Why did the Qing Fall? Republican experiment

Sun YatSen (also Sun Zhongshan) and the Tongmenghui

Last lesson we looked at the nascent nationalist sentiment that manifested as a result of the Post Boxer Reforms, Cixi’s failed attempt to reassert control and confidence. Radical constitutional reforms were posed which according to controversial yet best-selling author/historian Jung Chang show that Cixi was ‘a remarkable stateswoman’ who fought a misogynist court to ‘bring medieval China into the modern age’. The problem was, the reforms came much too late, and in most cases their implementation was superseded by the Revolution of 1911. Rana Mitter says: ‘The reforms might have had some chance of success in a country more unified and prosperous. However, the dynasty was seriously running low on people who had a vested interest in its survival’. The most significant pool of revolutionary and nationalist ideas made headway in Japan where 13,000 Chinese students and emigrants – mostly urban, were living. Feelings of resentment toward Japan due to the Treaty of Shiminoseki, were tempered by a growing respect for the nation’s ability to assert itself against foreign powers like Russia. Japan and China had experienced a sudden role- reversal – with China being the sick man of Asia, and the court deemed that Japan, of all the western powers, ‘was the most worthy to emulate’. This was to a large extent, because of the work and teachings of the revolutionary group the Tongmenghui and their leader, Sun YatSen.

Sun Yatsen and the Tongmenghui

The Tongmenghui, or initially Revive China Society, was formed in Tokyo, 1905 with the mission to create an insurrectionary army that would be strong enough to challenge the Qing. By 1911 its membership increased from 400 to 10,000. Its leader, Sun Yatsen was fiercely anti-Qing, regarding the imperial system as moribund. Influencing Sun were his peasant upbringing; his excellent international education and residence outside China; his exposure to a body of literature on republicanism and revolution in France and the United States, nascent reform and democratic social movements of his own country and of the West; and his understanding and appreciation for aspects of the works of Rousseau, Lincoln, Marx, Lenin and many others. Whereas Kang Youwei, Li Qichao and their followers hoped to make change from above and within with the Hundred Days Reforms, Sun Yatsen saw a need to start anew. His basic belief was that China would never modernise less it became a Republic. Sun in fact, became known as the Father of The Chinese Republic. His seditious views and an attempted uprising in Guangzhou in 1895 (called the Double 9th Rebellion) made him persona non grata and he lived in exile for the best part of 1895 to 1911, though he had learned a few valuable lessons. In the meantime, The Tongmenghui staged another 5 attempted uprisings and sponsored another three. Fairbank says, ‘Sun deserved an A for effort’.

Moribund – in a dying state

Seditious – conduct which the state views as insurrectionary

Persona non grata – literally ‘an unwelcome person’.

Cixi’s post-Boxer education reforms provided Sun with the opportunity to campaign for change in Japan. He wrote: At this time nearly all the provinces began to send students to Japan to receive their education there. Among the students that came to Tokyo there turned out to be many people with young and clear heads. They seized on revolutionary ideas, and soon entered the revolutionary movement. …All the arguments of the of that day, and all their thoughts, turned into revolutionary questions,…that found their way into China. This period I consider to be the beginning of the epoch of the wide development of the Chinese Revolutionary Movement’.

Perspectives…

The historian Michael Dillon, believes that whilst Sun is revered as the father and ideological architect of the 1911 Revolution, the unsung hero Zou Rong, played a more significant role than he with his book, or rather militant manifesto, The Revolutionary Army (1903). This book was deeply patriotic, passionate and doggedly anti Qing. The young author, who joined the revolutionary struggle after the Boxer Uprising, argued with that China needed a revolution such as seen in France or America, and that yes, it would ultimately have to be bloody and destructive. Zou Rong spent his early career in Japan encouraging students to join political clubs and came into contact with the Revive China Society. By this time, revolutionary books and pamphlets were exploding among Chinese University students in Japan, and his book was a favourite. The signs of change emanating from this group were referred to as ‘Young China’. Alas, Zou Rong died a prisoner in 1905 at age 19.

Back to Sun and his Three Principles Arguably, Sun’s main contribution to the nationalist sentiment that was exploding just before the 1911 revolution was his ideological THE THREE PRINCIPLES OF THE PEOPLE.

In 1905, Sun drafted an early version of his political doctrine ‘Eliminate the Manchus, Eliminate the Monarchy, Open the Road to Socialism’. Later, this would be revised to ‘the ethnic nation (minzu), the people's rights (minquan), and the well-being of the people (minsheng)’. In English, these principles have often been translated as nationalism, democracy, and Socialism. In Chinese, each of these principles contains the character min, which means “people.” Sun likened his principles to U.S. president Abraham Lincoln's ideals of government (expressed in the Gettysburg Address) “of the people” (nationalism), “by the people” (democracy), and “for the people” (Socialism).

Nationalism China is the China for the Chinese. Only when imperialism is eliminated can there be peace. Democracy China and the West have different concepts of freedom and democracy, argued Sun. Westerners struggle for personal freedom. China must struggle for national freedom: Thus: China will become a republic with an elected President and parliament. This was to be implemented slowly and be guided like a dictatorship: a. Proposed 3 yr dictatorship to ensure stability b. Tutelage – 6 yrs where democratic procedures would be explained

After 9 yrs, military government disbanded and a new constitution drawn Socialism (The A loose form of socialism aimed at improving the welfare of working People’s Livelihood) people. The lives of the poor must be improved, industry and transport should be modernised and 'land must be given to the tiller'. This meant that landlords' land should be given to peasants.

The Revolution of 1911

The 1911 Revolution which ended thousands of years of imperial rule in China was triggered by an accidental explosion at the hands of young revolutionaries. It was only a matter of weeks between the explosion and the birth of the Republic. There were two immediate catalysts.

1. Railways and the Rights Recovery Movement:

Railway construction was booming business in China. Foreign powers exerted pressures to extend the railway networks for trading purposes offering loans to the Qing. The massive Boxer indemnity made these foreign loans very attractive. The results of foreign activity can be seen in the mileage of Chinese track completed in this period: 280 miles between 1896 and 1899, and 3,222 miles between 1900 and 1905 Strong nationalist sentiment was however growing in China. As part of this new groundswell, people in many provinces of China began pressing for a ‘rights-recovery’ movement. The aim was to raise money through local bonds so that the Chinese could buy back the railroad rights, and regain control of their own transportation system.

However, in 1910, the Qing decided to nationalise the rail work. Consequently, The Qing borrowed up to 16 million pounds from a foreign banking consortium to continue significant railway expansion – particularly on the Wuhan-Canton, and Wuhan-Chengdu lines.

Chinese in the provinces were outraged by this shameful capitulation to foreigners and the further indebtedness to foreigners.

2. Oops, um. A Bomb went off. What the heck do we do? On the 10th October 1911 – a date come to be known as the Double Tenth Revolution, New Army troops with connections to the Tongmenghui were assembling a bomb in the triple city of Wuhan (Hubei Province). They were spurred by the nationalisation of the railways. Unfortunately, their schemes were interrupted when a bomb accidently exploded, sparking the curiosity of Qing authorities. Rather than be caught, Wuhan garrison rebelled. A rash of surrounding provinces followed suit. In fact, within 6 weeks, fifteen of China’s 24 provinces had declared independence from the Qing. The rebel leaders in the provinces were unsurprisingly. Tongmenghui members, New Army Officers and members of the Provincial Assemblies.

By 29th December, a provisional government of the Republic of China was proclaimed at Nanjing. On 1st January, Sun was inaugurated as the Provisional President. However, this would not last long, and besides, the Qing still held power within Beijing, albeit, under the command of a 6 year old boy. REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What triggered the 1911 (Double Tenth) Revolution? 2. Who was Sun Yat-sen? How did he rally anti-Qing sentiment? 3. Where, do you believe the most substantial challenges to the Qing came from? 4. Using your own knowledge, explain the part played by overseas students in Japan in the development of the first Revolution.

The Railway Dispute 5. Why were the Railways an immediate catalyst to the 1911 Revolution?

A Republic 6. Complete extra reading and find the role Sun Yat-sen played in the Double Tenth. Where was he when the revolution broke out? 7 When was he sworn in as President?