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Part II. Japan's Educational Experience

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Part II. Japan's Educational Experience Part II. Japan’s Educational Experience Chapter 2. Educational Administration Issues in developing countries Issues frequently mentioned as being of concern to developing countries in the area of educational administration include the inadequacy of educational laws and regulations, excessive centralization of administrative powers, the weak organization of local educational administration, frequent changes on the part of ranking officials in the administration and lack of policy continuity as a result of the system of making political appointments, a lack of professional ability on the part of those holding posts in educational administration, bargaining or compromises with teacher unions, and lack of participation in education by parents or local communities. Points This chapter presents an overview of the development of educational administration in Japan since the introduction of a modern education system, showing how the system was put in place and how it has changed over time, dividing the account into prewar and postwar periods with World War II as the dividing line. Major perspectives are: ① legalism and over-attachment to Imperial orders in educational administration; ② changes in the authority and responsibilities of the Ministry of Education as an organ of central government; ③ changes in the organization and authority of local educational administration; ④ the struggle between democratization and the drive for increased efficiency in educational administration; ⑤ the separation and unification of general administration and educational administration; ⑥ recruitment of educational administration staff and career opportunities. In terms of specialist fields, particular points on which attention is focused include: curriculum administration; textbook administration; the system of educational inspectors and supervisory staff; matters concerned with teachers and teacher unions; and private-sector educational administration Japan is said to have a centrally controlled educational administrative system, but in fact Japan had a local educational administration structure in place before World War II, with the division of responsibility arranged essentially on the basis that the compulsory education stage was a municipal responsibility, secondary education was a prefectural responsibility, and higher education was a national responsibility. Finally, the chapter touches on the current structure of educational administration and on reform issues. 1. Arranging and Establishing a Struc- for youngsters of the samurai class, but they were ture of Educational Administration few in number, with only 1 or 2 schools in each fief, and administering them was an easy task. In the case 1-1 The Structure and Conception of of “private academies” or that of “terakoya,” which Educational Administration in the catered for commoners, there was no public Context of the Education Ordinance administration or control over them. It was in the In the Edo era, there was no nationwide school latter part of the 19th century, following the Meiji system, so consequently there was no educational Restoration, when a nationwide school system was administration organization. Public schools existed introduced on the basis of models taken over from 55 The History of Japan’s Educational Development Western countries, that for the first time, an prefectures became in practice the highest unit of educational administration structure was also local educational administration. Within the established. In the Education Ordinance of 1872, the prefectural office was housed a section dealing with first educational law in the modern period, France school administrative affairs, and specialist full-time was taken as the model for the organization of staff were assigned to this office. A school district educational administration. In terms of central was not conterminous with general administrative government structures, the Ministry of Education was districts at prefectural, town or village level, but was established in 1871 as the central government body a unit specially designated for the purpose of in charge of educational administration. It is also educational administration. However, because of worthy of note that in the early stages after the difficulties experienced by school districts in Ministry was established, an American, David establishing schools independently from their own Murray, was invited to Japan from 1873 and served financial resources, in some cases 2 or 3 school first as adviser, then as Superintendent, giving districts would combine their resources to establish a directions and guidance on education policy until school. The result of this situation was that in reality, 1878. In terms of nationwide administration, the in many cases, elementary school and middle school whole country was divided up into school districts districts were formed using the old land divisions of (university districts, middle school districts, and county (“gun”), town and village as the basic unit. elementary school districts); each school district was Also in many cases, because this was the most the basic area for the establishment of schools and convenient arrangement, the mayor would was expected to become the standard unit of concurrently hold the post of school district educational administration. Each elementary school supervisor, with the result that the division between district aimed to cover a population of around 600 those responsible for educational administration and people. In addition, in each university district, those responsible for general administration was Inspectors’ Offices were established, with the ambiguous. respective Inspectors appointed by the Secretary of Education. In each middle school district, 12 to 13 1-2 Putting a Local Government System in people of stature and influence in the area were Place and Unifying Educational and appointed as school district supervisors, and the aim General Administration was to make each of them responsible for educational In 1878, the government introduced new laws and administrative matters relating to between 20 and 30 regulations concerning land divisions and set down elementary schools. Each elementary school district, local taxation regulations, thereby clarifying the under the guidance of the school district supervisor, authority and functions of the prefecture, the county was responsible, with the city mayor or village mayor (gun), and the municipality (ward, town and village). at the head, for raising funds for the establishment of In 1879, the Education Ordinance was abolished, and schools, enforcing school attendance, and similar in its place, the Education Order was promulgated. matters. To assist the mayor with the administration Through this Order, a new conception of a system of and management of schools, a number of what educational administration was realized. The system amounted to school administrators were appointed of school districts was abolished, and the units of from among local residents. educational administration were unified with the However, the Education Ordinance was not in fact units of general local administration. In principle, the exactly implemented in the way it was conceived. In management of primary education was made the the end, only one university was established, and the responsibility of municipalities (wards, towns and Inspector for the university district was absorbed into villages), and that of secondary education the the Ministry of Education. In addition, although this responsibility of prefectures. was not specified in the Education Ordinance, Following criticism that the Education Ordinance 56 Chapter 2. Educational Administration had been too uniform, the direction now proposed Schools, to the establishment of middle schools, was that education should be left to local discretion. specialized schools, agricultural, commercial and In place of the school district supervisor, local industrial schools, and to the appointment and educational administration would be the dismissal of teachers in town and village schools (on responsibility of “educational committeemen” the basis of applications from the educational directly elected by town or village inhabitants. This committeemen). On the basis of the Revised system of “educational committeemen” is said to Education Order of 1881, the Ministry of Education have been modeled on the American system of established Guidelines for the Course of Study for boards of education. However, criticisms were made Elementary Schools. Also in 1881, with a view to to the effect that the Education Order gave too much curbing participation by teachers in a political freedom of action to local community officials and movement that emerged at this time, the Freedom cause the reduction of the enrollment rate. As a and Popular Rights Movement, the Ministry of result, it was revised only one year after it was Education issued an Ethical Guide for Elementary issued. School Teachers and Regulations for Examining the The “Revised Education Order” of 1880 once again Conduct of Schoolteachers. In 1886, 5 people were expanded the authority of the Ministry of Education appointed to the position of inspectors within the in local educational administration, and set out Ministry of Education. clearly the authority of the prefectural governor with regard to educational administration. In addition, the 1-3 The Introduction of a Cabinet System formula whereby “educational committeemen” were and the Establishment of an Educational directly elected
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