Massacre At Mỹ Lai: ​ The 504 Lives, and What They Mean

Min T Tun

Senior Division

Historical Paper

Word Count: 2,499

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“The greatest irony and tragedy of all is that our nation, which initiated so much of the

revolutionary spirit of the modern world, is now cast in the mold of being an arch

anti-revolutionary.” - Martin Luther King Jr. (King Jr.)

On the morning of March 16, 1968, around 100 soldiers in Charlie Company were tasked with a Viet Cong search and destroy operation in the village of Sơn Mỹ, nicknamed Pinksville. ​ What happened next was an incident that would go on to be the most infamous event in the entirety of US involvement in the Vietnam War; the sub hamlets of Mỹ Lai and Mỹ Khê were absolutely devastated. An approximated 504 civilians were killed at the hands of US soldiers, many of them while running away from the violence and bloodshed. Women were raped, children mercilessly gunned down. PFC Lawrence M. Colburn, who was a helicopter door gunner, describes seeing corpses piled on each other. He also testified that there were “at least a hundred [corpses]” in a ditch alone (Colburn). The incident alone was not uncovered until late

1969, nearly a year and a half later. In many ways, this massacre was not a first for the far reaches of the US military, and it certainly would not be the last. The Mỹ Lai massacre was a massacre that broke barriers by being the first slaughter to be highly publicized and known, and revealed the crimes committed under the guise of American intervention. 504 innocent lives were lost, and although we have been taught to regard them as numbers, they are significant, perhaps more than ever today.

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Historical Context

“Whether we realize it or not our participation in the war in Viet-Nam is an ominous expression of our lack of sympathy for the oppressed, our paranoid anti-Communism, our failure to feel the ache and anguish of the have nots. It reveals our willingness to continue participating

in neo-colonialist adventures …” (King Jr.)

Vietnam is a country in Southeast Asia, that was under French colonial rule. During

World War II, an influential leader, Ho Chi Minh formed the League for the Independence of

Vietnam, in hopes of breaking the rule of its Japanese and French captors. After Japan withdrew its troops in 1945, The League occupied the city of Hanoi and had a celebration with millions of people that marked the beginning of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. The Vietnamese

Declaration of Independence from French rule was modeled after the United States’ Declaration of Independence, complete with grievances about French colonial rule. Ho Chi Minh himself wrote eight letters to President Truman about his promises to Vietnam as stated in the Atlantic

Charter, in which Roosevelt and Churchill proclaimed international collaboration and cooperation between nations. Needless to say, Truman did not respond (Zinn).

Contrary to official statements by Washington during the 1960s, the US was already involved from the year 1950 onwards. In the spring and summer of 1950, large shipments of military equipment were sent to the French in Vietnam. To the President’s administration, “the prospect of another Communist government in Asia was intolerable”(Blum, 122). Truman, according to the popular domino theory, was opposed to another communist country in fear of other countries following suit. Moreover, Indochina still held many resources that were much wanted by the French and the Allied powers, and they could not afford losing other countries to 3

Communism, in fact, the US government even considered taking over Vietnam if French forces decided to withdraw(Zinn). In 1954, the French, unable to win popular support, most of which was behind Ho Chi Minh’s movement, withdrew. The CIA was quick to establish secret paramilitary operations in August, under the command of Edward Lansdale, to spread propaganda, infiltrate Viet Cong forces, sabotage supplies and railroad, as well as to arm and train handpicked Vietnamese for guerilla operations against the Viet Cong (Binn, 125-126).

South Vietnam was quick to be enforced by the US as an American, anti-communist sphere of influence, and the role of leader was quickly filled by Ngo Dinh Diem, a former South

Vietnamese official. Diem, in fact, had been living in New Jersey until recently (Zinn). By the end of 1962 there were approximately 11,000 “advisors” that trained the newly formed South

Vietnam army.(John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum; Lindsay). On November 1st,

1963, Diem was deemed useless by the US government as a puppet and was overthrown and murdered by his generals in a US assisted coup. South Vietnamese generals met with Lucien

Conhein, who worked for the CIA (“U.S. and Diem’s Overthrow: Step by Step”;Sheehan

;Lindsay). Conhein reported to American Ambassador Henry Cabot Lodge, who, in turn, reported to McGeorge Bundy, John F. Kennedy’s advisor and assistant. John F. Kennedy himself was aware but made no move to stop the coup. Three weeks after Diem was overthrown, John F.

Kennedy was assassinated, and his successor, Lyndon B. Johnson officially authorized the bombing of North Vietnam after the events of the Gulf of Tonkin, in which US destroyers in

North Vietnamese waters were attacked twice by North Vietnamese vessels. In the first attack, four Vietnamese sailors were reported killed, but there were no US casualties (Moise).

McNamara later admitted that the second attack on the Maddox and Turner Joy, another ​ ​ ​ ​ 4 battleship, on August 4, never happened in 2003(The Fog of War: Eleven Lessons from the Life ​ of Robert S. McNamara). Still, President Johnson used this set of murky events as a springboard ​ from which to take military action towards Vietnam, and to retaliate through the Gulf of Tonkin

Resolution through Congress, which authorised the president to take necessary steps to defend the US from Viet Cong forces (Ray; BBC). Military planes started the bombing of North

Vietnam, and by 1965, 200,000 US troops were stationed in Vietnam (BBC; Zinn). By 1966, there were approximately 400,000 US troops in Vietnam, and the number rose to 500,000 by

1967 (BBC). Many Vietnamese civilians were killed as a result of bombing. By 1968, North

Vietnamese troops began the Tet Offensive, a joint assault by both the Viet Cong and the North

Vietnamese Army on strategic US military positions.

My Lai Massacre

“We see the rice fields of a small Asian country being trampled at will and burned at

whim: we see grief-stricken mothers with crying babies clutched in their arms as they watch their little huts burst forth into flames; we see the fields and valleys of battle being painted with humankind’s blood; we see the broken bodies left prostrate in countless fields; we see young men

being sent home half-men—physically handicapped and mentally deranged.” (King Jr.)

The morning of March 16, 1968, was an infamous day in US history. Task Force Barker, consisting of Company Charlie, 1st Battalion, 20th Infantry Regiment, and Company Bravo, 4th

Battalion, 11th Brigade of the 23rd Infantry Division perpetrated one of the most notorious war crimes in the history of the United States. That morning, Charlie Company was sent on a search and destroy mission into the village of Sơn Mỹ, dubbed “Pinksville” for its pinkish appearance on maps. Military intelligence suggested that the area would be occupied by Viet Cong forces, 5 however, upon arrival, the soldiers found a quiet village occupied by women, children, and elders, preparing for breakfast (Shapira). Over the next four hours, chaos ensued as women were raped, children shot, and the bodies thrown into ditches, or left on the side of the road (Colburn;

Lopez; Paul; Millians). Artillery bombarded the village, and many civilians tried to flee the village, almost all were shot (Doherty; Henderson; Millians; Gamble). Private First Class

Varnado Simpson described the massacre with his eyes in the book Four Hours in My Lai; “I cut ​ ​ their throats, cut off their hands, cut out their tongue, their hair, scalped them. I did it. A lot of people were doing it, and I just followed. I lost all sense of direction.” (Bilton and Sim). Simpson would later commit suicide nearly 30 years later. Sergeant Michael A Bernhardt describes what he saw as he and his platoon moved through the village; “As we moved on we encountered a lot of dead civilians, apparently civilians 一 women, children, old men, some of the children apparently not old enough to walk yet, who were dead, in very large heaps in areas. I noticed, looking on ahead, moving ahead, observing our American forces were gathering Vietnamese villagers in a large group and making a circle around them and killing all the people”

(Bernhardt). Village inhabitants running away, including children, were shot and killed (Paul).

Captain Robert L. Hauck, when asked about the killings, described villagers running away as

“fair game”(Hauck). Captain Medina’s radio operator was reported to have shot a wounded 4 year old boy trying to escape (Medina). Ron Haeberle, in an interview for Time, recalled an especially horrifying encounter; “Haeberle told me that he saw an old man with two small children walking toward U.S. troops, their belongings in a basket. ‘The old man was shouting,

“No V.C.! No V.C.!” to let the soldiers know he wasn’t Viet Cong,’ Haeberle recalled. To his horror, the man and the children were cut down in front of him. ‘A soldier shot all three,’ he 6 said.” (Theiss). A soldier who was especially noticed purely because of the large number of people he killed was Lieutenant William L. Calley Jr, who, when a soldier refused to kill a civilian, took the man’s rifle and did it himself (Hersh; Delgado). Later, in the formal investigation, Calley exercised his right to stay silent (Calley). The only US casualty was

Specialist First Class Herbert Carter, who shot himself in the foot with his pistol, whether on accident or on purpose to get out of duty is not clear. (Bacon; Cowan; Mitchell; Paul; Delgado).

During the aftermath of the event, Captain Ernest Medina warned Sergeant Bernhardt to “not do anything stupid like write to his local congressman concerning the Pinksville atrocities”

(Medina). There are also denials that the massacre ever happened. Major Charles C. Calhoun denied seeing any “unnecessary killings of civilians” as he passed the area. (Calhoun).

Cover Up and Aftermath

“We cannot remain silent as our nation engages in one of history’s most cruel and

senseless wars.” (King Jr.)

What was more outrageous was the cover-up of the entire incident. At first, the military took no notice of the incident, until Ronald Ridenhour, who was present at the massacre, wrote to various government agencies and members of Congress. This prompted a formal military investigation in early 1969, nearly a year later, and even then, the investigation was kept discreet, away from the public; only Calley was convicted of the murder of 109 Vietnamese civilians, prompting a tiny article in the New York Times (Shapira; “Article 32 Report of Investigation”;

Pick). Seymour Hersh later took the story, and stumbled upon a large web of controversy; his series of articles on the massacre led to him winning the Pulitzer Prize for International

Journalism. Another person who helped attract public attraction Sergeant Ron Haeberle, who 7 was present at the massacre as a combat photographer. With only his army camera, Haeberle took photos that would be accepted in official military reports, but with his personal camera, he secretly took photos of the bodies in Mỹ Lai. He later recounted his experience in an interview;

“Guys were about to shoot these people. I yelled, 'hold it', and shot my picture. As I walked away, I heard M16s open up. From the corner of my eye I saw bodies falling, but I didn't turn to look,” (Hoeg). Haeberle later toured the country in lectures at high schools and civic groups to share his pictures; he was greeted with disbelief and denial by his audience. The photos themselves were later published in The Plains Dealer, a Cleveland Newspaper, and then ​ ​ republished again in Times magazine (Theiss).

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Fig. 1. Corpses of women and children on the road outside of Mỹ Lai: Haeberle, Ron. ​ ​ Photograph, 16 March 1968, My Lai Collection, Vietnam Center and Archive, Texas Tech

University https://www.vietnam.ttu.edu/virtualarchive/items.php?item=VA025977, ​ ​

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Fig. 2. Burning hut from: Haeberle, Ron. Photograph, 16 March 1968, My Lai Collection, ​ Vietnam Center and Archive, Texas Tech University, https://www.vietnam.ttu.edu/virtualarchive/items.php?item=VA025969 10

Fig. 3. Group of civilians a few moments before they are shot and killed from:Haeberle, Ron. ​ Photograph, 16 March 1968, My Lai Collection, Vietnam Center and Archive, Texas Tech

University, https://www.vietnam.ttu.edu/virtualarchive/items.php?item=VA025976 11

Fig. 4. Dead villager from: Haeberle, Ron. Photograph, 16 March 1968, Mỹ Lai Collection, ​ Vietnam Center and Archive, Texas Tech University, https://www.vietnam.ttu.edu/virtualarchive/items.php?item=VA025968

After Hersh’s articles were published, the anti-war movement in the US grew exponentially. Two days after publication, at least 250,000 people gathered at the Washington

Monument to protest the Vietnam war. Calley was the only one found guilty. During his trial in

1971, Calley echoed the words of former Nazis of the holocaust; that he was just following 12 orders. Hersh continued to dig into the story, and published a two part series in The New York ​ Times. Three years later, Calley was released. ​ Conclusion: The Truth Behind Mỹ Lai, and its Connection to Other Events

“In light of all this, I say that we must narrow the gaping chasm between our

proclamations of peace and our lowly deeds which precipitate and perpetuate war. We are

called upon to look up from the quagmire of military programs and defense commitments and

read history’s signposts and today’s trends.” (King Jr.)

The Mỹ Lai massacre was, no doubt, a dreadful event. But when viewed in connection to other events and points in US history, it takes on a new level of horror. During the Vietnam War,

General Julian Ewell is believed to have slaughtered more than 7,000 civilians during an operation in the Mekong Delta (Turse). On the more covert side, Bill Colby, CIA intelligence officer, headed the Phoenix Program during the Vietnam War, a program of assassination, torture, and murder aimed at captured Viet Cong. In fact, when Colby presented figures to a

House sub-committee in 1971, the death toll was 20,587 persons in the span of three years.

Overall, an estimated 2 million Vietnamese civilians were killed during the Vietnam War from both sides, and most were inflicted by US troops(Wise). There have been many massacres from the Vietnam War(Turse).

And this was not the first massacre or war crime to happen at the hands of US military forces. From the beginning of when the United States was established, there have been horrors left and right. The Wounded Knee Massacre, when US troops killed between 150 and 300

Lakota Indians and buried them in mass graves. During the Mexican American War, over 10,000

Mexican citizens were estimated to have been killed by US forces (Clodfelter). In the Balangiga 13 massacre, General Jacob H. Smith ordered his troops to execute anyone that looked over the age of ten (Bautista). During the Battle of Okinawa in 1945, US forces are reported to have raped

Okinawan women in a village in the Motobu Peninsula (Schrijvers, 212). During the Korean ​ War, US cavalry soldiers massacred between 300-500 South Korean civilians in what would be known as the No Gun Ri Massacre. Even though media coverage of the war crimes committed by the US armed forces has decreased since the Vietnam War, there are still atrocities committed on behalf of the US government; the Bureau of Investigative Journalism has reported 1,725 civilian deaths from drone strikes, and between 253 and 397 deaths for children (Fielding-Smith ​ et al.).

In conclusion, the Mỹ Lai massacre was only one of the massacres committed by the US armed forces in the entirety of the United States government. As written above, there have been many war crimes that the US has committed, and this is because of American foreign policy that seems to resemble a more covert, modern, colonialism. The cruelties of US overseas intervention is shown, time to time again throughout history, from the massacres and crimes committed by troops, with almost complete impunity. As Martin Luther King Jr. pointed out, America itself was made through a revolution, yet here we are, forcing our beliefs upon other countries through military force, under the guise of “helping”, when in reality we are destroying people’s lives and dreams. Whatever happened to George Washington’s

The Mỹ Lai massacre, when viewed from a wider lens, is a warning. It is a warning against the use of violence and terror by the American government for its own means and objectives, through means of military force. This massacre broke the barrier for raising awareness about the injustices of the Vietnam war, and raised questions about why it was started 14 in the first place. It triggered and fueled the anti-war movement. Yet, this is not enough. Time and time again, history has proven countless times that senseless violence by nations with great power for the purpose of “sending a message”, or proving a political point is not the way to go.

Time and time again, innocent lives are ended at the hands of so called foreign intervention for the interests of the United States.

As one looks through the numbers that show the death toll, one can see the senseless violence and destruction that plagues US history. Many people say that war is worth it, despite the cost of human lives. Human lives are not a form of currency that can buy items on the market. As one looks at the numbers, they seem to be a warning, a sign. The numbers are terrifying.

Bibliography

Primary Sources

Article 32 Report of Investigation, 17 June 1970, Box 03, Folder 02, Mỹ Lai Collection, Vietnam Center and Archive, Texas Tech University, https://www.vietnam.ttu.edu/virtualarchive/items.php?item=1540302017, Accessed 12 Dec 2019

A letter to Robert K. Raulerson from the Office of the Staff Judge Advocate, emphasizing that the reports and ongoing investigation were to remain confidential. This helped me see that the investigation was to be kept confidential.

Haeberle, Ron. Photograph, 16 March 1968, Mỹ Lai Collection, Vietnam Center and Archive, Texas Tech University, https://www.vietnam.ttu.edu/virtualarchive/items.php?item=VA025968, Accessed 04 Jan 2020

A close-up photo taken by Ron Haeberle, combat photographer, of a dead Vietnamese man. Used in essay. These pictures helped me comprehend the death and killing in the Vietnam massacre.

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Haeberle, Ron. Photograph, 16 March 1968, Mỹ Lai Collection, Vietnam Center and Archive, Texas Tech University, https://www.vietnam.ttu.edu/virtualarchive/items.php?item=VA025969, Accessed 12 Dec 2019

A photo taken by Ron Haeberle, a combat photographer, of a burning hut during the massacre. He used his standard Army camera to take official pictures, but secretly took pictures of the massacre with his personal Nikon camera. This image was used in the essay. These pictures helped me comprehend the death and killing in the Vietnam massacre.

Haeberle, Ron. Photograph, 16 March 1968, Mỹ Lai Collection, Vietnam Center and Archive, Texas Tech University, https://www.vietnam.ttu.edu/virtualarchive/items.php?item=VA025976, Accessed 04 Jan 2020

A photo taken by Ron Haeberle, combat photographer, of a group of civilians a few moments before they are executed. Haeberle could not stop the massacre, so he had to ask the soldiers to pause for a moment so he could take the picture. Used in essay. These pictures helped me comprehend the death and killing in the Vietnam massacre.

Haeberle, Ron. Photograph, 16 March 1968, Mỹ Lai Collection, Vietnam Center and Archive, Texas Tech University, https://www.vietnam.ttu.edu/virtualarchive/items.php?item=VA025977, Accessed 13 Dec 2019

A photo by Haeberle, Ron, who was present at the massacre. The photo shows a burning hut. Soldiers were ordered to destroy everything in the village. Used in essay. These pictures helped me comprehend the death and killing in the Vietnam massacre.

King Jr., Martin Luther. The Bombs in Vietnam Explode at Home. ​ ​ A speech by Martin Luther King Jr., prominent African American Civil Rights activist on the matter of the Vietnam War.

Testimony of 1LT William L. Calley, Jr., 9 June 1969, Box 01, Folder 13, Mỹ Lai Collection, Vietnam Center and Archive, Texas Tech University, https://www.vietnam.ttu.edu/virtualarchive/items.php?item=1540113001, Accessed 12 Dec 2019.

Testimony of First Lieutenant Calley, who exercised his right to stay silent. This testimony helped me piece together the events of the massacre. 16

Testimony of COL Oran K. Henderson, 4 May 1970, Box 01, Folder 11, Mỹ Lai Collection, Vietnam Center and Archive, Texas Tech University, https://www.vietnam.ttu.edu/virtualarchive/items.php?item=1540111001, Accessed 12 Dec 2019.

Testimony of Colonel Henderson, who was present at the massacre. Henderson was Warrant Officer Hugh Thompson Junior’s superior, and soon after he received a complaint from Thompson, contacted Lieutenant Colonel Barker, who contacted Captain Medina, who gave the order for seize-fire. This testimony helped me piece together the events of the massacre.

Testimony of CPT Ernest L. Medina, 25 March 1970, Box 01, Folder 06, Mỹ Lai Collection, Vietnam Center and Archive, Texas Tech University, https://www.vietnam.ttu.edu/virtualarchive/items.php?item=1540106001, Accessed 12 Dec 2019.

Testimony of Captain Medina, who did the briefing for the operation, and was present at the massacre. Captain Medina was in charge of the briefing for the mission, which was originally to search and destroy. He later also ordered the cease-fire after Lieutenant Colonel Barker questioned his actions. This testimony helped me piece together the events of the massacre.

Testimony of CPT Robert L. Hauck, 12 May 1969, Box 01, Folder 05, Mỹ Lai Collection, Vietnam Center and Archive, Texas Tech University, https://www.vietnam.ttu.edu/virtualarchive/items.php?item=1540105001, Accessed 12 Dec 2019.

Testimony of Captain Hauck, who was present at the massacre. Hauck participated in the killing of civilians in the village. This testimony helped me piece together the events of the massacre.

Testimony of CPT Stephen J. Gamble, 23 June 1969, Box 01, Folder 18, Mỹ Lai Collection, Vietnam Center and Archive, Texas Tech University, https://www.vietnam.ttu.edu/virtualarchive/items.php?item=1540118001, Accessed 12 Dec 2019.

Testimony of Captain Gamble who was present at the massacre. Gamble was in charge of artillery, and bombarded the village repeatedly before the soldiers went in. There were no boundaries on where artillery could fire or couldn’t; the village was specifically targeted. 17

This testimony helped me piece together the events of the massacre.

Testimony of CW2 Dan R. Millians, 18 June 1969, Box 01, Folder 16, Mỹ Lai Collection, Vietnam Center and Archive, Texas Tech University, https://www.vietnam.ttu.edu/virtualarchive/items.php?item=1540116001, Accessed 12 Dec 2019.

Testimony of 2nd Chief Warrant Officer Dan R. Millians, who was present at the massacre. This testimony helped me piece together the events of the massacre.

Testimony of MAJ Charles C. Calhoun, 4 May 1970, Box 01, Folder 08, Mỹ Lai Collection, Vietnam Center and Archive, Texas Tech University, https://www.vietnam.ttu.edu/virtualarchive/items.php?item=1540108001, Accessed 12 Dec 2019.

Testimony of Major Calhoun, who passed by the massacre and took part in planning the operation. This testimony helped me piece together the events of the massacre.

Testimony of Mr. Andres Delgado, 10 July 1969, Box 01, Folder 19, Mỹ Lai Collection, Vietnam Center and Archive, Texas Tech University, https://www.vietnam.ttu.edu/virtualarchive/items.php?item=1540119001, Accessed 12 Dec 2019.

Testimony of Grenadier Andres Delgado who was present at the massacre. This testimony helped me piece together the events of the massacre.

Testimony of Mr. John H. Paul, 16 June 1969, Box 01, Folder 15, Mỹ Lai Collection, Vietnam Center and Archive, Texas Tech University, https://www.vietnam.ttu.edu/virtualarchive/items.php?item=1540115001, Accessed 12 Dec 2019.

Testimony of Radio Telephone Operator John H. Paul who was present at the massacre. This testimony helped me piece together the events of the massacre.

Testimony of PFC Lawrence M. Colburn, 19 June 1969, Box 01, Folder 17, Mỹ Lai Collection, 18

Vietnam Center and Archive, Texas Tech University, https://www.vietnam.ttu.edu/virtualarchive/items.php?item=1540117001, Accessed 12 Dec 2019.

Testimony of Private First Class Colburn who was present at the massacre. Colburn was a door gunner on an OH-23 Raven observation helicopter. He and the rest of his helicopter crew had to intervene to stop the massacre. This testimony helped me understand how the massacre ended.

Testimony of SFC Isaiah Cowan, 23 May 1969, Box 01, Folder 10, Mỹ Lai Collection, Vietnam Center and Archive, Texas Tech University, https://www.vietnam.ttu.edu/virtualarchive/items.php?item=1540110001, Accessed 12 Dec 2019

Testimony of Sergeant Mitchell, who was present at the massacre. This testimony helped me piece together the events of the massacre.

Testimony of SGT E-5 Michael A. Bernhardt, 8 May 1969, Box 01, Folder 04, Mỹ Lai Collection, Vietnam Center and Archive, Texas Tech University, https://www.vietnam.ttu.edu/virtualarchive/items.php?item=1540104001, Accessed 12 Dec 2019.

Testimony of a soldier present at the massacre. Sergeant Bernhardt was part of the second platoon to move through the village, and he saw firsthand the destruction and death that the first platoon left behind. This testimony helped me piece together the events of the massacre.

Testimony of SSG David Mitchell, 26 May 1969, Box 01, Folder 12, Mỹ Lai Collection, Vietnam Center and Archive, Texas Tech University, https://www.vietnam.ttu.edu/virtualarchive/items.php?item=1540112001, Accessed 12 Dec 2019.

Testimony of Sergeant Mitchell, who was present at the massacre. This testimony helped me piece together the events of the massacre.

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Testimony of SSG L. G. Bacon, 22 May 1969, Box 01, Folder 09, Mỹ Lai Collection, Vietnam Center and Archive, Texas Tech University, https://www.vietnam.ttu.edu/virtualarchive/items.php?item=1540109001, Accessed 12 Dec 2019.

Testimony of Sergeant Bacon, who was present at the massacre. He saw the only one US casualty that day; a soldier who shot himself in the foot. This testimony helped me piece together the events of the massacre.

Testimony of SSG Manuel Lopez, 13 May 1969, Box 01, Folder 07, Mỹ Lai Collection, Vietnam Center and Archive, Texas Tech University, https://www.vietnam.ttu.edu/virtualarchive/items.php?item=1540107001, Accessed 12 Dec 2019.

Testimony of Staff Sergeant Manuel Lopez who was present at the massacre. This testimony helped me piece together the events of the massacre.

Secondary

Bautista, Veltisezar. “Balangiga, Samar, Massacre (Philippine-American War.” Archive.Org, 26 Feb. 2008, web.archive.org/web/20080226150445/www.filipinoamericans.net/balangiga_massacre.s html. Accessed 1 Jan. 2020.

An article about the Balangiga Massacre, on a website about Filipino history. Bautista is a Filipino historian and author. He was born in the Philippines, and is 86 years old.

BBC. “Vietnam Profile - Timeline.” BBC News, 22 Apr. 2018, www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-16568035. Accessed 3 Jan. 2020.

A profile of the country of Vietnam that includes major events in the Vietnam War. Written by staff of BBC, specific author unknown. I used this for a timeline of the Vietnam War.

Bilton, Michael, and Kevin Sim. Four Hours in Mỹ Lai. Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1993.

A book by Michael Bilton and Kevin Sim about the massacre. The title, Four Hours in ​ Mỹ Lai , refers to the length of the mission. I used this book to understand the events of the massacre, and how it impacted those involved.

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Blum, William. Killing Hope : US Military and CIA Interventions since World War II. 2nd ed., London, Zed Books, 2014. Accessed 31 Dec. 2019.

A book by William Blum about US military presence and operations worldwide since WWII, including Vietnam. William Blum became disillusioned in the Vietnam War, and decided to become a historian, as well as a critique of US foreign policy. One of Blum’s supporters is Noam Chomsky, who praised his book Killing Hope: US Military and CIA ​ Interventions since World War II. I used his source for the historical context, as his book ​ contained much about US involvement, both covert and overt.

Clodfelter, Micheal. Warfare and Armed Conflicts : A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492-2015. 4th ed., Jefferson, North Carolina, Mcfarland & Company, Inc., Publishers, 1946.

A book about the casualties and deaths of war. Michael Clodfelter is a member of Vietnam Veterans against the War, and is a historical consultant and researcher. I used this source to understand一 in numbers, the death toll of many conflicts and wars that the US has been in.

Fielding-Smith, Abigail, et al. “Drone Warfare — The Bureau of Investigative Journalism.” The Bureau of Investigative Journalism, 2009, www.thebureauinvestigates.com/projects/drone-war. Accessed 1 Jan. 2020.

A report of all civilian deaths from drone strikes in Pakistan, Afghanistan, Yemen, and Somalia, since 2010. This data has been verified through numerous sources. I used this source to help me understand the statistics and death toll of today’s US intervention and foreign policy.

Hersh, Seymour. “‘I Sent Them a Good Boy and They Made Him a Murderer.’” N, 12 Nov. 1969, www.pulitzer.org/article/i-sent-them-good-boy-and-they-made-him-murderer. Accessed 10 Dec. 2019.

A series of news articles written by Seymour Hersh on the Mỹ Lai massacre, which later ​ won the Pulitzer Prize for outstanding international journalism. Hersh is an investigative journalist. He has won the Pulitzer Prize for International reporting and the George Orwell Award. This helped me better understand the news of the massacre as it was 21

published back in 1972, and how people might have felt when they saw these news.

Hoeg, Sophie. “Vietnam War Museum — Importance of Photography.” Medium, Digital Workshop, 25 May 2016, medium.com/digital-workshop/vietnam-war-museum-importance-of-photography-fab0bf 865efd. Accessed 4 Jan. 2020.

An article about visiting the Vietnam War museum and seeing photos. This helped me better understand how the photos of the massacre were taken.

Hudson, Myles. “Wounded Knee Massacre | Facts, History, & Legacy.” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2019, www.britannica.com/event/Wounded-Knee-Massacre.

An encyclopedia entry about the Wounded Knee Massacre. This helped me understand the Wounded Knee Massacre, and the death toll regarding the Lakota killed.

John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum. “Military Advisors in Vietnam: 1963 | JFK Library.” Jfklibrary.Org, 2020, www.jfklibrary.org/learn/education/teachers/curricular-resources/high-school-curricular-r esources/military-advisors-in-vietnam-1963. Accessed 3 Jan. 2020.

A short passage on John F. Kennedy’s involvement in the Vietnam War. This helped me understand US involvement in the war, and the statistics concerning advisors that secretly trained South Vietnamese forces.

Lindsay, James M. “Remembering the Vietnam ‘Coup Cable.’” Council on Foreign Relations, 24 Aug. 2016, www.cfr.org/blog/remembering-vietnam-coup-cable. Accessed 1 Jan. 2020.

A news article on the Diem coup in South Vietnam. James M. Lindsay is a leading expert on US Foreign Policy, and is a chairman on the Council on Foreign Relations.

Moise, Edwin. Tonkin Gulf and the Escalation of the Vietnam War. Chapel Hill, 1996.

A book about the events of the Gulf of Tonkin, by Edwin Moise. This book gave me details about the “casualties” of the Gulf of Tonkin events.

Pick, Hella. “From the Archive, 5 June 1972: Mỹ Lai: New Leak.” The Guardian, The Guardian, 5 June 1972, www.theguardian.com/theguardian/2010/jun/06/archive-my-lai-leak-1972. Accessed 17 Dec. 2019. 22

An article from June 1972 about the cover-up of the incident, by Hella Pick, a British-Austrian journalist. She originally studied at the London School of Economics. In 1960 she became a UN correspondent for The Guardian. She is currently the Arts and ​ ​ Culture Programme Director at the Institute for Strategic Dialogue. This article helped me understand how the government tried to cover up the massacre.

Raviv, Shaun. “The Ghosts of Mỹ Lai.” Smithsonian, Smithsonian.com, 5 Jan. 2018, www.smithsonianmag.com/history/ghosts-my-lai-180967497/. Accessed 13 Dec. 2019.

An article by Shaun Raviv about the massacre at Mỹ Lai. Raviv is a freelance reporter based in Atlanta. This article helped me understand how the survivors of the massacre felt, and what they went through.

Ray, Michael. “Vietnam War Timeline.” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2019. Britannica, www.britannica.com/list/vietnam-war-timeline.

An online encyclopedia article about significant events in the Vietnam War, by Michael Ray. This helped me understand the broad picture and timeline of the events of the Vietnam War.

Schrijvers, Peter. The GI War against Japan : American Soldiers in Asia and the Pacific during World War II. New York, New York University Press, 2002, p. 212. Accessed 2 Jan. 2020.

A book about World War II casualties, specifically American conflicts in Japan. Schrijvers is a Belgian academic historian. This helped me understand US involvement in conflicts in Japan and Southeast Asia, as well as the atrocities committed there.

Shapira, Ian. “‘It Was Insanity’: At Mỹ Lai, U.S. Soldiers Slaughtered Hundreds of Vietnamese Women and Kids.” The Washington Post, 16 Mar. 2018, www.washingtonpost.com/news/retropolis/wp/2018/03/16/it-was-insanity-at-my-lai-u-s-s oldiers-slaughtered-hundreds-of-vietnamese-women-and-kids/. Accessed 13 Nov. 2019.

Article about Mỹ Lai massacre and its aftermath. Shapira is a Washington Post reporter. ​ This helped me see a different view on the massacre, and the aftermath and impact of the event on the world.

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Sheehan, Neil. The Pentagon Papers. New York, N.Y., Quadrangle Books, 1971. Accessed 1 Jan. 2020.

The official published version of the Pentagon Papers. Sheehan received the Pentagon Papers from Daniel Ellsberg, and published it in The New York Times, despite being ​ ​ involved in a Supreme Court Case with the US government. He has received the Pulitzer Prize and a National Book Award for his 1998 book A Bright Shining Lie, about US ​ ​ involvement in the Vietnam War. This source was useful for seeing how the government analyzed and strategized the Vietnam War, and what it thought of its participants.

The Fog of War: Eleven Lessons from the Life of Robert S. McNamara. Directed by Errol Morris, Sony Pictures Classics, 9 Dec. 2003.

A documentary about what Robert S. McNamara, former US Secretary of Defense, learned from the Vietnam war and war in general. This source helped me see the perspective of a government official during the war, and what mistakes they made that led to them having to retreat.

Theiss, Evelyn. “The Photographer Who Showed the World What Really Happened at Mỹ Lai.” Time, Time, 15 Mar. 2018, time.com/longform/my-lai-massacre-ron-haeberle-photographs/. Accessed 13 Dec. 2019.

A Times article interviewing Ron Haeberle, a photographer on the scene of the massacre. Ron Haeberle, whose photos are in the essay, was present at the massacre to take photos with his two cameras.

Turse, Nick. “Was Mỹ Lai Just One of Many Massacres in Vietnam War?” BBC News, 28 Aug. 2013, www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-23427726. Accessed 13 Dec. 2019.

An article on the Vietnam War by Nick Turse, investigative journalist, historian, and author. Turse has written for The New York Times, BBC, and Los Angeles Times. He has ​ ​ ​ ​ written extensively on subjects such as the Vietnam Wars. Turse stumbled on a record in the US Archives about a Pentagon group of officials called the Vietnam War Crimes Working Group. This prompted him to write his dissertation, Kill Anything That Moves: ​ The Real American War in Vietnam. This short article helped me understand that the ​ Vietnam War had many civilian casualties, and that war operations did not care much about the inhabitants of Vietnam. 24

Turse, Nick. Kill Anything That Moves : The Real American War in Vietnam. 2011. 1st ed., New York, Metropolitan Books/Henry Holt And Co, 15 Jan. 2013. Accessed 17 May 2019.

A book by American journalist, historian, and author Nick Turse on the atrocities committed in Vietnam. This was his doctoral dissertation. This book helped me see that the Vietnam War was costly, and held no regard for the lives of those caught in the crossfire. It also informed me in detail about the different operations and investigations of the crimes of the war.

“U.S. and Diem’s Overthrow: Step by Step.” The New York Times, 1 July 1971, www.nytimes.com/1971/07/01/archives/us-and-diems-overthrow-step-by-step-pentagon- papers-the-diem-coup.html. Accessed 3 Jan. 2020.

An archived news article by The New York Times originally published on July 1st, 1971, ​ ​ about the Diem coup and its key participants. This helped me better understand how the Diem coup was carried out, and which US officials were involved.

Wise, David. “Dark Side Up.” The New York Times, 1 July 1973, https://www.nytimes.com/1973/07/01/archives/colby-of-ciacia-of-colby-dark-side-up.ht ml. Accessed 3 Jan. 2020.

An archived news article about William Elgan Colby, CIA covert operator that helped conspire the Diem coup, written by David Wise and published in The New York Times on ​ ​ July 1st, 1973. I used this source to gain insight into William Elgan Colby and his involvement in the Vietnam War.

Zinn, Howard, and Anthony Arnove. A People’s History of the United States. New York, Ny, Harper, An Imprint Of Harpercollinspublishers, 2003.

Howard Zinn was a prominent historian and socialist thinker, who wrote this book to further people’s knowledge of US history, but through the lens of farmers, slaves, 25 immigrants, the working class, and the oppressed. I used this source for the Vietnam War background information