar is the regional government department currently responsible for collecting data on coastal fisheries. It openly shares some of this information through the public fisheries web- site Pesca de Galicia (available at http://www.pescadegalicia.gal). Among other information, Pesca de Galicia provides data on the main character- istics of commercial fleet vessels (number, length, tonnage and fishing power) and on transactions in each of the first-sale markets (in volume -kg- and value -€-), currently 62 in number (Fig. 1). Data on commercial fishing fleets was obtained from the Pesca de Galicia website, namely, length, power and capacity, main fishing 3930 192 125 151 32 0 3932 193 131 150 32 0 3970 203 143 153 37 0 4017 210 160 158 38 0 4059 211 166 155 40 2 Fishing gear grounds where the Galician fleet is operating (in national waters and international fishing grounds) and fishing gear used (i.e., shellfishing licenses) for vessels in 72 homeports (Fig. 1) for the period 2004–2016. Data on daily shellfish sales (kilogrammes, value in € and mean valuein €·kg-1) by species for the 62 first-sale markets were also collected from Pesca de Galicia for the period 2003–2015. Data on employment of on- foot shellfishers by cofradía was obtained from the Xunta's Consellería do Mar for the period 1998–2017; note that data on shellfish vessel em- ployment was not available (licenses are issued for boats). Recent temporary trends in fishing vessel length, capacity and power, the number of commercial shellfishing licenses, employment, catches and sales value were analysed by using generalized linear models (GLMs) [42]. Different covariates, error structures and link functions were assessed in the models, which were selected based on Akaike's information criterion 15 66 3 4257 0 16 69 3 4261 0 17 73 3 4317 0 18 84 3 4377 0 18 88 3 4418 2 18 94 3 4515 15 4149 215 170 161 39 15 17 109 4 4565 17 4188 215 190 166 39 17 19 123 4 4590 18 4204 232 213 167 37 18 22 135 4 4637 21 4247 236 224 167 37 21 22 132 4 4940 26 4546 236 220 170 37 26 22 138 7 5035 27 4618 244 238 178 35 27 23 136 8 5118 76 4691 240 244 179 37 76 (AIC) [43]. Catches and sales value were analysed by means of hier- 24 129 9 5300 80 4867 235 234 193 36 80 archical clusters to identify differences between first-sale markets. The similarity percentage (simper), based on a decomposition of Bray-Curtis dissimilarities [44] was used to identify the landed species that con- tributed most to differences. All models and statistical analyses were Fishing ground performed using R (V3.3.2) statistical software [45]. The vegan package, designed for the same software, was used for the simper analyses [46].
3. Results
3.1. Temporal trends in Galician commercial fishing fleet size
Table 1 summarizes data for 2004–2016 by management zone, fishing grounds and main fishing gear. The results indicate that the Galician commercial fishing fleet overall greatly reduced in size in that period. In 2004 (the first year of the studied period), there were 5 645 vessels op- erating in Galician waters, compared to 4 430 vessels in 2016. Trawlers have seen the largest reduction (44% from the period 2004–2006 to the period 2014–2016), while shellfish vessels, included in the multigear ca- tegory, saw only a moderate reduction (17%). Vessels operating in Por- tuguese fishing grounds experienced a drastic reduction (63%), while vessels operating in the national fishing grounds (i.e., vessels fishing in coastal waters, including shellfish vessels) also experienced a reduction, although far less important (17%). Considering management zones (Fig. 1), the main reduction (41%) occurred in Cedeira, while Muros was the only area which showed an increase (1%) (Table 1). 702 348 1709 617 130 289 330 126 179 4430 89 711 350 1717 611 131 286 332 123 177 4438 89 727 361 1719 616 136 289 337 128 193 4506 96 755 377 1732 613 141 294 340 132 199 4583 101 772 390 1757 608 143 287 342 130 204 4633 104 799 403 1800 608 152 304 339 130 214 4749 104 803 412 1820 609 153 313 346 136 223 4815 103 823 422 1831 607 153 318 344 137 236 4871 117 831 425 1858 605 154 331 346 137 245 4932 113 910 455 2019 619 148 352 360 135 237 5235 111 924 475 2067 623 150 363 364 135 239 5340 111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Total International NAFO NEAFC Portugal National Unknown Multi gear Long line Trawling Purse seine Gillnet No gear Management zone 925 482 2195 611 154 361 361 361 244 5694 106 3.2. Temporal trends in shellfish vessel features 944 502 2311 592 150 397 357 142 250 5645 103
Commercial vessels targeting shellfish species operate in national fishing grounds using several kinds of gear (multigear) and aremainly based in homeports located in southern Galicia, specifically in the ad- Variation (%) −23 −27 −22 1 −13 −23 −8 −41 −25 −20 −14 −30 −48 −63 −17 −100 −17 −18 −44 −17 −6 −100 Variation (N) −218 −133 −476 6 −19 −86 −28 −87 −61 −1102 −15 −7 −65 −5 −873 −61 −781 −44 −106 −32 −2 −61 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 Year 2005 2004 ministrative zones of Arousa, Muros and Pontevedra (Fig. 2). Table 1 Number of fishing vessels in Galiciabetween the by management first threezone years of the (2004–2006)homeport, fishing and ground last threeand years (2014–2016)main fishing gear in the period of the time series. 2004–2016, withy the last two rows showing variations in numbers (N) and percentages (%)
211 P. Pita et al. Marine Policy 101 (2019) 208–224
Fig. 2. (a) Geographic distribution in 2016 of fishing fleets operating in Galician coastal waters and (b) of multigear fishing fleets operating in Galiciancoastal waters. Circle size refers to number of vessels based in each homeport.
Fig. 3. Length, capacity and engine power of shellfish vessels in Galicia for the period 2004–2016. The top and bottom side of the boxes correspond tothefirstand third quartiles of the data values, the whiskers extend up to 1.5 times the interquartile range and the median is indicated with a horizontal line.
In the last decade, the length, capacity and engine power of vessels A2 in Appendix A). There were increases in the number of vessel li- targeting shellfish species along the Galician coast have increased censes issued for the harvesting of algae, anemones, clams, Atlantic (Table A1 in the Appendix A). From 2007–2013, mean length increased goose barnacles, sea worms (polychaetes), razor clams and sea urchins, from 6.1 ± 2.5 (SD) m to 6.3 ± 2.2 m, capacity increased from for dredging for scallops and for trapping shrimps, spider crabs and 2.0 ± 3.7 GT to 2.2 ± 3.6 GT, and engine power increased from velvet crabs, whereas there were decreases in the number of licenses 25.9 ± 28.3 hp to 29.0 ± 24.6 hp (Fig. 3). issued for dredging for oysters and shrimps, for use of the dredge called endeño, and for gaff use. For on-foot harvesting of shellfish, onlyli- 3.3. Temporal trends in access to shellfish censes for sea worms have increased (Fig. 4). In terms of employment in Galicia, since 1998 the number of on-foot The number of fishing licenses issued for shellfish species has varied shellfishers has fallen by over half (56%) (Table A2), from 8551 over the period 2003–2016, with both increases and decreases (Table shellfishers in 1998–3716 in 2017 (Fig. 4). Significant labour force
212 P. Pita et al. Marine Policy 101 (2019) 208–224
Fig. 4. Number of shellfish licenses issued in Galicia. Vessel licenses by fishing gear by management zone for the period 2003–2016 are shown inthetopfourrowsof the panel. On-foot licenses by species are shown in the bottom row of the panel and on-foot shellfisher employment (1998–2017) is shown in the last graph in thelast row of the panel. reductions have consequently affected most Galician cofradías (Table Spanish authority [14]. This period was mainly characterized by an A2). open access system to marine resources and a weak regulation due to ineffective control and monitoring [16]. 3.4. Historical shellfish landings
Historical catches of the main shellfish species (namely, edible 3.5. Recent shellfish landing trends cockle Cerastoderma edule, Atlantic goose barnacle, grooved carpet shell Ruditapes decussatus, Japanese carpet shell Ruditapes philippinarum and In the study period (2003–2015), Galician shellfishers captured up pullet carpet shell Venerupis corrugata) declined during the period to 63 different species in coastal waters (Table 2). However, 90% of 1950–1986 (Fig. 5), when shellfishing was managed by a central total landings and sales value (Table 2) were accounted for by eight species of molluscs (banded carpet shell Polititapes rhomboides, common cuttlefish, common octopus, edible cockle, grooved carpet shell, Japa- nese carpet shell, pullet carpet shell and rayed artemis Dosinia exoleta), one echinoderm (stony sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus) and two ar- thropods (Atlantic goose barnacle and Atlantic spider crab). In the last decade, annual catches in Galicia ranged from 16820 t in 2008 to 10524 t in 2014, while the annual sales value ranged between 117.5 M€ in 2008 to 77.3 M€ in 2013 (Fig. 6). Overall, catches, first- sale values and mean values as reflected in first-sale market data have decreased over time (Table A3 in Appendix A). However, catches in- creased in four lonjas (Camariñas, Carril, Corcubión and Noia), while first-sale values increased in five lonjas (Camariñas, Cambados, Carril, O Grove and Río Anllóns) (Table A4)(Fig. 6). There were significant increases in landings and sales value fora number of species (Table A5). Thus, of the main species in terms of catches and sales value (as identified above), landings of Atlantic spider crab, common cuttlefish and Japanese carpet shell have increased, and sales values of Atlantic spider crab, common cuttlefish and stony sea urchin have increased (Table 2). Fig. 5. Reconstruction of total shellfish removals in Galicia for the period Based on landings and sales values, Lonja de Noia, and to a lesser 1950–2017, depicting the switch between national (left) and regional (right) degree, Lonja de Carril and Lonja de Rianxo — all in the Arousa man- management. agement zone (Fig. 1) — behaved differently from other lonjas (Fig. 7).
213 P. Pita et al. Marine Policy 101 (2019) 208–224
Table 2 Shellfish species captured by small-scale fishers and soldin lonjas in the period 2003–2015 in Galicia, showing catch, sales value and mean sales value and annual variations (statistically significant values are highlighted in bold) and also the main management framework.
Phylum Species Name Sales in lonjas (2003–2015) Annual variation by operation Regulation
Catch (t) Value (M€) Mean value (€ kg-1) Catch (kg) Value (€) Mean value (€ kg-1)
Annelida Arenicola marina Lugworm 4.43 0.09 24.10 −0.82 −8.76 1.35 TURF Annelida Diopatra neapolitana 6.97 0.16 22.66 0.17 3.79 0.20 TURF Annelida Nereis diversicolor Ragworm 0.32 0.01 19.94 −0.03 0.43 0.70 TURF Annelida Polychaeta Marine worms 1.94 0.06 74.90 1.25 −1.68 −19.45 TURF Annelida Scoletoma impatiens 21.42 1.28 68.40 −0.16 −3.59 2.87 TURF Arthropoda Carcinus maenas Shore crab 77.27 0.07 0.74 −0.65 9.18 0.08 Top-down Arthropoda Homarus gammarus European lobster 41.82 0.92 22.50 0.01 0.87 0.06 Top-down Arthropoda Liocarcinus corrugatus Wrinkled swimming crab 134.69 0.16 1.30 0.58 0.69 −0.01 Top-down Arthropoda Maja brachydactyla Atlantic spider crab 3624.97 38.39 11.82 0.48 10.37 0.10 Top-down Arthropoda Necora puber Velvet swimming crab 1459.71 23.95 14.88 −1.12 −25.98 −0.12 Top-down Arthropoda Palaemon elegans Grass prawn 8.70 0.05 6.31 −4.88 13.78 0.73 Top-down Arthropoda Palaemon serratus Common prawn 985.15 29.54 33.13 −0.37 −35.37 −0.92 Top-down Arthropoda Palinurus elephas European spiny lobster 36.88 0.90 39.28 −1.63 −55.00 −0.23 Top-down Arthropoda Pollicipes pollicipes Atlantic goose barnacle 4807.39 131.82 24.27 −7.36 −308.00 −0.60 TURF Arthropoda Polybius henslowii Henslow's swimming crab 11.89 0.00 0.28 −28.23 −32.09 −0.09 Top-down Arthropoda Scyllarus arctus Lesser slipper lobster 16.76 0.90 52.49 −0.03 −1.54 0.42 Top-down Chlorophyta Codium tomentosum Velvet horn 0.80 0.00 0.85 −130.50 −117.60 −0.04 TURF Chlorophyta Ulvophyceae Sea lettuces 64.61 0.06 0.93 103.10 85.66 0.00 TURF Cnidaria Anemonia sulcata Anemone 28.93 0.21 7.38 2.56 12.63 −0.12 TURF Echinodermata Holothuroidea Sea cucumbers 21.03 0.04 4.78 −1018.00 −1678.00 2.64 TURF Echinodermata Paracentrotus lividus Stony sea urchin 8186.33 21.13 2.71 −15.42 72.19 0.17 TURF Mollusca Aequipecten opercularis Queen scallop 3008.24 6.48 2.65 29.45 58.37 −0.07 Mixed Mollusca Callista chione Smooth callista 117.52 0.22 1.18 154.10 408.30 0.28 Mixed Mollusca Cerastoderma edule Edible cockle 41,306.76 178.56 3.92 −48.96 −102.10 0.15 Mixed Mollusca Cerastoderma glaucum Olive green cockle 95.23 0.44 4.24 −36.26 −131.80 0.08 Mixed Mollusca Chamelea gallina Striped venus 0.01 0.00 2.07 −0.98 −1.83 0.23 Mixed Mollusca Charonia lampas Pink lady 50.96 0.08 1.75 −1.26 −1.61 0.01 Mixed Mollusca Donax trunculus Truncate donax 149.29 4.36 29.65 −0.45 −28.52 −0.19 Mixed Mollusca Dosinia exoleta Rayed artemis 5433.12 9.08 1.47 −34.51 −62.54 −0.02 Mixed Mollusca Ensis magnus Sword razor shell 3296.25 31.45 9.67 4.03 −36.41 −0.73 TURF Mollusca Ensis siliqua Pod razor shell 670.96 5.87 8.62 2.59 −37.77 −0.64 TURF Mollusca Glycymeris glycymeris Dog cockle 465.54 0.39 2.09 106.50 67.94 −0.94 Mixed Mollusca Haliotis tuberculata Tuberculate abalone 0.92 0.02 18.28 − 0.75 −11.53 0.10 TURF Mollusca Littorina littorea Periwinkle 30.88 0.09 2.54 0.38 1.20 0.02 Mixed Mollusca Lutraria lutraria Common otter shell 0.44 0.00 2.00 – – – Mixed Mollusca Magallana gigas Pacific cupped oyster 268.42 0.27 1.00 −98.54 −109.50 −0.02 Mixed Mollusca Mimachlamys varia Variegated scallop 9.98 0.05 5.12 −2.38 31.70 0.69 Mixed Mollusca Mytilus galloprovincialis Mediterranean mussel 1478.44 1.39 0.93 −12.93 −21.99 0.00 Top-down Mollusca Octopus vulgaris Common octopus 33,974.41 173.40 5.23 −0.27 −1.09 0.01 Top-down Mollusca Ostrea edulis European flat oyster 377.06 1.63 3.98 0.45 10.33 −0.01 Mixed Mollusca Patella spp. Limpets 28.14 0.06 2.22 0.07 −0.57 0.03 Mixed Mollusca Pecten maximus Great scallop 1710.61 7.07 4.46 −42.62 −428.20 −0.17 Mixed Mollusca Polititapes aureus Golden carpet shell 215.23 1.05 4.16 −1.90 −11.90 −0.24 Mixed Mollusca Polititapes rhomboides Banded carpet shell 6717.60 51.16 7.39 −5.33 −54.30 −0.08 Mixed Mollusca Ruditapes decussatus Grooved carpet shell 9200.74 202.38 21.43 −4.24 −196.80 −0.75 Mixed Mollusca Ruditapes philippinarum Japanese carpet shell 21,122.13 143.47 6.94 10.30 −3.28 −0.29 Mixed Mollusca Sepia elegans Elegant cuttlefish 12.24 0.03 5.24 5.10 2.44 −1.24 Top-down Mollusca Sepia officinalis Common cuttlefish 6733.82 30.40 5.23 2.39 26.24 0.13 Top-down Mollusca Sepia orbignyana Pink cuttlefish 0.07 0.00 6.92 11.17 62.75 −0.03 Top-down Mollusca Sepiola rondeletii Rondelet's bobtail 816.92 3.24 5.25 −15.90 −55.25 0.33 Top-down Mollusca Solen marginatus Pencil bait 97.22 0.37 3.67 3.24 16.07 0.02 TURF Mollusca Spisula solida Thick trough shell 105.22 0.58 5.66 −3.94 −24.21 −0.26 Mixed Mollusca Venerupis corrugata Pullet carpet shell 14,327.68 182.10 12.53 −3.91 −102.90 −0.18 Mixed Mollusca Venus verrucosa Warty venus shell 883.11 4.35 4.62 −0.31 −11.06 −0.27 Mixed Ochrophyta Ascophyllum nodosum North Atlantic rockweed 2.74 0.00 0.30 – – – TURF Ochrophyta Fucus vesiculosus Bladder wrack 2.56 0.00 0.41 −63.46 −15.23 0.03 TURF Ochrophyta Himanthalia elongata Thongweed 110.73 0.05 0.54 126.70 33.76 −0.03 TURF Ochrophyta Laminariaceae Kelps 526.43 0.25 0.48 88.12 53.72 0.00 TURF Ochrophyta Saccorhiza polyschides Furbellow 14.08 0.01 0.74 5.79 −13.00 −0.04 TURF Ochrophyta Undaria pinnatifida Wakame 632.80 0.49 0.78 84.56 68.58 0.01 TURF Rhodophyta Chondrus crispus Irish moss 23.48 0.03 1.12 −41.39 −54.56 −0.04 TURF Rhodophyta Porphyra spp. Laver 4.21 0.00 1.00 −42.50 −42.50 0.00 TURF Rhodophyta Rhodophyceae Red seaweeds 22.02 0.03 0.87 640.60 830.20 0.12 TURF
The species that accounted for most similarities between lonjas were 4. Discussion common octopus, edible cockle, grooved carpet shell, and Japanese carpet shell in the case of catches (72%), and Atlantic goose barnacle, In this study we have demonstrated that different data sources, and common octopus, grooved carpet shell, Japanese carpet shell and pullet even scarce, dispersed, and difficult to access information can be suc- carpet shell in the case of sales value (77%). cessfully combined to document and analyse key changes in data-poor
214 P. Pita et al. Marine Policy 101 (2019) 208–224
Fig. 6. Annual landings and sales value for shellfish species for the main Galician lonjas for the period 2003–2015.
Fig. 7. Dendrogram showing relationships between different Galician lonjas based on landings and sales values for the period 2003–2015. Boxes indicate the main three clusters.
S-fisheries. Historical reconstruction of total removals of key shellfish between the first three and last three years of the same period). Thus, species and analysis of recent trends in Galician shellfisheries provided overall vessel length of the fleet fell by 10%, capacity by 7%, anden- relevant information to inform fisheries managers and policy-makers gine power by 3%. The number of on-foot shellfishers fell by over half that can be used to improve socioecological sustainability of coastal (56%) in the period 1998–2017 (Fig. 4). In the same time, women, that ecosystems. initially represented 90% of shellfishers under an uncontrolled and marginalised activity, became professional shellfishers and had to pay taxes to ensure the benefits of the social security system, which im- 4.1. The current state of shellfishing in Galicia and trends in landings, pacted particularly in their employment [8]. In spite of recovery after employment and markets the transfer of management to the Xunta de Galicia (Fig. 5), landings and sales value of shellfish species declined by 16% and 13%, respec- There were significant increases in the length, capacity and engine tively, between 2003 and 2015 (Fig. 6). In short, the socioeconomic power of Galician shellfishing vessels in the period 2004–2016 (Fig. 3). importance of shellfishing in Galicia tends to fall over time, which However, this increase was more than offset by the reduction in the probably explains why licenses (Fig. 4) and landings (Table 2) of new number of shellfishing vessels in the same period (a 13% reduction
215 P. Pita et al. Marine Policy 101 (2019) 208–224 species are increasing, e.g., because the development of new fisheries with its massive introduction in the aquaculture parks of the Arousa for human consumption of algae [47] and anemones [48], and of zone in 1995, has contributed to the displacement of local clams [54]. polychaetes to meet the demand of baits by recreational fishers [49]. Although competition between Japanese carpet shell and native clams However, the question is whether landings have fallen as a result of is reduced by the relatively higher predation rate of Japanese carpet previous reductions in fishing effort (i.e., socioeconomically induced shell compared to native clams [65,66], hybridization between foreign change) or as a result of progressive impoverishment of marine re- and native species will not help to alleviate the current production loss sources (i.e., ecologically induced change). of native clams in the medium and long term [67]. Thus, the production of native species — well adapted to local environmental conditions and 4.1.1. Socioeconomically induced changes in shellfishing with well-established market niches — should be encouraged, as well as With the exception of the Lonja de A Coruña, which shares the the opening of new markets for less well-established species. Ártabro Gulf zone with much less important first-sale markets (Fig. 1), Moreover, there has been a significant decrease in catches and sales the most important markets in terms of catches and sales value are lo- value for the Atlantic goose barnacle — a shellfish species in high de- cated in the south of Galicia, specifically in the Arousa zone (Fig. 6). The mand and with the highest sales value (Table 2). The current situation Lonjas de Noia, Carril and O Grove have experienced positive trends in contrasts with the positive prospects documented by Molares and Freire landings and sales value, whereas sales in other zones are declining, [15] and by this study (Fig. 5) after the current TURF system was im- especially in A Illa de Arousa, Cabo de Cruz and Rianxo markets (Table plemented. The loss of market relevance suggests some degree of re- A4). A tendency to specialize in certain species might explain some of the source exhaustion, which could explain the negative sales trends for the differences. Noia, Carril and O Grove lead sales in key species intermsof Lonja de A Coruña, by far the most important market for the Atlantic landings and sales value, with Noia specializing in edible cockle and goose barnacle (Table A6), and the significant drop in employment in grooved carpet shell, Carril in Japanese carpet shell and O Grove in the Cofradía de A Coruña (Table A2). Further research is necessary into Atlantic spider crab (Table A6). Among the markets showing negative overfishing and poaching [53], recurrent oil-spills [68] and declines in trends, only A Illa de Arousa leads sales in some of the key species, al- larval recruitment after low upwelling activity [69] as a consequence of though it mostly sells lower-value local clam species (Table A6). climate change [19]. Moreover, it is also necessary to do further re- The growing global demand for affordable shellfish [50] and local search into possible negative interactions with activities posing high and foreign competition in a progressively globalized world have al- potential ecological risk, such as algae harvesting [70] and use of ready caused some losses in market access for Galician species and Mediterranean mussel seed for aquaculture [71,72]. producers [51]. Because Galician shellfishers are highly professiona- Animal populations better withstand diseases in environments with lized and their annual incomes largely depend on this economic activity low levels of stress, e.g., minimally human-altered environments. Given [4], potential losses in the profitability of the exploited species havea the high impact of humans on the coastal ecosystems of Galicia, the direct impact on employment and vessel numbers. Although long-term incidence of shellfish diseases has increased in recent years. This has economic performance is better for traditional local clam species, this been the case of the edible cockle, a key species in catches, which has research (Table 2) demonstrates, as showed in other studies [51], that lost market relevance (Table 2) because of a parasite outbreak [73]. strong market pressures due to the high national and international However, since the outbreak affected the southern management zones, seafood demand are driving shellfishers to harvest Japanese carpet i.e., Vigo, Pontevedra and Arousa, but not Muros (where the Cofradía de shell, a foreign species with better short-term biological performance. Noia is located), the Lonja de Noia has reinforced its leadership in sales As a consequence, the production of local clam species has been pro- of edible cockle; this development has contributed to its differentiation gressively reduced and abandoned (see, e.g., trends in sales of edible from other first-sale markets, as documented in this study (Fig. 6). cockle, banded carpet shell, grooved carpet shell, pullet carpet shell and Finally, global warming is also expected to have direct impacts on rayed artemis in Table 2), with the resulting loss in market share. In shellfish species [74], aggravate the negative consequences of pollu- addition, local producers of Japanese carpet shell must compete in a tion, and also of red-tides and epizootic events [75–77]. Therefore, much more competitive and volatile global market, and therefore must better surveillance and control over pollution in the rías of Galicia is key face a greater potential risk of bankruptcy. The cofradías located in the to ensuring the health of natural shellfish populations, food security and south of Galicia — the area with the highest number of clam-fishing shellfish sales. licenses (Fig. 2; Fig. 4) — have consequently experienced the greatest losses in employment (Table A2). For instance, although temporal trends in sales by the Lonja de Carril are positive, and employment 4.2. Institutions, decision-making and management frameworks losses in the Cofradía de Carril are not significant (Table A2), their higher dependence on Japanese carpet shell leaves them exposed to Irrespective of whether the recent undesirable changes in the Galician higher vulnerability to deal with market demands (Table A6). In con- shellfishing sector result from market trends or the depletion ofre- trast, although the Cofradía de Noia experienced a significant reduction sources, the socioecological implications for the Galician society are se- in employment, the fact that it specializes in local species with a high vere, because shellfishing has traditionally been linked to the economic commercial value that have lost weight in other markets (i.e., edible development of coastal communities in the region. For this reason, it is cockle and grooved carpet shell), highlights a pattern that is very dif- difficult to understand why these changes have not yet been identified ferent from other fist-sale markets (Fig. 7) and positions itself better for and analysed in depth before, most especially considering the number of the complex present and future. high quality marine research institutions that are based in Galicia.1 It seems clear that, despite the importance of S-fisheries in the EU, for 4.1.2. Ecologically induced changes in shellfishing decades, both EU fishery policy and the linked scientific knowledge have Galician coastal ecosystems have been severely impacted (e.g., [52]) by a combination of overfishing [1,7], poaching [11,53], in- 1 Marine research in Galicia takes place in the EU Reference Laboratory for troduction of non-native species [54], long-term degradation and de- Marine Biotoxins, two centres of the Spanish Institute of Oceanography, one struction of key habitats [55,56], extensive pollution [57–59], frequent centre of the Spanish Advanced Council for Scientific Research, two centres of red tides [60–62] and climate change [12,19,63]. Negative trends in the the Marine Research Centre, one centre of the Technological Institute for available biomass of shellfish species may have played a role in thefall Control of the Marine Environment in Galicia, one centre of the Technological in landings and sales observed in this study, leading to a reduced fishing Centre for the Sea and one centre of the Galician Institute for Aquiculture effort. For instance, the rapid expansion of the non-native Japanese Training attached to the Xunta de Galicia and several departments, institutes carpet shell since its introduction in Galicia in 1987 [64] combined and centres of the three universities of Galicia.
216 P. Pita et al. Marine Policy 101 (2019) 208–224 mainly focused on industrial fisheries. As a result, knowledge regarding protected areas (MPAs) with partial restrictions on fishing, namely, Os the socioeconomic, management and policy aspects of S-fisheries is still Miñarzos, created in 2007 [82], and Ría de Cedeira, created in 2009 [83], very limited [78]. Although socioeconomic evidence is important for as marine reserves of fishing interest. In spite of the promising expecta- assessing the degree of fishery management success, it is perhaps even tions since the beginning of the process, some authors highlighted doubts more so the case for S-fisheries, where human aspects are so closely tied about their effectiveness [84,85]. Although the results of our study do to how management is implemented [79]. not allow to arrive definitive conclusions to be drawn about the effec- Our reconstruction of total shellfish removals demonstrates that the tiveness of these MPAs, the coastal fleet has only increased in size in main shellfisheries collapsed under the open access system developed Muros, where Os Miñarzos MPA is located (Table 1). While it is true that under the top-down system of the Spanish government. After the mean sales value by species (€ kg-1) has increased over time (Table A4), transference of competences to manage to the Xunta de Galicia, the employment (Table A2) and sales value by species and by day (Table A4) health of these resources has improved substantially since the adoption have decreased in the cofradías and lonjas near the MPAs (Lira and Ce- of co-management TURFs and the development of exploitation plans deira, respectively). In any case, the results of these pioneer initiatives (Fig. 5). The reasons for this successful transformation of shellfishing should not be limited strictly to the evolution of the number of boats, were the implementation of daily catch limits, the development of ef- catches and employment in a given period of time. Rather, increasing the fective exploitation plans with the active participation of shellfishers, collective action through social learning and the development of con- scientists, Xunta de Galicia technical officers, and the deployment of structive processes of cooperation between small-scale fishers, scientists ‘barefoot ecologists’ (technical assistants) who actively collect shell- and the Xunta de Galicia opened a window of opportunity to revolutionise fishing data in collaboration with shellfishers [16]. Furthermore, the Galician small-scale fisheries into a resilient future. progressive professionalization and training of women favoured their In summary, the reductions in vessel numbers, employment, land- incorporation to the heads of the cofradías, and the allocation of EU and ings and sales value documented in this study have major ecological regional funds, generated a transformative and desirable change to- and socioeconomic implications for the Galician shellfisheries and wards a resilient, recognised and well appreciated activity [4,8,80,81]. coastal communities, with many interactions remaining to be further Yet, several problems remain, such as the high level of imports of key studied. The adaptation of the shellfisheries sector by replacing native species (Japanese carpet shell) or the level of Illegal, Unreported and species by non-native ones to satisfy seafood demand has been one of Unregulated activities which are currently increasing the economic and the answers to allow the shellfishers to survive. Overfishing, poaching, social vulnerability of the shellfisheries sector. degradation and destruction of habitats, pollution, disease outbreaks Shellfish species are currently managed in Galicia under three dif- and climate change may be responsible for the drop in landings and ferent regimes: TURFs (38% of landed species), mixed (37%), and top- sales value of key shellfish species. Improving the collection of in- down (25%) (Table 2). From a socioeconomic perspective, an increase in formation for management, especially of unreported and misreported the sales value of any given species would be positive for fishers, their catches, and increasing research efforts promoting multidisciplinary associations and the economic activities depending on these outputs, approaches, would be beneficial for the socioecological sustainability of whereas from an ecological perspective, moderate decreases in catches this sector. can be considered favourable; 4% of species managed under TURFs but none of the species managed under other schemes meet the above cri- Acknowledgements teria (Table 2). Conversely, and for the same species, the coexistence of certain areas under co-management regimes and with an exploitation PP is grateful to the Xunta de Galicia for financial aid through the plan, with nearby areas managed under a top-down approach, does not RECREGES project under Grant ED481B2014/034-0. SV thanks the fi- seem to produce positive results. Thus, it is noteworthy that the species nancial support of the Spanish Ministry of Economics and managed through a mixed model show the poorest results in terms of Competitiveness for the project MARISCO- “Impacts of climate change on socioeconomic and ecological criteria (Table 2). Therefore, bearing also shellfisheries in Galicia”, Xunta de Galicia for financial aid through pro- in mind how the introduction of the TURFs improved exploitation of key ject GPC 2013-045, the ICES Science Fund to the project “Social trans- shellfish species, regional fishery bodies should consider how topro- formations of marine social-ecological systems” and the European gressively strengthen and expand co-management models to more Commission “Ocean governance for sustainability - challenges, options and shellfish species in the future [24]. Better control over poaching could the role of science” (COST Action CA15217). The authors thank SAREX also help to prevent overexploitation of key shellfish species (e.g., the (Information and Registration Service) — part of the General Atlantic goose barnacle). The empowerment of technical assistants of the Directorate of Fishing, Aquiculture and Technological Innovation of the cofradías (see [16]) would help to contribute to achieve these objectives. Consellería do Mar of the Xunta de Galicia — for data on employment. DF Two other spatial management frameworks for fisheries are currently thanks Miguel Gómez Losada and Eugenia Rodriguez Moscoso for their in force in Galicia in addition to TURFs, which are called marine advice on license data.
Appendix A
See Tables A1–A6
Table A1 Outputs of the GLMs fitted on length, capacity and power of shellfish vessels in Galicia. Shown are the estimated model coefficients for the differentresponse variables and p values. Interaction terms are shown as “: ”. The error and link structure, and Akaike's information criterion (AIC) value are given.
Model Error Link AIC Coefficients distribution Estimate p
Length (m) = Year Gaussian Identity 247,357 0.0233 < 0.0001 Length (m) = Year: Zone Gaussian Identity 238,840 Year: Vigo 0.0235 < 0.0001 Year: Pontevedra 0.0237 < 0.0001 Year: Arousa 0.0232 < 0.0001 (continued on next page)
217 P. Pita et al. Marine Policy 101 (2019) 208–224
Table A1 (continued)
Model Error Link AIC Coefficients distribution Estimate p
Year: Muros 0.0235 < 0.0001 Year: Fisterra 0.0246 < 0.0001 Year: Costa da Morte 0.0243 < 0.0001 Year: Golfo Ártabro 0.0238 < 0.0001 Year: Cedeira 0.0242 < 0.0001 Year: Lugo 0.0254 < 0.0001 Capacity (GT) = Year Gaussian Identity 295,000 0.0139 0.0012 Capacity (GT) = Year: Zone Gaussian Identity 289,832 Year: Vigo 0.0153 0.0002 Year: Pontevedra 0.0155 0.0001 Year: Arousa 0.0151 0.0002 Year: Muros 0.0152 0.0002 Year: Fisterra 0.0170 0.0000 Year: Costa da Morte 0.0165 0.0001 Year: Golfo Ártabro 0.0157 0.0001 Year: Cedeira 0.0159 0.0001 Year: Lugo 0.0175 0.0000 Power (hp) = Year Gaussian Identity 451,391 0.2701 < 0.0001 Power (hp) = Year: Zone Gaussian Identity 447,691 Year: Vigo 0.3274 < 0.0001 Year: Pontevedra 0.3293 < 0.0001 Year: Arousa 0.3231 < 0.0001 Year: Muros 0.3213 < 0.0001 Year: Fisterra 0.3318 < 0.0001 Year: Costa da Morte 0.3306 < 0.0001 Year: Golfo Ártabro 0.3280 < 0.0001 Year: Cedeira 0.3284 < 0.0001 Year: Lugo 0.3375 < 0.0001
Table A2 Outputs of the GLMs fitted on the shellfishing gear used in Galicia by vessel and by on-foot shellfishers and on overall on-foot employment (jobs),andby cofradía. Shown are the estimated model coefficients for the different response variables and p values. Interaction terms are shown as “: ”. The error and linkstructure,and Akaike's information criterion (AIC) value are given.
Model Error distribution Link AIC Coefficients
Estimate p
Abalone (vessel licenses) = Year Binomial Logit 5942 −0.0101 0.3930 Algae (vessel licenses) = Year Binomial Logit 5798 0.0834 < 0.0001 Anemones (vessel licenses) = Year Binomial Logit 995 0.7135 < 0.0001 Clams (vessel licenses) = Year Binomial Logit 87705 0.0229 < 0.0001 Endeño dredge (vessel licenses) = Year Binomial Logit 4874 −0.0502 0.0002 Oyster dredge (vessel licenses) = Year Binomial Logit 2988 −0.2213 < 0.0001 Scallops dredge (vessel licenses) = Year Binomial Logit 22277 0.0229 < 0.0001 Shrimp dredge (vessel licenses) = Year Binomial Logit 26207 −0.0189 < 0.0001 Gaff (vessel licenses) = Year Binomial Logit 11210 −0.0222 < 0.0001 Goose barnacle (vessel licenses) = Year Binomial Logit 46830 0.0162 < 0.0001 Polychaetes (vessel licenses) = Year Binomial Logit 3888 0.1263 < 0.0001 Razor clams (vessel licenses) = Year Binomial Logit 23406 0.0518 < 0.0001 Sea urchin (vessel licenses) = Year Binomial Logit 19169 0.0314 < 0.0001 Crabs traps (vessel licenses) = Year Binomial Logit 642 −0.0590 0.1830 Cuttlefish traps (vessel licenses) = Year Binomial Logit 25077 0.0003 0.9510 Lobster traps (vessel licenses) = Year Binomial Logit 988 0.0114 0.7360 Octopus traps (vessel licenses) = Year Binomial Logit 76229 0.0021 0.3750 Shrimp traps (vessel licenses) = Year Binomial Logit 81,366 0.1344 < 0.0001 Spider crab traps (vessel licenses) = Year Binomial Logit 2370 0.1218 < 0.0001 Velvet crab traps (vessel licenses) = Year Binomial Logit 84382 0.1041 < 0.0001 Clams (on foot licenses) = Year Gaussian Identity 316 −123.5700 < 0.0001 Goose barnacle (on foot licenses) = Year Gaussian Identity 166 −14.5989 < 0.0001 Polychaetes (on foot licenses) = Year Gaussian Identity 84 2.9727 0.0018 Razor clams (on foot licenses) = Year Gaussian Identity 172 −0.3706 < 0.0001 Employment (shellfishers) = Year Gaussian Identity 14328 −3.9484 < 0.0001 Employment (shellfishers) = Year:Cofradía Gaussian Identity 10342 Year: A Coruña −8.3720 < 0.0001 Year: A Guarda −0.1474 0.8514 Year: Abanqueiro −0.3549 0.6519 Year: Aldán −1.6170 0.0400 (continued on next page)
218 P. Pita et al. Marine Policy 101 (2019) 208–224
Table A2 (continued)
Model Error distribution Link AIC Coefficients
Estimate p
Year: Arcade −8.8020 < 0.0001 Year: Ares −1.5000 0.8687 Year: Baiona −4.9210 < 0.0001 Year: Baldaio −0.5947 0.4496 Year: Barallobre −2.5590 0.0012 Year: Bueu – – Year: Burela 0.0931 0.9261 Year: Cabo de Cruz −5.3980 < 0.0001 Year: Caión −0.2609 0.7401 Year: Camariñas −3.3050 < 0.0001 Year: Cambados −8.3110 < 0.0001 Year: Camelle – – Year: Cangas −1.6170 0.0400 Year: Cariño −1.9200 0.0148 Year: Carreira −0.4338 0.5813 Year: Carril −0.9459 0.2293 Year: Cedeira −2.1230 0.0071 Year: Celeiro −1.6160 0.0402 Year: Corcubión −0.9985 0.2045 Year: Corme −3.0290 0.0001 Year: Espasante −2.2850 0.0037 Year: Ferrol −3.6530 < 0.0001 Year: Fisterra −3.9140 < 0.0001 Year: Foz −0.6716 0.5037 Year: Illa de Arousa −24.8000 < 0.0001 Year: Laxe −0.4191 0.6764 Year: Lira −2.9530 0.0002 Year: Lorbé 0.0000 1.0000 Year: Lourizán −5.3290 < 0.0001 Year: Malpica 0.3827 0.6266 Year: Marín – – Year: Mera −0.1000 0.9876 Year: Miño −3.5630 < 0.0001 Year: Moaña −15.3200 < 0.0001 Year: Mugardos −3.1210 < 0.0001 Year: Muros −1.5540 0.0484 Year: Muxía −1.3040 0.0976 Year: Noia −21.0800 < 0.0001 Year:O Barqueiro −2.3960 0.0024 Year:O Grove −13.8500 < 0.0001 Year:O Pindo −0.8534 0.2781 Year:O Vicedo −2.9650 0.0002 Year: Palmeira −0.3090 0.6944 Year: Pobra do Caramiñal – – Year: Pontedeume −4.2350 < 0.0001 Year: Pontevedra −18.2200 < 0.0001 Year: Porto do Son −0.3835 0.6259 Year: Portonovo −0.0167 0.9949 Year: Portosín −5.3000 0.5591 Year: Raxó −3.6130 < 0.0001 Year: Redondela −12.7000 < 0.0001 Year: Rianxo −5.9920 < 0.0001 Year: Ribadeo −1.0850 0.1680 Year: Ribeira – – Year: Río Anllóns −2.6630 0.0007 Year: Sada −0.4820 0.5401 Year: San Cibrao −0.5398 0.4925 Year: Sanxenxo −2.0000 0.9444 Year: Sta. C. Cobres – – Year: Vigo −0.6702 0.4303 Year: Vilaboa 0.0053 0.9947 Year: Vilanova de Arousa −2.2860 0.0037 Year: Vilaxoán −0.4617 0.5573
219 P. Pita et al. Marine Policy 101 (2019) 208–224
Table A3 Outputs of the GLMs fitted on the catches, value and mean value by shellfish species in daily sales in each fishmarket(lonja). Shown are the estimated model coefficients for the different response variables and p values. The error and link structure, and Akaike's information criterion (AIC) value are given.Informationon the GLMs fitted by lonja (see Table A4) and species (see Table A5) are provided for comparison purposes.
Model Error distribution Link AIC Coefficients
Estimate p
Catch (kg) = Year Gaussian Identity 10718240 −8.4248 < 0.0001 Catch (kg) = Year:Lonja Gaussian Identity 10631416 Catch (kg) = Year: Species Gaussian Identity 10672249 Value (€) = Year Gaussian Identity 13035130 −59.7590 < 0.0001 Value (€) = Year:Lonja Gaussian Identity 12924927 Value (€) = Year: Species Gaussian Identity 13000803 Mean value (€ kg−1) = Year Gaussian Identity 5051435 −0.0288 < 0.0001 Mean value (€ kg−1) = Year:Lonja Gaussian Identity 4978734 Mean value (€ kg−1) = Year: Species Gaussian Identity 4288278
Table A4 Outputs of the GLMs fitted on the catches, value and mean valueby lonja in the daily sales of each shellfish species. The estimated model coefficients for the different response variables and p values are shown. Interaction terms are shown as “: ”.
Covariates Coefficients by response variable
Catch (kg) Value (€) Mean value (€ kg-1)
Estimate p Estimate p Estimate p
Year: A Coruña −5.5460 0.0014 −101.3000 < 0.0001 0.4662 < 0.0001 Year: A Guarda −14.3000 < 0.0001 −69.7900 0.0002 −0.2929 < 0.0001 Year: Abanqueiro 4.7180 0.4673 35.9400 0.3541 −0.4688 < 0.0001 Year: Aldán 1.3750 0.5396 −4.3320 0.7464 −0.5086 < 0.0001 Year: Arcade −13.8100 < 0.0001 −135.2000 < 0.0001 −0.1728 < 0.0001 Year: Baiona −2.3470 0.2426 −29.3500 0.0145 0.0896 0.0003 Year: Baldaio −18.3400 0.1305 −101.5000 0.1612 −0.2781 0.0602 Year: Barallobre −0.7184 0.7495 −30.1200 0.0251 −0.2343 < 0.0001 Year: Bueu −7.7770 < 0.0001 −81.8900 < 0.0001 −0.0593 0.0091 Year: Burela −8.9500 0.0001 −40.4400 0.0033 0.0879 0.0018 Year: Cabo de Cruz −20.3900 < 0.0001 −85.7300 < 0.0001 −0.1717 < 0.0001 Year: Caión −6.9860 0.1579 −55.4200 0.0608 0.3111 < 0.0001 Year: Camariñas 7.1090 0.0064 42.1000 0.0069 0.0338 0.2879 Year: Cambados −8.3760 < 0.0001 26.7700 0.0010 −0.0502 0.0025 Year: Camelle 8.4690 0.7747 −7.9200 0.9643 −0.0051 0.9888 Year: Campelo −17.4600 < 0.0001 −234.0000 < 0.0001 0.0627 0.0268 Year: Cangas −0.2162 0.8924 −38.9800 < 0.0001 0.0087 0.6543 Year: Cariño −6.9330 0.0504 −38.4200 0.0696 0.2655 < 0.0001 Year: Carreira −25.4600 < 0.0001 −502.0000 < 0.0001 −0.5588 < 0.0001 Year: Carril 9.1990 < 0.0001 192.7000 < 0.0001 −0.1532 < 0.0001 Year: Cedeira −10.2700 < 0.0001 −147.4000 < 0.0001 0.2530 < 0.0001 Year: Celeiro 2.7990 0.4274 27.0500 0.1993 0.5163 < 0.0001 Year: Corcubión 8.7940 0.0116 31.9100 0.1252 −0.0804 0.0587 Year: Corme −52.8600 < 0.0001 −219.6000 < 0.0001 1.2490 < 0.0001 Year: Espasante 1.2270 0.8496 −37.4300 0.3331 −0.2653 0.0008 Year: Ferrol −6.4700 0.0002 −83.4800 < 0.0001 −0.2533 < 0.0001 Year: Fisterra −8.4840 0.0002 −45.6900 0.0008 0.1013 0.0003 Year: Foz −0.4817 0.9836 −11.4000 0.9351 −0.3479 0.2239 Year: Illa de Arousa −21.0500 < 0.0001 −141.8000 < 0.0001 −0.2534 < 0.0001 Year: Laxe −4.3200 0.1582 −82.1000 < 0.0001 0.5320 < 0.0001 Year: Lira −11.8700 0.0002 −55.2000 0.0038 −0.0372 0.3193 Year: Malpica −6.2570 0.0101 −74.4500 < 0.0001 0.1454 < 0.0001 Year: Marín −1.6710 0.4761 −10.1100 0.4704 −0.5999 < 0.0001 Year: Miño −17.7900 0.0024 −43.8700 0.2105 0.4821 < 0.0001 Year: Moaña −2.8470 0.2124 −32.6300 0.0168 −0.0794 0.0044 Year: Mugardos −6.0370 0.2160 −129.4000 < 0.0001 −0.5103 < 0.0001 Year: Muros −7.8880 < 0.0001 −40.8700 0.0004 0.5879 < 0.0001 Year: Muxía −0.8129 0.8176 −16.4200 0.4356 −0.1103 0.0103 Year: Noia 66.0900 < 0.0001 26.6300 0.2000 −0.4408 < 0.0001 Year:O Barqueiro 7.5760 0.2457 −24.7200 0.5262 −0.7434 < 0.0001 Year:O Grove 0.2870 0.8383 40.9300 < 0.0001 −0.0035 0.8394 Year:O Pindo −0.0410 0.9978 −1.5860 0.9855 1.4770 < 0.0001 Year:O Vicedo 2.8340 0.7446 −118.3000 0.0228 −1.1850 < 0.0001 Year: Pobra do Caramiñal −6.6510 0.0015 −63.6100 < 0.0001 −0.2293 < 0.0001 Year: Pontedeume −2.8610 0.4486 −75.7900 0.0008 −0.5440 < 0.0001 Year: Pontevedra −3.5610 0.2073 −43.2600 0.0104 −0.0319 0.3544 Year: Porto do Son −12.0400 0.0031 −66.7700 0.0060 1.4100 < 0.0001 Year: Portonovo −4.4970 0.0655 −17.6400 0.2267 0.6207 < 0.0001 (continued on next page)
220 P. Pita et al. Marine Policy 101 (2019) 208–224
Table A4 (continued)
Covariates Coefficients by response variable
Catch (kg) Value (€) Mean value (€ kg-1)
Estimate p Estimate p Estimate p
Year: Portosín −1.5080 0.9597 −6.7770 0.9697 0.7206 0.0479 Year: Redondela −20.3600 < 0.0001 −139.0000 < 0.0001 0.0965 0.0003 Year: Rianxo −43.1900 < 0.0001 −112.1000 < 0.0001 −0.2270 < 0.0001 Year: Ribadeo −1.8850 0.5931 3.1120 0.8826 0.3052 < 0.0001 Year: Ribeira −18.7500 < 0.0001 −95.4700 < 0.0001 −0.1256 < 0.0001 Year: Río Anllóns −33.6500 < 0.0001 113.3000 0.0033 0.2543 0.0012 Year: Sada −1.5820 0.8562 −10.9700 0.8336 −0.3596 0.0007 Year: San Cibrao −11.0600 0.0280 −54.4300 0.0704 0.0573 0.3512 Year: Sta. C. Cobres −2.7520 0.4695 −19.1600 0.3992 −0.0249 0.5922 Year: Vigo −1.0530 0.4528 −19.6800 0.0189 −0.1094 < 0.0001 Year: Vilanova de Arousa −9.0760 < 0.0001 −46.1500 < 0.0001 −0.3211 < 0.0001 Year: Vilaxoán 3.2930 0.2441 6.0140 0.7218 −0.4025 < 0.0001
Table A5 Outputs of the GLMs fitted on the catches, value and mean value by shellfish species in the daily sales intheGalician lonjas. The estimated model coefficients for the different response variables and p values are shown. Interaction terms are shown as“:”.
Covariates Coefficients by response variable
Catch (kg) Value (€) Mean value (€ kg-1)
Estimate p Estimate p Estimate p
Year: Anemone 2.5570 0.8949 12.6300 0.9154 −0.1222 0.3604 Year: Atlantic goose barnacle −7.3620 < 0.0001 −308.0000 < 0.0001 −0.6032 < 0.0001 Year: Atlantic spider crab 0.4796 0.7537 10.3700 0.2693 0.1028 < 0.0001 Year: Banded carpet shell −5.3250 0.0008 −54.3000 < 0.0001 −0.0792 < 0.0001 Year: Bladder wrack −63.4600 0.8072 −15.2300 0.9924 0.0250 0.9889 Year: Common cuttlefish 2.3860 0.0407 26.2400 0.0002 0.1267 < 0.0001 Year: Common octopus −0.2735 0.7781 −1.0880 0.8552 0.0150 0.0255 Year: Common otter shell – – – – – – Year: Common prawn −0.3694 0.8081 −35.3700 0.0002 −0.9203 < 0.0001 Year:Diopatra neapolitana 0.1653 0.9885 3.7870 0.9571 0.2021 0.0107 Year: Dog cockle 106.5000 < 0.0001 67.9400 0.5358 −0.9386 < 0.0001 Year: Edible cockle −48.9600 < 0.0001 −102.1000 < 0.0001 0.1459 < 0.0001 Year: Elegant cuttlefish 5.1000 0.8496 2.4360 0.9882 −1.2390 < 0.0001 Year: European flat oyster 0.4533 0.9029 10.3300 0.6507 −0.0063 0.8049 Year: European lobster 0.0084 0.9979 0.8746 0.9648 0.0577 0.0095 Year: European spiny lobster −1.6260 0.7913 −55.0000 0.1449 −0.2307 < 0.0001 Year: Furbellow 5.7930 0.9345 −13.0000 0.9760 −0.0447 0.9268 Year: Golden carpet shell −1.8960 0.4664 −11.9000 0.4567 −0.2352 < 0.0001 Year: Grass prawn −4.8810 0.9059 13.7800 0.9567 0.7343 0.0100 Year: Great scallop −42.6200 < 0.0001 −428.2000 < 0.0001 −0.1711 0.0067 Year: Grooved carpet shell −4.2410 0.0002 −196.8000 < 0.0001 −0.7463 < 0.0001 Year: Henslow's swimming crab −28.2300 0.9569 −32.0900 0.9920 −0.0900 0.9801 Year: Irish moss −41.3900 0.4674 −54.5600 0.8761 −0.0408 0.9174 Year: Japanese carpet shell 10.3000 < 0.0001 −3.2750 0.6698 −0.2945 < 0.0001 Year: Kelps 88.1200 < 0.0001 53.7200 0.5420 0.0047 0.9620 Year: Laver −42.5000 0.9317 −42.5000 0.9889 0.0000 1.0000 Year: Lesser slipper lobster −0.0321 0.9953 −1.5390 0.9629 0.4223 < 0.0001 Year: Limpets 0.0701 0.9977 −0.5664 0.9970 0.0260 0.8760 Year: Lugworm −0.8195 0.9548 −8.7580 0.9215 1.3460 < 0.0001 Year: Marine worms 1.2520 0.9738 −1.6840 0.9943 −19.4500 < 0.0001 Year: Mediterranean mussel −12.9300 0.1650 −21.9900 0.7005 −0.0018 0.9782 Year: North Atlantic rockweed – – – – – – Year: Olive green cockle −36.2600 0.4354 −131.8000 0.6443 0.0793 0.8049 Year: Pacific cupped oyster −98.5400 0.0019 −109.5000 0.5733 −0.0161 0.9411 Year: Pencil bait 3.2350 0.6117 16.0700 0.6813 0.0167 0.7048 Year: Periwinkle 0.3772 0.9594 1.1980 0.9790 0.0174 0.7347 Year: Pink cuttlefish 11.1700 0.9705 62.7500 0.9730 −0.0261 0.9900 Year: Pink lady −1.2610 0.7972 −1.6130 0.9573 0.0062 0.8537 Year: Pod razor shell 2.5880 0.4738 −37.7700 0.0887 −0.6350 < 0.0001 Year: Pullet carpet shell −3.9100 0.0008 −102.9000 < 0.0001 −0.1828 0.0000 Year: Queen scallop 29.4500 < 0.0001 58.3700 0.0266 −0.0728 0.0139 Year: Ragworm −0.0310 0.9991 0.4349 0.9979 0.7012 0.0002 Year: Rayed artemis −34.5100 < 0.0001 −62.5400 0.0009 −0.0198 0.3514 Year: Red seaweeds 640.6000 < 0.0001 830.2000 0.1959 0.1233 0.8643 (continued on next page)
221 P. Pita et al. Marine Policy 101 (2019) 208–224
Table A5 (continued)
Covariates Coefficients by response variable
Catch (kg) Value (€) Mean value (€ kg-1)
Estimate p Estimate p Estimate p
Year: Rondelet's bobtail −15.9000 < 0.0001 −55.2500 0.0010 0.3286 < 0.0001 Year:Scoletoma impatiens −0.1598 0.9816 −3.5940 0.9327 2.8680 < 0.0001 Year: Sea cucumbers −1018.0000 0.0002 −1678.0000 0.3134 2.6380 0.1586 Year: Sea lettuces 103.1000 0.0144 85.6600 0.7406 0.0032 0.9913 Year: Shore crab −0.6543 0.9507 9.1810 0.8877 0.0771 0.2917 Year: Smooth callista 154.1000 0.0003 408.3000 0.1143 0.2753 0.3435 Year: Stony sea urchin −15.4200 < 0.0001 72.1900 < 0.0001 0.1730 < 0.0001 Year: Striped venus −0.9750 0.9989 −1.8300 0.9997 0.2300 0.9621 Year: Sword razor shell 4.0340 0.0108 −36.4100 0.0002 − 0.7340 < 0.0001 Year: Thick trough shell −3.9370 0.4996 −24.2100 0.4991 −0.2593 < 0.0001 Year: Thongweed 126.7000 0.0008 33.7600 0.8848 −0.0281 0.9147 Year: Truncate donax −0.4490 0.9502 −28.5200 0.5181 −0.1944 0.0001 Year: Tuberculate abalone −0.7500 0.9804 −11.5300 0.9509 0.1029 0.6248 Year: Variegated scallop −2.3820 0.9442 31.7000 0.8795 0.6919 0.0033 Year: Velvet horn −130.5000 0.6930 −117.6000 0.9538 −0.0350 0.9878 Year: Velvet swimming crab −1.1230 0.4872 −25.9800 0.0088 −0.1187 < 0.0001 Year: Wakame 84.5600 < 0.0001 68.5800 0.3220 0.0086 0.9122 Year: Warty venus shell −0.3059 0.8526 −11.0600 0.2740 −0.2683 < 0.0001 Year: Wrinkled swimming crab 0.5770 0.8960 0.6885 0.9797 −0.0067 0.8264
Table A6 Catch and sale value of key shellfish species captured by small-scale fishers in Galicia and sold in the main fish markets in the period 2003–2015 (inthetext, justification for the selection of species and lonjas is provided).
Lonja Atlantic goose barnacle Atlantic spider crab Banded carpet shell Common cuttlefish Common octopus Edible cockle
Catch (t) Value Catch (t) Value Catch (t) Value Catch (t) Value Catch (t) Value Catch (t) Value (M€) (M€) (M€) (M€) (M€) (M€)
A Coruña 1035.43 20.69 761.95 6.03 0.00 0.00 480.56 1.71 3288.20 15.28 203.01 0.58 Bueu 163.84 6.97 85.49 0.93 224.05 1.79 179.29 0.75 3184.16 18.23 4.55 0.02 Cabo de Cruz 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 57.64 0.43 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1876.80 11.56 Camariñas 33.04 0.50 37.39 0.22 0.00 0.00 2.73 0.01 1141.30 5.39 954.27 4.49 Cambados 0.00 0.00 182.50 2.64 699.87 5.64 985.21 5.36 336.00 1.79 1241.71 4.08 Campelo 0.00 0.00 5.49 0.07 37.13 0.28 24.22 0.11 1.41 0.01 1926.76 10.21 Carril 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 4183.09 13.95 Corcubión 0.00 0.00 17.10 0.12 12.49 0.05 0.00 0.00 1257.71 6.65 45.07 0.12 Illa de Arousa 0.00 0.00 1.16 0.02 1936.08 13.76 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 1064.72 3.03 Noia 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 27.25 0.22 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 17,527.15 83.12 O Grove 73.79 2.65 534.86 7.99 35.54 0.27 972.04 4.38 449.19 2.48 679.03 2.52 Rianxo 0.00 0.00 9.09 0.14 0.26 0.00 117.53 0.77 6.64 0.04 4864.27 17.13 Ribeira 73.21 1.94 553.30 5.69 1113.43 8.64 615.60 3.21 4550.28 26.66 8.45 0.04 Río Anllóns 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1428.55 6.31 Vigo 9.77 0.18 246.67 2.85 567.32 4.57 1126.53 4.68 4523.29 19.93 58.88 0.17 Vilanova de Arousa 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 1.47 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.00 1108.57 4.16
Lonja Grooved carpet shell Japanese carpet shell Pullet carpet shell Rayed artemis Stony sea urchin
Catch (t) Value Catch (t) Value Catch (t) Value Catch (t) Value Catch (t) Value (M€) (M€) (M€) (M€) (M€)
A Coruña 238.44 4.36 23.09 0.11 250.91 2.27 15.94 0.01 80.91 0.25 Bueu 2.06 0.05 0.54 0.00 42.52 0.57 26.04 0.04 214.85 0.73 Cabo de Cruz 244.77 6.83 517.49 4.42 449.74 6.22 163.25 0.28 0.00 0.00 Camariñas 141.66 2.71 678.38 4.78 18.90 0.21 0.06 0.00 259.65 0.57 Cambados 789.03 16.40 1275.36 9.99 861.17 12.88 1056.05 1.93 0.00 0.00 Campelo 962.31 20.49 2531.19 14.28 657.77 8.34 277.89 0.48 0.00 0.00 Carril 723.13 13.47 4556.13 28.28 961.65 9.75 1.28 0.00 0.00 0.00 Corcubión 11.74 0.20 7.58 0.04 4.88 0.06 0.00 0.00 322.10 0.88 Illa de Arousa 827.07 21.41 839.91 5.81 2233.57 31.37 1509.03 2.49 9.20 0.02 Noia 1367.35 32.33 352.75 2.55 1809.13 23.45 17.93 0.02 0.00 0.00 O Grove 1270.20 27.78 1558.61 12.27 371.28 4.33 416.58 0.71 502.44 1.34 Rianxo 574.65 11.45 1242.85 9.09 810.21 9.18 0.37 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ribeira 18.51 0.38 14.65 0.08 720.55 12.79 587.29 1.04 620.87 1.41 Río Anllóns 0.00 0.00 0.57 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Vigo 18.62 0.42 106.47 0.73 258.77 3.88 104.24 0.21 471.05 1.49 Vilanova de Arousa 459.20 10.12 1582.41 11.08 736.70 9.31 361.27 0.56 0.00 0.00
222 P. Pita et al. Marine Policy 101 (2019) 208–224
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224 Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
Annex II
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PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources fmars-07-00242 April 20, 2020 Time: 18:11 # 1
ORIGINAL RESEARCH published: 21 April 2020 doi: 10.3389/fmars.2020.00242
The Use of Recreational Fishers’ Ecological Knowledge to Assess the Conservation Status of Marine Ecosystems
Pablo Pita1,2*, Manel Antelo2,3, Kieran Hyder4,5, José Vingada6,7 and Sebastián Villasante1,2
1 Department of Applied Economics, Faculty of Political and Social Sciences, Santiago de Compostela, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain, 2 Campus Do Mar, International Campus of Excellence, Vigo, Spain, 3 Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain, 4 Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Lowestoft, United Kingdom, 5 School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, United Kingdom, 6 CBMA-Molecular and Environmental Biology Centre, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, Braga, Portugal, 7 Department of Environment and Planning, Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
Edited by: Tomaso Fortibuoni, There is a reluctance to incorporate Fishers’ Ecological Knowledge (FEK) into the Higher Institute for Environmental evidence base used to underpin marine management decisions. FEK has proved to Protection and Research (ISPRA), Italy be useful as an alternative reference of biological changes in data-poor scenarios. Yet, Reviewed by: Ernesto Azzurro, recreational fisher knowledge has rarely been included in scientific studies despite being Higher Institute for Environmental a source of FEK. Here, the use of recreational FEK to assess the conservation status of Protection and Research (ISPRA), Italy marine ecosystems in Galicia (NW Spain) was evaluated. Galicia has a highly complex Dimitrios K. Moutopoulos, University of Patras, Greece marine socioecological system that includes both a large global commercial fleet and Francesco Tiralongo, a powerful recreational sector, alongside other important stakeholders (e.g., tourism, Ente Fauna Marina Mediterranea (EFMM), Italy aquaculture). Anglers and spear fishers were asked to provide their perceptions of the *Correspondence: conservation status of fish stocks and the impacts on marine ecosystems. Face-to- Pablo Pita face interviews were transcribed into text and analyzed using text mining tools. Key [email protected]; concepts were used to quantify fishers’ perceptions of changes in their target fish [email protected] stocks and quantify the main impacts on marine ecosystems. Overfishing and habitat Specialty section: loss, followed by reduction in biodiversity, pollution, and warming temperatures were This article was submitted to considered to be the main drivers of the poor status of cephalopods and finfish stocks. Marine Fisheries, Aquaculture and Living Resources, Perceived temporal declines in fish stocks were consistent with available biological data, a section of the journal highlighting the potential for recreational FEK to be used to assess long-term ecological Frontiers in Marine Science changes. It was important to seek opinions from different users, including fishers from Received: 15 November 2019 Accepted: 27 March 2020 traditional commercial and recreational fisheries, as these groups had good knowledge Published: 21 April 2020 of the impacts on natural and cultural community heritage. The poor status of ballan Citation: wrasse (Labrus bergylta) and kelp beds was identified, which was of concern due to it Pita P, Antelo M, Hyder K, being a key species in coastal ecosystems. Use of FEK is a good approach to develop Vingada J and Villasante S (2020) The Use of Recreational Fishers’ knowledge of these systems, but broader monitoring programs are needed to protect Ecological Knowledge to Assess the future of these ecosystems. the Conservation Status of Marine Ecosystems. Front. Mar. Sci. 7:242. Keywords: perceptions, long-term trends, shifting baselines, ecological knowledge, recreational fisheries, stock doi: 10.3389/fmars.2020.00242 assessment, fisheries science
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INTRODUCTION fishery composed by 60,000 fishers and 4,000 boats (Pita et al., 2018b). Furthermore, one of the most important worldwide Responsible management of natural resources and services mussel aquaculture industry is located there (Pérez-Camacho provided by marine ecosystems needs reliable information on et al., 1991; Villasante et al., 2013), which along with intensive the human-induced changes over time (Lockwood et al., 2012). shipping traffic (Suárez de Vivero and Rodríguez Mateos, 2012) However, the lack of long-term scientific information on human and growing tourism demand (Cortés-Jiménez, 2008) shape a impacts makes sustainable exploitation of marine populations a highly complex socioecological system. In this context, the lack challenge as baseline data needed to assess changes do not exist of long-term scientific ecological data poses serious challenges for (Halpern et al., 2008). Management decisions based on incorrect setting management baselines from which to develop sustainable baselines can result in the long-term maintenance of marine exploitation of the coastal ecosystems (Pita and Villasante, 2019; ecosystems well below natural levels (Pitcher, 2001). This has Pita et al., 2019). This is exacerbated because Galicia has the been described as the “shifting baseline syndrome” where the highest social and economic dependence on marine resources in current conservation status of marine ecosystems is established the European Union (Surís-Regueiro and Santiago, 2014). as a cognitive baseline reference against which to judge future To address information needs for sustainable management of changes (Pauly, 1995). The implications of these shifting baselines marine resources, long-term trends in the conservation status is not trivial given the potential for overexploitation of the planet’s of fish stocks and the key changes in marine ecosystems were ecosystems by humanity (Watson et al., 2018). obtained from recreational FEK. Status of main fish stocks and Fishers’ ecological knowledge (FEK), alongside other sources impacts on marine ecosystems were explored, followed by an of information (Thurstan et al., 2015b), has begun to be used analysis to identify topics that could influence fishers’ perceptions in the last decades to provide alternative long-term references of the conservation status of fish stocks and habitats. The level or baselines for management decisions (Hind, 2014). FEK is of agreement between fishers’ perceptions and other sources of generated from the long-term use of ecosystems, and integrates biological data was assessed. practices and perceptions influenced by local culture, differing from traditional science in the way that data are interpreted and organized (Maurstad, 2002). FEK can complement traditional MATERIALS AND METHODS scientific knowledge, increasing spatial and temporal resolution of the derived knowledge framework (Agrawal, 1995; Stephenson Participants et al., 2016; Gourguet et al., 2018). Despite this, its use in the Very active fishers with a high degree of involvement in the management of natural resources has not become widespread recreational fishery were recruited using a snowball model (Huntington, 2000). Fisheries science has been particularly (Goodman, 1961), starting with a small group of informants that reluctant to incorporate FEK into decision making procedures were initially identified by representatives of the main regional (Hind, 2014). The lack of recognition by the scientific community recreational fishers’ associations, and expanding through their of the inseparability of nature and society has also hampered the contacts and social networks [i.e., “peer referencing” (Davis and success of this process (Goldman and Schurman, 2000). Wagner, 2003)]. This was designed to recruit avid recreational Recreational fisheries are providing an increasing amount of fishers with a high degree of knowledge of the fishery and data for researchers about their activity (e.g., Lloret et al., 2008; ecosystem. This is because they will be most aware of long-term Giovos et al., 2018), but also about the ecosystems within they changes, as their catches are dependent on the health of the operate (e.g., Tiralongo et al., 2019), but the use of their FEK has system and fishing has been a central part of their lifestyle for been limited (see review by Hind, 2014). Given that there are many years (Arlinghaus et al., 2019b). Top fishers in spearfishing many more recreational than commercial fishers (Hyder et al., competitions1 (N = 4) and rod and line anglers in the directive 2018; Arlinghaus et al., 2019a), recreational fishers represent a board of the main fishers’ clubs in the region2 (N = 10), including relatively untapped source of long-term information on marine old and young people, were selected (mean age was 55.07 ± 11.46 ecosystems (Brewin et al., 2017). Recreational FEK has been used SD years; Table 1). to quantify variations in abundances and distribution of different fish stocks (e.g., Azzurro et al., 2011; Zukowski et al., 2011; Beaudreau and Levin, 2014; Sbragaglia et al., 2020). However, Data Collection to our knowledge, it has not been used to integrate perceptions Face-to-face semi-structured video-recorded interviews were of trends of fish stocks with the conservation status of the conducted from May 2017 to January 2018 by a single whole ecosystems. investigator. Semi-structured interviews were used to ensure that In this study, the use of recreational FEK to assess the conservation status of marine ecosystems in data-poor situations 1Competitive spearfishers invest a considerable amount of time in physical training was evaluated in Galicia (NW Spain). Galicia has one of the and fishing (Pita and Freire, 2016). Since roughly 500 spear fishers participate in largest commercial fleets globally, including large scale high seas competitions in the area, it is estimated that approximately 0.8% of competitive vessels operating from the main ports (STECF, 2018), and 4,000 spearfishers were included in the study. 2 small-scale fisheries vessels in many of the smaller towns and Apart of their fishing activity, interviewed anglers have been involved in the management of their fishing clubs, investing a considerable amount of their villages (Freire and García-Allut, 2000; Pita et al., 2019). Coastal personal time in different aspects of the fishery. Approximately, it is estimated that ecosystems are also exploited by a thriving marine recreational it was interviewed 20–30% of the chairs of the angling clubs of the area.
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TABLE 1 | Participant characteristics (N = 14). Automatized transcription tools and text mining techniques to process transcribed texts were used because this method can save Participant Gear Age Experience a considerable amount of time (Bryman, 2016). The texts were 1 Spear fisher 45 32 subsequently reviewed to avoid transcription errors. 2 Spear fisher 36 21 A three-step approach was used to analyze the content of 3 Angler 68 10 the discourse on each topic. Firstly, the relative frequency of 4 Angler 64 15 each word included in the transcriptions was obtained using the 5 Angler 65 38 termdocumentmatrix tool from the tm library. Usual stop words 6 Angler 40 20 were removed by using the stopwords and removeWords tools. 7 Angler 67 40 Secondly, the meaning of key concepts represented by the most 8 Angler 61 50 frequent words was analyzed after translation into English by 9 Angler 56 12 showing the connections using the Rgraphviz library (Hansen 10 Spear fisher 47 40 et al., 2017). The maximum correlation threshold was used in 11 Angler 60 5 each case, allowing at least one association between the words. 12 Angler 41 10 Finally, hierarchical cluster analysis was done on the dissimilarity 13 Angler 69 17 matrix of the most recurrent words using Ward’s minimum 14 Spear fisher 52 41 variance method (Ward, 1963). The relationships among the key concepts identified were used to quantify fishers’ perceptions of changes in the conservation participants provided information on key topics, while open- status of their target fish stocks by using the following scale: −2 ended questions and probes allowed fishers to expand on the (very negative, meaning much less and/or much smaller fishes); most important items for them (Bryman, 2016). −1 (negative, meaning less and/or smaller fishes); 0 (meaning no Filmed interviews have some advantages over other face-to- changes in abundances and/or sizes); 1 (positive, meaning more face methods including sound recordings. For example, video and/or bigger fishes); and 2 (very positive, meaning much more footage can be viewed many times and shared with other and/or bigger fishes). investigators, reducing the potential for observer-related biases. Key concepts were grouped to identify the main impacts on Social cues (e.g., voice, intonation, body language) can provide marine ecosystems and access motivations of the recreational extra information and responses are more spontaneous than with fishers. To ensure groups were consistent and coherent (Saldaña, other methods (Opdenakker, 2006). In addition, the accuracy of 2015), they were compared with main topics identified in the texts the interview report remains high without the need to take notes of the transcriptions by using the LDA tool of the topicmodels which can distract the interviewer (Wengraf, 2001). library in R, that generated a probabilistic framework for the The interviews mostly lasted less than 10 min frequency occurrences of the key concepts of the interviews (7.08 ± 3.49 min). Fishers reported fishing experience (Hornik and Grün, 2011). Key concepts were also used to (25.07 ± 14.60 years; Table 1) and described their perceptions of: quantify changes in fishing gears and techniques separately for (1) any changes over times in the abundances and sizes of their anglers and spear fishers by using the following scale: 0 (no main target species (i.e., explain how has the abundances and/or changes); 1 (minor improvements); and 2 (great improvements). sizes changed?); and (2) key changes in the marine ecosystems Throughout this process, original video recordings and (i.e., describe what has changed and why?). To identify topics transcriptions were routinely reviewed especially for cases that that potentially could influence perceptions, the fishers were raised doubts about the coding and grouping of variables. also asked to provide information on: (1) main changes in Furthermore, the coding and grouping were reviewed by a second fishing gears and techniques to assess potential hyper-stability in investigator and discrepancies were discussed until consensus abundance trends (Maunder et al., 2006; Kleiber and Maunder, was reached. To assess the degree of completeness of the 2008); and (2) personal motivations for recreational fishing species lists and key concepts, mean accumulation curves were (i.e., why they are recreational fishers?) to assess heterogeneity obtained using bootstrapping with 1,000 permutations (Gotelli (Beaudreau and Levin, 2014). Participants were asked to bring and Colwell, 2001). This bootstrapping procedure was used to pictures of old and recent fishing trips to the interviews to help assess the efficiency in the identification of target species and them to remember and avoid recall bias (Hiett and Worrall, key concepts (Soberón and Llorente, 1993; Longino and Colwell, 1977; Pollock et al., 1994). The photographs were requested to 1997) by estimating the potential number of unreported species show typical fishing scenes, including gears, rather than catches. and key concepts (Palmer, 1990; Colwell and Coddington, 1994). All fishers who agreed to participate in the study provided verbal Accumulation curves were calculated using the specaccum tool informed consent. and the number of unreported species and key concepts was estimated with the specpool tool, both in the vegan package with Statistical Analysis R(Oksanen et al., 2019). The audio of the interviews was transcribed into text by using Generalized linear models (GLMs) were used to assess overall the googleLanguageR library (Edmondson, 2018) and analyzed temporal trends in the conservation status of each of the by using text mining tools within the tm library (Meyer et al., fish stocks by including the fishing experience of recreational 2008), both within the statistical software R (R Core Team, 2019). fishers as independent variables. GLMs, and Generalized Linear
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Mixed-Effects Models (GLMMs) to account for correlation in example, one boat angler stated “The last cuttlefish season was the perceptions provided by each fisher, were used to identify the worst ever. It was disastrous. Year after year, catches are cognitive baselines in the fishers’ perceptions because it was decreasing” (Participant 4). expected that very experienced fishers would perceive larger For finfish, the most negative perceptions corresponded to changes on fish stocks than less experienced fishers (Beaudreau the ballan wrasse pinto variety’s conservation status (mean and Levin, 2014). GLMs and GLMMs were also used to assess −1.6 ± 0.7; Table 2). Most agreed that pinto was far less abundant if perceived changes in fish stocks varied among individuals and smaller today than when they started fishing. Words like with different motivations. Different error structures and link “kilograms” and “weight” were used regularly and related to functions were assessed, and the best models selected based on this negative perception (Supplementary Figure S3). One spear an appropriate error structure and Akaike’s information criterion fisher (Participant 10) commented “You must look for them in (Akaike, 1973). deeper waters” and added that “in the past, pintos were often very large, and quite easily you caught pintos weighing three kilos. Comparison Between Interviews and Nowadays pintos exceeding two kilos are an impressive catch.” Biological Data Black seabream Spondyliosoma cantharus (Linnaeus, 1758) were The level of agreement between interview-derived and biological also perceived to have shown serious temporal declines (mean − ± trends was assessed where possible for the identified target 1.3 1.2; Table 2). Catches were quite dependent on local species. Multidecadal time series of commercial landings (1997– conditions, varying between seasons, so “currents,” “tides,” and 2018) were accessible for some species from the government “year” were frequently used words (Supplementary Figure S4). Pesca de Galicia website3 (Xunta de Galicia, 2019). Temporal The words “big” and “past” (Supplementary Figure S10) were − ± trends in the landings of the fish stocks targeted by the closely related to negative trends (mean 1.3 0.8; Table 2) interviewed recreational fishers were assessed using GLMs. These in the perceived status of white seabream Diplodus vulgaris were compared against the percentage difference in mean annual (Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1817). One boat angler commented that landings between the first five and the last 5 years of the available “in the past you sailed 500 meters and caught some. Nowadays you commercial time series to assess population trends. must travel a lot” (Participant 7). A severe decrease in the average Long-term data on fish size and abundance of some identified size of white seabream was also explained by one spear fisher target species were obtained from Pita and Freire(2014) and (Participant 14), who stated that “my father used to catch huge Alonso-Fernández et al.(2019). In all cases, population trends by white seabreams; and when I started fishing, sometimes I caught species obtained from different sources were normalized to the some good ones, but they were never that big.” interview-derived scale (from −2 to 2). The two morphotypes Atlantic horse mackerel Trachurus trachurus (Linnaeus, 1758), of ballan wrasse Labrus bergylta (Ascanius, 1767; Almada et al., Atlantic mackerel Scomber scombrus (Linnaeus, 1758), blackspot 2016; Quintela et al., 2016), pinto (spotted and reddish) and seabream Pagellus bogaraveo (Brünnich, 1768), European conger maragota (plain greenish or brown) (sensu Villegas-Ríos et al., Conger conger (Linnaeus, 1758), and pouting Trisopterus luscus 2013) were treated separately when possible. (Linnaeus, 1758) showed moderate negative trends (between −1.2 ± 0.8 and −1.0 ± 1.0; Table 2). Less concern was shown about the status of the European RESULTS seabass Dicentrarchus labrax (Linnaeus, 1758) and maragota (mean −0.9 ± 0.8 and −0.6 ± 1.2, respectively; Table 2). Words Temporal Trends in Fish Stocks like “few,” “quantity,” and “year” were used by fishers raising Recreational fishers’ perception of the temporal trends in the greatest concerns about the state of the European seabass stock conservation status of the fish stocks they target was in (Supplementary Figure S8). However, other fishers explained general negative (mean −1.3 ± 0.8, in a scale between −2 that this species is still seasonally abundant in the correct and 2). The greater the experience of the fishers, the worse habitat, using words like “good,” “more,” “places,” and “same” the perceptions about the status of fish stocks (p = 0.004, (Supplementary Figure S8). One spear fisher commented that R2 = 0.130) (Figure 1). Of the 13 reported species, fishers “they changed the place where I used to find them before. (...) were mainly concerned about the current conservation status You evolve in your way of fishing; you buy a boat and you can of cephalopods like common octopus Octopus vulgaris (Cuvier, move around, and in the end, you can still find them. Maybe 1797) (mean −2.0 ± 0.0), common squid Loligo vulgaris in deeper water, or in more difficult places, but I still catch big (Lamarck, 1798) (mean −2.0 ± 0.0) and common cuttlefish seabass” (Participant 1). Sepia officinalis (Linnaeus, 1758) (mean −1.7 ± 0.8; Table 2). Maragota was the only fish that showed some positive Some fishers explained that catches on cephalopods are highly perception about the status of the stock (14% of observations; variable, depending on the season, day and area. This was Figure 1). One spear fisher commented that “it has conquered represented by frequent usage of interconnected words like part of the territory of the pintos, or at least I was used “cycles,” “sea floor,” “tide,” “variable,” and “year (Supplementary to see more pintos and less maragotas” (Participant 1), while Figures S5–S7). However, there was a common sentiment that another explained “now you see big maragotas quite often. It abundances of cephalopods had severely declined over time. For has increased in size and quantity because it does not have the same commercial value [than pinto] and it is not targeted by 3http://www.pescadegalicia.gal any [commercial fishing] gear” (Participant 10). Frequent words
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FIGURE 1 | Effect of the experience of recreational fishers on the perceived conservation status of fish stocks (from –2 meaning very negative to 2 meaning very positive). Predictions (thick lines), 95% confidence interval (thin lines) and observations (dots) estimated by GLM are showed. P-values and goodness of fit of the model (R2) are also showed. Only frequently targeted species, identified by more than 20% of the fishers, were included in the results by species.
TABLE 2 | Comparison between temporal changes in perceived conservation status of fish stocks targeted by recreational fishers (from −2 meaning very negative to 2 meaning very positive) and temporal trends for the same species in commercial landings [abundance (Alonso-Fernández et al., 2019) and size (Pita and Freire, 2014)].
Species Fishers perceptions Commercial landings Alonso-Fernández et al.(2019) Pita and Freire(2014)
English name Scientific name Range Change Range Change Range Change Range Change
Atlantic horse mackerel Trachurus trachurus 1980–2018 −1.000 1997–2018 −0.214 Atlantic mackerel Scomber scombrus 1998–2018 −1.000 1997–2018 −0.017 Ballan wrasse Labrus bergylta 1997–2018 1.382 2000–2016 0.030 Ballan wrasse (maragota) Labrus bergylta 1968–2018 −0.625 1970–2008 −0.665 Ballan wrasse (pinto) Labrus bergylta 1968–2018 −1.625 1956–2008 −0.691 Black seabream Spondyliosoma cantharus 1980–2018 −1.333 1997–2018 0.831 Blackspot seabream Pagellus bogaraveo 1998–2018 −1.000 1997–2018 −1.205 Common cuttlefish Sepia officinalis 1968–2018 −1.667 1997–2018 1.444 2000–2016 −0.063 Common octopus Octopus vulgaris 1968–2018 −2.000 1997–2018 −0.451 2000–2016 0.028 Common squid Loligo vulgaris 1998–2018 −2.000 1997–2018 −1.715 2000–2016 −0.080 European conger Conger conger 2008–2018 −1.000 1997–2018 −0.190 2000–2016 −0.004 1967–1999 −1.522 European seabass Dicentrarchus labrax 1968–2018 −0.875 1997–2018 1.123 2000–2016 −0.002 1956–2008 −0.728 Pouting Trisopterus luscus 1978–2018 −1.222 1997–2018 −0.493 2000–2016 −0.055 White seabream Diplodus sargus 1977–2018 −1.286 1997–2018 0.640 2000–2016 0.008 1957–2008 −0.497
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trawling close to the shores, some of them even pass the gears under the mussel rafts in the estuaries” (Participant 7). Participant 8 explained that overexploitation occurred because the continental shelf is narrow and many commercial fishing boats operate. He also highlighted technical improvements in commercial fishing had important effects on fish stocks: “before the hydraulic haulers, the nets had to be pushed onboard by hand; now they use several nets in one haul. This have killed a lot.” Illegal practices like unreported landings and lack of compliance with regulations regarding temporary and spatial closures were also identified by some fishers. “If we do not comply with the regulations, how we will know if they are effective or not?” was argued. Many recreational fishers claimed that their own impact on fish stocks is very low, compared to commercial fishing. “One single hook does not harm the sea at all” (Participant 3), or “you go fishing on the weekends (...), and it is true that we are many, yes, but we are not the reason why the species do not come anymore” (Participant 7). However, some concerns about the impacts of the recreational sector were also shared: “there are many retired commercial [fishers] who sell illegally their catches, and they go fishing absolutely every day of the year. They disguise themselves as recreational fishers when they really are not” (Participant 6). Severe declines in the presence of algae, especially Laminaria kelp beds, were repeatedly stressed by recreational fishers as the main habitat loss for fish. Frequent words like “aforetime,”“algae,” and “Laminaria,” alongside “less” were related to this impact (Supplementary Figure S11). Spear fishers were especially informed about this issue, with one stating “I believe that what is impacting the volume of fish and their sizes in the ecosystems most is the absence of Laminaria. Some stones were covered in the past by Laminaria and mussels, and nowadays they are clean (...), and the fishes do not stop at those stones anymore. If you go to other stones where Laminaria and mussels still grow, you have the fish there. In many areas of the coast the FIGURE 2 | Impacts on ecosystems (A) and individual motivations (B) laminaria has disappeared” (Participant 10). Ocean warming, lack reported by recreational fishers. of food availability (reported each in 21.4% of the interviews) and pollution (14.3%) were also perceived as relevant impacts (Figure 2A). One of the fishers commented that the synergistic like “big,” “more,” and “size” were related with these positive effects of these impacts could explain the lack of kelp beds, perceptions (Supplementary Figure S2). amongst other impacts on biodiversity: “This is the trend; industrial effluent, even when the pipelines discharge far away Impacts on Marine Ecosystems (...), and the municipalities discharges, and changes in the climate Overfishing and habitat loss were reported 35.7% of the and the currents, all impact on the algae and the sand hoppers at interviews (Figure 2A) and were the main perceived impacts the beaches. There can be no fish because it has neither shelter nor on marine ecosystems. “Commercial,” “boats,” “week,” and food” (Participant 9). “weekends” were frequently linked to the fact that commercial boats operate most days, whereas recreational fishers are limited to weekends. The higher fishing effort exerted by commercial Changes in Fishing Gears and boats was one reason used by recreational fishers to suggest Techniques that commercial fisheries had severely impacted fish stocks and In the interviews the fishers reported relevant average ecosystems, while the perceived impact of the recreational sector improvements in fishing gears and techniques (1.21 ± 0.89). was limited (Supplementary Figure S11). Frequent words like “bait,” “expensive,” “line,” “reel,” and Many recreational fishers complained about the negative “rod” were related to improvements reported by anglers impacts of commercial fisheries, especially trawling. For example, (Supplementary Figure S12). One commented that “people who “There are some commercial boats trawling in shallow waters, and have more free time, that go fishing more often, and have more that kill everything” (Participant 3) and “the commercial boats are disposable income are the ones that try new gear” (Participant
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6). In addition to a general trend toward smaller hooks and thinner lines, anglers also identified improvements in artificial baits. One experienced angler explained that “in the past I used to make my own lures with corn leaves; nowadays commercially made lures are available to target surface, medium and deep waters” (Participant 7). Important improvements in fishing boats and onboard equipment were reported by some anglers. One boat angler commented that “today there are fast boats and you go where you want (.), in the past you had to know where you were; now we have GPS navigation systems, you push the little button and that’s it. Nowadays anyone can catch fish. Fishing is quite easy now” (Participant 7). Some anglers complained about the excessive use of technology by modern recreational anglers “I enjoy traditional fishing. I go bottom fishing with hand line, and I raise the fish with my bare hands. There are people fishing with four electric reels. In my mind you practice sport fishing because you don’t make a living from it; I believe that recreational fishing must be less artificial,” explained one of these anglers (Participant 6). Major improvements in wetsuits, fins and spearguns were identified by the spear fishers by using words like “carbon,” “fins,” Supplementary Figure S13 “rubber,”“speargun” or “[wet]suit” ( ). FIGURE 3 | Conservation status of fish stocks (from –2 meaning very negative One spear fisher commented “the thermal protection offered by to 2 meaning very positive) perceived by recreational fishers with different today’s wetsuits is well above those of twenty years ago; now you can motivations for fishing. The top and bottom of the boxes correspond to the stay five hours in the water while in the past in the first hour you first and third quartiles of the data, the whiskers extend to 1.5 times the were freezing” (Participant 10). “When I started fishing my wetsuit interquartile range and the median is indicated with a thick horizontal line. P-values of the paired t-tests estimated by GLM between fishers motived by had interior lining and right now we use ‘chewing gum’ wetsuits, family traditions and other motivations are also shown. with no lining, and you can fish for longer at lower temperatures (...), you don’t feel wearing a wetsuit” (Participant 1). In relation to fins, one spear fisher explained that “we have gone from fishing with rubber fins to carbon fiber fins, which require much less and physical activity (p = 0.041; Figure 3). The frequent use of physical effort to move in the water” (Participant 10). “In the “father” together with “always” and “sea” was the key concept beginning only two or three people had carbon fins and they linked to this motivation (Supplementary Figure S14). Many of were very difficult to obtain,” remembered another spear fisher the fishers explained that living close to the coastline with family (Participant 2). Many spearguns are now made of carbon and and friends engaged in commercial fishing was an important use bands rather than compressed gas, making them more precise driver for starting to fish recreationally. “I am from a coastal and ergonomic. “When I started fishing, they were all compressed city and I am a son of a sailor, my father had a little ardora air. They made a lot of noise and tore the fish apart. Nowadays [pilchard] boat, and I sometimes helped him with the fishing gears” with the rubber ones with thin shafts, you hit them in the head (Participant 7). Having a father engaged in recreational fishing and they die; so they are much more reliable” (Participant 14). was also an important motivation, with one spear fisher stating: Improvements in on-board electronic equipment was also noted “My father was a spear fisher and he used to go with my older (Participant 2), in terms of travel times and finding bait fish. brothers. Since I was five years old, if the sea was good, I went with However, one spearfisher highlighted the importance of fishing him. (...) If your father has this hobby, and you like it, then you technique: “How smart you are when waiting underwater looking follow it” (Participant 14). for the right time to make the shot is what ultimately affects your Building social relationships and enjoying social recognition fishing” (Participant 1). was another relevant motivation to access the recreational fishery (35.7% of interviews; Figure 2B). Fishers used words like “family” and “people” in the interviews to refer to this motivation Access Motivations to the Recreational (S4_Acceso). “When I arrive home or at meals with friends, Fishery this gives me a certain level, a status that I would not have Family traditions in recreational and/or commercial fisheries otherwise, and I feel fulfilled” (Participant 1). Fishing was related was the main motivation for fishing, being reported in half of with relaxation and spiritual peace in 28.6% of the interviews the interviews (Figure 2B). Fishers following family traditions (Figure 2B), using words like “happy” or “hobby.” Spear fishers to access the recreational fishery showed the worst perceptions in particular highlighted this motivation: “Spear fishing creates an of the conservation status of fish stocks (Figure 3). Paired emotional and psychological balance” (Participant 2) and “the sea comparisons were significatively lower than fishers motivated by gives me peace out of the ordinary. I believe that it is because it eating fish (p = 0.017), relaxing (p = 0.012) and enjoying sport isolates you from everything” (Participant 1). This motivation was
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also important for some anglers: “Because of my work I am on the interviewed fishers in this study. This finding is similar to a road for long; and the sea relaxes me a lot” (Participant 6). growing body of literature (Sáenz-Arroyo et al., 2005; Ainsworth Fish consumption was an important motivation and et al., 2008; Beaudreau and Levin, 2014) that supports empirically was linked to frequently used words like “eat” or “fresh” the “shifting baseline syndrome” (Pauly, 1995). However, this (Supplementary Figure S14) and was reported in 21.4% of interpretation should be treated with caution as suggested by the interviews (Figure 2B). “I love fresh fish,” stated one angler Beaudreau and Levin(2014) because fishers tend to overestimate (Participant 6). Some fishers valued the sport and the benefits their effort and catches with long recall periods (Hiett and derived from the physical activity (14.3% of the interviews; Worrall, 1977; Pollock et al., 1994; Daw, 2010). Fishers were Figure 2B). Spear fishers were particularly inclined to use asked to look at pictures of old and recent fishing trips before the words like “capacity,” “fit,” “physical” or “sport,” when asked interviews to minimize the potential influence of recall bias. about their motivations (Supplementary Figure S14). “Being Other cognitive processes can modulate people’s perceptions underwater fighting with the faculties that we have as humans is of natural environments, especially when facing challenging so great. (.). Spear fishing is one of the most physical demanding issues (Balcetis and Dunning, 2007). For example, the relatively sports” (Participant 10). stable perception on the conservation status of the maragota Catching fish and enjoying contact with wild nature were stock could have been affected by the comparisons that many the less relevant motivations for recreational fishers (reported fishers made with pinto’s status. Participant 1 explained that in 7.1% of the interviews; Figure 2B). In this sense, one he had seen more pinto than maragota in the past and fishers angler commented that the fishing activity itself gave him deep perceived a marked decrease in pinto, so this could have satisfaction (Participant 6) and one spear fisher explained that masked the negative trend for maragota. The changes in the “you are in a strange environment, but you have the ability to learn relative abundances of the two morphotypes found in the study about the habitat of each species. Each species has its own way of is of concern and should be investigated further to ensure fishing that you learn paying attention to their behavior; when do conservation of ballan wrasse. they spawn, why they go deeper at certain periods of the year, when There were limited time series of biological data being do they get closer to shore..., it is such a wonderful world and we available to make a rigorous comparisons with trends in still do not know so much about it” (Participant 10). fish conservation status derived from interviews. However, concordance with the available temporal trends in abundances, Comparison Between Interviews and fish sizes and commercial landings corroborates the use of FEK Biological Data as an alternative source of long-term information for data- Commercial landings of many of the fish stocks targeted by poor situations (see e.g., Zukowski et al., 2011; Beaudreau and recreational fishers have decreased in the last two decades Levin, 2014; Thurstan et al., 2015a). In this sense, progressive (Figure 4). Differences in annual landings between the first and reduction in the conservation status of fish stocks perceived by the last years of the available time series were negative in the the recreational fishers was supported by decreases up to 76% in case of Atlantic horse mackerel, Atlantic mackerel, blackspot body size of European conger, European seabass, maragota, pinto seabream, common octopus, common squid, European conger and white seabream estimated by Pita and Freire(2014) in the and pouting (ranging from −1.7 to −0.02 on a normalized last 50 years (Table 2). Changes in conservation status were also scale between −2 and 2). Commercial landings have been similar for several fish stocks to abundance trends estimated by growing in the case of ballan wrasse, black seabream, common Alonso-Fernández et al.(2019). The smaller time series analyzed cuttlefish, European seabass and white seabream (ranging from by Alonso-Fernández et al.(2019) (16 years) than that in this 0.6 to 1.4; Table 2). study (up to 50 years) could explain the lower decreases that Pita and Freire(2014) compiled recreational fishing they found, and even the small increases shown for ballan wrasse, competitions data between 1967 and 2008. This was used common octopus and white seabream (Table 2). Furthermore, to estimate relevant decreases in the sizes of European conger, fishery-dependent data derived from onboard programs could be European seabass, maragota, pinto and white seabream, that hyper-stable, because many factors influence to levels of landing ranged from −1.5 to −0.5 (Table 2). Alonso-Fernández beyond simply the status of the stock (Maunder et al., 2006; et al.(2019) used data from independent observers on board Kleiber and Maunder, 2008). For instance, skippers acquire better commercial vessels between 2000 and 2016 and reported little materials and new skills as their fishing experience increases, decreases in relative abundances of common cuttlefish, common changing their behavior (e.g., opening new fishing grounds and squid, European conger, European seabass and pouting, ranging abandoning unproductive or unprofitable ones) (Hilborn et al., from −0.08 to −0.002. Abundances of ballan wrasse, common 1995; Walters, 2003; Ahrens and Walters, 2005). octopus and white seabream showed minor increases between In a similar way, some of the decreases in the conservation 0.01 and 0.07 (Table 2). status of fish stocks showed in this study could also be hyper- stable, masking negative trends. As explained by the fishers in the interviews (e.g., participants 1, 7, and 10) and in other studies DISCUSSION (e.g., Olson and Cunningham, 1989), fishers are continuously searching for new fishing places, further from the coast and/or Perceived conservation status of fish communities showed an deeper water, evolving to adapt to eventual lower abundances inversely proportional relationship with the experience of the to keep their catches stable. Furthermore, improvements in
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FIGURE 4 | Temporal trends in annual commercial landings in Galician ports of main species targeted by recreational fishers (1997–2018). Predictions (thick lines) and 95% confidence interval (thin lines) of the partial effect of the year on the landings estimated by GLM are showed in gray color. P-values and goodness of fit of the models (R2) are also shown.
fishing equipment in recent years (see e.g., Young et al., 2015) effort (Alonso-Fernández et al., 2019; Pita et al., 2019), technical highlighted in the interviews could also have increased the fishery operational improvements (e.g., hydraulic haulers) could have catchability, masking perceived trends in conservation status. also have an impact on commercial landings. Nevertheless, trends However, as suggested by Pita and Freire(2014), although the in commercial catches are in general consistent with recreational changes in conservation status shown in this study might not be fishers’ perceptions about declines in stocks. Commercial fully accurate, these estimates are valuable conservative proxies of fisheries should be showing signs of depletion for some of long-term alterations in the fish stocks. the stocks observed here. With the exception of Atlantic horse The improvements in the monitoring, reporting, enforcement mackerel (ICES, 2018c), this view is supported by the need for and control of commercial fisheries in the last decade could conservation measures in the relevant areas for species under have also hyper-stabilize some trends in commercial landings European catch management [i.e., Atlantic mackerel (ICES, (Villasante et al., 2016). In spite of a reduction in the fisheries 2019) and blackspot seabream (ICES, 2018a)]. This assessment
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highlights the need for assessment and management of a marine ecosystems. Kelp beds are structural and ecological broader set of stocks in Galicia at European level. European complex habitats (Teagle et al., 2017) distributed in worldwide seabass has been assessed in Biscay and biomass has been cold and temperate waters (Dayton, 1985). These ecosystems declining (ICES, 2018b). The growing market demand for species provide shelter and food for many marine animals, increase like ballan wrasse, common cuttlefish, European seabass and primary production and genetic diversity, regulate climate by white seabream could also increase targeting by commercial capturing and storing carbon, recycle essential nutrients, keep fishers despite declines in their populations. As a result, it water quality and protect against storms (Steneck et al., 2002; is vital to obtain detailed and reliable monitoring of the Smale et al., 2013). Kelp beds are therefore important sources abundance and catches of all the species that are targeted of commercial, recreational and cultural resources (Harvey by recreational or commercial fishing to ensure sustainable et al., 2001; Bennett et al., 2016). However, they are highly exploitation of the stocks. vulnerable to direct human impacts (Pérez-Matus et al., 2017) One of the challenges of using FEK to assess long-term and global warming (Wernberg et al., 2010; Harley et al., 2012; changes in the conservation status of ecosystems has been Provost et al., 2017). Kelps create key habitats in temperate an inability to integrate fishers’ perceptions on trends of rocky reefs around the world, including Galicia (Pita et al., fish stocks with environmental impacts. Perceptions of 2018a). Kelps are especially vulnerable to impacts in this the impacts driving changes in ecosystems differ both region because it is located at their southern distribution within and between user groups (Eden and Bear, 2011a). limit (Flores-Moya, 2012; Tuya et al., 2012; Voerman et al., For example, recreational anglers are the main resource 2013). Participant 9 explained that ocean warming and land- users in European freshwater ecosystems (Arlinghaus et al., based pollution are the main drivers of kelp reduction. This 2019a), where inland commercial fisheries are virtually was consistent with the progressive weakening of the coastal absent (Boisneau et al., 2016). Freshwater anglers perceive upwelling in Galicia (Bode et al., 2009) that introduces the that healthy ecosystems include human interventions like cold water and nutrients needed for critical life stages of kelps stocking as acceptable or even desirable practices (Eden and (Alvarez et al., 2012), and with studies that link wastewater Bear, 2012). Conversely in marine ecosystems, recreational treatment plants with impacts on kelp beds (Connell et al., fishers can be less powerful than the commercial sector and 2008). Fishers’ perceptions on the negative trends of kelps the potential interventions are very limited. Therefore, their are a first wake-up call about the important consequences perceptions of impacts on ecosystems tend to be similar of a reduction of kelp beds on the sustainability of coastal to scientists and fisheries managers (Beaudreau and Levin, ecosystems and on the services provided by them (Krumhansl 2014). It is therefore not surprising that fishers interviewed et al., 2016). Ballan wrasse is a key species in kelp beds in this study identified overfishing and habitat loss as the because it controls sea urchin populations (Pita and Freire, main threats to marine ecosystems, in concordance with 2017) preventing regime shifts due to overgrazing (Ling et al., mainstream science (Jackson et al., 2001). Although most fishers 2015). Thus, decreases in the abundances of ballan wrasse stressed that commercial fisheries are primarily responsible showed in this study, together with the increase in the direct for overfishing, other (e.g., Participant 6) also recognized their exploitation of kelps by humans (Pita et al., 2019), could cause role and responsibility (Hyder et al., 2018; Pita et al., 2018b; abrupt changes in coastal ecosystems. Careful assessment of Radford et al., 2018). the conservation state of ballan wrasse and kelp exploitation is Fishers born in coastal populations, following family recommended to develop adaptive, responsible management of traditions of commercial and/or recreational fisheries evidenced coastal ecosystems. higher sensitivity toward changes in ecosystems than other groups of fishers. These “traditional fishers” are more aware of the impacts that can alter their traditional way of life CONCLUSION because they play a role in the socioecological legacy of the community. Therefore, it is recommended that future studies of The results of this study are limited by the sample size and range fish abundance using FEK also analyze impacts on ecosystems of demographics, in this case middle-aged fishers. Furthermore, using inputs from different resource users, including those experienced fishers that are highly engaged in the recreational more prone to protect natural and cultural community heritage. fishery have been recruited. Thus, this study would not capture Identifying these “traditional fishers” is important because social potentially lower levels of awareness of young and/or less avid and emotional components of access motivations evidenced by fishers of the state of fish stocks and ecosystems. However, this Galician fishers seem more relevant than that shown in other does not detract from the outcomes of this study, since it is regions, where reconnection with natural environments (Walsh not intended to generalize these results to the entire population et al., 1989; Snyder, 2007; Eden and Bear, 2011b) and fishing of recreational fishers. Moreover, the number of new concepts for food are stronger motivations for recreational fisheries and/or results associated with each additional interview tends to (Cooke et al., 2017). diminish after a relatively small number of interviews (Morgan, Ocean warming, biodiversity loss and pollution are global 2002; Tashakkori and Teddlie, 2010; Green and Thorogood, threats to ocean conservation that fishers also identified (Jackson, 2013; Ritchie et al., 2013). In this study, theoretical saturation 2008). However, it is important to highlight that fishers identified was reached in the identification of main target species and the decrease in kelp beds as one of the major impacts on in the groupings of key changes in marine ecosystems and
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access motivations (Supplementary Figure S15). In addition, the AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS findings of this study are consistent with available biological data and with similar studies using FEK in other regions. Therefore, PP performed the interviews and analyzed the data. PP, MA, despite direct regulatory guidance derived from this study being KH, and SV reviewed the data and wrote the manuscript. JV limited, the validity of recreational FEK to assess changes on participated in the design of the study. the conservation status of fish stocks and ecosystems in data- poor situations has been demonstrated, offering a potential methodology to be further developed in the future. FUNDING The perceptions of experienced fishers generated key information on long-term ecological impacts that will This work was funded by the Xunta de Galicia (RECREGES support conservation of ecosystems and reduce the impact I and II projects under Grants ED481B2014/034-0 and of the “shifting baseline syndrome” (Pauly, 1995). Fishers ED481B2018/017), and Fundación Biodiversidad, Ministerio para following family traditions in commercial and/or recreational la Transición Ecológica, Gobierno de España (SICORE project). fisheries were identified as key informants to detect impacts SV acknowledges the financial support of the European COST on natural and cultural community heritage, so must Action “Ocean Governance for Sustainability—challenges, be included in FEK studies. Most fish stocks in this options and the role of science,” the ICES Science Fund Project study were perceived to be declining that was driven by “Social Transformations of Marine Social-Ecological Systems,” overfishing, habitat and biodiversity losses, pollution and ocean and the CYTED program for the ECOMAR Network. warming. The poor status of ballan wrasse and kelp beds was identified, which was of concern due to representing key species in coastal ecosystems. Use of FEK is a good ACKNOWLEDGMENTS approach to develop knowledge of these systems, but broader monitoring programs are needed to protect the future of We appreciate the involvement of the recreational fishers these ecosystems. who voluntarily shared their knowledge during this study. We dedicate this article to the memory of JV who recently passed away. DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL The datasets generated for this study will not be made publicly available because they contain the participant’s personal The Supplementary Material for this article can be found information. Request to access the datasets should be directed to online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars. the corresponding author. 2020.00242/full#supplementary-material
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Ward, J. J. H. (1963). Hierarchical grouping to optimize an objective function. Zukowski, S., Curtis, A., and Watts, R. J. (2011). Using fisher local ecological J. Am. Stat. Assoc. 58, 236–244. knowledge to improve management: the Murray crayfish in Australia. Fish. Res. Watson, J. E. M., Venter, O., Lee, J., Jones, K. R., Robinson, J. G., Possingham, H. P., 110, 120–127. et al. (2018). Protect the last of the wild. Nature 563, 27–30. Wengraf, T. (2001). Qualitative research interviewing: Biographic narrative and Conflict of Interest: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the semi-structured methods. London: Sage. absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a Wernberg, T., Thomsen, M. S., Tuya, F., Kendrick, G. A., Staehr, P. A., and potential conflict of interest. Toohey, B. D. (2010). Decreasing resilience of kelp beds along a latitudinal temperature gradient: potential implications for a warmer future. Ecol. Lett. 13, Copyright © 2020 Pita, Antelo, Hyder, Vingada and Villasante. This is an open- 685–694. access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Xunta de Galicia (2019). Pesca de Galicia. Estadísticas oficiales de pesca de la. Spain: License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, Xunta de Galicia. provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the Young, M. A. L., Foale, S., and Bellwood, D. R. (2015). Dynamic catch trends in original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic the history of recreational spearfishing in Australia. Conserv. Biol. 29, 784–794. practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply doi: 10.1111/cobi.12456 with these terms.
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ORIGINAL RESEARCH published: 31 January 2020 doi: 10.3389/fmars.2020.00023
Assessing Knowledge Gaps and Management Needs to Cope With Barriers for Environmental, Economic, and Social Sustainability of Marine Recreational Fisheries: The Case of Spain
Pablo Pita1,2*, Josep Alós3, Manel Antelo2,4, Iñaki Artetxe5, 6 6 7 6 Edited by: Sebastián Biton-Porsmoguer , Arnau Carreño , Amalia Cuadros , Toni Font , 8 7 9 10 6 Tomaso Fortibuoni, José Beiro , Jose A. García-Charton , Ana Gordoa , Kieran Hyder , Josep Lloret , Higher Institute for Environmental Beatriz Morales-Nin3, Estanis Mugerza5, Oscar Sagué11, José J. Pascual-Fernández12, Protection and Research (ISPRA), Italy Jon Ruiz5, Virginia Sandoval7, Elena Santolini7, Lucía Zarauz5 and Sebastián Villasante1,2 Reviewed by: 1 Department of Applied Economics, Faculty of Political and Social Sciences, University of Santiago de Compostela, Jennifer Leigh Bailey, Santiago de Compostela, Spain, 2 Campus Do Mar, International Campus of Excellence, Vigo, Spain, 3 Instituto Mediterráneo Norwegian University of Science de Estudios Avanzados (CSIC-UIB), Esporles, Spain, 4 Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, University and Technology, Norway of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain, 5 Marine Research Division, AZTI, Sukarrieta, Spain, 6 Institute Ioannis Giovos, of Aquatic Ecology, University of Girona, Girona, Spain, 7 Departamento de Ecología e Hidrología, Universidad de Murcia, iSea, Greece Murcia, Spain, 8 Federación Gallega de Pesca Marítima Responsable y Náutica de Recreo, Vigo, Spain, 9 Centro de Estudios *Correspondence: Avanzados de Blanes (CEAB-CSIC), Blanes, Spain, 10 Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Pablo Pita Lowestoft, United Kingdom, 11 International Forum for Sustainable Underwater Activities, Barcelona, Spain, 12 Departamento [email protected] de Sociología y Antropología, Instituto de Investigación Social y Turismo, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Spain
Specialty section: This article was submitted to The European Parliament is concerned about the lack of information on the relevance Marine Affairs and Policy, of nine million Europeans engaged in marine recreational fishing (MRF), committing a section of the journal Member States to encourage environmental and socioeconomic sustainability of the Frontiers in Marine Science sector. The objective of this paper is to provide recommendations to guide research Received: 30 July 2019 Accepted: 13 January 2020 actions and management policies, based on the case of Spain, a key country because Published: 31 January 2020 its complex administrative regimen and the intensive use of its coasts, including Citation: 900,000 recreational fishers. A review of the state of the knowledge was performed to Pita P, Alós J, Antelo M, Artetxe I, Biton-Porsmoguer S, Carreño A, identify research gaps, while governance challenges were identified in an International Cuadros A, Font T, Beiro J, Symposium on MRF. In the last two decades research on MRF was remarkable García-Charton JA, Gordoa A, (139 publications). However, public investment in research (€2.44 million in the same Hyder K, Lloret J, Morales-Nin B, Mugerza E, Sagué O, period) should be improved to cover knowledge gaps on socioeconomic relevance, Pascual-Fernández JJ, Ruiz J, on impacts on vulnerable species and on implications of global warming. The license Sandoval V, Santolini E, Zarauz L and Villasante S (2020) Assessing system should be standardized to allow estimation of effort, catch and expenditure. Knowledge Gaps and Management Social networks, mobile applications, fisher ecological knowledge, and citizen science Needs to Cope With Barriers programs could help to develop cost-effective research and management. Science- for Environmental, Economic, and Social Sustainability of Marine based, adaptive policies should improve the allocation of resources between MRF and Recreational Fisheries: The Case other stakeholders, introducing co-management to reduce conflicts. of Spain. Front. Mar. Sci. 7:23. doi: 10.3389/fmars.2020.00023 Keywords: marine recreational fisheries, participation rates, socio-ecological relevance, fisheries science, Spain
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INTRODUCTION Morales-Nin et al., 2005) and it has been highlighted in different scientific meetings [e.g., Mediterranean Congress of Marine recreational fishing (MRF) is an important activity MRF in 2006, Transversal Workshop on the monitoring of across Europe, with almost nine million fishers involved, recreational fisheries in the General Fisheries Commission who spend almost six billion euros each year on the activity for the Mediterranean (GFCM) area in 2010, or in the first (Hyder et al., 2018). However, research on MRF has been Workshop on Recreational Fishing on the Iberian Atlantic limited in Europe, especially in Southern Europe (Pita Coast in 2016]. In Spain there are about 900,000 marine et al., 2017), despite the long cultural tradition, and high recreational fishers (Gordoa et al., 2019). Despite the scarcity social value especially in the Mediterranean (Lloret et al., of information on their contribution to the national economy, 2016). Furthermore, MRF impacts on European fish stocks it is likely to be important as the direct expenditure has (Strehlow et al., 2012; Kleiven et al., 2016; Hyder et al., been estimated to be €729 euros per year and fisher (Hyder 2018), with 2–43% of total removals of some stocks due et al., 2018). However, there is no systematic collection of to MRF (Radford et al., 2018). The European Union (EU) information about MRF catches in Spain as required under recognized the importance of MRF and Common Fisheries the DCMAP. In addition, no information on expenditure Policy (CFP) states that “recreational fisheries can have a and social benefits is collected, despite recommendations significant impact on fish resources and Member States should, from the European Parliament (2018) and the Working therefore, ensure that they are conducted in a manner that Group on Recreational Fisheries Surveys (WGRFS) of the is compatible with the objectives of the CFP”(European International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES). Parliament and Council of the European Union, 2013). Under Apart from Atlantic cod that does not occurs in Spanish the EU Data Collection Framework and Multiannual Plan waters and ICCAT-managed species, the current status of (DCMAP) Member States must provide data on catches and none of the stocks under DCMAP regulations has been releases of Atlantic cod Gadus morhua (Linnaeus, 1758), assessed in Spain. Atlantic salmon Salmo salar (Linnaeus, 1758), European This situation is especially relevant for fisheries managers eel Anguilla anguilla (Linnaeus, 1758), European seabass since concerns have emerged recently about the sustainability Dicentrarchus labrax (Linnaeus, 1758), pollack Pollachius of some of the targeted stocks due to the lack of basic data pollachius (Linnaeus, 1758), sea trout Salmo trutta trutta (Lloret et al., 2016; Pita et al., 2017). It seems necessary (Linnaeus, 1758), elasmobranchs and highly migratory species to increase the research effort to manage MRF in a more under the management of the International Commission scientifically based way, improve the quality of the fishing for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT), with experience to recreational fishers and reduce conflicts requirements varying between regions (European Commission, between recreational and commercial fishers, and with 2016; European Parliament and Council of the European other users of the marine environment (Cardona and Union, 2017). The DCMAP has led to the inclusion of MRF Morales-Nin, 2013; Pascual-Fernández et al., 2015; Lloret removals in limited number of stock assessments including et al., 2016; Pita et al., 2017). The capability and capacity European sea bass in ICES divisions 4b,c, 7a,d–h, 8a,b to develop monitoring and scientific-based assessments (e.g., ICES, 2018a), Atlantic salmon and sea trout in the of MRF exists in marine research institutions in Spain. Baltic Sea (e.g., ICES, 2018b) and western Baltic cod (e.g., However, we hypothesize that a change is needed from ICES, 2018c). research, management and policy institutions, and in key In addition to the problems associated with the scarcity stakeholders, to get the most out of the accumulated scientific of information on MRF, the management of MRF in knowledge and to pay due attention to the management Europe is hampered by a complex and disperse legal of MRF. framework, with multiple administrations involved at Scientific institutions and fisher associations, with the local, regional and national levels, that varies between collaboration of public administrations and environmentalist aspects of the activity. MRF also interacts with other NGOs, organized in September 2018, the first International uses of the marine environment other than commercial Symposium on MRF (ISMAREF 2018) in Galicia (NW fishing, such as aquaculture, navigation, and tourism Spain). During the different sessions of the ISMAREF (Pita et al., 2018b). Therefore, in order to successfully 2018, covering key topics on biology, ecology, economics, manage such complex socio-ecological systems it is governance and sociology, over 100 participants, mainly from essential to perform a detailed assessment of the critical different Spanish regions but also from other EU countries, gaps in the scientific knowledge and identify potential with a wide range of expertise discussed transdisciplinary country-specific approaches to resolve these issues. To this strategies to promote environmental, economic and social end, this paper investigates the state of the knowledge sustainability of MRF in Spain and other European areas. of MRF in Spain, a key country in Europe due to the Different governance strategies and management initiatives on complexity and intensity of use of its extensive coastal MRF were put in common and discussed, and key challenges ecosystems, that include the Atlantic Ocean and the were identified. All this information has been collected, Mediterranean Sea. analyzed and put into context in this paper in order to The notion that sound information is needed to address provide recommendations to guide both fisheries research the management of MRF in Spain is not novel (see e.g., actions and governance policies. The results of this study can
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FIGURE 1 | Map of Spain with coastal regions highlighted in gray.
be used as a guide to develop similar assessments in other However, their MRF activity may be relevant due to the high regions and countries. number of tourists (83 million in 2018) and the increasing number of people living in the Spanish coasts, especially in the Mediterranean and the South (Morales-Nin et al., 2015). MATERIALS AND METHODS The management of MRF in Spain is mainly based on the distribution of government competencies between the The Coastal Socio-Ecological System of Government of Spain and 12 coastal regional governments, namely Andalusia, Asturias, Balearic Islands, Basque Country, Spain Canary Islands, Cantabria, Catalonia, Ceuta, Galicia, Melilla, Spain has one of the longest coastlines in Europe, with roughly Murcia, and Valencia (Figure 1), which makes an extremely 5,000 km of continental coasts and another 3,000 km divided complex system (Pita et al., 2018b). Most of these regional almost equally between the archipelagos of the Balearic and Governments began to autonomously manage their respective Canary Islands, in the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, recreational resources in the 1980s of the 20th Century (see respectively (Figure 1). Due to its geographical location, between e.g., Pita and Villasante, 2019). The formal regulation of the the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea, the Spanish activity begun in 1963, when the first Spanish regulation on coastal ecosystems are exceptionally diverse, including species MRF was enacted, creating the first license regime for MRF of three different temperate marine biogeographical regions: (Gobierno de España, 1963). Subsequently, the different regional Atlantic, Mediterranean and Macaronesian (which includes governments created various licensing regimes with different the Spanish Canary Islands, the Portuguese archipelagos of typologies (e.g., some regions group shore and boat anglers, while Azores, Madeira and Salvagems, and Cape Verde); with the others have separate licenses for both platforms), durations (from latter including several subtropical species (Templado, 2011). one to several years), costs (with relevant differences for the A recent study on the species composition of MRF reinforces this same purpose), and diverse access requirements. However, each biogeographical categorization (Dedeu et al., 2019). of these licenses are valid throughout the country. The Spanish coastal seas have traditionally been exploited by one of the largest commercial fishing fleets in the world, with about 8,500 vessels, most of them involved in Small Scale Data Collection and Analysis of the Fishing (SSF), operating in national fishing grounds (Gobierno de Information España, 2018). Commercial vessels share the coastal ecosystems Current Status of Knowledge on MRF with a thriving recreational fishery (Gordoa et al., 2019). In order to analyze the state of the knowledge about research A worldwide large tourism sector is still expanding in some on MRF in Spain, the database ISI Web of Knowledge (available coastal regions, adds complexity to the socio-ecological system at http://apps.webofknowledge.com) was used to select scientific because tourists have a strong presence (Santana, 1997; Cortés- publications related to MRF in Spain by using in the title or in the Jiménez, 2008). MRF is not the main motivation of tourists, theme of the publication the following search string: “[“Spain” because they engage in many different recreational activities AND (marine AND recreat∗ AND fish∗)].” The search included including swimming, snorkeling, scuba diving, or sailing (Peña- all scientific articles published in English until the cut-off date Alonso et al., 2018; Depellegrin et al., 2019; Drius et al., 2019). of the end of 2018. In addition, expert knowledge of scientists,
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managers, leaders of recreational fishers’ associations and of stakeholder’s organizations related with the use of coastal seas, identified through a snowball sampling procedure (Goodman, 1961) was included. The procedure started with a small group of initial informants identified by the authors and expanding it through their contacts and social networks, which were used to identify additional sources of information to be included in the analysis. Thus, scientific papers undetected by the ISI Web of Knowledge search engine, research projects, contributions to scientific meetings, master and doctoral academic thesis, books and book chapters, and gray literature (technical and dissemination reports), including texts published in Spanish, were also identified and analyzed. A database was created with the information gathered from the publications and projects on MRF, including details of the publication (title, name and discipline of authors, year, and type of publication) and the project (title, executing, and financing institution and funded amount). In addition, context of the studies was identified (years in which they were developed, geographical location and type of methodologies used), the key topics covered (grouped in ecology, economics, governance, and sociology after a critical reading by the main investigator), the FIGURE 2 | Number of research texts about marine recreational fisheries in main results obtained, and the studied species. Since the number Spain published by year up to 2018, grouped by category. Line shows the of publications and projects should be only considered as an annual funding invested in research projects in the same period (figures show indicator of the knowledge accumulated around each of the the number of projects by year). themes explained above, a more comprehensive analysis was made by identifying the main findings of the publications in each of the key topics in the section “Results,”while they have been put to include key players with high level of knowledge about MRF in context in the section “Discussion.” from all backgrounds. Around 100 experts attended, including scientists (39% of total), recreational fishers (37%), managers and Challenges for the Governance of MRF policy makers (17%), NGOs (5%), and commercial fishers (2%). Challenges in relation to the governance of MRF in Spain It is important to note that the information obtained from and other European regions were identified using information the analysis of interventions (discussions and presentations) derived from the discussions and presentations in the ISMAREF during the ISMAREF 2018 was largely based on opinions. In 2018. Detailed minutes of these sessions were obtained, and their the case of scientists, these opinions were based on the research content in relation to challenges for the governance of MRF conducted by themselves or by other colleagues, in the case of was synthesized around the same key topics used to analyze members of the administrations they used legal references in the current status of knowledge of MRF: ecology, economics many cases, while fisher’s discourses were based on their own and sociology. The information was subsequently analyzed to practical knowledge or on the knowledge of some fishers in the provide a basic roadmap to guide the future governance policies case of representatives of fishers’ associations. Although it is to promote environmental, economic and social sustainability of difficult to obtain empirical generalizations from these data, it MRF. Throughout this process original minutes of the sessions is expected that the information provided by a wide selection of were routinely re-reviewed by the main investigator, especially key informants with a high degree of knowledge about different in cases that raised doubts on groupings of different information aspects of MRF will provide a comprehensive range of views, on each of the preset key topics. Furthermore, these groupings This will generate a useful guide for research and governance of were reviewed by another investigator and discrepancies were MRF in the future. discussed until consensus was reached. Some of the attendees of the ISMAREF 2018 were invited to participate by the organizers, ensuring the presence of researchers RESULTS from the main fisheries research centers in Spain (among other countries), and representatives of the main associations Current Status of Knowledge on MRF of recreational and commercial fishers from Spain. In addition, Between 1997 and 2018, a total of 139 research results about different Spanish public administrations and international MRF in Spain have been published, showing a growing trend environmental NGOs attended. The ISMAREF 2018 was widely with time (Figure 2). Research articles (69) were the most publicized through written and online press, as well as in web published scientific results, followed by communications in pages and social media, and free attendance was allowed on scientific conferences and meetings (27), and books or book request to increase participation. The sample frame was designed chapters (5). Reports (27) and academic thesis (11, including
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master and Ph.D. documents), which are not usually part of white seabream and related species like annular seabream and scientific reviews, accounted for 19% of the published texts common two-banded seabream D. vulgaris (Geoffroy Saint- (Figure 2). Furthermore, since 2000, €2.44 million has been spent Hilaire, 1817) are important in the Mediterranean Sea (Coll on 23 research projects in Spain that studied different aspects of et al., 2004; Morales-Nin et al., 2005; Gordoa, 2009; Font and MRF (Figure 2). Lloret, 2011). Most species exploited by Spanish recreational Most first authors of the analyzed publications were part fisheries, included in different lists of targeted species in of ecological-oriented departments and laboratories of research the reviewed publications, have relatively fast life histories. public institutions (98 researchers), followed by social sciences However, a major concern in the analyzed literature is the (24), that included economics (14) and law (2). Multidisciplinary catch of vulnerable fish species (Lloret et al., 2019). These departments hosted 6 of the first authors (Figure 3). are long-lived and slow-growing species with low reproductive Since ecology was the main discipline (77% of the published potential and narrow geographic range distributions (Cheung documents), many of the papers analyzed (40) focused on et al., 2005), like dusky groupers, deep-sea species, and some ecological aspects of MRF, including catch and effort estimates sharks and rays. (28), fish survival after catch and release experiences (7), In addition to direct mortality of fish due to large or trophic habits (2). Moreover, over half of the papers competitions (Pita and Freire, 2016) and voluntary or (59%) investigated different social aspects of the activity, mandatory release (Alós et al., 2009), some indirect effects like economics (37%) and governance (32%), including laws on ecosystems have been described in Spain, including pollution (24%). Four papers performed economic analyses by obtaining derived from lost gears in the Mediterranean (Lloret et al., cost and expenditure estimates, and six papers developed 2014), reduction in fish body sizes in the Atlantic and the legal reviews. Most of the papers (85) provided information Mediterranean (Alós et al., 2014, 2016; Pita and Freire, 2014) on both social and ecologic relevance of MRF in different and impacts of use of exotic bait species in the Mediterranean Spanish regions (Figure 3). Moreover, the majority of the (Font et al., 2018). published studies (85) used offsite (including online, phone and postal) or onsite surveys to achieve their results, while Knowledge on Economic Relevance the remaining were based in experiments and experiences It has been estimated that Spanish marine recreational studying fish abundances (35), reviews (23), and expert opinion fishers spend at least €217 million per year on fishing (5) (Figure 3). trips, fishing gears, baits, clothes, and boats (Hyder et al., The Sparidae family was the most investigated taxon 2018). Moreover, annual fisher expenses in the Spanish (31% of total), followed by Labridae (10%), Serranidae (7%), Mediterranean recreational fleet alone were estimated to reach Scombridae (6%), Carangidae (6%), and Mugilidae (4%). The €534 million (Gordoa et al., 2004). Economic contribution most studied fish species were annular seabream Diplodus to regional economies has been investigated in Galicia and annularis (Linnaeus, 1758) (26 publications), followed by the Balearic Islands where it was estimated to be €97 and European seabass (24), white seabream Diplodus sargus €63 million per year, respectively (Morales-Nin et al., 2015; (Linnaeus, 1758) (24), painted comber Serranus scriba (Linnaeus, Pita et al., 2018a). 1758) (24), and Mediterranean rainbow wrasse Coris julis Other issues indirectly related to the economic contribution (Linnaeus, 1758) (21) (Figure 4). of MRF have been studied in the Balearic Islands. Thus, a study Knowledge on Ecological Impacts of fresh fish consumer preferences showed that the families with a member engaged in MRF had better knowledge of fish Based on the review made on publications about MRF in species and were more likely to buy high quality fish in local Spain it was possible to confirm that a basic knowledge about markets, which might have a positive impact on local SSF the ecological relevance of this fishery has been achieved. (Morales-Nin et al., 2013). Thus, annual recreational catch in Spain is about 40,000 t of marine fishes (Gordoa et al., 2019). Spanish recreational fishers target a wide variety of species, mostly marine Knowledge on the Governance fishes, but also some invertebrates including echinoderms Framework (Font and Lloret, 2011) and squids (Morales-Nin et al., Papers that investigated different aspects of fisheries governance 2005; Cabanellas-Reboredo et al., 2012, 2014; Palas et al., found that Spanish MRF operates within a complex legal 2017). Regional differences in catch diversity between framework, with many administrations involved in the regions have been recently analyzed by Dedeu et al.(2019), management from European to local levels (Morales-Nin concluding that based in the heterogeneity showed in the et al., 2010; Pita et al., 2018b). Fishing licenses are compulsory targeted fish assemblages, regional studies are needed to avoid and management operates through restrictions on spatial and spatial extrapolations. temporal access, with rules in place limiting effort and catch Ballan wrasse Labrus bergylta (Ascanius, 1767), European [see e.g., Morales-Nin et al.(2010) and Pita and Villasante seabass and white seabream are among the most relevant species (2019) for descriptions of the governance frameworks in the for recreational fishers in the Spanish Atlantic (Zarauz et al., 2015; Balearic Islands and Galicia, respectively]. In this context, Pita and Freire, 2016; Pita et al., 2018a), while comber Serranus recreational fishers show a low degree of knowledge of the cabrilla (Linnaeus, 1758), Mediterranean rainbow wrasse and different regulations, which negatively affects their compliance
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FIGURE 3 | Research studies about marine recreational fisheries in Spain obtained from scientific texts published up to 2018. The discipline of the first author (Bio, biology; Eco, economics; Eng, engineering; Geo, geography; Law, laws; Man, management; Mul, multidisciplinar; Nav, navigation; Soc, sociology; Unk, unknown), main methodology (Exp opi, expert opinion; Exp, experiments; Mee rep, meeting report; Rew, review; Sur, surveys (in general); OnI sur, online surveys; Ons sur, onsite surveys; Pho sur, phone surveys; Pos sur, postal surveys; Exp, experiments), major orientation (Ecol, ecological; Eco, economic; Gob, governance; Soc, social) and key results (Cat/Eff, catch and/or effort; Cos/Exp, costs and/or expenditures; Leg, legal review; Soc + Eco +Ecol, socioeconomic and ecological relevance; Surv, survival; Tro, trophic habits) are shown.
and reinforces the poor institutional fit of MRF, as was found for because of the competition for marine resources and space, the Atlantic region (Pita et al., 2017). e.g., in Macaronesian marine protected areas (MPAs) (Pascual- Notably, some conflicts between recreational fisheries and Fernández et al., 2015). Moreover, selling recreational catches is other stakeholders, particularly small-scale fishers, have arisen not allowed in Spain, and illegal sales might be a cause of conflict
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between commercial fishers and poachers that use recreational licenses in the Atlantic and the Mediterranean (Merino et al., 2008; Maynou et al., 2013; Lloret et al., 2016; Pita et al., 2017). Knowledge on Social Relevance Recently it has been estimated that in Spain there are approximately 900,000 marine recreational fishers (Gordoa et al., 2019). Shore anglers are the most frequent recreational fishers (roughly 75% of total), followed by boat anglers (20%) and by spear fishers (5%), as found at national level (Gordoa et al., 2019) and in Galicia (Pita et al., 2017). Gordoa et al.(2019) in a national study, Pita et al.(2018a) in the Atlantic and Morales- Nin et al.(2005) in the Mediterranean showed that most marine recreational fishers in Spain are men (more than 95% of total) between 36 and 53 years old. Spear fishers and boat anglers show higher education levels than shore anglers, while shore anglers have the highest levels of unemployment (Pita et al., 2018a; Gordoa et al., 2019). The wide geographical dispersion of recreational fishers along the coast, diversity of ways to access the fishery, and individual performance make quantifying the “human dimensions” challenging. However, attempts to elucidate the satisfaction and motivations of recreational fishers in the Balearic Islands (Morales-Nin et al., 2015) and in the whole Spain (Gordoa et al., 2019), showed that, in general, the satisfaction level is moderate and catch is not always the main motivation, with the complete fishing experience being very important, especially for spear fishers. Moreover, the perceived physical and psychological health and social benefits of recreational fishing (see, e.g., Griffiths et al., 2016) have not yet been evaluated in Spain. Challenges for the Governance of MRF Ecological, economic, and social challenges for the governance frameworks of MRF in Spain were highlighted by participants in the ISMAREF 2018, including opportunities to address the identified challenges in the future. Ecological Challenges Notably, all scientists attending the debate sessions of the ISMAREF 2018 highlighted issues with utilizing the current licensing system in Spain for research purposes. One of the researchers indicated that “we have enormous difficulties in using the current licensing system [for MRF] for scientific purposes. For example, active licenses are not the same as licenses issued in a year. In addition, licenses in some Spanish regions are also valid for inland fisheries. There is also a problem with boat fishing, because the license is allocated per boat [in some regions], and not per fisher. It is necessary that the different Spanish administrations try to standardize the licensing system.” It was also highlighted that the estimations on the population size of MRF have a direct impact on the subsequent estimates of fishing effort and catch (see e.g., Gordoa et al., 2019). The ecological challenges that MRF faces in the future also focused on the data collection about illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing. Some of the scientists suspected FIGURE 4 | Taxa studied in scientific texts about marine recreational fisheries that fisher declarations of large pelagic fish catches, mandatory in Spain published up to 2018. under EU laws (Council of the European Union, 2001), were
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not accurate. They indicated that, in their experience, it is very One member of the public administration argued in relation difficult to obtain accurate quantitative data on IUU fishing (see, to co-management that “it is good to create expectations [of e.g., estimates of IUU for the Galician coast in Villasante et al., co-management] for people, but it is a big problem when the 2016). Moreover, questions were raised about the opportunity expectations are not met because the legal framework does not to address the collection of IUU information in the short term, allow its implementation.” as collection of data about legal MRF activities was a higher Finally, some of the experts expressed their concern about priority. For example, “We have come a long way in monitoring hidden impacts of recreational fishers on vulnerable species, [legal] recreational fishing catches, and we must focus on improving including those that are not directly targeted by them (e.g., those estimates. To estimate illegal fishing, we are still far away, seabirds). The attendees agreed that, although the direct and it is also the Administration that must control the poachers.” impact of mortality or injury due to fishing gear may not Furthermore, “in what group do we put the poachers?” asked one be relevant for seabirds, the indirect impacts caused by local of the recreational fishers and added that “there is also poaching disturbances on vulnerable nesting birds may be important, so in commercial fishing. They are a separate group that should not be they should be considered in future assessments and incorporated associated with recreational fishing.” into the management. Differences in regulatory treatment between recreational and commercial fishers and the restrictions for recreational fishers Economic Challenges in MPAs attracted a lot of attention. The following statement A representative of a national association of nautical companies was raised by some of the representatives of recreational fishers identified an important barrier to the economic development of in relation to the National Parks, where only some commercial MRF: “In Spain, 70% of recreational boats are less than 6 m in fishing is allowed: “Why do they limit our fishing opportunities length and less than 10% are over 8 m.” This is due to the fiscal when they do not do the same with [some] commercial fishers?” regime penalizing longer boats, so in recent years there has been The recreational fishers explained that, if the reasons behind the little increase in the average length of boats. The opposite is seen in restriction or prohibition of MRF are conservation of species the charter fishing sector, which is not under the same fiscal regime, or ecosystems, it is inconsistent that the recreational sector is where average boat length has increase significantly in recent years. banned and commercial sector are not: “A recreational fisher will As far as recreational fishing is concerned, I believe that charter never understand why he cannot fish yet the commercial fishing boats can be a great boost for the markets. “Today, tourists seek is allowed.” experiences, not just sun and beach, and what better experience Moreover, some spear fishers stressed that they have the than a boat fishing trip?” greatest access restrictions and explained that in many cases these restrictions are not based on scientific evidence. They believe that Social Challenges the most obvious example of this was their exclusion from some Some discussion highlighted opportunities for the participation Spanish MPAs, where some commercial and other recreational of recreational fishers in joint research initiatives with scientists modalities are allowed. “If you ban us, you attack a sector that pays and citizen science programs: “Fishers can make an important taxes and puts money in the bank,” explained one spear fisher. contribution to data collection. There is a new window of Scientists highlighted that in MPAs with restrictions on opportunity for us to contribute to data collection in a better recreational fishing there are also restrictions for commercial way” was highlighted by a researcher. However, some relevant fishing in most cases, including banning of some métiers. barriers were identified to the involvement of fishers in research A member of a public administration present during the debate programs. In this way, a representative of a recreational fisheries stressed that “what we are looking for with a marine reserve is that association mentioned that “we are aware that it is very it increases the biomass both within and outside the reserve, so all important to give data to scientists and the administration to that fish both inside and outside can take advantage.” In general, make a real assessment of our impact, but we must bear in scientists and managers involved in the discussions agreed that mind that we [spear fishers] are reluctant to give information in the creation of new MPAs, solutions that fully satisfy all because our experience after 20 years of different regulations is the sectors involved are not often found, but expansion and bad. Based on pseudoscientific issues and protectionist fisheries strengthening of the network of MPAs should not be discouraged. policies [with commercial fishing, different public administrations] In the debate on MPAs and restrictions for MRF, one of the have undermined the fishing opportunities available to many representatives of a recreational fishers’ association identified co- of us.” management initiatives as important. He stated that “there seems Furthermore, several fishers who usually provide data to to be a lot of reluctance and fear of marine reserves.” Instead of scientists indicated that they have not received any feedback on fearing marine reserves, recreational [fishers] must become part the data that they provided. In their opinion, it is very important of the advisory board. My experience of advisory boards for the to maintain contact between fishers and scientists about the marine reserves of the Balearic Islands is fantastic. When we potential consequences of data provision. In this way, these meet each year, we decide what needs to be modified, both for results could be “validated” using the knowledge of the fishers. commercial and recreational fishing, according to the data that In general, experts agreed that although the involvement of scientists have gathered over the past year. “We, the recreational fishers in scientific projects can be improved, these initiatives are fishers are asking for new marine reserves to avoid the sea becoming fundamental for the recreational sector to play a more proactive a desert.” role in management and to improve trust in fisheries science.
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The growing importance of social networks was highlighted effort and catches: “Very often recreational fishers overestimate as a vehicle for the dissemination of good practices aimed their catches because they forget about their bad catches. In at reducing the ecological footprint of recreational fishing: addition, we have verified that they say that they go fishing more “Nowadays, with social networks, we are making progress in days than they actually do, because they do not report the days collaboration and awareness among fishers of good practices. they went, but the days that they would like to go” expressed Thanks to social networks, I have no doubt that at least 80% of a representative of a recreational fishers’ association. However, fishers in our area will collaborate with our initiative to limit the these are classical issues affecting surveys of recreational fisheries use of plastics.” (Pollock et al., 1994; Jones and Pollock, 2012) and researchers Gender gap in terms of female participation in MRF was overcome these limitations providing reliable estimates (e.g., also present in the ISMAREF 2018. One of the researchers Cabanellas-Reboredo et al., 2017). explained that the role of women has been evolving in the last The most recent estimate of participation rate in MRF decades in many societies, including Spain, where women have in Spain (2.0%; Gordoa et al., 2019) is higher than the increasingly higher participation in recreational activities. More average participation across European countries (1.6%; Hyder information on their attitudes would help to better understand et al., 2018). This shows that MRF in Spain is an important the social motivations for fishing and how they can shape the social, cultural, and economic activity that still needs to future of the activity. be acknowledged by the scientific community and by the management and policy institutions to guarantee its future sustainable development. DISCUSSION Since publication of the first article on MRF in Spain in 1997, there have been on average 6.6 scientific publications each Socioecological Relevance of Spanish year, while annual public investment on research was €116,333 MRF in Europe (Figure 2). This represents about 1% of the annual expenditure Most marine and freshwater water bodies worldwide are derived from MRF in Spain. However, higher levels of funding exploited by recreational fishing. Thus, recreational fishers are needed to close the relevant research gaps identified below, represent 10% of the population of industrialized countries especially through the creation of specific funding opportunities. (Arlinghaus et al., 2014, 2015) and in European seas, average national participation rates reach 1.6% of the population (Hyder The Future of MRF in Spain et al., 2015). Estimation of participation in Spain ranged from Based on the gaps in knowledge identified in the literature 0.6% in Hyder et al.(2018) to 2.0% in Gordoa et al.(2019). reviewed and the assessment of key challenges for the governance Consequently, estimates of overall economic importance and frameworks obtained from discussions and presentations during ecological impact derived from these figures showed large the ISMAREF 2018, some conclusions can be drawn to variation. Average annual expenditure estimates per fisher also foster the environmental, economic and social sustainability varied between the different studies carried out to date, ranging of MRF in Spain. from €729 obtained by Hyder et al.(2018) in Spain, to €1 218 and €1 611 obtained in the Balearic Islands and Galicia, respectively Recommendations to Improve Research by Morales-Nin et al.(2015) and Pita et al.(2018a). The Based on the review made on publications about MRF in large uncertainty shown in the different studies, and differences Spain it was confirmed that some of the species targeted by between regions and typologies of fishers, make it difficult to recreational fishers are included in international conventions for obtain comparable estimates. On the other hand, annual catches the protection of biodiversity, such as those of Barcelona, Bern per fisher showed less variations between the different studies, and Washington (CITES), the IUCN Red List, or the EU Habitats ranging, e.g., between 94 kg estimated by Gordoa et al.(2019) Directive, or have a high vulnerability index. Vulnerable species and 127 kg estimated by Pita et al.(2018b). In this case, the such as common dentex Dentex dentex (Linnaeus, 1758), dusky existence of a bag limit in the different regions probably favors grouper Epinephelus marginatus (Lowe, 1834) and brown meager closer estimates. Sciaena umbra (Linnaeus, 1758) are targeted by recreational Differences in fisher access and economic and ecological fishers along the Mediterranean coast (Morales-Nin et al., 2005; relevance can be explained by the difficulties in determining the Lloret et al., 2008; Giovos et al., 2018). Furthermore, although social and economic magnitude of marine recreational fisheries, MRF and SSF are often considered to have relatively low recognized by both the scientific community and by managers ecological impacts, they have negative effects on vulnerable and policy makers (Hyder et al., 2017). Furthermore, a major species, be they targeted or taken unintentionally as bycatch issue for obtaining reliable estimates is the lack of a standardized (Lloret et al., 2019). It is unclear if studies on vulnerable species in licensing system, as this gives a good estimate of the number of the reviewed scientific literature (e.g., 15 references for common people engaged in recreational fishing. Many attempts have been dentex and 9 references in the case of dusky grouper and made within Spain to develop sampling methods to overcome brown meager, respectively; Figure 4) is enough to assess the this challenge, evidenced by the number of scientific publications specific risks that affect resilience and the services they provide using different types of surveys (Figure 3). Some of the experts to ecosystems and their users. Furthermore, except for European attending the ISMAREF 2018 discussed the representativeness seabass, there are relatively few studies of species under special and potential bias of using questionnaires to ask fishers about surveillance in Europe, such as Atlantic salmon, European eel,
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pollack, elasmobranchs and highly migratory species (Figure 4). improve the available social and economic information, especially The effects of MRF on vulnerable species, including those that considering the enormous importance of touristic sector for are not targeted by fishers (e.g., seabirds) must be regularly the Spanish economy (Santana, 1997; Cortés-Jiménez, 2008). monitored to provide managers with sound data to guide Notably, socioeconomic data is requested by the European management decisions on the potential exploitation of species Parliament to develop adaptive policies, evaluating the suitability and areas, including MPAs. Furthermore, since large fishing of eventual controls and non-discriminatory limitations to competitions can reduce the local abundances of sedentary protect resources and ecosystems from excessive impacts fish species (Pita and Freire, 2016), the impact of popular (European Parliament, 2018). and regular competitions on big and vulnerable species should Scientists and fisheries managers should take more advantage also be assessed. of the use of social networks, mobile applications, and Global warming exerts considerable effects on the marine citizen science initiatives to strength partnerships with fishers, ecosystems (Hoegh-Guldberg and Bruno, 2010; Kersting, 2016), facilitating cost-effective management and research actions which are affecting fish assemblages (e.g., Anacleto et al., 2018; (Venturelli et al., 2017; Giovos et al., 2018; Monkman et al., Carozza et al., 2019; McLean et al., 2019), and the global fisheries 2018c; Sbragaglia et al., 2019). In fact, several institutions that exploit them (Phillips and Pérez-Ramírez, 2017; Barange have long-standing collaborations with different recreational et al., 2018). It is plausible that recreational fisheries will be associations for mark-and-recapture programs in Spain (e.g., affected in a similar way to commercial fisheries (especially SSF), Palmer et al., 2011) or catch data (e.g., Pita and Freire, 2014; so response to global warming may be comparable in some Boada et al., 2017). Furthermore, local ecological knowledge cases (Townhill et al., 2019). Global warming exerts impacts of recreational fishers is a powerful source of information that on the individual, population, community, and ecosystem, has been already incorporated in research programs to help and it is likely that recreational fishers will perceive some of the management of common pool resources (e.g., Palas et al., these effects, including changes in range distribution, with the 2017; Monkman et al., 2018a). It would be possible, e.g., to use corresponding appearance of allochthonous species (Cheung this knowledge to address key research gaps identified in this et al., 2009; Langangen et al., 2019), changes in relative density paper, as the consequences of global warming on fish stocks and abundance (Barange and Perry, 2009), changes in phenology and habitats. However, this use of fisher ecological knowledge (Cheung et al., 2013; Rogers and Dougherty, 2019), and changes (FEK) and social media has issues related with confidentiality in body size (Daufresne et al., 2009; Cheung et al., 2013). and the ownership of the results that must be considered in the However, to date potential consequences of global warming on early stages of the initiative (Gourguet et al., 2018; Monkman MRF in Spain have not been studied (Sandoval et al., 2018). Thus, et al., 2018b). In this sense, and as it was highlighted by research on this issue is urgently needed, including potential some of the fishers attending the ISMAREF 2018, scientists effects of changes in behavior and distribution of species, but also and managers must avoid the idea that fishers are just sources on the potential adaptation mechanisms of the socio-ecological of free information. Instead, the role of FEK in coproducing system (Cinner et al., 2018; Miller et al., 2018), that may include scientific knowledge must be properly recognized and fishers alterations in institutions, legal frameworks and traditional should have a voice on how to use their time and knowledge, social norms that can lead to deep social transformations and how to participate in the derived management decisions (Miller et al., 2018). (Maurstad, 2002). Policy makers must ensure that the different regulation Finally, in relation to the gender gap issue in MRF in frameworks contribute to the maintenance of resilient ecosystems Spain, it is important that research on fishing motivations that provision resources for commercial fishers, contributing should stratify sampling by gender to obtain a more robust to the economies that depend on their activity, and supply and representative sample of women in future research studies markets with healthy food for the population (Verbeke et al., (Morales-Nin and Alós, 2018). 2005). However, MRF also contributes significantly to economic development to the point that fishing regulations in Spain and other European countries include some measures to promote Recommendations to Improve the recreational fisheries (Pita et al., 2018b). Furthermore, the Governance Framework European Parliament is also promoting MRF-based economic The experts that attended the ISMAREF 2018 agreed that the initiatives, recognizing that “recreational fishing has been 13 current licenses regimes (i.e., 12 regionals, plus the national practiced for centuries across the EU and is an integral for offshore waters) should be urgently revised and standardized. part of the culture, traditions and heritage of a great many This would allow us to know the number of fishers and coastal and island communities,” and urges to “provide support, allow estimation of effort, catches and expenditure. Researchers including financial support, for the development of recreational working in scientific institutions and managers of public bodies fishing in the tourism sector, as an important contributor to will be able to provide these estimations, including research on the development of the blue economy in small communities, IUU fishing and on vulnerable species, more easily by using coastal communities and islands, particularly in the outermost standardized license data. In this sense, some of the experts regions”(European Parliament, 2018). There are a relatively noted that some fishers obtain their licenses outside of the region large number of economists who have been researching MRF in which they operate because the administrative requirements in Spain (Figure 3), however more research is needed to are simpler, or the licenses are valid for longer. This makes the
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allocation of the number of fishers between the different This may require a higher level of organization of the recreational regions difficult. This is a relevant issue, considering that sector and collaboration between the sectors to fight poaching roughly 40% of the fishers travel to fish in other regions in fisheries. It is important to consider what is happening in (Martínez-Carbajal, 2018). However, as stressed by one of the the United States (Boucquey, 2017) and Southwest Australia members of the National Fisheries Department that attended the (Brown, 2016; Voyer et al., 2017), where public policies are discussions “this is not a simple task, because it involves several favoring recreational over commercial fisheries, leading to administrations.” These administrations may have different undesired loss of valuable provisioning ecosystem services to political agendas which makes finding a solution to this issue local populations. challenging. To facilitate this objective, researchers, public Active involvement of fishers in co-management was managers and fishers’ representatives should urgently develop proposed by some experts to reduce these conflicts. Engagement discussion arenas and build consensus proposals to help policy of fishers in fisheries management is the case in many makers to harmonize license regimens in Spain, i.e., modalities, fisheries, for example Galician shell fishers have made use costs, and duration. of Territorial User Rights to Fisheries (TURFs) since the Conflicts between recreational and small-scale fishers early 1990s (Pita et al., 2019). Furthermore, the recent entry (described in the section “Knowledge on the Governance into force of specific regulations on fisheries co-management Framework” of this paper) are frequent for several reasons (Generalitat de Catalunya, 2018), might provide legal security to including: (1) the number of recreational fishing licenses strengthen and expand co-management initiatives to include the has increased in the last decades, making increasing the recreational sector. frequency of interactions especially by boat; (2) more powerful and modern recreational boats, new technology (GPS, echo sounds, etc.) and technological advances in fishing gears DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT have increased their fishing effort and efficiency; (3) IUU fishing and illegal trade of catches by some recreational The datasets generated for this study are available on request to fishers is a relevant problem in some areas, with implications the corresponding author. for public health due to poisoning by marine toxins; (4) although the increase in research made in the last decade (see Figure 2), information on environmental impacts of AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS MRF is still scarce, especially among fisheries managers and commercial fishers, leading to speculation about impacts; and PP, JA, MA, IA, SB-P, ACa, ACu, TF, JB, JG-C, AG, KH, JL, BM- (5) fisher organizations are very different between commercial N, EM, OS, JP-F, JR, VS, ES, LZ, and SV collected the information and recreational sectors. While commercial fishers are integrated and participated in the writing and editing of the manuscript. in strong and cohesive organizations, less than 5% of marine recreational fishers belong to a federation or fishing club (Pascual Fernández et al., 2012; Pita et al., 2017). Boat anglers and FUNDING spear fishers are more likely to belong to an organization compared with to shore anglers, which alongside the use This work received funds from the Xunta de Galicia under of social networks has helped to make their voice heard the modality of Grupos de Referencia Competitiva (Grant (Pita et al., 2017). ED431C2019/11), RECREGES I and II projects under Grants Recurrent conflict between the commercial and recreational ED481B2014/034-0 and ED481B2018/017, and SICORE project, sectors is taking place in MPAs (Pascual-Fernández et al., 2015), funded by the Fundación Biodiversidad, Ministerio para la which is associated with the discourse of part of the recreational Transición Ecológica, Gobierno de España, Pleamar program, sector during the ISMAREF 2018 with advantages for commercial which is cofounded by the European Maritime and Fisheries fishers regarding larger limitations in the regulations for MRF. Fund. SV acknowledges the financial the European COST Action The first Spanish regulations for MRF were created to protect “Ocean Governance for Sustainability – challenges, options and marine resources from excessive fishing pressure and to reduce the role of science,” the ICES Science Fund Project “Social competition for commercial fishing (Gobierno de España, 1963, Transformations of Marine Social-Ecological Systems,” and the 1965). Currently, some MPAs include restrictions for MRF CYTED program for the ECOMAR Network. JP-F received (mostly spear and boat fishing), while some commercial fishing funds from the project “Governance challenges for sustainable is allowed (Pita et al., 2018b). Although in most of these MPAs small-scale fisheries: creating synergies with marine conservation there are also important restrictions to commercial fishing, these and tourism” (GOBAMP II, CSO2013-45773-R), financed by situations are a potential source of tensions between stakeholders, Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness of Spain. JA was managers and policy makers. supported by a JDC postdoctoral research grant funded by the In order to reduce the conflicts between these groups a new Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness relationship should be established that facilitates interchange (ref. IJCI-2016-27681) and a Ramon y Cajal Grant funded by the and agreement between commercial and recreational fishing Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities (grant sectors, facilitating the management by public administrations. no. RYC2018-024488-I).
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Conflict of Interest: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the The impact of marine recreational fishing on key fish stocks in European waters. absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a PLoS One 13:e0201666. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0201666 potential conflict of interest. Rogers, L. A., and Dougherty, A. B. (2019). Effects of climate and demography on reproductive phenology of a harvested marine fish population. Glob. Chang. Copyright © 2020 Pita, Alós, Antelo, Artetxe, Biton-Porsmoguer, Carreño, Cuadros, Biol. 25, 708–720. doi: 10.1111/gcb.14483 Font, Beiro, García-Charton, Gordoa, Hyder, Lloret, Morales-Nin, Mugerza, Sagué, Sandoval, V., Santolini, E., and García-Charton, J. A. (2018). “). Efectos del cambio Pascual-Fernández, Ruiz, Sandoval, Santolini, Zarauz and Villasante. This is an climático en la pesca marítima recreativa,” in I International Symposium on open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Marine Recreational Fishing, (Spain), 15. License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, Santana, A. (1997). Antropología y turismo: ¿nuevas hordas, viejas culturas? Rev. provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the Española Investig. Sociológicas 1, 223–225. original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic Sbragaglia, V., Correia, R. A., Coco, S., and Arlinghaus, R. (2019). Data practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply mining on YouTube reveals fisher group-specific harvesting patterns and with these terms.
Frontiers in Marine Science| www.frontiersin.org 14 January 2020| Volume 7| Article 23 Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
Annex IV
105 | Page
PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
Ocean and Coastal Management 169 (2019) 191–200
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Ocean and Coastal Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ocecoaman
The building of a management system for marine recreational fisheries in Galicia (NW Spain) T
∗ Pablo Pitaa,b, , Sebastian Villasantea,b a Faculty of Political and Social Sciences, University of Santiago de Compostela, Av Angel Echevarry s/n, 15782, Santiago de Compostela, A Coruña, Spain b Campus Do* Mar - International Campus of Excellence, Spain
ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT
Keywords: Over the past decades, the nature of the management of marine fisheries in Galicia (NW Spain) has changed Marine recreational fisheries substantially. In addition to a powerful commercial fleet and high fisheries dependence of coastal communities, Fisheries management Galicia has a long and strong tradition in marine recreational fisheries, with 60 000 fishers and 4000 boats Legal review engaged in this activity in coastal waters. This paper analyses, for the first time, key changes in the management Economic and social relevance framework of marine recreational fisheries in Galicia by investigating past and current regulations and research European Union initiatives developed so far. Three periods in the management of marine recreational fisheries (1963–1982; 1983–2000; and 2001-present) have been identified. The results show that the management of marine recrea- tional fishing (MRF) moved from a poorly regulated and de facto open access system under the rule of the Spanish administration in the 1980's to a current highly regulated fishery under regional, national and European Union (EU) governments. EU regulations are being fundamental to promote the ecological and socioeconomic sustainability of MRF. However, the lack of scientific data, with only eight papers about MRF in Galicia pub- lished in international referred journals, the absence of experts in the field working in the fisheries adminis- tration and in research centers, and the lack of strong fishers' organizations are jeopardizing the sustainability of this complex socioecological system in the long term. The development of a strategic plan for MRF in Galicia is needed, including a diagnosis of its current status in relation to other sectors sharing coastal ecosystems, like commercial fisheries, and tourism. Co-management initiatives and adaptive policies favoring both the devel- opment of commercial fisheries and the promotion of MRF-based economies to offer new opportunities to local communities are encouraged.
1. Introduction target levels (Froese and Proelß, 2010). Thus, long-term sustainability of many European fish stocks has been threatened by commercial Confidence in the fallacious notion that marine resources are in- overfishing (Coll et al., 2008; Guénette and Gascuel, 2012; Thurstan exhaustible due to human action has been weakened throughout the et al., 2010). However, although some criticisms (Khalilian et al., twentieth century (Watson et al., 2015). Traditional and new com- 2010), the EU Common Fisheries Policy (CFF) (European Parliament mercial fisheries (Morato et al., 2006; Swartz et al., 2010) are operating and Council of the European Union, 2013, 2008) is in general im- across a wide range of habitats, depths and trophic levels (Essington proving the status of common commercial fisheries during the last years et al., 2006; Sethi et al., 2010). However, worldwide catches continued (Carpenter et al., 2016b; Marchal et al., 2016; Villasante et al., 2012). to decline (FAO, 2016; Kelleher, 2005; Watson and Pauly, 2001) and Recreational fisheries add additional pressure on marine ecosystems many of the world's fishing grounds have been severely overexploited (Cooke and Cowx, 2006; Lewin et al., 2006), especially on coastal seas, (Costello et al., 2016; Worm et al., 2009). In the European Union (EU), key ecosystems particularly impacted by humans (Lotze et al., 2006). discretionary and opaque decision making in fisheries management has As a consequence, attention to the specific impacts of marine recrea- tended to keep exploitation rates above the scientific recommendations tional fisheries has been growing with time (Coleman et al., 2004; (Borges, 2018; Carpenter et al., 2016a), contributing to the fact that Cooke and Cowx, 2004; Griffiths and Fay, 2015). In Europe, marine many European fisheries have been exploited above ecology sustainable recreational fisheries share some relevant fish stocks with commercial
∗ Corresponding author. Faculty of Political and Social Sciences, University of Santiago de Compostela, Av Angel Echevarry s/n, 15782, Santiago de Compostela, A Coruña, Spain. E-mail address: [email protected] (P. Pita). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2018.12.027 Received 15 November 2018; Received in revised form 21 December 2018; Accepted 24 December 2018 0964-5691/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. P. Pita, S. Villasante Ocean and Coastal Management 169 (2019) 191–200
fisheries (Hyder et al., 2018; Kleiven et al., 2016; Pita et al., 2018c; Strehlow et al., 2012). Therefore, there is a need to take into account the fish mortality derived from recreational fisheries in the scientific assessments (Eero et al., 2014; Pita et al., 2017; Rocklin et al., 2014). However, marine recreational fishing (MRF) has been little studied in Europe (Pawson et al., 2008; Pita et al., 2017) compared to industrial and even artisanal fisheries (Cycon, 1986; Platteau, 1989; Weeratunge et al., 2014). Thus, reliable data on catches of MRF to be used in the evaluations is still lacking in many European countries (Hyder et al., 2017), and particularly in the South (Pita et al., 2017). With the aim of solving this lack of attention, the CFP states that “recreational fisheries can have a significant impact on fish resources and Member States should, therefore, ensure that they are conducted in a manner that is compatible with the objectives of the CFP” (European Parliament and Council of the European Union, 2013). Nevertheless, Member States are currently only obliged to provide data on recreational catch and re- leases of those species under the regulation of total allowable catches, or under recovery plans, i.e., Atlantic cod Gadus morhua (Linnaeus, 1758), Atlantic salmon Salmo salar (Linnaeus, 1758), European eel Anguilla anguilla (Linnaeus, 1758), European seabass Dicentrarchus Fig. 1. Map of the study area. labrax (Linnaeus, 1758), pollack Pollachius pollachius (Linnaeus, 1758), elasmobranchs and highly migratory species under ICCAT management 2. Material and methods (European Commission, 2016; European Parliament and Council of the European Union, 2017). Therefore, to date in practice there is no spe- 2.1. The coastal socioecological system of Galicia cific requirements to assess the impacts of MRF on most of the species captured by this sector (Hyder et al., 2018; Pita et al., 2017). Galician “rías” (Fig. 1) are deep water inlets that support wind- On the other hand, the nine million of European marine recreational driven upwelling pulses that fertilize the coastal and shelf areas with fishers generate annually around six billion euros in new capital and deep-water nutrients (Fraga, 1981), which favors biological production millions of related jobs (Hyder et al., 2018). It is for these reasons that a processes and dramatically increase primary production (Bode et al., recent resolution of the European Parliament recognizes that “recrea- 2009). This rich marine environment supports a strong commercial tional fishing has been practiced for centuries across the EU and is an fleet based in the numerous towns and villages located along the integral part of the culture, traditions and heritage of a great many coastline (Freire and García-Allut, 2000; Pita et al., 2018a), and ex- coastal and island communities”, and urges to “provide support, in- plains the key role of fishing in the Galician culture (Cornide, 1788; cluding financial support, for the development of recreational fishing in Taboada, 2007). The Galician commercial fleet represent around 40% the tourism sector, as an important contributor to the development of of Spain's fleet, 50% of catches of the Spanish fleet in EU waters and the blue economy in small communities, coastal communities and is- 60% of Spanish jobs in fishery-related sectors (STECF, 2017). Galicia is lands, particularly in the outermost regions” (European Parliament, the EU region with the higher dependence on commercial fishing, and 2018). This growing social and economic relevance of the recreational this sector is a major contributor to the Galician Gross Domestic Pro- sector has resulted in some developed countries in promotion measures duct (GDP) (Freire and García-Allut, 2000; Pita et al., 2018a; Surís- for MRF and limitations for commercial fisheries, with unclear results Regueiro and Santiago, 2014; Villasante, 2012; Villasante et al., (Brown, 2016; Voyer et al., 2017). With the aim of reducing conflicts 2016b). between both sectors in Europe (Hyder et al., 2017; Lloret et al., 2016; Other demanding marine activities are also operating in Galicia, Pita et al., 2017), the European Parliament also “highlights the need to e.g., heavy maritime traffic(Suárez de Vivero and Rodríguez Mateos, protect the artisanal fleet and ensure its survival and generational re- 2012), intensive aquaculture of Mediterranean mussel Mytilus gallo- placement in the face of the expansion of recreational activity linked to provincialis (Lamarck, 1819) (Pérez-Camacho et al., 1991; Villasante recreational ports and seasonal tourism” (European Parliament, 2018). et al., 2013), growing tourism (Cortés-Jiménez, 2008) and MRF (Pita Because of all the above, it seems that MRF in the EU is to be et al., 2018c; Pita and Freire, 2016), all of which shape a highly com- considered as an integral part of the CFP, which hopefully will end the plex socioecological system. traditional neglected management of this sector. However, MRF is As a consequence of the aforementioned activities, relevant human managed in the EU at different geographical scales, from European to impacts on coastal ecosystems of Galicia include historical overfishing regional (and even local) and under very different regulatory regimes, (Freire and García-Allut, 2000; Pita et al., 2018a; Villasante, 2009) and resulting in a very complex legal framework (Pita et al., 2018d). For Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) catches (Villasante et al., this reason, the steps that must be taken to incorporate MRF progres- 2016a), extensive habitat degradation and destruction (Doldán-Garcia sively into the political, management and scientific agendas involve et al., 2011; Pita et al., 2008), recurrent oil-spills (Franco et al., 2006; actions at each of these scales in a coordinated and coherent manner. It Monaco et al., 2017; Vieites et al., 2004; Viñas et al., 2009) and in- seems necessary in the first place to analyze the different MRF man- dustrial pollution (Beiras et al., 2003; Bellas et al., 2008). For all this, it agement and research initiatives developed so far in key European re- is not surprising that, in a local context of poor governance of marine gions. resources (Arnáiz, 2001; Freire and García-Allut, 2000; Pita et al., In this paper it has been investigated the state of play of MRF in 2018a) and under the negative influence of global ocean warming Galicia (NW Spain). It was also reviewed the evolution of the man- (Bode et al., 2009), the future sustainability of this complex socio- agement framework of MRF in Galicia and it is discussed its eventual ecological system has been jeopardized (Pita and Freire, 2014). future development to ensure ecological, social and economic sustain- ability (European Parliament, 2018). 2.2. Data collection and analysis of the information
In order to analyze the state of play about research on MRF in Galicia, the database ISI Web of Knowledge (available at http://apps.
192 P. Pita, S. Villasante Ocean and Coastal Management 169 (2019) 191–200 webofknowledge.com) was searched for scientific publications by using in the title or in the theme of the publication the search string “((“NW Spain” OR Galicia) AND (marine AND recreat* AND fish*))”. The search included all scientific articles published until the cut-off date of the end of October 2018. In addition, experts were identified through a “snowball sampling” procedure (Goodman, 1961) to identify additional sources of information to be included in the analysis. Thus, scientific papers undetected by the ISI Web of Knowledge search engine, research projects, contributions to scientific meetings, master's and doctoral academic thesis, books and book chapters, and gray literature (tech- nical and dissemination reports) were also identified and analyzed. A database was created with the information gathered from the publications and projects on MRF, including details of the publication (title, name and discipline of authors, year of publication and type of publication) and of the project (title, executing and financing institu- tion and funded amount). In addition, the context of the studies was identified (years in which they were developed, geographical location and methodology), their main orientation (governance, social, ecolo- gical, economic, or legal), the main results obtained, and the species studied. Moreover, different legal engines were used to analyze the legal framework about MRF in Galicia until the cut-off date of the end of October 2018. Thus, the Spanish Official Bulletin (available at https:// www.boe.es/legislacion/legislacion_ava.php) and the Galician Official Fig. 2. Number of research texts, groped by category, about marine recrea- fi Journal (available at https://www.xunta.gal/diario-o cial-galicia/ tional fisheries in Galicia published by year until the end of October 2018. Line portalPublicoBusqueda.do?lang=es) were used to collect Spanish and shows annual funding invested in research projects in the same period (in Galician legal regulations on MRF, respectively, by using the search brackets, the number of projects by year). string “pesca recreativa” (recreational fishing) OR “pesca deportiva” (sport fishing) OR “pesca de recreo” (recreational fishing). European regulations on MRF were obtained from the Official Journal of the EU (available at https://eur-lex.europa.eu/advanced-search-form.html)by using the search string “recreational fishing” OR “sport fishing”. A second database was created by including the main norms constituting each of the regulations.
3. Results
3.1. State of play about marine recreational fishing in Galicia
Between 2002 and the end of October 2018, a total of 24 research documents have been published about MRF in Galicia (Fig. 2). Research articles (33% of total) and communications in scientific conferences and meetings (29%) were the most published scientific results, and tended to increase over time. Gray literature, such as technical reports, which are not usually part of scientific reviews, accounted for 21% of the published documents. Since 2005, 472 568 € were spent to develop five research projects to study different aspects of MRF in Galicia (Fig. 2). Almost half of the main authors (48% of total) of the analyzed publications were experts in ecological-oriented disciplines, while 39% were economists (Fig. 3). Thus, it is not surprising that many of the published papers investigated ecological (32%) and economic (22%) aspects of MRF in Galicia. Moreover, social aspects (22%), including governance (12%), and legal issues (12%) were also relevant (Fig. 3). Most of the published studies used different types of surveys to achieve their results (63% of total), while the remaining were based in Fig. 3. Description of research studies about marine recreational fisheries in reviews (21%), expert opinion (8%) or experiments and experiences Galicia obtained from scientific texts published until the end of October 2018. It investigating fish abundances (4%) (Fig. 3). Many of the studies (44%) is shown the discipline of the first author (Bi = biology; Ec = economy; provided results about the socioeconomic and ecological relevance of En = engineering; Hi = hidrobiology; La = law; Zo = zoology), main meth- MRF. Slightly less than a third of the publications obtained estimates of odology (EO = expert opinion; Me = meeting report; Re = review; catch and/or effort (26%), while other published estimates of costs or Su = surveys (in general); OI = online surveys; Os = onsite surveys; Ex = experiments), major orientation (El = ecological; Ec = economic; expenditures of recreational fishers (9%). Legal frameworks (13%) and Go = governance; Le = legal; So = social) and key results (Ca/Ef = catch and/ information on the trophic habits of fish caught by recreational fishers or effort; Co/Ex = costs and/or expenditures; Le = legal review; were also analyzed in these studies (Fig. 3). So + Ec + En = socioeconomic and ecologic relevance; Tr = trophic habits). The Sparidae family was the most investigated taxon in the analyzed studies (32% of total), followed by Labridae (11%) and Gadidae (4%),
193 P. Pita, S. Villasante Ocean and Coastal Management 169 (2019) 191–200
Fig. 4. Studied taxa in scientific texts about marine recreational fisheries in Galicia published until the end of October 2018. while the most relevant fish species were ballan wrasse Labrus bergylta relevance of MRF in the region that Galician recreational fishers spend (Ascanius, 1767), European seabass and white seabream Diplodus sargus almost €100 million per year in their activity, mainly in fishing trips, (Linnaeus, 1758) (6% each). Molluscs of the Cephalopoda class were fishing gear, baits and clothes (Table 1). Mean annual expenditure ex- also relatively well studied (5%) (Fig. 4). ceeds 1500 € per fisher, but almost reaches 3000 € in the case of boat owners to cover fuel, maintenance costs and mooring (Pita et al., 3.1.1. Social relevance 2018c). Thus, boat angling is a very relevant economic activity, with In Galicia according to the available estimates there are currently more than 4000 boats of 6 m of average length and equipped with 60 operating about 60 000 marine recreational fishers, who mainly fish HP engines operating in Galicia (Pita et al., 2018c). during summer and spring (Gordoa et al., 2019; Martínez-Carbajal, 2018; Pita et al., 2018c). The main modality is shore angling (75% of 3.1.3. Ecological impacts fi total), followed by boat angling and spear shing (20% and 5%, re- Based in the available scientific documents, annual recreational spectively) (Pita et al., 2018c, 2017)(Table 1). catch in Galicia is about 7000 t, which represents up to 13% of com- fi The Galician recreational shers are between 37 and 53 years old, mercial and recreational landings on the same species (Gordoa et al., fi and they mainly practice recreational shing as a form of socialization, 2019; Palas et al., 2017; Pita et al., 2018c). In the case of spear fishing, fi since most of them sh with friends or relatives (Pita et al., 2018c). they catch up to 16% of total removals on common species to both fi Noticeably, most shers believe that the current regulation is in- fisheries (Pita and Freire, 2016)(Table 1). appropriate and excessively complex (Pita et al., 2018c, 2017) Recreational fishers target 38 marine species in Galicia, but the (Table 1). main species are ballan wrasse, European seabass and white seabream (Pita et al., 2018c; Pita and Freire, 2016). Since recreational catches on 3.1.2. Economic relevance these species can be even higher than commercial catches (Pita and Pita et al. (2018c) stated in the only publication on the economic Freire, 2016), and there have been important reductions in the
194 P. Pita, S. Villasante Ocean and Coastal Management 169 (2019) 191–200
Table 1 Available key data on social, economic and ecological relevance of MRF in Galicia.
Type of information Reference
Gordoa et al. (2019) Martínez-Carbajal (2018) Palas et al. (2017) Pita and Freire (2016) Pita et al. (2017) Pita et al. (2018c)
Social relevance Recreational fishers (N) Total 65173 59438 –– –59730 Boat anglers 10009 ––––12031 Shore anglers 52525 ––––44736 Spear fishers 2640 –––3500 2963 Mean age Boat anglers –– –––53 Shore anglers –– –––50 Spear fishers –– –––37 Fishing habits (%) Fishing alone –– –––41 Fishing with family –– –––17 Fishing with friends –– –––75 Dissatisfied with regulations (%) Total –– –– Very poora – Boat anglers –– –––84 Shore anglers –– –––65 Spear fishers –– –––78 Economic relevance Annual fishers' expenses (M€) Total –– –––97 Boat anglers –– –––75 Shore anglers –– –––17 Spear fishers –– –––5 Ecological impacts Annual fishers' catches (t) Total 7275 ––––7565 Boat anglers 1896 – 19b ––2979 Shore anglers 4964 ––––3828 Spear fishers 415 ––2069 – 758
a 35 experts valuated from (1 = very poor to 5 = excellent) if regulations are balanced at national, regional and local levels, and if legal adaptation to sudden events is easy. b Cephalopode species only in the “ría” of Vigo, the most meridional “ría” in Galicia (Fig. 1). abundances of these species in last decades, it has been pointed out that it was not until 1983 that the first regional regulation on MRF came into the evolution of their populations must be specifically controlled (Pita force (Xunta de Galicia, 1983)(Fig. 5). and Freire, 2014). 3.2.2. Regional management period (1983–2000) fi 3.2. The evolution of the management of marine recreational sheries in Between 1983 and 2000, the management of MRF in Galicia was Galicia mainly regulated by the Autonomous Government. The first Galician law of marine fishing was approved in 1993 (Xunta de Galicia, 1993a). Until the end of October 2018, a total of 69 regulations on MRF in However, MRF was previously regulated: in 1983 the first daily bag Galicia have come into force. Many of the regulations have been created limit was established in 8 kg per fisher (of finfish and cephalopods ex- by Galician (38% of total) and EU administrations (36%), and 26% by clusively), and spear fishing with scuba was forbidden (Xunta de Spanish regulators (Fig. 5). Based on the number of regulations pro- Galicia, 1983). In 1991 the first regional regulation on enforcement and duced respectively by regional, national and European institutions, control of marine fisheries, including MRF, came into force (Xunta de three main management periods were identified: a) the national man- Galicia, 1991); and since 1992 spear fishers were only allowed to target agement period, between 1963 and 1982; b) the regional management finfish, and to operate exclusively during the day (Xunta de Galicia, period, between 1983 and 2000; and c) the European management 1992). Moreover, spear fishers were soon again allowed to catch ce- period, from 2001 to the present (Fig. 5). phalopods (Xunta de Galicia, 1993b)(Fig. 5). Recreational bag limit was reduced in 1999 to the current 5 kg, both 3.2.1. National management period (1963–1982) for coastal waters under regional jurisdiction (Xunta de Galicia, 1999a) Open access by recreational fishers ended up in 1963, when the first and for outer waters under state jurisdiction (Gobierno de España, Spanish regulation on MRF was enacted, creating the first license re- 1999). Fishing effort was also limited in this year by restricting the gime for MRF, and imposing to recreational fishers the same minimum number of allowed hooks (Gobierno de España, 1999; Xunta de Galicia, landing sizes already in force for commercial fishing (Gobierno de 1999b), by reducing the fishing days for spear fishers (Xunta de Galicia, España, 1963). In that time, fisheries management in Spain was carried 1999b), and by banning night fishing for boat fishers (Xunta de Galicia, out by the pre-democratic Ministry of Commerce, that was also re- 1999b). On the other hand, the need to provide information on the sponsible for the fishing ban for crustaceans, molluscs and corals for recreational catches of Atlantic sailfish Istiophorus albicans (Latreille, recreational fishers (Gobierno de España, 1965)(Fig. 5). 1804), marlins Makaira spp. and Tetrapturus spp., European hake Mer- The first democratic general regulation on MRF was enacted in 1980 luccius merluccius (Linnaeus, 1758), albacore Tunnus alalunga (Bonna- (Gobierno de España, 1980), and although the management of coastal terre, 1788), bigeye tuna T. obesus (Lowe, 1839), Atlantic bluefin tuna fisheries, including recreational, was transferred to the Autonomous T. thynnus (Linnaeus, 1758) and swordfish Xiphias gladius (Linnaeus, Government of Galicia the following year (Gobierno de España, 1981), 1758) was also introduced in state waters (Gobierno de España, 1999)
195 P. Pita, S. Villasante Ocean and Coastal Management 169 (2019) 191–200
Fig. 5. Number of legal regulations about marine recreational fisheries in Galicia published in the Galician, Spanish and European Union Official Bulletins and Journals until the end of October 2018. Key management milestones are also shown (MLS = minimum landing sizes).
(Fig. 5). Union, 2017), and in general about all those species under recovery Concerns about the health of the populations of common octopus plans (Council of the European Union, 2009). In Galicia, the regional Octopus vulgaris (Cuvier, 1797) due to the high variability of the re- government already introduced in 2009 the prohibition to capture this cruitment of the species (Otero et al., 2007) and the unsustainable species to recreational fishers (Xunta de Galicia, 2009)(Fig. 5). fishing practices -including high volumes of IUU catches-in Galicia (Villasante, 2009; Villasante et al., 2015) led the regional government to ban recreational fishing for this species in 1999 (Xunta de Galicia, 4. Discussion 1999a), and later to develop a recovery plan that included limitations to fi recreational catches (Xunta de Galicia, 2006)(Fig. 5). 4.1. The marine recreational sheries of Galicia in a global context
Recent estimates on participation rate placed the percent of re- 3.2.3. European management period (2001-present) creational fishers to total population in Galicia between 2.2% (Pita Spain entered the EU in 1986, but the first European regulation on et al., 2018c) and 2.4% (Gordoa et al., 2019). This is a higher partici- MRF was enacted in 2001, when the European Commission obligated pation rate than the Spanish (1.8%; Gordoa et al., 2019) and Portuguese Member States to provide information on recreational catches of estimates (1.7%; Hyder et al., 2018), and in general than the average Atlantic bluefin tuna (European Commission, 2001) and other highly participation across European Atlantic countries (1.7%; Hyder et al., migratory species (Council of the European Union, 2001). Furthermore, 2018). Pita et al. (2018b) suggested that the relevance of fishing tra- the EU regulated in 2007 the recreational catch of Atlantic bluefin tuna, ditions in the Galician culture, and its relatively low industrialization including quotas and a bag limit (Council of the European Union, could explain this high participation. However, Gordoa et al. (2019) 2007), and in 2014 restricted the fishing effort on this species by re- showed that the participation in Galicia is among the lowest of the ducing the number of fishing days (European Parliament and Council of Spanish coastal regions, and that Galicia presented the second lowest the European Union, 2014). Since 2009 Spain allowed catch and release recreational fishing effort in relation to the length of the coast. The only for Atlantic bluefin tuna to recreational fishers operating in na- presence of a more powerful small-scale commercial fleet in Galicia tional waters (Gobierno de España, 2009), and in 2017 banned re- sharing with MRF coastal fishing grounds and fish stocks (Palas et al., creational fishing on this species (Gobierno de España, 2017)(Fig. 5). 2017; Pita et al., 2017) could provide clues to this lower access by re- Regarding other highly migratory species, the EU introduced in creational fishers compared to other Spanish regions in the Atlantic. 2015 the possibility for Member States to allocate part of the quota of The greater relative relevance of commercial fleets in the European these species to MRF (Council of the European Union, 2015) and the Atlantic, and Galician in particular, with respect to the Mediterranean, next year obliged to report recreational catch data on elasmobranchs could be also behind differences in catch shares between recreational and highly migratory species in Galician waters, as well as on Atlantic and commercial sectors. Thus, recreational catch share with respect to cod, Atlantic salmon, European eel, European seabass and pollack total catches (commercial and recreational) reaches up to 13% in (European Commission, 2016). In fact, the need to provide data on the Galicia, and was found by Pita et al. (2018b) similar to that on nearby impact of recreational fishing on the EU fish stocks was already im- Atlantic regions, while lower than in the Mediterranean. However, re- plemented in 2008 (Council of the European Union, 2008)(Fig. 5). movals of ballan wrasse, European seabass and white seabream can be Moreover, the EU included the obligation to reduce mortality and even higher than those by the commercial sector (Pita et al., 2018c; Pita report recreational catches on European eel (Council of the European and Freire, 2016). European seabass populations in particular are
196 P. Pita, S. Villasante Ocean and Coastal Management 169 (2019) 191–200 currently being protected by EU legislation from overfishing, also lim- recreational fisheries in European inland waters (Boisneau et al., 2016). iting recreational catches in several Atlantic regions, although not in Analogous trends in the marine environment are taking place, e.g., in Galician waters (Council of the European Union, 2018). Taking into eastern U.S.A., where commercial fi shers feel discriminated regarding account that abundance of European seabass have been reduced in recreational (Boucquey, 2017); or in southwest Australia, where policy Galicia in the last decades (Pita and Freire, 2014), a stock assessment makers have been recently encouraging recreational versus commercial including recreational catches on this species should be urgently carried fisheries, leading to undesired loss of valuable ecosystem services to out, so that decisions based on sound scientific evidence can be made to local populations (Brown, 2016; Voyer et al., 2017). However, the idea ensure the sustainability of this stock. that both fisheries share the same objectives in a context of socio- On the other hand, the economic contribution of MRF accounts for ecological sustainability has been gaining acceptance in recent years 0.17% of Galician GDP (Pita et al., 2018c). This is a relatively higher (Pita et al., 2017). Indeed, representatives of both sectors often reach economic contribution than that of the Spanish average (0.02% of agreements in the Advisory Councils, stakeholder-led organizations that GDP), that of neighboring countries such as France (0.04%) and Por- provide recommendations on fisheries management in the EU (Council tugal (0.08%), and that of the European Atlantic average (0.04%) of the European Union, 2009). (Hyder et al., 2018). However, the contribution to scientific knowledge Policy makers must therefore perform a detailed diagnosis of the made so far in Galicia, with only five research projects and eight papers current state and of the temporal evolution of commercial and recrea- published in scientific journals is still limited (Fig. 2). Furthermore, the tional fisheries, but also of other relevant activities sharing the same annual public investment in research projects barely exceeds 30 000 € coastal areas, such as tourism or recreational navigation, to evaluate (Fig. 2), a figure that represents 0.3% of the annual direct economic potential plausible future scenarios derived from the implementation of contribution of MRF (Pita et al., 2018c). It must be considered that new policies in Galicia. These new policies should favor the main- annual incomes for the regional administration obtained from the li- tenance of commercial fisheries to sustain the economies that depend censes paid by recreational fishers exceed 180 000 €. on their activity and supply markets with a product that is commer- The regional fisheries management service of Galicia has not yet cially appreciated, with a positive influence on human health (Verbeke performed any regional scale study on MRF fishing. Since the first et al., 2005). On the other hand, the economies related to MRF should comprehensive scientific research on catches of MRF in Galicia was be further developed, e.g., in relation to tourism. Charter fishing has published in 2018 (Pita et al., 2018c), all the regulation of this activity, been little exploited in Galicia with respect other relatively close re- which introduced, e.g., the first bag limit already in the early 80s gions (Holland et al., 1998), and it could take advantage of the growing (Xunta de Galicia, 1983), has been based on regulations from other influx of visitors to Galicia (Cortés-Jiménez, 2008). A thriving recrea- Spanish administrations, or on scientific studies carried out in other tional sector could offer new opportunities to temper social and eco- geographic areas. There are currently 23 fisheries biologists working for nomic effects of the current commercial fishing crisis. In fact, economic the regional government (Consellería do Mar of the Autonomous Gov- enhancement measures for MRF have already been incorporated into ernment of Galicia, pers. comm.), and approximately 50 technicians the fishing regulations of other Spanish and European regions (Pita working with them or in some of the 63 commercial fishers' associations et al., 2018d); while the European Parliament is currently promoting (Macho et al., 2013). Given that this is the main task force in charge of this type of economic initiatives regarding MRF (European Parliament, the direct management of 4000 commercial vessels and 4000 on-foot 2018). shellfishers (Pita et al., 2018a), it seems necessary to increase their number and improve their training to address the management of MRF. 4.3. Hooking in sustainable marine recreational fisheries
4.2. Rivals or allies: commercial versus recreational fisheries In this study it was shown that until recently MRF has been away from the first line of the Galician, Spanish and European policies, which Long-term sustainability of global (Anticamara et al., 2011; Froese were far more concerned about managing industrial and even small- et al., 2011; Pauly, 2009), European (Froese et al., 2011; Lloret et al., scale commercial fisheries (Pita et al., 2018d). Thus, there is a need to 2016; Tsikliras et al., 2015) and Galician fish stocks (Freire and García- increase the presence of MRF in the agendas of policy makers, and some Allut, 2000; Pita et al., 2018a; Pita and Freire, 2014; Villasante, 2009) EU institutions have been acting as the main engines of this effort. The has been threaten by overfishing and other human-induced impacts. In Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) recognizes the impacts of MRF and asks addition to the decrease in the available fishing resources, the in- Member States to take necessary actions to ensure that common fish corporation of Spain to the EU caused a dramatic loss of industrial stocks are exploited in a sustainable manner (European Parliament and fishing capacity as a result of the European policies of incentives to Council of the European Union, 2013). Actually, the EU started re- vessel decommissioning and the shortage of available quotas derived questing Member States for information about the impact of MRF on the from the principle of relative stability (Surıs-Regueiró et al., 2003). EU fish stocks already at the end of 2000s (Council of the European Furthermore, Galician small-scale fisheries are also immersed in a deep Union, 2008). This constituted a paradigm shift in MRF policies, that crisis which has resulted in a decline in the number of boats and em- until then had been mainly devoted to regulations aimed at the con- ployment opportunities in the last decades (Freire and García-Allut, servation of single species (e.g., Council of the European Union, 2015, 2000; Pita et al., 2018a; Villasante, 2010). In this context of severe loss 2007), to begin progressively developing an ecosystem approach to of economic capacity and labor force, traditional dependence on fishing manage common fisheries (Pita et al., 2018d). Moreover, the European of Galician coastal communities (Surís-Regueiro and Santiago, 2014) Parliament has recently pushed to improve and increase the current poses serious social threats. data collection framework on MRF to obtain a more comprehensive The first Spanish (e.g., Gobierno de España, 1965, 1963) Galician range of mandatory data, including catches on more stocks and species, (e.g., Xunta de Galicia, 1992), and European (e.g., Council of the but also socioeconomic information (European Parliament, 2018). European Union, 2017) regulations on MRF were initially created to Although the Spanish legal framework is reasonably well prepared protect marine resources from excessive fishing pressure and to favor to carry out an ecosystem management of fisheries, including recrea- commercial fishing from competition by recreational fishers. As the tional activity (Pita et al., 2018d), as noted above, the regulation of conservation status of European fishing resources has been deterior- MRF in Galicia lacks support from scientific or technical studies, and ating, conflicts between commercial and recreational fishers have in- the influence of new regulations remains unknown. For example, first creased (Lloret et al., 2016). A similar pattern of competition for limited bag limit was established in 1983 to 8 kg per day and fisher (Xunta de resources between commercial and recreational fishers led to the vir- Galicia, 1983), and 16 years later it was reduced to 5 kg (Gobierno de tual demise of commercial fishers and a progressive strengthening of España, 1999; Xunta de Galicia, 1999a), but the influence of these
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Policy makers, managers and scientists need powerful and cohesive Costello, C., Ovando, D., Clavelle, T., Strauss, C.K., Hilborn, R., Melnychuk, M.C., Branch, fishers' associations to help them to develop and support new regula- T.A., Gaines, S.D., Szuwalski, C.S., Cabral, R.B., Rader, D.N., Leland, A., 2016. Global fishery prospects under contrasting management regimes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 113, tions and to collaborate in research initiatives (for a comprehensive list 5125–5129. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1520420113. of proposals on this regard see Pita et al., 2017). However, although Council of the European Union, 2018. Council Regulation (EU) 2018/1308 of 28 fi shore angling is the main MRF modality in Galicia (Pita et al., 2018c), September 2018 amending Regulation (EU) 2018/120 as regards shing opportu- nities for European seabass. Official Journal of the European Union, Brussels, as in the rest of Spain (Gordoa et al., 2019) and in neighboring regions Belgium. (Pita et al., 2017), an association of shore anglers is still missing. The Council of the European Union, 2017. Council Regulation (EC) No 1100/2007 of 18 European Fisheries Fund (Council of the European Union, 2006) could September 2007 establishing measures for the recovery of the stock of European eel. Official Journal of the European Union, Brussels, Belgium. help to create associations of shore anglers, as well as encouraging the Council of the European Union, 2015. Council Regulation (EU) 2015/104 of 19 January strengthening of associations and fishing clubs that already exist in 2015 fixing for 2015 the fishing opportunities for certain fish stocks and groups of Galicia, to promote the sustainability of this complex socioecological fish stocks, applicable in Union waters and, for Union vessels. In: certain non-Union waters, amending Regulation (EU) No 43. Official Journal of the European Union, system. Brussels, Belgium. Council of the European Union, 2009. 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PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
EAFE CONFERENCE 2019 Santiago de Compostela (Spain) 2-4 April
Title: The economic activity of recreational fishing charters in the North Atlantic: the cases of Galicia (Spain) and Madeira (Portugal)
Authors & affiliations: Pablo Pita1,2, Manel Antelo3, Lidia Gouveia4, Roi Martínez-Escauriaza4,5 and Sebastián Villsante1,2
1Faculty of Political and Social Sciences, Av Angel Echevarry s/n, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain2Campus Do⁎ Mar, International Campus of Excellence, Spain 3Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, Av Burgo das Nacións s/n, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain 4Direção de Serviços de Investigação – DSI, Direção Regional das Pescas – DRP-RAM, Estrada da Pontinha, CP 9004-562, Funchal, Madeira, Portugal 5Observatório Oceânico da Madeira, Edifício Madeira Tecnopolo, Funchal, Portugal
Abstract: (Your abstract must use Normal style and must fit in this box. Your abstract should be no longer than 300 words. The box will ‘expand’ over 2 pages as you add text/diagrams into it.) Please include the following information: Choose your preference: Oral Choose the number of topic: 12. Recreational fisheries EAFE CONFERENCE 2019 Santiago de Compostela (Spain) 2-4 April
Recreational charter (RC) fisheries are thriving business widely distributed in warm coastal waters worldwide, although there are some relevant RC fishing in temperate waters, e.g., in Australia and North America. In Europe, RC fishing is a relatively important activity in the Spanish Mediterranean, the south of the continental Portuguese coastline and in the Atlantic archipelagos of Canaries, Madeira and Azores. However, in the Spanish Atlantic there are few companies dedicated to RC fishing. To date, RC fishing has been little studied in the European Atlantic and the factors that trigger its potential development are unknown. The European Parliament of the European Union (EU) has recently encouraged further development of RC fishing initiatives to improve local economic development, particularly in rural areas and in outer regions of the EU. To facilitate this process, it is necessary to understand the mechanisms that incentive the creation of RC fishing opportunities and their survival over time. In this paper, we perform an economic comparative analysis of two Atlantic RC fisheries to evaluate the possibility of favouring RC fishing-based local initiatives and improve the well-being of coastal communities. To illustrate, we chose two case studies located in the Eastern North Atlantic, namely Galicia (NW Spain) and Madeira Islands (Portugal). The two cases differ greatly in the socioecological attributes in which RC fishing is developed (e.g., relevance of commercial fishing and tourism and targeted species), thus these attributes were included in the analyses. Companies dedicated to RC fishing were identified through a snowball sampling in Galicia and Madeira, and information on the costs and benefits of the activity were collected by a questionnaire answered by company managers. This methodology has been combined with a travel- cost method to identify the demand function of the RC fisheries based on a questionnaire answered by the clients.
Analyzing key economic, social and governance patterns for the management of complex socio- ecological systems in data-poor situations
Annex VI
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PhD in Marine Science, Technology and Management. Research area in Economics, Legislation and Management of marine resources
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Summary of the provisional results of the interviews carried out with owners of companies engaged in marine recreational fishing (MRF) in Galicia and Madeira
1. Characteristics of the vessels. 1.1. Length. In Galicia, the average length is 8.63 ± 2.96 (SD) m, and in Madeira 9.57 ± 2.46 m (Fig. 1).
1.1. Engine power. In Galicia, the average engine power is 246.0 ± 214.53 HP, and in Madeira 465 ± 298.43 HP (Fig. 1).
1.3. Crew members. In Galicia, there are on average 1.2 ± 0.42 crew members by boat, and in Madeira 2.06 ± 0.24 crew members (Fig. 1).
Figure 1. Main characteristics of the vessels engaged in commercial MRF in Galicia and Madeira. The top and bottom sides of the boxes correspond to the first and third quartiles of the values, the vertical lines extend up to 1.5 times the interquartile range, and the median is indicated with a horizontal line.
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2. Fishing methods. 2.1. Trolling. In Galicia, vessels spend 2.30% ± 3.09 of annual fishing time trolling, and in Madeira 74.44% ± 24.25 (Fig. 2).
2.2. Bottom fishing. In Galicia, vessels spend 65.20% ± 44.43 of annual fishing time on bottom fishing, and in Madeira 16.94% ± 9.64 (Fig. 2).
2.3. Jigging. In Galicia, vessels spend 3.20% ± 7.83 of annual fishing time jigging, and in Madeira 5.17% ± 11.45 (Fig. 2).
2.4. Spinning. In Galicia, vessels spend 29.20% ± 46.64 of annual fishing time spinning, and in Madeira 0.0% (Fig. 2).
2.5. Other. In Galicia, vessels spend 0.10% ± 0.32 of annual fishing time fishing with other techniques than those mentioned above, and in Madeira 3.44% ± 9.67 (Fig. 2).
Figure 2. Main fishing methods used in vessels engaged in commercial MRF in Galicia and Madeira. The top and bottom sides of the boxes correspond to the first and third quartiles of the values, the vertical lines extend up to 1.5 times the interquartile range, and the median is indicated with a horizontal line. Brochure delivered for collaborating companies
3. Economic activity of companies. 3.1. Annual expenses of companies. In Galicia, companies invest on average € 9 799.0 ± 18 793.12 by year to carry out their activities, and in Madeira € 21 298.89 ± 5 216.24 (Fig. 3). The breakdown of the main expenses is detailed in the following sections.
Figure 3. Annual expenses and income of companies engaged in commercial MRF in Galicia and Madeira. The top and bottom sides of the boxes correspond to the first and third quartiles of the values, the vertical lines extend up to 1.5 times the interquartile range, and the median is indicated with a horizontal line.
3.1.1. Licenses. In Galicia, the annual average cost per company in licenses to carry out the fishing activity is € 280.03 ± 492.03, and in Madeira € 188.75 ± 6.43.
3.1.2. Wages. In Galicia, the annual average cost per company in the salaries of the staff is € 1 484.26 ± 2 935.37, and in Madeira € 3 125.0 ± 5 786.38.
3.1.3. Insurance. In Galicia, the annual average cost per company in insurances to carry out the fishing activity is € 415.39 ± 429.03, and in Madeira € 1 396.25 ± 715.32.
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3.1.4. Moorings. In Galicia, the annual average cost per company for mooring the boats is € 517.31 ± 990.03, and in Madeira € 2 993.75 ± 2 320.47.
3.1.5. Fishing gear. In Galicia, the annual average expense per company in fishing gear is € 708.04 ± 1 210.53, and in Madeira € 1 800.0 ± 1 568.21.
3.1.6. Groceries. In Galicia, the annual average cost per company in food and beverages served on board is € 91.70 ± 206.04, and in Madeira € 850.0 ± 960.65.
3.1.7. Fuel. In Galicia, the annual average cost per company in fuel for vessels is € 2 776.46 ± 6 491.57, and in Madeira € 5 193.75 ± 2 966.53.
3.1.8. Maintenance. In Galicia, the annual average cost per company in equipment and vessel maintenance is € 539.28 ± 897.77, and in Madeira € 4 650.0 ± 5 111.05.
3.1.9. Advertising. In Galicia, the annual average cost per company in advertising is € 2 870.10 ± 8 717.18, and in Madeira € 965.0 ± 1 330.34.
3.1.10. Other expenses. In Galicia, companies invest on average € 116.40 ± 220.91 by year in other expenses than those mentioned above, and € 0.0 in Madeira.
3.2. Annual income of companies. In Galicia, companies obtain an average of € 14 243.0 ± 26 709.34 as annual income, and in Madeira € 50 182.14 ± 35 970.78 (Fig. 3).
3.3. Economic balance of companies. In Galicia, companies obtain an average annual profit of € 4 444.0 ± 7 916.22, and in Madeira € 28 883.25 ± 30 754.54.
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4. Fishing activity of companies. 4.1. Seasonality. In Galicia, companies maintain their activity throughout most of the year, while in Madeira the activity is focused on the summer months (Fig. 4).
Figure 4. Annual cycle of activity of companies engaged in commercial MRF in Galicia and Madeira. The percentage of active vessels in each month of the year is shown.
4.2. Fishing effort. 4.2.1. Annual fishing journeys. In Galicia, companies make an average of 39.30 ± 41.45 fishing journeys per year, and in Madeira 63.69 ± 32.71 fishing journeys.
4.2.2. Fishing hours per journey. In Galicia, companies carry out an average of 5.0 ± 2.21 fishing hours per journey, and in Madeira 5.89 ± 1.02 fishing hours per journey.
4.3. Catch and release. In Galicia, 25.80% ± 22.75 of the catches are released, and in Madeira 100.0% ± 0.0.