An Assessment of the Impact of Kiswahili on Kinyaturu: a Case of Chahi Dialect

The University of Dodoma University of Dodoma Institutional Repository http://repository.udom.ac.tz

Humanities Master Dissertations

2015 An assessment of the impact of Kiswahili on Kinyaturu: a case of Chahi dialect

Mayombwe, Chima

The University of Dodoma

Mayombwe, C. (2015). An assessment of the impact of Kiswahili on Kinyaturu: a case of Chahi dialect. Dodoma: The University of Dodoma. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12661/623 Downloaded from UDOM Institutional Repository at The University of Dodoma, an open access institutional repository. AN ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF KISWAHILI ON

KINYATURU: A CASE OF CHAHI DIALECT

Chima Mayombwe

A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Master

Degree of Arts in Linguistics of the University of Dodoma

University of Dodoma

October, 2015

CERTIFICATION

The undersigned certifies that he has read and hereby recommends for the acceptance by the University of Dodoma the dissertation entitled: “An Assessment of the impact of Kiswahili on Kinyaturu; A case of Chahi Dialect in Singida” in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Master Degree of Arts

(Linguistics) of the University of Dodoma.

………………………………………………

Dr. Stanislav, B.

(Supervisor)

Date…………………………………………………

DECLARATION

AND

It is hereby declared that, this valuable Research is my personal creation. The work is neither a copy nor alteration of any part or whole work of any person or institution and it has never been presented to any academic institution for academic award. Any sufficient or insufficient information found herein should be accredited to the

Researcher.

Signature…………………………………….

No part of this thesis may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means without written permission of the author or the University of Dodoma.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The completion of this work is in fact a combination of many cooperative hands since the dawn of the idea. It is next to impossible to mention all of them in this paper, but I would like to humbly bow down before you my living God through

JESUS CHRIST for your endless mercies and grace in our life. I truly thank our loving guardian and teacher (lecturer) Dr. Rafiki Y Sebonde for being a reason to every success in this product. I humbly appreciate the immeasurable loving efforts of our instructor and my Supervisor Dr Stanislav B who is the cause of this work. I thank my better-half, my wife for being by my side and her ceaseless fervent prayers. I love you our beloved children, Sifa Liti (daughter) and Asante Mayombwe

(son). May God bless and increase you always for enduring my absence this long. It is my prayer that the immeasurable and unspeakable love may stay with you my true brother, late Joseph M Chima, for being my courage. I will always keep you in my memory Mz Clement Mnkeni for giving me enough. My heartfelt gratitude also goes to my M.A. Linguistics 2013/2015 classmates for their valuable inputs into this research. Thanks to Mr. Ilumva, Obadia Kigwinya, Nyudike, Maria G (Mrs), Kayuni

S, Lupenza H and Mr Henry Peter (MPA) my room-mate for everything you did to me. I appreciate the contributions of Mang‟onyi, Mwau and Mbogho primary schools teachers and pupils for their kindness and knowledge. All of you may almighty God bless you and be prosperous always.

iii

DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to

my beloved brother the late Joseph M Chima and

to our loving Children

Sifa Liti and Asante

ABSTRACT

Tanzania is priviledged with the enormous linguistic diversity. It is estimated that there are more than 150 Ethnic Community languages in Tanzania, many fall under Bantu languages. Other groups are Nilotics, Cushites, Swahili, Khoisans, Arabs, Indians and others. Osogo (1979), the largest language group in terms of number is the Sukuma with over five million native speakers. Next to it is Nyamwezi, Ha, Chagga and Makonde to mention a few. Wanyaturu who speak Kinyaturu ranks number ten in respect to the number of native speakers. Theoretical framework used to guide this study was Batibo‟s (1992) marked bilingualism model. The research aimed at assessing the impact of Kiswahili on ECLs and Chahi dialect of Kinyaturu which was taken and studied as a case study. They are estimated today to have been about one million speakers of Kinyaturu. Their habitat is Singida region. The data of this study were collected through Questionnaires, Interview sessions and participant observation. The data collected were then analysed through description and statistically presented. The area of the field was Ikungi District in Singida region. The data were mainly collected from Mang‟onyi Ward. For the purpose of enriching the study, other areas where other dialects of Kinyaturu were visited which included Mtinko, Ilongero, Sepuka, Mungaa and Ihanja Wards in Singida and Ikungi districts. The major findings of the study reveal that there is a serious and great threat to Kinyaturu. The findings show that Kinyaturu though is spoken by large community; it is faced with serious threat from Kiswahili since most domains of language use are taken by Kiswahili leaving Kinyaturu with informal home domain only. It is very important for language stakeholders to take necessary measures of rescuing Kinyaturu from further loss. The research greatly challenges linguists, anthropologists, sociolinguists, government and the Tanzanians in general to wake up and stop this linguistic “Colonialism” in Tanzania and Africa in general. This has stirred the linguistics students‟ to conduct more researches on other languages and raise their voices to the policy makers with the aim that they will act accordingly to safeguard these heritage languages.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CERTIFICATION ...... i DECLARATION AND COPYRIGHT ...... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... iii DEDICATION ...... iv ABSTRACT ...... v TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... vi LIST OF TABLES ...... ix LIST OF FIGURES ...... x LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ...... xi

CHAPTER ONE: BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY ...... 1 1.0 Introduction ...... 1 1:1. The Turu Overview: ...... 1 1:1:2. Variations among Dialects of Kinyaturu ...... 3 1:1:3 Nyaturu Vowels and Consonants ...... 7 1:4. Naming Tradition in Nyaturu ...... 10 1:2. Tanzania Language Policy ...... 17 1:8. Background to the Study ...... 18 1:9. Statement of the Problem ...... 20 1:10. Objectives of the Study ...... 21 1:10:1. General Objective ...... 21 1:10:2. Specific Objectives ...... 21 1:11. The study Questions were:- ...... 22 1:12. Significance of the Study ...... 22 1:13. Scope of the Study ...... 22 1:14. Limitation of the Study ...... 23 1:15. Definitions of Terms and Concepts ...... 23

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 26 2:1. Introduction ...... 26 2:2. Language Contact ...... 26 2:2:1 Causes of Language Contact ...... 26 vi

2:2:2. Language Contact Characteristics ...... 29 2:2:3. Impact of Language Contact ...... 31 2:3. Literature Review ...... 40 2:4. Theoretical Framework ...... 45 2:5. Research Gap ...... 48 2:6. Conclusion ...... 49

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODS...... 50 3:1. Introduction ...... 50 3:2. Research Design ...... 50 3:3. Target Population ...... 50 3:4. Sample and Sampling Techniques ...... 51 3:4:1. The Sampling Techniques ...... 52 3:4:2 Data Collection Techniques ...... 52 3:4:2:1. Questionnaires; ...... 52 3:4:2:2. Interview ...... 53 3:4:2:3. Participant Observation ...... 54 3:5. Data Analysis ...... 55 3:6. Research Ethics ...... 55 3:7. Chapter Summary ...... 55

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ...... 56 5:1. Introduction ...... 56 5:2. Data Presentation, Analysis and Discussion ...... 56 4:3. Borrowing in Kinyaturu ...... 80 4:3:2. Functional Words ...... 86 4:4. Code Switching and Code Mixing ...... 88 4:5. Language Shift ...... 90 4:5:1. Phonological Shift or Modification ...... 93 4:7. Kinyaturu and Ethnobotanical Knowledge ...... 95 4:8. Kinyaturu and the Written Record ...... 96 4:9. Loss of Numbering in Kinyaturu ...... 98

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CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 99 5:1. Introduction ...... 99 5:2. Summary ...... 99 5:3. Suggestions and Recommendations for Further Researches...... 101 5:4. Conclusion: ...... 107 REFERENCES ...... 109 APPENDICES ...... 115

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Variations among Kinyaturu Major Dialects ...... 3 Table 2: Singida Region, Ikungi District and Mang‟onyi ward Population ...... 15 Table 3: The Informants‟ Profile ...... 51 Table 4: Respondents that were given Questionnaires ...... 53 Table 5: Showing interviewed Informants ...... 54 Table 6: Language Spoken by Informants in School ...... 56 Table 7: Why do you Speak that Language? ...... 59 Table 8: The Language mostly Spoken at Home or at the Market by the Respondents ...... 60 Table 9: Language used at Home and Market ...... 61 Table 10: Reasons for the Informants to Speak certain Language at Home/Market . 62 Table 11: How One feels if s/he is called by His or Her Home Name at School ...... 63 Table 12: The Language Spoken in the Church or Mosque ...... 65 Table 13: How one Feels when uses Kinyaturu at School ...... 67 Table 14: Ability of the Informants to Read, Count or Write in Kinyaturu ...... 68 Table 15: The Language that is more Important in Life ...... 69 Table 16: Do Youth like to Speak in Kinyaturu in Casual Conversation? ...... 71 Table 17: The Ability of Informants to Pray in Kinyaturu ...... 74 Table 18: Importance of ECLs in this era of Science and Technology ...... 79 Table 19: Borrowing for new Items and Ideas...... 82 Table 20: Borrowing as a Result of Overuse or Ignorance of Kinyaturu Word ...... 84 Table 21: Nyaturu Numbering ...... 98

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: The map of Tanzania-Political ...... 14 Figure 2: Singida Ethnic Map ...... 16 Figure 3: Primary School Placard ...... 58 Figure 4: Secondary School Placard ...... 58 Figure 5: Official Placard ...... 86 Figure 6: Ethnic groups of Tanzania ...... 144 Figure 7: Nyaturu Tradional House (Tembe) ...... 144 Figure 8: Nyaturu Warrior ...... 145 Figure 9: Nyaturu Working Tools ...... 145 Figure 10: Nyaturu Traditional Home Instruments ...... 146 Figure 11: Nyaturu Traditional Home Instruments ...... 146

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ECLs - Ethnic Community Langauges

L1 - First Language

L2 -Second Language

N- Number

NL2 - National Second Language

NL1 -First National Language

RC-Roman Catholic

UNESCO- United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation

UNO-United Nations Organisation

CHAPTER ONE

BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

1.0 Introduction

This study is all about the impacts of Kiswahili on other ethnic languages in

Tanzania; a country that has a diversity of ethnic languages which amounts to over

160 ((Languages of Tanzania Project 2009). The Swahili language is used all over the country, even in the isolated areas, and it has deeply penetrated Tanzanian society. It is the prevalent language in all public settings. The minority languages are only spoken at home, and are severely threatened by Swahili. In public areas, the minority languages are not at all heard; their usage is prohibited in education, and discouraged at political gatherings and religious meetings. They are not used by any radio or television station; and there are no newspapers published in any of them.

The political setting does not allow the use of the minority languages since their use is seen as a risk to national unity and as backward-looking… (Petzell 2012:4). The most recent survey of the Tanzanian linguistic situation states that there are 164 ethnic community languages in Tanzania (Languages of Tanzania Project 2009).

Ethnologue (an encyclopedic reference works, web-based as well as printed, cataloguing the world‟s languages) mentions 128 languages (Lewis 2009) and Maho and Sands 126 (2003). The reason for the diverging numbers is that many of the

Tanzanian languages are part of a dialect continuum (Legère 2007:43).

1.1 The Turu Overview:

Mdachi (1991) makes the following elaborations; The Nyaturu is one of ethnic among the group of Nilo-Hamites. Originally they are Bantu who lived in Abysnia which is Ethiopia today. While living there they were known as Warimi, the name

1 that is still known today. According to the tales or history up to now there is a tribe called Warimi in Ethiopia. (Mdachi 1991:7). (Literal translation by the researcher).

Mdachi continues that through the border of Kenya and Uganda they entered

Tanzania. This is the eastern part of Lake Victoria. After entering Mwanza they made their habitat in Uzinza later lived in Pasiansi also in Mwanza. In 1700 the

Sukuma came and made them migrate to Ntuzu east of Pasiansi…they did not like the place (Bariadi)… and continued journeying up to Singida region and district in place called Sepuka before dispersing to other parts of the region. (Mdachi 1991:7-

9). (translation by the researcher).

The Turu people comprise of three major dialects, the Airwana (Wilwana), the Vahi

(Wahi), and the small Anyiŋanyi (Wanying‟anyi). Each dialect is composed of several clans, such as the Anyahatι and Akahiυ of the Wahi. Status: 6a

(Vigorous). Alternate Names: Keremi, Kinyaturu, Kiremi, Kirimi, Limi, Remi,

Rimi. Lexical similarity: 63% with Nilamba [nim], 59% with Sukuma [suk], 58% with Nyamwezi [nym], 53% with Kimbu [kiv], 44% with

Sumbwa [suw]. Classification: Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-

Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Narrow Bantu, Central, F, Nyilamba-Langi

(F.32) Comments: Traditional religion, Christian, Muslim. (Ethnologue web-based language database).

It is worthy noting that the major variations or distinctions that differentiate these dialects is the tone especially strength and length in the pronunciation of words since the language is tonal in nature and differs extremely from each dialect. Also because of geographical dispersion or distance or other factors, each dialects has developed different names and words for the same items or ideas that are found in each 2 dialects. In order to get all these variations the researcher had to do extensive travelling in all Wards (Tarafa) of Singida and Ikungi districts because they are where Nyaturu live. The Wahi live in at least the whole of Ikungi district south and west of Singida municipality. Wailwana are found in Singida ditrict Northeast of

Singida and Wanying‟anyi also live in the east of Singida municipality in Singida district. The Visited wards were Mtinko, Ilongero, Mgori, Sepuka, Mungaa, Ihanja and Ikungi.

1.1.2 Variations among Dialects of Kinyaturu

Distinct variations were collected from the natural speakers of these dialects of

Kinyaturu during data collection. These words and phrases were collected mainly from interview sessions with the speakers of the dialects and from participant‟s observation during different occasions such as weddings and ceremonies, in the church and through casual talk.

The Table below indicates some notable variations among Kinyaturu dialects which are Chahi, Ilwana and Nying‟anyi and their translation in Kiswahili and English. It is therefore better to study them in isolation not as one language. This study was on

Chahi dialect.

Table 1: Variations among Kinyaturu Major Dialects

S/ CHAHI ILWANA NYING’ANYI KISWAHILI ENGLISH N 1 Anga kuta kuta lia kwa sauti Cry,shout 2 Anyu nyanyu anyu nani who 3 Babaa ibara ibara barabara road 4 Bhita iwa iwa sahau forget 5 Choa tua choa ipua remove

from fire 6 Chufya fyufya chufya chemsha boil 7 Dua/Dura manka manka kimbia run 8 Faghua fyaghua chaghua fagia sweep 9 Fanoi itungwee itungwee sasa hivi just now 10 Fuma dua doa toka (nje) go out 11 Funya duya duya toa Give out 12 Ghema sighaniya Inkhana fikiri/a think 13 Ginisya iisa isa cheza play 14 Gitambukio kifingo Gikoneo/kinyafi mlango wa fence gate ta uzio 15 Gitwi ikutwi Ikutwi sikio ear 16 Gitwika gitika gitika jitwika Carry on the head 17 Hafai afaa hafaa hapa here 18 Hefea ingia/hefera ingia ingia enter 19 Heyeya,Heey hegheya hegeya nyang‟anya grab,snatch a 20 Hura sida sida chukia Dislike, hate 21 Ighe, irie, irie yai an egg 22 Ija bhija bhija vizuri good, fine 23 Ikhondo iruma/iriom irioma nafasi space a 24 Ikuju/Ighemb ikujo isye jembe hoe e 25 Ikumbu idemu idimu Chumba cha boys‟ room wavulana 26 Inoo mughughu mughughu kinoleo sharpening stone 27 Isaa mwenda mweenda nguo cloth 28 Isamumba isune isine rapurapu Torny piece ofcloth 29 Isuki isukwi Isukwi boga pumpkin 30 Itana utana Gotana ita call 31 Khataa khota kataa choka Get tired

32 Khaya itoo itoo kaya household 33 Lughuu Uvia, ubhira bhira harusi wedding 34 Lya la laa kula eat 35 Madoo madoro manyamogho viazi sweet potato 36 Mahau maharu mahoo mchanga sand 37 Mahuri mihuri mahwii mchuzi soup 38 Mantama magimpukw magimpukwe mahindi maize i 39 Mausu mesusu miusu togwa unfermented juice 40 Maya maya maiva/miva maziwa milk 41 Mbua mbura mbura mvua rain 42 Mpande njughu njugo njugu mawe Peanut(bam bara) 43 Mughunda muunda munda shamba farm 44 Mukhekuu mukikuu mukiko mwanamke aged woman mzee 45 Mukhema mukima mukema mwanamke/mk woman/wife e 46 Musae si/semuda simuda zizi cattle fold 47 Musua,Mwaa jura jua nyoa shave 48 Muyi rufyu muyi kisu knife 49 Nanguu,Ino sufu sufuu sana,mno, very kabisa 50 Ng‟ongo italaghwe italaghwee jabali/mwamba big stone 51 Nhoo nhaa haa ndiyo yes 52 Niese/nimbes nisanee nisanene ingekuwa mimi if Iwere the e nee one.. 53 Niune,Wuune nighune,bhi nigunii najua,anajua I know,s/he - knows 54 Nkaanga nkhalanga nkaanga karanga groundnut 55 Rima rema gwima lima cultivate 56 Rugha ruga guga/uga pika cook (v) 57 Ruki vuki uki asali honey 58 Sima ika sankia shuka Come down

59 Simba sida sida nuna frown 60 Taana tang‟ana tang‟ana kutana meet 61 Tunguya bhuka uka Ondoka,nenda go 62 Ubhai ubhabhi Obhaye/ovavi maumivu pain 63 Ughai ughee ugee ugali stiff porridge 64 Ukumbi mpiimo Gompimo/unka nyuma ya Back of the ndo nyumba house 65 Waa rwaa rwaa ugua,umwa fall sick 66 Wagufie wagufee wagufee alikupa s/he gave you 67 Yaa ryaa riaa vaa wear 68 Yubha riubha yubha jua sun

Source: Field data 2015

1.1.3 Nyaturu Vowels and Consonants

Consonants S/N Sound word As in

Vowels 1 /ɚ/ ghula /ɚula/

Examples; 2 /f/ ufoo /ufo:/ 3 /h/ hela /hela/ /a/. as in anga (cry). 4 /j/ yiu /jiu/ /e/. as in eghegha (lie). 5 /ᶡ/ jilu /ᶡilu/ /i/. as in isumbi (guitar). 6 /k/ kuurya /ku:rya/ /o/. as in ona (see). 7 /l/ lade /lade/ /u/. as in ufanga (being 8 /m/ maya /maya/ alive). 9 /n/ nonke /nonke/ /u:/ as in muura (wild dog). 10 /ᶮ/ nyau /ᶮau /ɔ:/. as in nkhoo (sheep). 11 /ᵑ/ Ng‟imba /ᵑimba/ /a:/ as in ndaa (stomach). 12 /r/ ria /ria/ /ɜ:/. as in mabhee (breasts). 13 /s/ saya /saja/

14 /t/ tata /tata/

15 /tʃ/ chima /tʃima/

16 /w/ wane /wane/

17 /x/ khwema /khwema/

18 /β/ bhaanyu /βa:ᶮu/

Each language has its own unique or even same features peculiar to it or sometimes its features resemble that of another language. Here are some interesting features in

Kinyaturu which include affixation and other features.

 Plural formation

Examples; Singular Plural

i). muntu (person) antu (people)

ii). Mwana (child) vana/ana (children).

iii). Igwe (stone) magwe (stones).

iv). Riho (eye) miho (eyes).

v). mughosya (man) aghosya (men).

vi). mughunda (farm) mighunda (farms).

 Zero affixation in plural formation in some names

i). ng‟ombe (cow) ng‟ombe (cows)

ii).mburi (goat) mburi (goats)

iii). Njotã (star) njotã (stars).

iv). Mpua (nose) mpua (noses).

v). nyūmba (house) nyūmba (houses).

Negation

Examples: a). atīroghowe (she is not married) d). kutīroghoe (we are not married) b). ntiroghoe (I‟m not married) e). utīmanyie (you do not know.) c). vatīroghoe (they are not married.) f). tīveso (they are not the one)

g). tīrīo (not today)

 Possessives

i. Ane (mine)

ii. Akwe (hers/his)

iii. Itū (ours)

iv. Awe (theirs)

v. Ako (yours (singular)

vi. Anyu (yours (plural).

 Asking question

There are two ways of asking question in Kinyatutru; one is by addition of a

particle “na” at the end of the sentence and two by intonation i.e rising tone

at the end of the word.

Examples;

a. ujie fadio na? (Will you come tomorrow?)

b. walya na? (Have you eaten?)

c. unyanjitē na? (Do you love me?)

d. anyu usuu? (who is that?)

Nyaturu had no centralized state of organization before, during and after colonialism. In other words, Wanyaturu had no chiefdom leadership instead these people were organized in their kinship or clans which were led by council of elders whose duty was to counsel and settle different disputes among the people. As clans grew bigger one elder was selected by the elders among themselves as their chief

leader. The leadership was not inherited or passed on to the children but leaders were selected from the belief that it was a good luck for a person with peculiar qualities to be a leader and these were according to the religious leaders who were believed to possess powers to predict the future.

Mdachi (1991) says; “It should be understood that Nyaturu have no chiefdom. Every clan has elders who are known as “council” whose duty was to counsel and settle different disputes. When the clans increase in number they get one leader who is respected because of his works, brevity in war and this kind of leadership was not inherited but was a good luck from the “sun” according to what Nyaturu believe.

(Mdachi 1991:11). (translation by the researcher).

The truth also is that Nyaturu are aggressive people and warlike tribe especially before and during colonialism to the extent that it was difficult to be ruled. The explorer Stanley who appeared there in 1874 made the following remarks concerning these people which was written in the Tanzania Newspaper Notes and

Records N.68-71 July 1969; “Jellicoe found herself in battle (with the Turu) unexpectedly. Also the Arabs who were the first to enter the land of Turu seeking for grain were harshly chased. (Mdachi 1991:12). In order to suppress aggression of these people, the Germans had to build permanent strongholds and armoury at

Kilimatinde in Singida.

1.4 Naming Tradition in Nyaturu

Giving names to the new born babies is closely associated with the culture of a certain society and the playing agent is language. Each community has its own ways, reasons and system of naming infants. The Nyaturu people also have the following criteria in giving these labels and identity to their kids:-

Inheritance (heritage)

This is the most common system of naming children whereby a new born baby is always given the name of one of the names of a member of the clan. This can be a grand/mother/father, aunt, uncle, or any other close relative. The purpose being to increase and sustain the existence of a particular family, clan and a tribe. The elders of the family or clan are responsible since they carry the knowledge and experience of their family. The names given alternate in both sides which is father and mother lineage. It is important to note here that Nyaturu are patrilineal that means they trace descent through the male line. Emphasis and priority is given first to the close related deceased‟s relatives.

The second factor is the major events that occur at the time of giving birth to a child. In other words new born babies are given the names of the event that occurred at the time of birth. In fact, most of the Nyaturu names are the names of events and the aim being to keep the record of events in the society. They are the same names which later are passed on to the new generation to make sure that the names of the foregone parents are kept within the community. The event can be economic, political, social, natural or religious one.

Examples:-

Economic and season related names

 Ntandu, boy born during weeding season,

 Limangi, girl born during weeding period

 Mkuki, born during raking or preparation of farms

 Munada, born at the market day

Natural events related names

 Mbua, a child born during rainy season

 Langu, born on the cloudy day

 Chima, born when rain stops for a short period of time

Social events related names

 Ilanda, a child born during traditional dances (boy)

 Mpunda, twin born girl

 Ngoi, Mwangoi, born during big festival or ceremony (boy)

Political events related names

 Urughu, a boy born during the war

 Mutawala, a boy who was born during the visit of the notable leader

 Nyerere, or any name of a political leader who visits the place when the baby

is born

Religious related names

 Mboto, sign of blessing from God

 Mwankhoo, a child born when there was ritual or sacrifice of lamb to the

gods.

 All Christian and Muslim names which dominate today to identify affiliation

Note:- The above examples of names are mostly for boys and in order for a baby girl to bear the name with the same meaning, then that name must be preceded by a particle “Nya-“, hence Nyachima, Nyambua, Nyailanda, Nyantandu, Nyaurughu respectively. As it was hinted earlier that this society is male-lined-oriented where 12

female are taken so lightly with little chance of decision making; they are taken and grouped with children even the punishment of both female and children were the same, the beatings. The matters pertaining to them were decided by men (male) including what to do and marriage.

Other names are associated with certain creatures that occurred or have certain ties with the birth of the child; such names include; Nkuwi (dove), Mpiti (hyena),

Ng‟imba (lion),Ndoghwe (donkey), Njaghamba (bullcow), Ng‟wii (leopard), Nduu

(antelope), to mention a few. It is wise to say that naming children in Turu society carry both identity and language of the community through their meanings that distinguish it from other societies and languages.

In regard to climate of Singida region, there are two key features which are temperature and rainfall. The region forms part of the semi- arid central zone of

Tanzania which experiences low rainfall and short rainy seasons which are often erratic with fairly wide spread drought in one year out of four. The total rainfall ranges from 500mm to 800mm per annum with high geographical, seasonal and annual variations. There are two rather well defined seasons, the short rainy season during the months of December to March which sometimes goes as far as April and the long dry season from April to November.

The map of Tanzania below shows the location of Singida region as the homeplace of Nyaturu under study.

Figure 1: The map of Tanzania-Political

Source: Website; Tanzania map.com

Singida region is bordered to the North by Shinyanga Region, to the Northeast by

Manyara Region, to the East by Dodoma Region, to the Southeast by Iringa Region, to the Southwest by Mbeya Region and to the West by Tabora Region. Singida is itself a region, a district, and a town.

It is accessible from Arusha through Babati and Kateshi in Manyara Region; Dar es salaam, Iringa and Mbeya through Dodoma and Tabora, Shinyanga and Mwanza through Nzega and Igunga in Tabora Region. All the roads are passable all the year round, because the connections to Arusha, Dodoma and Mbeya and are tarmac. Also connection to Shinyanga, Mwanza and Tabora via Nzega is passable all the year round. Singida region is located below the equator between latitudes 3052‟ and

7034‟. Longitudinally the region is situated between 33027‟ and 350 26‟ east of

Greenwich.

The region has a total surface area of 49,438 km2 out of which 95.5 km2 or 0.19 percent are covered by water bodies of Lake Eyasi, Kitangiri, Singidani, Kindai,

Muyanji and Balengida. The remaining 49,342.5 km2 is land area. Singida region is deemed to be neither small nor big. It is the 13th in size of all the rebgions of

Tanzania and occupies about 5.6 percent of mainland Tanzania's total area of

881,289 sq. km

Table 2. Singida Region, Ikungi District and Mang’onyi ward Population

Total Male Female Aver Sex H/hold Singida Region Ratio Size 1,370,637 677,995 692,642 5.3 98 Ikungi D/Council 272,959 136,178 136,781 5.6 100 Mang'onyi ward 14,962 7,903 7,059 4.9 112

Source: Tanzania National Census 2012

The map of Singida region below indicates the position of Nyaturu ethnic group in the region among other ethnic communities found in Singida. They are indicated in green as their sole homeplace, but it should be understood that they are found in quite a big number in communities as well.

Figure 2. Singida ethnic Map

Source: Singida Region Ethnographic Museum

The major economic activities for Nyaturu are crop and animal husbandry. For agriculture, the activity begins by clearing and cleaning the farms and burning all the collected unwanted things. Normally women make the cutting of the unwanted materials and men are responsible for collecting and burning them. This work starts in September and October.

The major crops grown in Singida are such as maize, finger millet, sweet potato and sunflower. The second activity done by Nyaturu is pastoralism; they are one of the giant animal owners in Tanzania, and these animals being cows, goats, sheep,

donkey and pets like dogs and cats. Other auxiliary activities are like pottery and iron smithery are technical and they are done by professionals who are very few.

1.2 Tanzania Language Policy

The language policy in education in Tanzania as a whole can however be described in the words of Brock-Utne and Holmarsdottir (2003), as confusing, contradictory and ambiguous. Unlike many African countries, Tanzania opted quite early to intensify and extend the use of an indigenous language as a lingua franca in the social and political realms. The country‟s 1962 constitution, which has since been amended more than 13 times, only mentions Kiswahili and English as the official languages. The official language in education policy is spelt out in the education policy.

The policy recognizes Kiswahili as the medium of instruction in all public pre- primary and primary schools. Accordingly, English is taught as a compulsory subject at these levels of education. It is expected that at the end of the seven year cycle of primary education pupils would have attained sufficient oral and written

English proficiency to handle the rigours of English as the medium of instruction in secondary and post-secondary education. With the exception of teaching other approved languages, English is identified as the medium of instruction at secondary, advanced and tertiary levels of education. Kiswahili is a compulsory subject up to ordinary level, though it is taught as a subject up to university level (Ministry of

Education and Culture, 1995).

From this policy one can note that there is no place for ethnic community languages that is reserved by the policy. Therefore it is left with the users to learn their native

languages in their own. Given this place and position of community languages, people are torn between two ways especially the new generation whether to learn their mother tongues without any motivation or cope with the most favoured languages that is Kiswahili and English.

According to the 1997 Sera ya Utamaduni, (Cultural Policy) The Policy Statement;

1. Language 1.2 Vernacular Languages 1.2.1 It is stipulated as follows: Our people shall continue to use and be proud of their vernacular languages 1.2.2 Communities, private and public organizations shall be encouraged to research, write, preserve and translate vernacular languages into other languages 1.2.3 The writings of vernacular language dictionaries and grammar books shall be encouraged 1.2.4 Public and private organizations shall be encouraged to publish and disseminate vernacular language materials. The policy is discussed exhaustively in chapter five.

1.8 Background to the Study

Chahi is threatened to extinction every day by the growing Kiswahili, technological development and people‟s mobility within and outside Chahi physical and social geography. The government has not shown any plan to boost Chahi in terms of its use and users, something which is the same with other ethnic community languages.

It has left a loop hole for individual people, institutions and organizations in and outside government formalities to research and document these ethnic community languages as per nation language policy of 1997.

Because of the contact with Kiswahili which has a higher status and is favoured by the Government language policy, the impact is that there are a lot of Linguistic changes in Chahi in many areas as people strive and struggle to cope with the swing of Kiswahili especially the young generation. Also another impact is the linguistic 18

situation where some patriotic native speakers try to maintain some domains of use at the same time using Kiswahili in other domains robbed by it. There is a kind of mild language shift since native speakers move from using Kinyaturu in all spheres of life; and Kiswahili takes over other domains from Kinyaturu. Gradually but surely with time, this generation will lose a lot in Chahi in favour of Kiswahili. There is no any tangible academic work done about Kinyaturu up to this juncture except the few outdated notes made by whites during colonialism.

When a language dies, a specific understanding of the world and a culture formed over centuries and even millennia dies with it. Every second week a language dies. It does so after a period of decline, as one speaker after another passes away until, eventually, only a sole keeper of thousands of years of knowledge and culture remains. When that person dies, a civilisation dies with them.(Al Jazeera 2012-04-

18:) It is added that; Humanity today is facing a massive extinction: languages are disappearing at an unprecedented pace, and when that happens, a unique vision of the world is lost. With every language that dies we lose an enormous cultural heritage; the understanding of how humans relate to the world around us; scientific, medical and botanical knowledge; and most importantly, we lose the expression of communities‟ humour, love and life. In short, we lose the testimony of centuries of life.

Another quotation as noted by UNESCO:-„I dream in Chamicuro, but I cannot tell my dreams to anyone, because no one else speaks Chamicuro. It‟s lonely being the last one.‟(Natalia Sangama,a Chamicuro grandmother, 1999)UNESCO Ad Hoc

Expert Group on Endangered Languages).

Being streamed to the most informal and insignificant domains of usage, a deliberate effort must be done to rescue Chahi items which are about or already replaced by

Kiswahili items. Two things go simultaneously here, one, that the language is overlapped by Kiswahili and two; there is a room for researchers, linguists, anthropologists, students, sociologists or any other group to work on the language researches and documentation. It is from this burning urge that now is a high time for Chahi to be researched, commented and documented though to a very minimal and negligible degree, but this can be the stepping stone for fruitful journey towards recognition of the language among scholars.

1.9 Statement of the Problem

The major problem with Kinyaturu today is that its domains of use are being taken over by Kiswahili. The contact of two languages, one with higher status (Kiswahili) in all areas of life, and Kinyaturu restricted, marginalized and confined within a small geographical, social location and within informal domains, people tend to associate themselves with the advantaged language. Kiswahili dominance has a grave impact on Kinyaturu since speakers are forced by circumstance in school, business and daily interaction to use Kiswahili within and outside Kinyaturu environment. The speakers diverge from the rules of Kinyaturu trying to swahilize

Kinyaturu in order to cope with modernity. Young people without elders to give them natural Kinyaturu and lack of Kinyaturu lexicon, this young group speaks their own kind of Kinyaturu influenced by a lot of Kiswahili items and structures. With this trend the projection is that at the end of the day, they will continue to lose native

Kinyaturu lexical items, morphology and structures and even total change of attitude towards their ECL.

Barton and Hamilton (1998), state that “a growing body of research suggests that within some communities, language shift is occurring as minority languages are pushed out of their normative functions by more dominant, powerful and often higher valued language. People have already shifted to using Kiswahili in many formal situations and Kinyaturu is gradually becoming the language of home and some casual talks and Kiswahili shadowing every formal domain of language use.

This problem starts at an individual level since one carries wrong perception and attitude towards language use. It concurs with the quotation; "You don't lose your language because somebody has taken it away," "You lose it when you refuse to pick it up yourself."(Sophie Pierre, former chief of the Ktunaxa nation). UN estimates that half of the languages spoken today have fewer than 10,000 speakers and that quarter have fewer than 1,000 speakers and that unless there are some efforts to maintain them over the next hundred years, most of these will become extinct.

Pokhrel (2009:118).

1.10 Objectives of the Study

1.10.1 General Objective

The general objective of this study was to investigate the impact of Kiswahili on

Chahi dialect of Kinyaturu language

1.10.2 Specific Objectives

The Specific Objectives of this Study were: i. To identify the domains of use of Kinyaturu ii. To identify the domains of use of Kiswahili in Nyaturu society. iii. To assess the causes for the Kinyaturu native speakers to use Kiswahili in

Kinyaturu environment.

iv. To evaluate the Socio-Linguistic impacts of Kiswahili on Kinyaturu.

1.11 The study Questions were:-

The following were the study questions: i.In what situations and spheres is Swahili used nowadays by Kinyaturu speakers? ii.What are the motives behind usage of Kiswahili words and structures instead of

Kinyaturu ones?

Iii.What Socio-Linguistic impacts does Kiswahili have on Kinyaturu as a result of language contact?

1.12 Significance of the Study

The research puts and adds information to the body of knowledge concerning the impacts of language contact that lead to language shift, maintenance or death. This work will be significant to the students of Linguistics, researchers, sociologists, academic institutions and more or less Nyaturu people and anyone who will get access to this study. It will be beneficial to them because it underlines most possible areas of language use for Kinyaturu and Kiswahili today and the reasons behind all these. The work also will enrich other works in the future with the valuable data for further researches on the language contact that will be having grounds as that of

Kinyaturu.

1.13 Scope of the Study

The study aimed at assessing the impact of Kiswahili on Kinyaturu. It was conducted in Mang‟onyi and Mwau villages in Ikungi District in Singida Region.

The concentration was on tracing Nyaturu attitude towards their language, identify

and assess the domains of use of both Kiswahili and Kinyaturu, sociolinguistic aspects of language in relation to the contact between the two languages.

1.14 Limitation of the Study

Singida is a big region covering a very large area, and therefore it was very difficult for the researcher to cover all the potenteial areas where native speakers of the language live. Because of large geographical dispersion of the Nyaturu, there are some variations in the language they use which in fact appear to be some dialects of

Kinyaturu and if this persists, they will become new languages altogether. The research was done only on one dialect which is Chahi in the Southern central part of the region and only in one district and only in representative villages notably

Mang‟onyi ward. From other dialects, the researcher tried to draw a good list of variations found therein from the real native knowledgeable speakers. Another major limitation was the absence of enough written documents on Wanyaturu and their language something which made this research to rely heavily on oral representation, fewer literatures, experience of the informants and keen participant observation.

1.15 Definitions of Terms and Concepts

Language contact. This is a situation where speakers of different languages come into contact. Thomason S. G. (2001), in the simplest definition, language contact is the use of more than one language in the same place at the same time.

Borrowing Haugen (1950:212), defines borrowing as “the attempted reproduction of patterns previously found in another language”.

Code-switching refers to the use of two different languages within the same utterance. It is a situation where we use two distinct codes in our discourse. This happens very often among bilinguals who often switch between their languages in the middle of the same conversation. Gumperz (1982:59), defines it as “the juxtaposition within the same speech exchange of passages of speech belonging to two different grammatical systems or subsystems”. Trudgill defines it as the process whereby speakers indulge in code switching between languages of such rapidity and density, even within sentences and phrases that it is not really possible to say at any given time which language they are speaking”. Hamer and Blanc (1983), code switching is a form of incompetence in both languages. This is because the speaker shifts from one code to another as a result of his lack of competence in one or another language.

Language shift: Language shift "is the process whereby a speech community of a language shifts to speaking another language." Language shift is sometimes referred to as language transfer or language replacement or assimilation, denoting the continuing use of a language in the face of competition from a regionally and socially more powerful language".

Mohamed (2007:215), defines language shift as “a process whereby people who habitually speak one language most of the time the minority language, switch to speaking another language, the majority language, and in the process give up using their first language”.

Language maintenance A situation in which a speaker, a group of speakers or speech community continue to use their language in some or all spheres of life

despite the competition with the dominant or majority language to become the only language in these spheres.

Language death: A Language dies when nobody speaks it any more. A Language is said to be dead when no one speaks it anymore...as speakers cannot demonstrate their fluency if they have no one to talk to. (Crystal 2000:4). "Language death occurs in unstable bilingual or multilingual speech communities as a result of language shift from a regressive minority language to a dominant majority language."(Dressler,

1988). Since language is closely linked to culture, loss of language is often accompanied by social and cultural disruptions.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

The chapter reviews different readings that have direct relationship with this study.

It also states the theoretical framework; that is theory that guided this study. The section ends with research gap that is left by other works and has given room for this research to be done.

2.2 Language Contact

Language contact means that the speakers of different languages come into contact something which causes the use of more than one language at the same place and the same time. It is the same with Kinyaturu and Kiswahili where these languages are spoken at the same place and the same time among Nyaturu community. Each language plays its roles in different domains of language use. The causes and reasons for the language contact differ from place to place although in this work only the factors that relate to Kinyaturu were revealed during the study and are given below:-

2.2.1 Causes of Language Contact

Myers-Scotton (2006:53) which argues that; in every case, an outcome of migration has been bilingualism in the mother tongue and dominant language of the nation receiving the immigrants. She argues that not all first generation of immigrants become bilingual, but it is almost always a feature of the second generation with a likely reversion to monolingualism by the third generation.

Legal related factors: Sometimes the contact between the languages is enforced by the law in a society. For instance with the case of English and Kiswahili in Tanzania where these languages are official languages serving different purposes and roles in the country. This has left ECLs outside the formal settings and therefore forces the speakers of ECLs to hunt for the learning of Kiswahili and English sometimes at costly means.

This is also the case with Kinyaturu which like other ECLs is left outside formal settings by the official and legal policies and therefore making Kinyaturu speakers take Kiswahili as the alternative language to meet the needs of communication especially formal ones.

Insufficiency of language unto themselves: According to Sappir (1921), languages just like culture are always not sufficient unto themselves and therefore cause intercourse bringing speakers into direct or indirect contact with neighbouring or cultural dominant languages. This intercourse can be friendly or hostile. Sappir cites examples of how English has heavily borrowed from Norman French during

Norman invasions into England. Example; -ess in princess, -ard in drunkard, -ty in loyalty to mention a few. Kayigema (2010) gives the example of Kinyarwanda which has got influence from English and French which has also entered and modified Kinyarwanda lexicon and structure.

In the case of Kinyaturu, because of many new items and culture, these caused

Kinyaturu to assimilate many Kiswahili words and structure in order to fulfill communication purpose. Words such as Bibilia, Kitabu.

Education: „Education is the force that brings people together in different societies

‟(Myers-Scotton 2006:6). This forces or makes people learn the language that is the medium of instruction for the purpose of possible conversation at school setting.

This is also called “learned contact” by Thomason (2001:20). Thomason gives Latin as an example of language of international diplomacy in Europe throughout the

Middle Ages and Renaissence time up to 1600. She also gives an example of

English in the modern time world as the most widespread lingua franca in the world today which necessitates most people in the world people to learn it alongside their languages.

Colonialism: The common agreed definition of colonialism is the state of one

(always powerful) group or nation crosses its borders and dominates another (always weak ) group or nation and have dominion in all spheres of life such as economic, social, political and cultural. The master nation in most cases comes with their languages which were considered superior to that of the colonized. Thomason

(2001:16) goes further by considering even the invasion as one of the cause of the language contact by giving the evidence of Alexander the Great‟s armies (356-323) that brought Greek into contact with Indic languages in Punjab.

Myers-Scotton (2001:58) says even today European languages are official or co- official languages alongside one or more indigeneous languages among the former colonies. Rubagumya (1990), postulates that British introduced Kiswahili as a language of instruction in the last three years of the primary school education and

English throughout secondary school education in Tanganyika.

Colonialism has left permanent effects to its ex-colonial societies which is the attitude towards ECLs which is always negative associated with inferiority 28

mentality. Nyaturu feel fit and modern with Kiswahili not Kinyaturu that makes

Kiswahili to be spoken in all major domains of language use.

2.2.2 Language Contact characteristics

This part explains what happens in a situation of language contact, how language and language speakers behave in the place where more languages of different status exist. In this situation, language and language users influence each other.

Thomson G S (2001), gives the following features or characteristics:-

Assimilation

Assimilation is a process in which a group gradually gives up its own language, culture and system of values and takes on those of another group with a different language, culture and system of value through a period of interaction (Crystal, 1991)

They assimilate the language first then their culture gradually and as a result, they lose their language. As a result linguistic minorities have remained socially excluded from harnessing national benefits in fields such as politics, economy, education, employment and so on. Promotion of one language, one religion, one dress and mono-cultural nationalism by the state not only hurt the culture of these people but it effectively marginalized them in economic, political and social realms (Bhattachan,

1995).

Acculturation

This is a process in which changes in language, culture and system of value of a group happen through interaction with a different language, culture and system of values. (Crystal, 1991). It leads them to abandon their native language.

In the Nyaturu community, when one behaves different such as using more

Kiswahili than Kinyaturu is termed as “Mswahili” which implies one to have adopted new culture. People feel good with Kiswahili because it is accompanied with modernity.

Social-distance

The feeling a person has that his or her social position is relatively similar to or relatively different from the social position of someone else. The social distance between two different groups or communities influence communication between them and may affect the way one group learns the language of another (for example, an immigrant group learning the language of the dominant group in a country).

Social distance may depend on such factors as differences in the size, ethnic origin, political status, social status of two groups (Crystal, 1991). They could not use their own language in interaction and gradually they forgot their own language.

Today among Nyaturu, anyone who has gone to the towns, cities or is educated automatically creates social distance with those at the rural areas because they are taken as people with different status.

Linguistic and Cultural Hegemony

Linguistic hegemony is achieved when dominant groups create a consensus by convincing others to accept their language norms and usage as standard or model.

Hegemony is ensured when they can convince those who fail to meet those standards to view their own language. Schools have been the principle instruments in promoting a consensus regarding the alleged superiority of standardized language

(Wiley, in Mckay and Hornberger, 2007:113). Similarly, cultural hegemony is a philosophical and sociological concept, originated by the Marxist philosopher 30

Antonia Gramsci, that a culturally diverse society can be ruled or dominated by one of its social classes. It is the dominance of one social group over another e.g. the ruling class over all other classes. The ideas of the ruling class to be seen as the norm, they are seen as universal ideologies, perceived to benefit everyone whilst only really benefiting the ruling class. As a result, they lost their native language.

Sociobiology (Reproductive fitness)

According to sociobiology when one loses its reproductive fitness it ultimately dies out. Similarly, like what happened to Pahari language lost its reproductive fitness and the speakers gradually abandoned the language. Those Paharis who could speak

Pahari language felt that they could not express themselves full with the help of their own language and they might have adopted words from Nepali language. It shows that the language lost its productive fitness and its speakers felt disadvantaged. So they did not practice it and gradually lost their own language.

2.2.3 Impact of Language Contact

This section higligths what happens when languages come into contact. Impact of language with different status appears to be used in one place. When languages come into contact they tend to affect and influence each other positively or negatively depending on the strength of the language i.e. the status, attitude of the speakers towards the given language, political or economic position of the speakers to mention a few.

When two languages come into contact normally the impact can be observed in two areas which are impact at the individual person and impact at the level of the community at large. This impact can be noticed as language shift and language

maintenance as Masinde (2012) has made different observation from different scholars as follows:-

Language Shift

Batibo (2005:94) among many observations he has made, stipulates that usually, national or regional lingua francas that are being used as inter-ethnic languages for trade, education, administration, mass media or urban communication tend to attract speakers from other more localized languages. Baker (2006:75) and Batibo

(2005:87) assert that, language shift results when speakers abandon their language, willingly or under pressure, in favour of another language, which then takes over as their means of communication and socialization. They argue that most parents wish their children to have proficiency in the ex-colonial languages to improve their chances of social promotion and economic advancement even at the expense of their mother tongues. However, in many African communities, the ex-colonial languages like English in Tanzania are restricted to a small proportion of the elites. The only prestigious language would therefore be the prominent lingua franca or L2 as it is for Kiswahili. It has been argued by many scholars that in many cases, parents want their children to be proficient in L2 instead of ECLs; such an attitude contributes greatly to the language shift process.

Reasons and Effects of Language Shift

The negative attitudes towards the language. This can also accelerate language shift. It occurs where the ethnic language is not highly valued and is not seen as a symbol of identity. As stated by Holmes, young people are the fastest to shift languages. Teenagers in some big cities gradually abandon their mother tongue in daily communication. They are required to choose different varieties when talking to different people. In addition, they feel more prestigious when using Kiswahili or 32

even English than when using their first language. Teenagers nowadays want to be a part of a global community. Therefore, they do not have the need to show their identity by using what they term as local languages. If this continues, they will eventually lose their ability to speak them.

Language shift is caused by economic reason. Holmes says that job seekers see the importance of learning a new language which is widely used in business. The high demand from industries for employees with fluent English has successfully encouraged job seekers to equip themselves with English. In fact, being competent in English leads to well-paid jobs. This factor can be connected with the need of education since people tend to associate themselves with the most marketable language that will connect them to certain status and employment and therefore learn it to meet the purpose.

Political factor imposes on language shift. In a multilingual country, the authority usually chooses one language as the lingua franca to unify various kinds of ethnic groups. Consequently, the number of ethnic language speakers decreases. As an example, the political situation in 1947 led to the partition of India. Sindhi Hindus fled from the Sind. They spoke Sindhi at home but had to adopt the local languages.

This process has led to language displacement leading to language loss among the

Sindhis (Bayer, 2005). Another example, the official languages of many African countries was determined by their former colonialists. Those languages replace

African tribal languages. Both examples show how they experience language shift.

(Kuncha and Bathula, 2004:186). For the case of Tanzania the choice of official language was not of colonial language, but rather of Kiswahili which has affected the use of ECLs by many Tanzanians especially young people.

Masinde (2012) in his study has added the following more factors for Language

Shift and Maintenance;

Urbanization

This is the shift from rural to urban society. It is increasing in both the developed and developing countries and today issues of immigration, business travel and education are major forces bringing peoples together. Migration to the major centres is the outcome of social, economic and political developments that lead to urban concentration and growth of large cities (Pantuliano, 2011:10). In many developing countries, of Africa in particular, it is rural poverty that drives people from the rural areas into the city (Pantuliano, 2011:12). People are pushed out by factors such as poverty, environmental degradation, food insecurity and lack of basic infrastructures and services in the rural areas. They are pulled into the urban areas by the advantages and opportunities of the city including search of employment, food, shelter, education, electricity and water. In turn, all this movement have got impact on language change because migrants tend to abandon their own languages and adopt new language that attracts more possibilities to employment opportunities or because of lack of their tribe mate to talk to.

Marriage

Anderson (2010:247) defines marriage as the union of a man and a woman who makes a permanent and exclusive commitment to each other of the type that is naturally fulfilled by bearing and rearing children together. It can also be seen as a social contract between two individuals who unite their lives legally, economically, and emotionally. Dribe (2005:2) portrays marriage as an intimate and long-term

relationship that does not only concern the married spouses and children but also relatives.

Thornhill (1993:2) categorizes marriage into two; exogamy, marriage between spouses of different ethnic groups and endogamy, i.e. marriage within a social group. Different marriage patterns have different implications for married women and their social interactions (Desai, 2006:8-9). Exogamous marriage generally uproots women from their natal home after the marriage, while under endogamous marriage, women remain in contacts with their natal home and other social networks developed before the marriage. Therefore, women under endogamous marriage may have more social and moral support than their counterparts under exogamous marriage.

Endogamous

Van-Aswegen (2008:4) sees endogamy as a practice of marrying within a specific ethnic group, class, or social group, rejecting others on such basis as being unsuitable for marriage or other close personal relationships. Endogamy is common in many cultures and ethnic groups. Marriage is considered endogamous if spouses share a common ancestry and several ethnic religious groups are traditionally more endogamous.

Marriage to someone of the same country of origin remains an important measure of ethnic attachment since it is not only a result of having many fellow ethnics in one‟s social circle, but also a cause. Furtado and Theodoropoulos (2008:10) see intermarriage as a final step in the immigrant assimilation process and that veterans were less likely to marry endogamously whereas older people were more likely to be in endogamous marriages. 35

Social norms governing marriage play critical roles in preserving the ethnic status quo in ethnically stratified societies. When individuals marry someone of the same ethnic group, they guarantee ethnic similarities within families across generations and the stability of ethnic groups in society.

Sitalaxim (2003:674-75) reports that, Indian human population structure was defined by numerous endogamous castes and tribes. Endogamy was more likely to happen between immigrants rather than between an immigrant and a native-born hence immigrants would still choose endogamy even when they did not have the same religion with their spouse. Education showed no significant effects because educated people were seen to be able to adapt to different cultures, making them more likely to marry outside of their ethnicity (cultural adaptability effect), and since they were less likely to reside in ethnic enclaves, meeting potential spouses of the same ethnicity could be difficult. Joseph (2005:3) on the other hand reports that, more than 90% of marriages in West Africa have been within or between ethnic units in order to maintain their ethnic status and identity. It was a common practice for migrants to return to their home communities to obtain a mate. Social pressure for ethnic endogamy has thus been strong and it persists among all social groups, even at the elite level.

Exogamous

Exogamy is a social arrangement where marriage is allowed only outside of a social group (Thornhill, 1993:3). The social groups define the scope and extent of exogamy, and the rules and enforcement mechanisms that ensure its continuity. In social studies, exogamy is viewed as a combination of two related aspects: biological and cultural. Biological exogamy is marriage of non blood-related beings,

regulated by forms of 32 incest law. Cultural exogamy is the marrying outside of a specific cultural group. On the other hand, Pei-Hua (2011:5) regards exogamy as an indicator predicting whether immigrants and native-born have crossed the ethnic boundaries in the host country.

Dorian (2006:445) asserts that, extreme multilingualism was a well-recognized phenomenon where obligatory exogamous marriage practices prevailed, members of any one of a number of language communities in a particular region could contract marriages only with members of a different language community. Thomason

(2001:23) provides the example of a more permanent contact situation where a systematic exogamy was practised by groups like the Dhuwal of Australia who produced multilingual children and then adults, and continued to do so as long as exogamy was dictated by the group‟s norms. The intergroup marriages unite people who speak different languages. The Navajos of southwestern United States practise a form of exogamy, but the intergroup marriage forbid marrying within clans, and all the clans speak Navajo.

Van-Aswegen (2008:94) conducted a study on language maintenance and shifts in

Maale people of Ethiopia and discovered that, the levels of education of Asian immigrants‟ fathers‟ showed significant effects on exogamy. For example, immigrants whose fathers have a high school graduate education were about twice more likely than those with a father of college or university graduate to choose exogamy. Asian immigrants of both generations who chose exogamy were more likely to have a spouse born outside of Canada, which meant the spouse could be an immigrant as well.

Another study was conducted by Romaine (1995:42) in Wales-England and discovered the incidence of language group exogamy has increased to the point where there are 33 almost as many marriages where only one spouse speaks Welsh and there are those who both speak Welsh. She (ibid) saw that mothers in mixed marriages have a better chance of passing Welsh on to their children than Welsh speaking-fathers.

However, it was noted from the literature that, most of the works done on the study of ECLs do not reveal anything about the status of ECLs at the family level. In the case of endogamous and exogamous families, very little has been done or given much emphasis in Tanzania. The studies which seem to have dealt with endogamous and exogamous issues include those done by Dorian (2006) and Sitalaxim (2003) mostly have been conducted largely outside Tanzania. In Tanzania, only some generalizations have been made by researchers who just studied ECLs in comparison to other languages such as Kiswahili and English, mainly looking at the society in general.

Language Attitude

The question of attitude also depends on the way the speakers view their language in relation to other languages. The language attitudes of the speakers play an important role as strong resistance to language shift and this is usually only possible if speakers have a positive attitude to their language and hold it in high regard. Batibo

(2005:97) comments that, monolingual speakers usually have only one attitude towards their language because they have no other languages to compare it with.

Such an attitude would normally be positive as they see their language as a central means for communication, socialization and ethnic identity. The more prestigious a

language, the more positive the 34 speakers‟ attitude is towards it and the less prestigious a language, the more negative the attitude is, hence speakers easily cultivate negative attitudes towards them and encourage their children to learn the more prestigious language.

However, according to Batibo (2005:97) as quoted by Masinde (2012), where speakers become bilingual; there were tendencies to develop different attitudes to each of the languages used. These attitudes, whether positive or negative, would normally depend on the degree of symbolic or socio-economic value manifested by each language. Usually L1 would have symbolic value as a mother tongue and language of ethnic identity but will usually have little or no socio-economic prestige, and L2 as the second language, might have socio-economic value as the inter-ethnic language and might be associated with trade, education, employment or administration.

To sum up, language shift is an interesting and inevitable linguistic phenomenon.The factors which trigger the shift vary from one language community to another. Some of them are demographic, attitude, economic, social, and political factors. (Kuncha and Bathula, 2004:186)

Language Maintenance

Language maintenance is a situation in which a language maintains its vitality, even under pressure. It implies according to Batibo (2005:102) and Baker (2006:75) that, the degree of resistance is strong enough to contain any pressure that may be coming from a dominant language. The stability should be in a number and distribution of its speakers, its proficient usage by children and adults, and its retention in specific domains (e.g. home, school, religion e.t.c). It is expected, in a situation of language 39

maintenance, that the domains of ECLs remain largely the same and transmission of the language to the children should be active and as perfect as possible.

To maintain the language, speakers must find some value in the language so that continuing to transmit it to the younger generations was felt to be worthwhile.

Batibo (2005:101) identifies that, where a language was felt to have little socio- economic value or social prestige, speakers would put up little resistance and were more inclined to 23 abandon it in favour of one with greater prestige. So the most vulnerable languages were the small, marginalized ones as they lacked demographic power, economic attractions or social status of dominant languages.

The speaker‟s attitude in language maintenance is something of great importance because the speakers of a language hold the key to either abandonment of their language, or transmission of the language to their children and the expansion or reduction of the domains in which it was used. However, Smieja (2000:63) says that, the speakers‟ attitudes depend heavily on the status and prestige of their language and that language maintenance is difficult where there is a substantial influence from a dominant language.

2.3 Literature Review

This part comprises of a numerous number of literatures that directly talk of the subject; that is how different people and scholars have dealt with the matter of relationship between two languages in one environment where one is favoured and the other suffers no attention of the formal settings. The situation where two languages co-exist in a community, one coated with positive attributes and the other is strategically unwanted regardless of its number of native speakers. Again there

are other worthy readings that though not directly deal with the topic, but in one way or another have a valuable say on the matter.

Msanjila (2003), has the following remarkable statement; that before independence of Tanganyika (now Tanzania) (in 1961), ethnic community languages had higher status than they are today. This was so because these languages were used in the lower level administration. (Translation by researcher).

“Language is the essence of culture, and no culture exists without it; when a people‟s language is perceived to be threatened, the defensive response often is passionate and protective”. (Blij 1996:261). He adds that; “such passion is not felt only by small groups whose language is threatened by extinction (of which there are many), it also exhibited by cultures whose languages are spoken by the tens even hundreds of millions…as former French president Georges Pompidou, once stated that, “It is through our language that we exist in the world other than as just another country”… ” In a very simple definition, culture is the total way of life, it carries all the values of a certain society, and this is only possible with the use of language. That means threatening a language is threatening culture and hence threatening the society. Languages that are restricted to a few non-formal domains does not necessarily imply that the speakers constitute a minority numerically, but that the languages are marginalized and subordinated to Swahili and English. As mentioned, the minority languages in Tanzania are threatened by Swahili. (Petzell

2007).

Osogo (1979:6), has the following contribution, “the present tribes moved into this country at different times. This was during the days when many people were moving

about in Africa. At first those who lived in East Africa were short people like pygmies. They have now disappeared” Like what has happened to pygmies who have no trace of their presence, some time in few generation, most of ethnic community languages will have no legacy at all in this country if deliberate measures are not taken to help these native languages. That is to make sure they are given opportunity to be used, developed and documented.

It is unusual that a larger regional language like Swahili poses a greater threat to minority languages than a language of wider communication such as English. In general, speakers of minority languages often forsake their languages for the social and economic benefits of larger languages. (Brenzinger, 2007:196). “It seems clear that many of the approximately 120 languages in Tanzania will lose many or all of their speakers within a generation or two” (Janson 2002:191).

As correctly observed by Bernd Heine quoted by Mekacha (19930, the main threat to the African languages at present is not the ex-colonial languages (confined as they are mainly to a small number of the elite) or the minor a really dominant languages

(as they are not as powerful), but rather the nationally and major a really dominant languages as these are often promoted and supported by the state, for the case of

Kiswahili such languages are rapidly replacing both the ex-colonial and the minority languages.

When a growing number of speakers who start to abandon their language is a first step towards language extinction. When the next generation does not learn the language, the language is seriously threatened (Batibo 2005:62). Blij (1996:261), says that “Language is the essence of culture, and no culture exists without it; when a people‟s language is perceived to be threatened, the defensive response often is 42

passionate and protective”. In a very simple definition, culture is the total way of life, it carries all the values of a certain society, and this is only possible with the use of language. That means threatening a language is threatening culture and hence threatening the society.

According to Yoneda (2010), “The swahilization of ethnic languages, rather than a clear language shift is taking place in Tanzania”. What actually is taking place in

Tanzania today is languages shift that is almost with all ethnic community languages of Tanzania. There is a massive shifting from using these languages in all spheres of life to using Kiswahili in many important and formal domains of language use.

Kinyaturu ethnic community language has more than 700,000 native speakers today which is not a minority in terms of number but the language is threatened. This does not mean that these people are few in number, but their language is not wanted in public by the language policy and even by the formal system i.e. the government.

The language is marginalized and restricted to the most non-formal domains of language use. Predictably this makes native speakers of the language to shift to

Kiswahili in different domains.

Petzell (2008), again makes use of Janson (2002:191), with the following precaution;

“A growing number of speakers who start to abandon their language is a first step towards language extinction”. From another author he says; “When the next generation does not learn the language, the language is seriously threatened (Batibo

2005:62)”. Although there are many native Nyaturu who still use their language, but there are many also who are gradually abandoning it in favour of Kiswahili even at family level. Their children will not fully use the language and the third generation if not helped, will totally be a different people altogether. 43

Mous (2006), argues that, in order to wider understand how linguistic diversity is lost we have to examine the situations of linguistic loss first. Coupled with the great diversity of languages, Africa also has a diversity of situations of linguistic loss. We can distinguish at least five: 1. Shift to the non-colonial official and national language 2. Shift to the language of wider communication often as a consequence of settlement in the urban centres 3. Shift to the dominant regional language 4. Shift as a result of giving up traditional economy that is central to the identity of the group

5.Vocabulary loss. In this excerpt, it is very relevant to Tanzanian ethnic languages where Kinyaturu is a case study that people have gone very far into the use of non colonial language (Kiswahili) which is also a national language.

UN Declaration; In those states in which ethnic, religious or linguistic minorities exist, persons belonging to such minorities shall not be denied the right, in community with other members of their group, to enjoy their own culture, to profess and practise their own religion, or to use their own language (UNTS, vol. 999: 171 and UNTS, vol. 1057: 407). A close analysis of this article shows two requirements. Firstly, it presupposes the prohibition of discrimination on the basis of language, as covered by the international legal conventions and declarations mentioned above; secondly, it additionally obliges the state not to interfere in the affairs of linguistic minorities (cf. Mullerson 1993). That is the requirement that persons belonging to minorities should not be denied the right to use their own language.

Preliterate societies (people who speak but do not write their language ) are at far greater disadvantage. Although they can transmit their culture from one generation to the next, they do not accrue a time-spanning literature to swerve as foundation

for ethnic preservation. Like endangered species, there are languages today on the verge of extinction. (Blij 1996:262).

“As an artifact, no language is replaceable. We might think of a language synchronically as the sum of (mostly subconscious) knowledge that a speech community holds about a set of protocols for mutual communication, and their skill in deploying those protocols”. Schiffman 2005). From this quotation it can be cemented that if a language is lost, it can never be replaced at all.

For a language to die is a terrific event and as painful as James Boswell in The

Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides, 1785) quoted Samuel Johnson as follows; "I am always sorry when any language is lost, because languages are the pedigree of nations."

2.4 Theoretical Framework

A number of theoretical approaches have been proposed to capture the process whereby an endangered language is progressively reduced to extinction or how its speakers shift to another language Batibo (2005:100). As for this research, the researcher has chosen to use the theory stipulated by Batibo (1992/1997) which is called Process-based Perspective or Marked Bilingualism Model. The model is based on the following assumptions:-

 Language shift can only occur when there is a state of bilingualism.

The state of language in Tanzania is perplexing because it is neither bilingual no triglossic while it is true that Kiswahili, English and ECLs are spoken and recognized at different levels by the system. Very small group is triglossic which is consist ogf learned people while the majority possesses Kiswahili and ECL.

Therefore it is scientific to say that most ethnic communities in Tanzania and

Nyaturu in particular are bilingual.

 For a speaker of a language to be attracted to another, there must be

significant difference of prestige and status between two languages (hence

the term “marked”).

Kinyaturu speakers as the findings reveal are attracted to using Kiswahili in most domains of language use because Kiswahili is associated with prestige and power.

Kiswahili is coined with better social and economic advantages than Kinyaturu and therefore attracts Nyaturu to use more Kiswahili.

 The rate of language (or attraction) from the dominant language on the other.

Education, trade, religion and urbanization contribute greately for Nyaturu to be attracted to Kiswahili for none of them is done in Kinyaturu. The rate of Nyaturu speakers to be attracted to Kiswahili is very alarming since Kiswahili language dominates atmost all spheres of life among Nyaturu community.

The model can be applied by categorizing a set of languages according to their degree of language shift (synchronically) or by diachronically looking at how language shift process evolves overtime or how the different age group shift progressively to another language. The model entails five phases; Relative monolingualism, Bilingualism with L1 predominance, bilingualism with L2 predominance, restricted use of /competence in L1 and L1 as a substratum.

It is important to say that, talking of the impacts of Kiswahili on Kinyaturu there is no way one can avoid talking of language shift and language maintenance in the course of contact of the two languages. People are compelled to move to the

domains of language use that are associated with certain higher values; whether social, economic, political or any other status. The relevance of the model to Chahi language stands from the fact that it captures three aspects of language shift that are common in Tanzanian ethnic languages Chahi inclusive. The situation of Chahi language is still at the stage of relative bilingualism that matches with Batibo‟s theory stage II. That is to say, this language is used concurrently with Kiswahili,

Chahi is restricted to the home use and other informal sectors while Kiswahili enjoys overlapping usage at every sphere of life; at home, meetings, in the churches/mosques, at the market, in the public transport, at school and other rituals.

The causes that trigger the phenomenon, the effects that follow and the process involved in language shift and death. Socio-economic pressure arises when a language associated with socio-economic opportunities comes into contact with language with little or no such qualities. Privileged language attracts more speakers.

Political pressure.When a language is associated with power/political influence contacts with language with no such decorations whose speakers may want to identify themselves with powerful language. Cultural pressure comes when a language with cultural forces like religion, unique traditions comes into contact with another language without cultural superiorities. For example Arabic and to some extent Kiswahili and Hausa are associated with Islam, and Lingala is associated with music and they have been attracting more speakers from other languages.

A weaker language (L1) experiences many effects due to the pressure from the stronger language (L2). The effects may include the following:

• Assumption by L2 of the higher status in the pattern of language use, so that it is used in inter-ethnic domains such as trade, administration and wider communication;

• diminishing domains of use of L1 in favour of L2, to the extent that L1is retained mainly for cultural expression and secret ritual;

• The development of negative attitudes towards L1 since it is seen as a language of no socio-economic value.

• Progressive imperfection in the learning of L1, with eventual ceasing of transmission of L1 as children acquire only L2.

• Progressive reduction in the stylistic variation and structural complexity of L1 as it becomes simplified or pidginised;

• Massive language interference, code-switching and borrowing from L2 as L1 becomes totally „invaded‟ by the former;

• progressive lexical impoverishment of L1 as children fail to acquire the full range of vocabulary(Williamson, 2003).The above effects need not all occur at the same time, and some will be more prominent than others. Moreover, the linguistic reduction of L1 will tend to coincide with cultural reduction as well.

2.5 Research Gap

Most of the works of many scholars or writers on the language relationships, language contacts, language endangerment, language threat, language shift/maintenance, language death, language policies, Community/ethnic/local languages, Language diversity and many more have given great insight on this study. To be specific, none of such studies has gone into the depth on Kinyaturu language in particular to show how this large ethnic community language is affected by Kiswahili. There is precisely no any record or scientific or academic document that directly unveils how Kinyaturu language has undergone tremendous changes simply because of contact with massive Kiswahili over time. If this situation goes on unaddressed, soon or later, it will be too late to take necessary measures to save 48

Kinyaturu identity that adds beauty to linguistic diversity in Tanzania. Despite this valuable work, yet it is too little compared to what is real happening to ethnic community languages. There is a great urge and call for deeper scholarly research to be done to unveil how serious is the situation and advocate necessary steps to be taken to save these languages.

2.6 Conclusion

The attitudes, modernity i.e. western technological roaming and application in the daily life and behaviours of Kinyaturu speakers leads us to nowhere except to this ethnic language deterioration which finally will be the gradual loss of the language to extinction. Since the community is in bilingualism state where L2 has high status than L1, diminishing L1 domains of use, the young generation slowly develops blunt attitudes towards their mother tone, much code switching, borrowing and children incompetence in their first language.

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODS

3.1 Introduction

The chapter presents the kind of methods used in doing the work especially how data were collected, participants demography and observation of the research ethics and procedures. This is a Case study research aimed at assessing how Kinyaturu language is affected by Kiswahili. Different methods were employed in this work in order to produce remarkable results.

3.2 Research Design

The research design used in this study is the Qualitative (Descriptive). The design is furnished with narratives of reporting, much quotations used to illustrate & substantiate the validity and need of this research through enormous findings. Also included interviews, photographs, ethnographies etc. The data collected were analyzed and described.

3.3 Target Population

A population can be defined as all people or items with the characteristic one wish to understand. The representative sample (or subset) of that population was selected for the purpose of meeting the requirement of both time and the research. The selected population was the true native speakers of the language under study with the knowledge of the language and language culture. Also a portion of informants selected was of young people (both gender), whose knowledge of the language is highly interfered with Kiswahili. The aim was to gather what they possess or lack on

Kinyaturu.

The study involved forty five informants, from Mang‟onyi ward in Ikungi District in

Singida region. The demography of the selected respondents was as follows; two (2) elders, six (6) youths, eight (8) secondary school students, twelve (12) primary school pupils, two (2) primary school teachers (native speakers), two (2) village leaders (chairman), three (3) religious leaders (Moslem, Pentecost and Roman

Catholic) and two (2) couples/families one has eight children and the other with two children.

Table 3. The Informants’ Profile

INFORMANTS

Elde Yout Sec. sch Pr.sch. Pr.sch Village Religi Families Total rs hs students ous Pupils teachers leaders leaders

Number 2 6 16 12 2 2 3 2 45

Source: Field data 2015

3.4 Sample and Sampling Techniques

A sample is “a smaller (but hopefully representative) collection of units from a population used to determine truths about that population” (Field, 2005). Sampling is the process of locating and selecting informants based on the criteria needed in a given study. Hossea (2006) Nature of population i.e. whether the population is homogeneous a small sample may be sufficient for a large population required.

The researcher chose the sample based on who he thought would be appropriate for the study.

3.4.1 The Sampling Techniques

The following methods were employed in identifying, selecting and locating the needed informants. It included purposeful and stratified sampling: The purposeful or judgmental sampling was used simply because some informants had to qualify on the basis of their unique experience in Chahi language and language culture, as such, they were deliberately selected. These were three elders. Also other informants because of their status and position in the society directly were selected, these were;

3 religious leaders, one Pentecost Pastor, a Muslim imam and one RC leader.

Stratified sampliwereng is the selection of informants at least from every social class in the society since more or less all have equal chance of inclusion in the research.

Therefore only a small segment of representation was taken to serve the purpose. In addition, 16 primary school pupils, 16 secondary school students, 5 teachers, 3 village leaders, 6 youths and 3 families totaling forty five informants were selected.

3.4.2 Data Collection Techniques

3.4.2.1 Questionnaires;

They are the printed questions in a piece of paper in a definite order or a form or set of forms to be administered by the researcher or can be mailed to the informants. In the context of this study, the questionnaires consisted of both closed and open-ended questions which were given to the informants in order to collect necessary information. The Questionnaires were prepared in three Languages which were

Kiswahili, Kinyaturu and English. This was because Primary school medium of communication is Kiswahili and English for secondary school. Elders, village leaders and youths responded in Kiswahili.

Thirty respondents were given questionnaires to work on. These were twelve primary school pupils, sixteen secondary school students from two schools respectively. Others were two primary school teachers.

The Table below indicates the profile of informants that were given the questionnaires.

Table 4. Respondents that were given questionnaires

S/N Informants Male Female Total 1 P/School pupils 6 6 12 2 Sec/school 8 8 16 students 3 P/school teachers 1 1 2 Total 15 15 30 Source: Field data 2015

3.4.2.2 Interview

Interview is defined as a two ways systematic conversation between an investigator and an informant initiated for obtaining information relevant to a specific study. It involves not only conversation but also learning from the respondents‟ gestures, facial expressions (Krishna, 2003:222). Structured, resembling questionnaires, or unstructured, starting with general questions that allow the respondent to lead the way. They permit the interviewer to ask the respond to direct questions. Interview gave the researcher the excellent opportunity to be in direct physical contact with the respondents where he got not only the information but also the extra linguistic experience of the informants such as their body language, facial expressions, emotions and attitudes. Positive and negative, which added meaning to the study.

The interview questions were also written in Kinyaturu, Kiswahili and English.

Fifteen informants were interviewed that include two elders, two family parents, three religious leaders, two village leaders and six young people.

Table 5: showing interviewed informants

S/N Informants Male Female Total 1 Elders 2 0 2 2 Families 2 0 2 3 Religious leaders 3 0 3 4 Village leaders 2 0 2 5 Youths 3 3 6 Total 11 4 15 Source: Field data 2015

3.4.2.3 Participant Observation

This is observing organizational, community behaviours in their functional and natural settings. Participation observation can be also researcher‟s direct involvement in the day to day life activities and experience of the informants while observing. The researcher becomes a member of the society in order to reduce unnecessary formalities and lessen observer‟s paradox that may threaten some informants not to feel free and comfortable in participating in the study and therefore affect data collection. The researcher engaged himself in affairs of daily life including wedding ceremonies, religious sessions, market and funeral observing all the research ethics. While participating in this, the researcher will be observing and jotting down what is observed as per study‟s requirements.

In this work, the researcher has fully engaged himself in the most of the affairs of

Nyaturu community for six months. This was the most interesting but more costly method of collecting data. Data collected from this method, were enormous and purely from the natural sources. Large sound recording, visual-audio capturing and

much still images were taken from different occasions and events be they social, economic, religious, political and cultural incidents. These include wedding ceremonies, funeral ceremonies, political meeting, rallies and campaigns, religious preaching, casual talks, dialogues and organized interviews.

3.5 Data Analysis

The data collected were analyzed through descriptions, since this is a descriptive study

3.6 Research Ethics

Under all circumstances, this research was conducted without violating rules and research ethics. The permission to go to the field was sought from the University authority. The participants were prior informed of their free and voluntary involvement in the research and that they were explicitly free to refute participation or withdrawal anytime. The informants‟ privacy and confidentiality were highly observed and respected and shall indeed remain reserved at all time.

3.7 Chapter Summary

This chapter highlighted the research design, methodology, tools, research ethics among others, whereby questionnaires, interview and participant observation were highly employed. Participant observation gave insights and contributed much knowledge intended for this subject than other methods. This is because the method gave information in a natural setting.

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the type, number of respondents and their responses from both interview and questionnaires. The chapter also contains the discussions by the researcher on the facts that were revealed from the data collected. In this chapter also there is analysis of data and possible suggestions and recommendations on what is supposed to be done in order to alleviate the situation facing the ECLs in Tanzania in particular Chahi dialect of Kinyaturu.

5.2 Data Presentation, Analysis and Discussion

The following Table shows the respondents and their responses on the question given in the questionnaire which demanded to get the knowledge of which language the school children and the teachers normally use while in school environment. The respondents were free enough and what they have given is at its best the honest response.

Table 6: Language Spoken by Informants in School

Responses Languages Frequency % (a) English 5 17 (b) Kiswahili 19 63 (c) Kinyaturu 6 20 Toatl 30 100 Source: Field data 2015

The Table above presents the responses from the respondents when they were asked which language they mostly spoke when they were at school. The feedback indicates that five (5) informants which is 17% used English, nineteen (19) = 63% claimed to use Kiswahili while six (6) = 20% spoke Kinyaturu. From the researcher‟s observation it is true that those five responses were from secondary school informants and the rest were from both primary and secondary schools. In primary school one of the school rules instructs pupils and teachers to use Kiswahili and in secondary school the rule wants teachers and the students to speak English. The researcher made much regular visits to these schools and found that the situation was a bit in the opposite. In primary school setting most pupils used both Kinyaturu and

Kiswahili especially when in the play grounds. In secondary schools visited by the researcher although they were supposed to all the time use English, the reality is that the language is used only in special instances like student-teacher talk and most of the time Kiswahili dominates the talk of the students and Kinyaturu in their peer groups.

The purpose of this question was to find out if the informants could honestly tell their favourite language while in school but the researcher believes that their responses were a little bit affected by their obligation to obey the school rules especially that which wanted them to use a certain language while in school environment, Kiswahili for primary schools and English in secondary schools. This can be supported by answers in the next question that wanted them to say why one uses that language in school compounds.

Figure 3: Primary School Placard

Source: Field data 2015

Figure 4: Secondary School Placard

Source: Field data 2015

From the above Placards that emphasize that a school child is obliged to speak certain language during school life, it shows how ECLs strive to exist in a confusing linguistic atmosphere caused by language policy. Starting at the age of four (4) throughout his or her entire school life, the child is strongly prohibited to use one‟s mother tongue. In primary school they are told to speak Kiswahili i.e. ONGEA

KISWAHILI (Fig 3) and in secondary school SPEAK ENGLISH (Fig 4) and there is nowhere it says Ongea Kinyaturu or Speak Kinyaturu.

Table 7: Why do you Speak that Language?

Responses Frequency N % Kiswahili is the national 10 33.3 language It is a school rule 13 43.3 Understood by many 4 13.3 Others 3 10 Total 30 100 Source: Field data 2015

Table no 07 above presents the responses of the respondents when they were asked to tell their language of choice in school. The question asked; Kwa nini unatumia hiyo lugha shuleni? (Why do you speak that language in school?) (in Table 06).

There were many answers but thirteen (13) = 44% respondents said they used

Kiswahili because it is the national language. Other ten (10) informants defended themselves that they were using Kiswahili (P/school) or English (S/schools) because it was the requirement of the school rule and those who liked to speak Kinyaturu in school said that they were doing that because the language was known and understood by utmost all of the community members there.

The reason to ask that question was to know if they spoke the language of their choice deliberately or were forced by some circumstance. The reality found from observation is that most young people including the school children and other non school youths today feel more update if they use Kiswahili with their fellow age mates. The observation revealed that this group has the tendency of using both

Kiswahili and Kinyaturu and therefore a lot of code mixing and code switching depending on the topic under discussion.

Table 8: The Language mostly Spoken at Home or at the Market by the

Respondents

Frequency Languages N % Kiswahili 7 23 Kinyaturu 6 20 Both 17 57 Total 30 100 Source: Field data 2015

In the table no 8 showS that at home or market majority of the informants about seventeen (17) = 57% use both Kiswahili and Kinyaturu, seven (7) = 23% speak

Kiswahili especially at the market more than at home and six (6) = 20% use only

Kinyaturu at home/market. This response was for the question; Ni lugha gani unatumia zaidi nyumbani au sokoni? (Which language do you use at home or market?).

The case was different when the same question was asked to the elderly people during the interview where fifteen (15) people were asked this question and the responses were as follows:-

Table 9: Language used at home and market

Frequency Responses N % Kiswahili 3 20 Kinyaturu 8 53 Both 4 27 Total 15 100 Source: Field data 2015

The Table above (no 9) indicates that Kinyaturu was the most used language by the respondents interviewed which is 53% = 8 of fifteen people reached, four (4) = 27% used two languages interchangeably and the other three (3) = 20% used Kiswahili.

The interpretation is that this group was a mixture of varying age and status. For instance religious and village leaders because of their position and status in the community tend to be interested in being close to the people they lead and therefore their choice of language is careful selected to fit to the audience. Most of the time they want to be more formal and polite in order to attract the attention of their listeners and maintain respect. Some of them like to look modern and advanced and therefore associate Kiswahili with modernity although at times they use Kinyaturu to maintain close intimacy with the people they lead. One family interviewed was of aged person with eight children and their language of preference was Kinyaturu while three among six youths interviewed liked Kiswahili.

Table 10: Reasons for the Informants to Speak certain Language at

Home/Market

Responses Frequency N % Kiswahili is the national 22 73 language Kinyaturu is understood by 6 20 many Other reasons 2 7 Total 30 100 Source: Field data 2015

From the above table (10), we get the reasons as to why the reached informants used the language they spoke at home or at the market. The question asked says; Kwa nini unatumia hiyo lugha nyumbani au sokoni? (Why do you use that language at home or at the market?). Twenty two (22) respondents = 73% said Kiswahili because it is the national language, six (6) = 20% said they used Kinyaturu since the language was understood by most people in the community. Two (2) = 7% gave different reasons such as they were used to and that both languages were equal.

“Ni mazoea tu wala sipangi ila hujikuta naongea lugha mojawapo kutegemeana nazungumza na nani”

It is a habit, I don‟t plan but I find myself using eitherof the language depending on whom I am talking to.

“Mi naona lugha zote ni sawa tu”

To me all languages are the same/ are equal

From the observation by the researcher, there are different factors that contribute to the Nyaturu native speaker‟s choice of which language to be used at certain setting

within Nyaturu community. Also it is true that some speakers very unconsciously use Kiswahili instead of Kinyaturu even if their Kiswahili is not that much correct. It is also clear that the use of Kinyaturu is so rampant in the community.

Table 11: How One feels if s/he is called by His or Her Home Name at School

Frequency Responses N % Very bad 23 77 Normal 5 17 Good 2 6 Total 30 100 Source: Field data 2015

The Table no 11 presents the feelings of school children and the teachers if they are called using their home names. By home names it should be understood that the arrival of new religions in Africa and in Nyaturu communities in particular, has brought many new things and new names. From the early teachings by the missionaries that traditional or local names were considered bad, uncivilized and associated with the evil, darkness, sin and Satan. This mentality has gone through generations and therefore it is shameful to be called by that name outside home setting and regarded as an insult and can cause fierce fight between the people.

People bearing native names were not allowed to be baptized using these names either in the churches and were not accepted in the mosques.

Although names are non linguistic entity in a clear way, the researcher found it important to include this in order to know the attitudes of the community people towards their names which is an entity to the culture. It can be generalized that a person who is ashamed of his or her own traditional or native name which carries the

natural meaning of the given culture and identity is very possible for that person to be ashamed of the language that spells the name. It is not easy for a person to embrace his or her mother language and at the same time the repels out the name that has its origin and meaning in that particular language.

To prove this hypothetical assumption, the responses from the informants were amazing, shocking and even discouraging! The question was; Unajisikiaje unapoitwa jina la nyumbani shuleni? (how do you feel if you are called by your home name at school)?

Twenty three (23) = 77% out of thirty (30) informants who answered the question said that they felt very bad (vibaya sana) when one called them by their home name at school, Five (5) = 17% replied that they just felt normal and the other two (2) =

6% said that they felt good.

The researcher went to the different churches and mosques to inquire if traditional names were now accepted for baptism and for acceptance in Muslim. The evidence was not promising either because there was no straight forward answer from

Christian leaders because for example one had the following comment;

“Aaah haya majina ya kienyeji huko nyuma hayakukubalika katika ubatizo kwa sababu yaliaminika kutokana na mizimu au miungu ya kipagani. Ila kwa sasa yameanza kukubalika ingawa lazima pia kuangalia maana ya jina lenyewe…”

Ah, these native names formerly were not accepted for baptismal because they were believed to have association with spirits or pagan gods. But now they have started to be accepted but it is necessary to consider the meaning of that name first..

From this technical answer from one of the Pastors, it is still clear that they are not comfortable with the names which signals wrong and bad negative connotation and negativity towards these names.

For the side of Islam, the answer from one Imam of the mosque was short and clear that these names are not accepted. He had the following statement:-

“Majina ya kienyeji kwenye uislam hayaruhusiwi kabisa”

These traditional are not accepted in Islam.

When the researcher wanted to know the reason the answer was again short and clear; “ukiamua kuwa muislam lazima utapewa jina la kiislam…” which translates that if you decide to be a Muslim, you will be given a muslim name.

This got strong support from the observation that in all the churches the researcher attended for more than six months, there was no any Bible or Hymnal book or any religious document written in Kinyaturu. Neither was there in Islam Islam Qur‟an written in Kinyaturu. If everything is written in Kiswahili then it is the reason why there is hardly sermon given in Kinyaturu. Kiswahili dominates fully the religious domain among Nyaturu community even those at the far outskirts of the country.

Table 12: The Language Spoken in the Church or Mosque

Frequency Languages N % Kinyaturu 0 0 Kiswahili 28 93 Both 2 7 Total 30 100 Source: Field data.

One of the most important domain of language use in any society is religion.

Religion carries the strong desires, beliefs, past, present and future tastes of human beings and all of these are expressed through language that carries the natural feelings and meanings of that society. In the Table no (12) above the language used in the religious arena is presented. The respondents were asked to tell the language that was mostly used in the church and mosques;

Mnapokuwa kanisani au msikitini lugha gani hutumika zaidi zaidi? (Which language is mostly used in the church or mosque?).

The Table no 12 shows the responses that twenty eight (28) = 93% said that in these religious institutions Kiswahili was the medium of communication. This complies with the above statement that all the religious document were written in Kiswahili.

Two (2) = 7% said that both Kiswahili and Kinyaturu were used interchangeably while none said Kinyaturu only. The truth is that Kinyaturu was only used as an auxiliary language for certain emphasis within short turns. With the aid of all literatures in Kiswahili, this language fits well in explaining these new religions and that they have successfully killed traditional rituals where Kinyaturu can express so well since most if not all of the old or full grown up people have their affiliations to one of these two new religions.

From the participant‟s observations, even the religious songs and hymns were in

Kiswahili with the exception of two instances where two songs were in Kinyaturu but much corrupted with some Kiswahili words. To quote Huntington (1996:59-67)

“The central elements of any culture and civilization are language and religion…”This quotation shows that cohesion should exist between language and religion but Nyaturu failed to fit in this reality since the representatives were not

able to pray and sing in their own language, and this probably might be the case with most communities in Tanzania because most researches on language contact, endangerment and shift have been coming with the almost the same results.

Table 13: How one Feels when uses Kinyaturu at School

Frequency Responses N % Very good 0 0 Just normal 20 67 Bad 10 33 Total 30 100 Source: Field data 2015

The Table no 13 presents the data on the question Unajisikiaje unapoongea

Kinyaturu shuleni? (how do you feel when speaking Kinyaturu at school?).

No respendent said that s/he felt good that is 0 informants = 0%, ten (10) = 33% informants said they felt bad (vibaya) when they spoke the language while at school.

Twenty (20) = 67% informants said they felt normal. The discussion should raise the question; if the child is raised in this linguistic environment, what would be end result? If at this tender age this innocent child feels offended, guilty and with crime- like feelings, how is s/he going to like the mother tongue in the future? If the first or mother language is associated with the punishment, how is it possible for that child to be proud of her or his ethnic community language in the future?

The researcher‟s eye witnessed how uncomfortable these young primary school pupils were when they were interrogated in Kinyaturu.

Table 14: Ability of the Informants to Read, Count or Write in Kinyaturu

Frequency Responses N % Yes 0 0 Very little 15 50 No 15 50 Total 30 100 Source: Field data 2015

The Table no 14 above shows that no participant was fully capable of reading, writing and counting in Kinyaturu. Fifteen (15) = 50% said that they could try

(kidogo) and other fifteen (15) = 50% also said No (hapana) that they were unable to read, write or count in Kinyaturu. In the casual talk with the some of young men on the issue of reading, writing and counting in Kinyaturu, seemed to be strange to them. This implies that we are raising a generation that is too blunt to their languages. If a person cannot count to ten in his or her own language then he or she possesses very little of that language because even in the formal education system, the child is taught elementary reading, writing and counting as a basis for future language learning and acquisition.

Even when speaking in Kinyaturu, when it comes to counting it shifts to counting in

Kiswahili and sometimes in English. From the participatory observation it was interesting to see the child is being praised by the people and their parents if was able to count at least up to ten in Kiswahili or English but not in his own language.

The Table presents the participants who were responding to the question;

Unaweza kusoma, kuandika na kuhesabu kwa Kinyaturu? (Can you read, write and count in Kinyaturu?)

The following part is like a continuation of above question on the matter of counting because this gave the list of numbers 1-10 which asked the respondent to write these numbers in Kinyaturu. Also the list of ten (10) Kiswahili words which demanded the informants to give their equivalents in Kinyaturu. The aim of this question was to validate the above responses in the Table no 14 above. Of thirty questionnaires given, none came out with the all correct answers and equivalents in Kinyaturu instead there were a few scattered trial responses which is difficult even to put them in the Table. Most informants left the part plain unattended to show that it was definitely an impossible task. The list of Swahili words was as follows:-

Babu (grandfather), methali (proverb), Baraka (blessing), gari (car), nyimbo

(songs), vita (war), kusifu (to praise), sumu (poison), balaa (bad luck), kuomba

Mungu (to pray).

At the end of the exercise after collecting the questionnaires the school pupils were made to discuss in groups the equivalents of these words but it did not work at all since no one was able to help others other than making guess trials.

Table 15: The Language that is more Important in Life

Frequency Languages N % Kiswahili 26 86 Kinyaturu 2 7 All 2 7 Total 30 100 Source: Field data 2015

Another question whose responses are presented in the Table 15 was;

Lugha gani ni muhimu katika maisha yako?(which language is more important in your life?),

Twenty six (26) = 86% respondents said that Kiswahili was their important language in their life, two (2) =7% informants said Kinyaturu was more important and the same number two (2) =7% said that both Kiswahili and Kinyaturu are important in their life.

It should be recalled that language is the agent of interaction and medium of communication. It is the agent of exchange between people. Language enhances business, trade, telecommunications, science and technology. Language carries our ideas, dreams and emotions. Language holds our culture. ,"The main loss when a language dies is not cultural but aesthetic” ( Nordquist 2002).So language is very important in life unless one possesses it fully, the value of it cannot be realized.

Sometimes it is difficult to help if the owners of the language are reluctant with the endangerment and threats imposed on their language by dominant languages.

Robert Lane Greene in You Are What You Speak, has the following remarks; "Those linguists racing to save dying languages--urging villagers to raise their children in the small and threatened language rather than the bigger national language--face criticism that they are unintentionally helping keep people impoverished by encouraging them to stay in a small-language ghetto”.(Delacorte, 2011)

From the Ethnologue there are very important quotations worthy noting; there are two dimensions to the characterization of endangerment: the number of users who identify themselves with a particular language and the number and nature of the functions for which the language is used. A language may be endangered

because there are fewer and fewer people who claim that language as their own and therefore neither use it nor pass it on to their children. It may also, or alternatively, be endangered because it is being used for fewer and fewer daily activities and so loses the characteristically close association of the language with particular social or communicative functions. Since form follows function, languages which are being used for fewer and fewer domains of life also tend to lose structural complexity, which in turn may affect the perceptions of users regarding the suitability of the language for use in a broader set of functions. This can lead to a downward spiral which eventually results in the complete loss of the language. (italics by the researcher for emphasis).

Many people and most young people who shift from rural to urban areas and those who happen to get formal education have a tendency of hiding their identity where they are. That means they do not like to speak their ethnic language openly, or telling people their tribe in order to hide their identity. At one time the researcher once had the form five class of about 35 students and they were asked to raise up their hands those who could speak their mother tongue, only three raised their hands.

This is the representation of many young people in Tanzania who are not aware of their mother tongue.

Table 16: Do Youth like to Speak in Kinyaturu in Casual Conversation?

Frequency Responses N % Yes 0 0 No 13 43 Not much 17 57 Total 30 100 Source: Field data 2015

The Table no 16 presents the responses from the informants on the question:

Unafikiri vijana wengi wanapenda kuongea Kinyaturu? (Do you think many young people like to speak Kinyaturu?).

The purpose of the question was to know the opinion of different people (age) and status on how they assess the youths on the language use in their daily casual conversation, that is which language is frequently spoken by this group of population in the Nyaturu community. The opinion of the respondents were as follows:- Zero (0) informants were in the view that youths did not prefer much to speak Kinyaturu so frequently in their normal exchange. Thirteen (13) = 43% of the respondents saw that young people were not in favour of Kinyaturu. They said

“Hapana” (No) to the question; they do not like to speak the language. The other group of informants responded that “Sio sana” (not much) to the question. These were seventeen (17) = 57% of the all reached respondents through questionnaires.

These results indicate the truth that the young generation stands somewhere between

Kiswahili and their mother tongue Kinyaturu because if the majority said that not so much that they fairly speak both languages in their normal talk. From the personal observation during the study period the researcher was convinced that young people were not in favour of their first language. Sometimes it was hard to believe some of them were Nyaturu in their origin the way they behaved and used the language.

According to the researcher‟s assessment this situation was contributed much by a number of factors including the following:-

 Too much interference, interaction and contacts with other non Nyaturu

people though the area of the study was too far from Singida municipality,

about eighty (80) kilometres away. The area is not electrified, no any large

institution with the exception of old Primary schools and two newly opened

community secondary schools which of course are faced with the problem of

lack of teachers and materials and serious drop-outs of the students. But

recently there has been an influx of outsiders following the discovery of gold

treasury in Mang‟onyi village.

 The observation revealed that many young people go out and come back to

the village with Kiswahili from where they happen to go and it was learned

that they liked to go to Arusha, Dar es Salaam and Dodoma seeking for

fortunes of life. Therefore when they come back to show that they are

different besides the way they put on their attires, they attract other young

people through too much use of Kiswahili than Kinyaturu. Those in the

villages respond in the same manner in order to cope or show that they are

also not that much backward.

 With the arrival of new simple and at least cheaper technology of energy i.e.

use of Solar power many families have succeeded to install and there are

many of them with Television sets at home. Therefore they are exposed to

the fast growing world especially young generation who are attracted by the

most programes which they like to watch and listen; for example sports and

games, music, fashions and many more. So when they meet for sharing,

discussions and assessments Kiswahili dominates the talk and therefore

ignoring their Kinyaturu since it is not associated with modernity.

 The use of cell phones is also one of the contributing factors in the extensive

usage of Kiswahili with the mentality that this is a new thing and therefore

for one using it he/she must be look modern too.

Table 17: The Ability of Informants to Pray in Kinyaturu

Frequency Responses N % Very little 5 17 No 25 83 Yes 0 0 Total 30 100 Source: Field data 2015

The Nyaturu society is very much religious where they are torn between the two major religions Islam and Christianity. In the area of the study Muslims are very few while Christianity dominates in its many denominations such as Roman Catholics,

Protestants and Pentecostals. They attend religious services in a promising number and in fact religions have successfully dishonoured all the traditional activities such as dances, rituals and ceremonies. You will never hear they talk of these leave alone conducting or practicing them anywhere since they are treated as paganism. As it is shown in the above Table no 11 above even the names given to the new born babies are virtually religious oriented ones with one‟s affiliation, and the children are always aggressive when they are called by their native names in the public and at school. The interesting thing is that at least every child is given two names concurrently; one religious and the other traditional one. The religious one dominates and is heard throughout one‟s life in all formal and public purposes and the other name for home consumptions and just for formalities alone.

From this light then it was important to ask the informants the language that was very much used during the religious undertakings including one‟s praying sessions and therefore was the aim of this question; Unaweza kuomba au kusali kwa

Kinyaturu? (Can you pray in Kinyaturu?). The responses were; twenty five (25) = 74

83% said “Hapana” (No) that they cannot conduct any prayer in their own language, five (5) = 17% said “Kidogo” (Can try) to pray in Kinyaturu and none said “Ndiyo”

(Yes) that they could pray in their mother language.

The results tell us that despite their being religious still these people are not able to use their own language to conduct their prayers; instead Kiswahili has taken over the role as language of the religion. The domain of language use in religious affairs here is purely Kiswahili and not Kinyaturu. As it was said earlier that in the church or mosque Kinyaturun is rarely used as an auxiliary language for scarce occasions while Kiswahili emphatically stretches its muscular wings unopposed. In the same manner even at home, at the personal private individual prayers Kinyaturu suffers no acceptance. Verbally people claim that they just cannot simply because they are used to praying in Kiswahili.

This is not an automatic behaviour; it has got its roots, historically and is strategically planned. For example the language policy of Tanzania that used to prohibit the use ECLs in all public settings and formal systems may have contributed to favour the national language at the expense of traditional languages.

Another thing is that historically those who brought these beliefs were outsiders who did not know Kinyaturu and had to preach in Kiswahili and even the first leaders of these religions were non Kinyaturu speakers. This obliged the new converts to adopt the language of their preachers and therefore associate the language with new religions. All the literature and Holy books are written in Kiswahili for the case of

Christians and Arabic for Muslims. The children are taught and groomed and moulded in Kiswahili.

Samuel Johnson, quoted by James Boswell in The Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides,

1785). Says that languages are the pedigree of nations. If language is the pedigree of nations that‟s language is ancestral and blood lined, and therefore any strategy that tries to separate people from their language is a threatening act like what is happening among Nyaturu society where Kiswahili is enforced in the most all important functions and spheres of life. Religion is one of the very important and sensitive area that holds people together spiritually and morally, and language is the sole playing agent between believers and their religion. The language carries the beauty, theme, aesthetic delight and tastes of the given religion and it sounds natural when it is done in the natural language. The language that is not used in many domains and not passed on to the new born children in the most important domains may strategically lose its close association of the language with particular social or communicative functions in that given community.

Another question was; Nini maoni yako juu ya hatima ya Kinyaturu miaka hamsini ijayo? (What your opinion on the status of Kinyaturu fifty years to come?)

(translation by the researcher)

Thirty informants were given the questionnaires and fifteen (15) brought the blank papers, simply they had nothing to say, but the rest had extremely varying opinions on the matter. Here are some of the responses worthy discussion:-

Respondent 1. “mimi kama mimi naona lugha yetu ya Kinyaturu itapanuka na kutumika na watu wengi hapo baadaye”

(For me I can see that our language Kinyaturu will grow and be used by many people in the future)

It is difficult to know the ground behind this confident opinion of the respondent.

Perhaps this can be associated with the growing population of Nyaturu that has a reference from the national census of 2012. But this does not mean that a language with large number of people who belong to the language alone can suffice and guarantee the stability of the language against other dominant language(s) like

Kiswahili in the case of Tanzania.

The respondent‟s response stirs more discussion since the proof from many researches done on ECLs in Tanzania almost have the resembling conclusion that they are threatened the only difference can be the degree of endangerment. No one can deny that many ECLs in Tanzania soon or later many will be swallowed up by the massive Kiswahili if the purposive and deliberate measures and strategies are not set and implemented. In Tanzania today there is a generation that seems to be bilingual but which is not fully competent in any or one of the languages they speak or claim to to know.As it was revealed most young people and Nyaturu young people to be specific, possess very little Kinyaturu. Wolfagang Dessler (1988) gives a good insight; "Language death occurs in unstable bilingual or multilingual speech communities as a result of language shift from a regressive minority language to a dominant majority language." In the context of Tanzania to echo Dessler (ibid) observation above, Kiswahili has become the language of the majority in Tanzania and is attracting everyone sweeping every ethnic community in this country towards its dominance.

Respondent 2: “Sijui itakuwaje lakini nafikiri hakuna shida sana ingawa vijana siku hizi wanapenda kuongea Kiswahili sana”. (I don‟t know but I think there is no problem though young people like to speak in Kiswahili”).

Respondent 3: “Hatima ya Kinyaturu nadhani inategemea sana watoto wetu, kama wataendelea kukiongea maana hata sisi tumekikuta na tutakiacha wengine wakiendeleze” (I think the status of Kinyaturu depends on our children if they will continue to speak it since we found it and we will leave it for others to foster it).

From the above respondents, it can be argued that the future status of Kinyaturu lies in the hands of young generation to take it through to their children as they were given it by their parents. It is clear that children are central to the survival of any language if they are taught and told the importance of their mother tongue.

Respondent 3: “Mimi kama mwalimu wa siku nyingi nakuwa na mashaka sana na hatima ya lugha yetu maana hata wanachoongea watoto siku hizi sio Kinyaturu halisi” (As an experienced teacher I am worried of our language because even what the children speak today is not actually is not Kinyaturu).

The informants here are bringing another challenge of language that what the children speak now is not real Kinyaturu. For elaboration, what these children speak is simplified and mixed up Kinyaturu with much borrowing. But who is to blame?

Parents are the ones responsible for teaching their children their language and tell them the importance of it for generations and if they are not well educated they will take it lightly and can be swayed away by any influencing language.

In responding to the question; Unatoa ushauri gani kwa makundi yafuatayo kuhusu

Kinyaturu.

(a) Wazazi (b) Serikali

What do you advise the following groups concerning kinyaturu?

(a) Parents (b) Government (Translation by the researcher)

Many of the respondents did not work on the question and few who attempted it had unexpected answers probably they misunderstood the requirement of the statement.

The other five informants had almost the same view that parents have the responsibility of teaching the children their mother tongue and to make sure they speak it at home.

Table 18: Importance of ECLs in this era of Science and Technology

Frequency Responses N % Yes 4 13 Not much 20 67 No 6 20 Total 30 100 Source: Field data 2015

The Table no 18 above holds the responses from thirty (30) informants with the following distribution:- Four (4) = 13% collaborators said Ndiyo (Yes), six (6) =

20% others said Hapana (No) and twenty (20) = 67% responded that ECLs were not so important and less needed in this era of science and technology. The Study had this question to be attempted by the informants:-

Nchi yetu ya Tanzania imejaliwa kuwa na makabila zaidi ya 120, Je, lugha zetu za asili zina umuhimu wowote katika zama hizi za sayansi na teknolojia?

Our country Tanzania is blessed with multiplicity of ethnic communities, are our

ECLs important in this age of science and technology?

The Table above presents negative attitudes towards the ability of ECLs to handle scientific and technological phenomena just like other languages such as English,

French and Chinese. Only four (4) which is only 13% agreed that ECLs were important at this age on the contrary six respondents which is 20% did not have trust on ECLs when it comes to the matters pertaining to science and technology. This negativity occupies not only these less informed and exposed villagers but also it is more serious to the policy makers because the debate of making Kiswahili the language of education/instruction at all levels of education has never come to an end with the same view that the language is too young to be assigned this role among many reasons.

4:3. Borrowing in Kinyaturu

Another focus of the study was on the process of loan words which is one of the sign and features of language contact. Kinyaturu has borrowed much from Kiswahili than from any other language.

Lexical Borrowing in Kinyaturu

Borrowing is a common feature in any human language and one of the impacts of language contact is lexical borrowing whereby the unprivileged language borrows much from the dominant language. Even the most spoken language in the world today has gone through the same experience just as John McWhorter wrote in"The

English Language," Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine; “English has unashamedly borrowed words from more than 300 other languages, and (to shift metaphors ) there's no sign that it plans to close its lexical borders any time soon”, (McWhorter 1839).The case is the same with contact between Kiswahili and

Kinyaturu in the situation that Kiswahili is privileged and Kinyaturu marginalized.

Therefore Kinyaturu has borrowed much from Kiswahili as a dominant language.

The researcher compiled a list of borrowed words and here are a few of them:-

Hela (money), kitabu (book), kalamu (pen), ikaatasi (paper), meza/sa (table), igari

(car), senta (centre), kijiji (village), mujini (town), mwalimu (teacher), basikeli

(bicyrcle), fikifiki (motorcyrcle), andika (write), soma (read), mutihani

(examination).

The Table below contains the list of loanwords from Kiswahili which are purely new in Kinyaturu and never existed before. This is because they are the labels of new items and ideas that are new in this ethnic community. They are taken and used as they are.

Table 19: Borrowing for new items and ideas.

S/N GLOSS KISWAHILI ENGLISH 1 Baabaa barabara road 2 Bafu bafu bathroom 3 Bakuri bakuli bowl 4 Bibilia Biblia Bible 5 bunduki bunduki gun 6 Cheti cheti certificate 7 Choo,musalani choo/maliwato/msalani toilet/latrine 8 chufi chupi pant 9 Chuo chuo college 10 Derefa dereva driver 11 Elimu elimu education 12 Gijiko kijiko spoon 13 Idaasa darasa class/classroom 14 idiisa dirisha window 15 Igari/Mutuka gari car/motor car 16 Igodoo/igodorio godoro matress 1 Ipazia pazia curtain 18 Isuka shuka bed sheet 19 Kalamu kalamu pen 20 Kanisa kanisa church 212 Kitabu kitabu book 22 Kompyuta Tarakinishi computer 23 Meli meli ship 24 Mujini mjini town 25 Musalaba msalaba cross 26 Musikiti msikiti mosque 27 Mwalimu mwalimu teacher 28 Ndeke ndege plane 29 nkofia kofia cap 30 sahani sahani plate

31 Sare sare uniform 32 Se/shemasi shemasi deacon 33 Sekondari sekondari secondary 34 Simu simu phone 35 Sokisi soksi socks 36 Soma soma read/be educated 37 Suuwari suruali trousers 38 Tekita trekta tractor 39 Tereni ←Engl gari moshi train 40 Tochi tochi torch 41 Umeme umeme electricity 42 wali wali rice 43 Source: Field data 2015

Another group of loanwords in Kinyaturu are not because of new things or ideas but they have their equivalents in Kinyaturu but because of lack of enough Kinyaturu lexicon most speakers are totally not aware of the presence of real equivalents especially young people. Because of overuse they have become to be known as real native Nyaturu words. They are presented in the Table no 20 below.

Table 20: Borrowing as a Result of Overuse or Ignorance of Kinyaturu word

S/N GLOSS PROPER WORD IN KISWAHILI ENGLISH KINYATURU Abudu kurya, rumba abudu worship Amani majighana amani peace Baba tata baba father Baraka mboto baraka blessings Barua keti barua letter Chumba mbee chumba room Enesa tanantya eneza spread Harusi lughuu harusi wedding Idiisa/Idirisa ng‟ungiri dirisha window kiongosi mutongei kiongozi leader Kitanda urii kitanda bed Mama yiu mama mother Muchungaji mudimi mchungaji pastor Mukutano mwiundo/mwirundo mkutano meeting, gathering Mungu murungu,matunda mungu god Muswaki sisida mswaki toothbrush Nafasi chanya nafasi chance/time Sherehe ngoi sherehe ceremony,party Samehe rekea mahutye, samehe forgive hubhia, Sebule mwango sebule sitting room sukurani asii shukurani thanksgiving Tubu ufea tubu repent Usifu ukuta kusifu to praise Source: Field data 2015

The relevance of the above borrowed words in this work is that they are the evidence of language contact which triggers shift. This long list also indicates that Kiswahili

has penetrated deep into Kinyaturu to the extent that when one listens to casual talks by young people in Kinyaturu, they sound like they are speaking Kiswahili.

Kinyaturu has a tendency of prefixing the letter “n” to some verbs and adjectives when one asks other person/s to do something for him or her and even showing quality of something. This form has even interfered their use of Kiswahili where they add “n” before some verbs or adjectives.

Examples:-

S/N KINYATURU KISWAHILI ENGLISH 2 ndoghoya nioze Help to get married 6 nsemehea nisamehe Forgive me 4 nsoya nitembelee Visit me 5 nsuka nisuke Dress my hair 1 ntendeya nifanyie Do it for me 3 ntongea niongoze Lead me 7 ntyuriya nifungulie mifugo Let cattle out for me 8 ndifu (adj) ndefu Long, tall Source: Field Data 2015

This form has affectected the Kinyaturu speakers in using Kiswahili as it is manifested in the official placard on the use of protectives by partners in sex affairs i.e. the use of condoms. This placard was seen by the researcher in the marketplace commonly known as Mnadani in Mang‟onyi village in Ikungi District and of course they are in many places in the area especially Mang‟onyi ward.

Figure 5: Official placard

Source: Field data 2015

The advertisement reads as follows:- “EPUKA NGONO NZEMBE, TUMIA

KONDOMU” (bold by researcher for emphasis). (AVOID CARELESS SEX, USE

CONDOM). The correct Kiswahili was supposed to appear this way:- “EPUKA

NGONO ZEMBE, TUMIA KONDOMU”. The word ZEMBE is affected by

Kinyaturu inflection because it is prefixed by “n” therefore „NZEMBE” which is not the standard Kiswahili. This form is very common among speakers of Kinyaturu.

This example shows that there is linguistic effect between the two languages as it was said earlier that languages in contact affect each other.

4.3.2 Functional Words

The above examples were all content words. However, not only content words, but also function words, are being borrowed from Swahili. These loaned functionwords are becoming even more deeply rooted in the Matengo language than content words.

The prepositions, conjunctions or adverbs listed from (27) to (33) do not exist in original Matengo. In this sense, loaned function words are categorised in “loanwords for new expressions.”

(27) balala “instead of” (

(28) bila “without” (

(29) kabula “before” (

(30) tangu “from” (

These functional words are exactly borrowed to many community languages and

Kinyaturu with no exception. They are the most frequently used words in day to day talk. Sometimes they are misallocated in the sentences especially by the aged speakers. In Kinyaturu these functional words appear like this:-

a. Badala a „instead of‟ (badala g. tayari „already‟ (tayari)

ya) h. ambafo „where‟ (ambapo)

b. bila „without‟ (bila) i. alakini „but‟ (lakini)

c. kabula „before‟ (kabla) j. sana „very‟ (sana)

d. tangu „from‟ (tangu) k. ingalau „though„ (ingawa)

e. faka „until‟ (mpaka) l. sababu „reason‟ (sababu)

f. alafu „and then‟ (halafu)

As it has been said, some of these words are unwillingly or wrongly represented in the sentence by the speakers because they are not well known by illiterate speakers.

An example from one of the respondent‟s statement;

“Ana bhane bhatimanyie kiimi ija ampafo ne nigitahidi sana ubhakhania..”

(Watoto wangu hawajui kirimi (kinyaturu) vizuri ambapo mimi najitahidi sana kuwaambia)

(My children do not know well Kinyaturu while I try to tell them).

The placement of the word „ambapo‟ is not properly fixed where it is supposed to read like; Watoto wangu hawajui kinyaturu vizuri ingawa mimi najitahidi kuwaambia.

4.4 Code Switching and Code Mixing

As a parameter of language shift, code switching and code mixing is so rampant among Kinyaturu speakers today. The situation is so serious that sometimes for one who is not a native of this community may not be able to notice what the natural

Nyaturu word from Kiswahili is. This is happening among youths, elderly and learned people. During the interview and from participant‟s observation so much was collected on code switching and mixing. The questions of the interview were as follows with their responses which in every sentence uttered in Kinyaturu where there are many Kiswahili words unconsciously mixed:-

Bhebhe wafafiwe mwakha iki? (Which year were you born?)

Responses from the almost all fifteen informants were the same except with the years.

“Mwakha elufu moja mia tisa na tisini na ine” (the year nineteen ninety four)

This response though asked in Kinyaturu but words are purely Kiswahili wherein

Kiswahili it reads; mwaka elfu moja mia tisa na tisini na nne. I regret that all answers fell under the same line but only differed in the mention of the year which one was born.

The purpose of this question was to test the knowledge of the informants on the ability to tell the numbers in Kinyaturu.

“Fanoi wina miakha inga” (how old are you now?).

Response:- “Fanoi nina miakha ishina moja” (Now I am twenty one) where in

Kiswahili also the response reads sasa hivi nina miaka ishirini na moja.

Waandiye muimo uruyii wa udima ikanisa nanari? (When did you start this work of pastoring this church?)

Response:- “Kiukweli kazi iyiyi nimeanza muda mrefu, ila kwa hapa huu ni mwaka wangu wa tisa kama mchungaji wa kanisa hili”

(In fact I have started this work long time ago, but this is my ninth year here as a pastor of this church).

This was the guestion asked to the pastor aiming at assessing the language use especially his ability to speak one language but the result was much Kiswahili at every question though all the interrogation was in Kinyaturu. So the tendency of using more Kiswahili on the part of the religious leaders in the area of study was alarming something which indicates how the language dominates in this domain. It was also revealed that even the very aged new converts who joined the church when not well versed in Kisawhili gradually as they attend the church services they become good Kiswahili listeners and speakers which implies that religion is a centre for Kiswahili propagation since all sessions are in Kiswahili. The researcher attended many religious sessions and found that many people were strugling so much using Kisawhili when they were given opportunity to minister in the church. It appeared like an obligation to use the language. 89

4.5 Language Shift

As it was noted earlier, language shift and maintenance are the immediate offsprings of language contact and therefore the situation is not handled seriously and deliberately it may cause further harm that is language loss, death and extinction.

Also during the language shift, code switching and mixing are dominant among the speakers of the language. In this section there is a presentation of features observed in the study which signify the process of language shift. Hatoss (2005:2) argues that, the family domain must be the most significant aspect for the use of ECLs. Hence, if this fails then it is a sign that people have already shifted to the dominant language.

Fishman (2006:414) adds that, parents and communities must constantly justify themselves by doing what is normal all over the world, namely, making sure that their children are following in the ethnolinguistic and ethnocultural footsteps of their parents and grandparents.

Dorian (1981:105) states that, the home is the last bastion of a subordinate language in a competition with a dominant official language of a wider currency. The same picture is happening in urban areas of India that, a majority of tribal language speakers are shifting to the dominant language in almost every functional domain which at first, the domains of these languages were restricted to home and intra- group communication (Rajeshwari, 2002:221).

The study has shown that at least among Nyaturu homes Kinyaturu is still a language of communication especially for the elderly parents. But for the young peoples‟ families, Kiswahili is taken as a pride and a sign of modernity. In the local meetings, all religious undertakings, funeral and wedding ceremonies, political arena, numbering, and name giving as domains of language use are already taken 90

over by Kiswahili. People have shifted to using Kiswahili instead of their ethnic community language.

Another sign of language shift was noted on the aspect of greetings since was revealed in the study that, people do not use Kinyaturu at all when greeting each other. The only greeting or honorific rendered to elder by young ones is Shikamoo to all people provided it is to someone who is older than one who is greeting and it is regarded as a sign of great respect to the elders, this is for both gender male and female. Shikamoo is the sole greeting to the elders and this has no any Kinyaturu orientation but has come with Kiswahili and all children are taught at home and in school to say shikamoo to any one older than they are, which is associated with touching the head of the elder by the young especially during the early ages before going to pre and primary school. This is also again a new habit that does not belong to Nyaturu culture.

This type of greeting has totally replaced the traditional greeting among Nyaturu which was gender based because culturally this society is gender and age stratified whereby male gender is taken as superior to female; that is the Nyaturu are patrilineal society. The original greeting was “Amucha” regardless of age among males at all times of the day. Female to female greeting depended on the time of the day or type of activity one was found doing. This is one area of language shift among Kinyaturu speakers which is one of the important areas frequently used by any society and that distinguishes one society from another; greetings. The findings show that women still maintain their greetings among themselves and when greeting men. The situation is confusing among young people because, in actual sense they do not have any notable greeting among themselves rather than saying whatever one

feels to say to his peer. For example Oya, niaje, mambo, hali zenu, mambo vipi, among many which all are of Kiswahili origin.

This situation is contributed by technological interaction and development which are exposing these young people to the fast growing and coated world of phones and media. Another contributing factor is rural-urban interaction or movement that is greatly simplified by the available means and ways of transportation. Many people today go to town (cities) and come back so easily where they meet many people and new lifestyle that attract new generation and they bring back these home. Muranga

(2006:121) predicts that, in 20 years to come, from (2006), a considerable fraction of urban population, which was born in the cities twenty years ago and have a halting knowledge of the languages of their parents, will themselves already be parents. It is unlikely that they will be able to speak to their children in the ECLs, apart from

Kiswahili and English.

Muranga (2006:121) adds that, with time urbanization may catch up with what is a now still rural area, and frequent intermarriage and intermixing of different people who are now still ethnically homogeneous rural populations will necessitate the use of Kiswahili and English. The other languages known as mother tongues, which at first were treated virtually like important languages, might be treated as one‟s step- mother, and become in the danger of getting neglected and dying. During the study it was noted that through rural-urban mobility, there is an increasing number of young people who intermarry with people from other communities and they come back with their spouses and settle into the villages and this increases the number of children in the village that are torn between father and mother‟s first languages and are therefore pushed to adopt Kiswahili as the language at home. As Muranga has

projected, there will come a time when these children will be parents but won‟t speak any language other than Kiswahili to their children. This will accdelerate the rate of language shift among Nyaturu community.

4.5.1 Phonological Shift or Modification

The contact between Kiswahili and Kinyaturu has also caused some modification in some of words of Kiswahili such that it has altered the phonological modification for some speakers especially young people. It should be understood that Kiswahili is a

SVO(A) and follows consonant-vowel word structure like many Bantu language. It is a rare case for Kiswahili to have CCV words structure and when that happens, then that word must have its origin from other languages and mostly non Bantu language and mostly Arabic. For example words such as ghorofa, ghala, shughuli, gharama, cherehani, to mention some, which are long time accepted as Kiswahili words today linguists see it important for them to be reviewed so that they can fit the structure and phonology of this language.

Of course there are other words borrowed from other languages that have caused also assimilation of their phonological patterns in order to accommodate their pronunciation. For example words such as boksi (box), kompyuta (computer), dikteta

(dictator), elektroniki,(electronic)etc

Kinyaturu is a unique Bantu language that is spoken by the Bantu community that came to Tanzania from a different place from the rest of the Bantu speakers. This is because historians, anthropologists and linguists all agree that Bantu speakers migrated from West Africa somewhere between Cameroon and Nigeria during the first millennium (1000 AD) southwards through Congo to the modern East, central and South African countries. But Wanyaturu (Nyaturu, Rimi) took a different

direction from a very different place. This is according to different oral tradition

(tales) from the Native Rimi people and some scholars. Mdachi (1991:7-9).says that

Rimi or Nyaturu moved from their ancestral home in Ethiopia near the borders of

Sudan southwards through the borders of Kenya and Uganda and firstly settled at different times and different places like Uzinza, Pasiansi and Ntuzu during 16th c

(17000s) before emigrating Sepuka in Singida region because of the clashes with the

Sukuma who came later around lake zone. Therefore, it is precisely fair to say that this community is Nilo-Hamitic in nature and their language was never a Bantu.

From the same scholar, there is a tribe called Rimi in Ethiopia today. A thrilling story about this ethnic community group is that it transformed itself into Bantu language speakers because of contact with large Bantu groups like Sukuma. That is the reason why Kinyaturu shares close resemblance with these Bantu speakers. For example 63% with Nilamba [nim], 59% with Sukuma [suk], 58% with

Nyamwezi [nym], 53% with Kimbu [kiv], 44% with Sumbwa. This is according to

Ethnologue, the language database.

It is also supported by the community itself because they call themselves Warimi these days as their original name and not Wanyaturu since it is a new name with the characteristics of contact with other communities which nicknamed them Wanyaturu the name that remains up to now, but it is not recognized by this ethnic community.

Today we are talking of impact of contact between Kinyaturu and Kiswahili, what will happen again to this language? It is a matter of research and time.

Now, from these historical facts, it can be concluded that Kinyaturu is not a Bantu language by origin but through contact with other Bantu speakers especially

Sukuma, Nyamwezi and Nyiramba where gradually it has become one of the largest

ethnic Bantu speakers in Tanzania today. One of the interesting things is that

Kinyaturu has retained some linguistic features that differentiate it from other Bantu groups. Such features include a unique pronunciation of words with the addition of some elements like insertion of „h‟ to „g‟ and „k‟ hence „ gh‟ and „kh‟respectively.

Another thing is strong glottal sounds that are not present in many Bantu languages.

For instance Kinyaturu is full of “gh” /ɤ/ in words like ghula, ghumba, ghumpi,

roghoa, tegheya, ighuya, ighuyi, mughongo, saghami, soghoa, maghasi, ighabha,

The other is “kh” /x/ in words such as khaya, mukhema, mukhombi, ukhombi,

ikhonda, ikhondo,

These are the common features of Kinyaturu but recently young people who go

to school and to other cities have tried to adopt new pronunciation to cope with

other Bantu speakers.

Example:- gorofa/gorofa/ instead of ghorofa /ɤorofa/, (flat)

Garama /garama/ instead of gharama /ɤarama/ (expenses)

Shuguli /ʃuguli/ instead of shughuli /ʃuɤuli/ (business)

4.7 Kinyaturu and Ethnobotanical Knowledge

The connection between language and plants seems to be too narrow, but still naming things that include natural vegetation is the act of language use and increases vocabulary. Failure to identify these things signifies language deterioration and diminishing domain of Kinyaturu usage.

By ethnobotanical knowledge, it should be understood as the ethnic community knowledge on different types of plants and if possible by their names and

importance. Botanical knowledge is very important in any society since natural vegetation has direct link with the particular community that surrounds it. Therefore it is a good area to test the knowledge of their language. The work of Barton and

Hamilton (1998), on literacies, where they conducted a research in one district of

Tanzania has shown that despite a significant domain shift as Kiswahili leaks from the public or formal domain into the vernacular, local languages are still able to hold their own in one field in particular: that of plant identification, knowledge and practices. This ethnobotanical knowledge, held within and maintained by the vernacular is fundamental to local livelihoods as local wild plants are a vital food source as well as medicine.

The findings among Nyaturu on the area of knowledge about plants were so scanty.

The researcher accumulated more than six hundred (600) plant images or coloured photographs of different kinds to be identified by Nyaturu informants but the exercise did not work well since many plants were not known by names by young people. The list had to be taken to the elderly people where most plants were identified but more than two hundreds (200) plants have not been identified to the moment. Hopefully it is a fertile area for further research.

4.8 Kinyaturu and the Written Record

The other important element that assures any language‟s existence and survival for many generations is its presence in the written form as Suzanne Romaine (2002) observed; the fact that most languages are unwritten, not recognized officially, restricted to local community and home functions, and spoken by very small groups of people reflects the balance of power in the global linguistic market place. Indeed,

80 per cent of African languages lack orthographies (Adegbija 2001)

This can be in terms of its literature, historiography of its native speakers, lexicographical document and scholarly studies. Any language that is not kept in this form and just relies on oral presentation places itself in a great danger and will surely lose and its ultimate destination is exitinction especially in a linguistic competition and contact like this in Tanzania. This is because its knowledgable native speakers gradually diminish with time as new generation is being pulled to a more dominant language(s), or if anything happens to the community such as genocide, natural catastrophes that sweep the community such as earthquake, diseases, or colonization and even a biased national language policy that fiercely prohibits ECLs in formal and all political, social, religious and other spheres of life.

Despite its big number of native speakers, unfortunately Kinyaturu as a language has no any written record anywhere in the region. There is no any scholarly dictionary of the language, no literatures in Kinyaturu, no religious document in Kinyaturu and to be frank there is nothing tangible. The language only exists in the mouths of its speakers and nothing beyond that. The researcher happened to see and purchase a certain Lutheran Church‟s hymnal book in Kinyaturu called IKURYO NA MEMBO

(Ibada na Nyimbo) (Church service and Songs) printed by Agape Printing Service,

Central Province (1951). It was found in the Church‟s bookshop in Singida municipality and no one uses it. The book was taken to several church members and nobody could read the hymns therein. This lack of written document in any form signifies that the language survives by chance without any strategy for further purposes. Tuckman, (2011) also supports the idea with following remarks; "The dictionary is part of a race against time to revitalise the language before it is definitively too late”.

4.9 Loss of Numbering in Kinyaturu

Since numbering or counting uses language, this was used to test if native speakers of this language were still able to count in their language especially the youth. The findings were unbelievable because no one among the respondents was able to correctly count to twenty in Kinyaturu because had already been replaced by

Kiswahili numbering. This was revealed by the responses to the to the question that wanted them to count up to twenty (fingers and toes)

Table 21: Nyaturu numbering

No Kinyauturu Kiswahili English 1 imwe moja one 2 ibhiri mbili two 3 itatu Tatu Three 4 ine Nne Four 5 itano Tano Five 6 mutandatu Sita Six 7 mufungati Saba Seven 8 munana Nane Eight 9 kenda Tisa Nine 10 ikumi kumi ten 11 Ikumi na imwe Kumi na moja Eleven 12 Ikumi na ibhiri Kumi na mbili Twelve 13 Ikumi na itatu Kumi na tatu Thirteen 14 Ikumi na ine Kumi na nne Fourteen Source: Field data 2015

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

This chapter gives the summary of the study, recommendations, remarks or suggestions on what should be done now and in the future on the studied problem using the evidence from the findings. The chapter carries the weighty recommendations for and to every stakeholder who holds the passion for our linguistic richness in Tanzania.

5.2 Summary

The findings reveal the following:-

The domains of use of Kinyaturu are streamlined and confined within a few domains than in the past few years. For example still in many families, Kinyaturu is still a language of use at home setting although with some Kiswahili influence.

Important domains of language use have been taken over by Kiswahili which is fully used in the church, mosques, in the village meetings and gathering as well as the schools, funerals, public transport (buses) and other public occasions. Language contact between Kiswahili and ethnic community languages in Tanzania has caused grave and tremendous impact especially on ECLs. Derhemi (2002:151) and

Mufwene (2002:164) as quoted by Masinde (2012), see language endangerment as one of the outcomes of language contact and also subject to patterns of interaction among the populations in contact. They argue that, a neglected minority language will become endangered which will soon vanish, or cease to be used as a vehicle of communication, which in due time may accelerate language death, perhaps even

disappearing completely from human history. Many African languages have recently lost the competition not to languages of economic and/or political power but to peers that have guaranteed a surer economic survival (Mufwene, 2002:167). According to the language data given by the ethnologue Kinyaturu is taken as vigorous or developing language but as threatened language by Kiswahili since most of the important spheres of life where language is supposed to play its role then it is

Kiswahili that enjoys that opportunity leaving Kinyaturu into unrecognized areas of language use.

Although elders are doing better than the young ones in the use of Kinyaturu, still both groups are reluctant when the language is misrepresented instead they take it as a step forward towards civilization. In young or newly started families, children are talked to and instructed in Kiswahili in the village where both parents are native

Nyaturu. The researcher on several occasions, eye witnessed such families that parents struggle to use Kiswahili to their children in several occasions.

Many of the new born babies are given foreign names with no relation with the culture of the natives. Most names are derived or picked from the Bible and Qur‟an.

People are no longer comfortable with their ethnic names. This was evidenced in one school (Mang‟onyi) where fifty (50) pupils registered in school (Std III), the researcher happened to pass there casually found that 45 pupils, that is 90% pupils have their first and second names not Nyaturu origin! Other 3 =6% pupils have a mixture of Nyaturu names and “religious” (baptismal) names and 2 =0.4% with two names first and surnames of Nyaturu origin. Though this is non linguistics phenomenon, but since language is an entity of culture just like naming system, the researcher found it sound to note that this society though have positive attitude

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towards their language, but on the other hand have doubtful attitude towards her culture in general. This is because names are not just labels given to babies, but they carry cultural meanings bound within the names. The meanings wrapped within the names are disclosed through the language. Names also are one of the society‟s identities that distinguish people of one community from different communities.

5.3 Suggestions and Recommendations for Further Researches.

Based on the findings, it is worthy to underline the following suggestions and recommendations:-

Legère (2002:06) has the following valuable suggestion regarding ECLs; “Since all

Tanzanian languages belong to the Tanzanian nation; they could be referred to as national languages (NLs). One may then distinguish the principal national language,

Swahili from the rest by an index number, for example thus Swahili would be referred to as the NL1, whereas all languages other than Swahili… as well as those spoken by small groups like Hadza, Sonjo or Mbugwe would be referred to as NL2”.

From this light it is a good idea for all these languages to be given the status of national languages at least with a different level of status as stipulated by Karsten.

They can be assigned certain recognizable functions in the society for the purpose of giving them life.

Msanjila, (2003), has stipulated insights on how it can help to assist the ECLs with these quotations;

 First, the speakers of the languages should be insisted to use their ethnic

community languages more often.

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 Second, language Policy of Tanzania should be amended to give

opportunities for the ECLs to be used officially. Third, the media also be

insisted to use ECLs in their communication. (researcher‟s translation)

 Fourth, ECLs should be given a lawful status to be used in the country. (

 The Government and language policy makers should exert necessary effort

in the research and documentation of ethnic community languages; otherwise

in the near future these languages will be swallowed and wiped out by

Kiswahili. The loss of these languages means losing their culture altogether

and to allow this to happen is an unpardoned mistake. Linguists,

sociolinguists, anthropologists and other academicians should play their

persuasive role as professionals to conduct more researches and document

more on these languages including Kinyaturu. This can be done through

dictionary compilation especially monolingual dictionaries of the ethnic

languages.

 Parents should purposely be encouraged to make all necessary means to

teach their children their native languages.

 Ethnic community languages be made to grow and progress healthily in

Tanzania despite the fact that they will be engaged most competitive

linguistic atmosphere with the two official languages i.e. English and

Kiswahili. This can be possible if the society takes necessary concern

including the following factors that may help a language progress if it‟s

speakers:

 Increase their prestige within the dominant community

 Increase their wealth

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 Increase their legitimate power in the eyes of the dominant

community

 Have a strong presence in the education system

 Can write down the language

 Can make use of the electronic technology (Crystal 2000).

The language users must have a positive attitude towards their language which may slow down language shift because language is the symbol of one‟s ethnicity identity.

 . It is suggested that there should be a loop hole that will allow these local

languages to be heard in their local areas in some media such as Radios,

Newspapers or even the television. This will in turn encourage people to be

proud of their languages. That means the Media policy of Tanzania should be

revisited since it says something contrary to this opinion.

There was the fear of using the ECLs during the national building soon after the independence because it might have been believed that they may cause chaos and hence national instability based on ethnicity. May be it was a good thing politically that time, but truth reveals differently today that linguistic multiplicity is not the only cause for national insecurity and instability. Evidence from other countries such as Rwanda, Burundi, and Somalia to mention a few shows that these countries experienced continues instabilities based on non linguistic grounds because these countries mostly have one language. Countries such as Kenya and Namibia which encouraged the recognition of ECLs and are heard during the early elementary education have not experienced commotions.

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If the ECLs are carefully monitored alongside giving them certain local freedom, for the benefit of the next generations, there won‟t be any harm with these beautiful heritage languages. The experiences from Somalia, Rwanda and Burundi where nationals speak one language, but deeply embedded in tribalism and conflicts, calls for critical examination on this premise (Mpehongwa, 2010:11). Again empirical evidence elsewhere in the world shows that using multiple languages is not the only source of tribal conflicts (Mpehongwa, 2010:7). South Africa, for instance has more than ten ECLs used as official languages, yet the society is not engulfed in tribal conflicts.

Masinde (2012) postulates the following recommendations that are worthy quoting;

 First, there is a need for further research on how to solve the current

problem on implementing mother tongue policy to the born children

of Tanzania. It seems that there is no imminent solution in sight,

because fifty years after independence, parents still do not see the

importance of ECLs to the extent that they do not care teaching or

transmitting these languages to their children. The best alternative

would be for parents to play their role at the initial stage by imparting

positive attitudes towards ECLs to their children who later might

develop the interest of learning them at their own pace.

 Second, research should be conducted especially on the ECLs and

advice be given to the government on the benefits and richness found

within these languages.

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 Third, there should be campaigns to educate people on the rationale

of using ECLs in learning second languages and even to assist them

in comprehending subjects taught in schools. This would help to

create a new generation of Tanzanians who are proud of their

languages and values, cultures and heritage. There must be

committed intellectuals of various disciplines who can design and

produce a de-colonizing media, so people can start to love and

respect their ECLs. Mufwene (2002:175) urges for linguists to help

some languages to thrive by encouraging their speakers to have pride

in their ancestral heritage and to control over situations that have led

them to give up their languages.

 Fourth, if no concrete steps are taken now, most of ECLs would

disappear without any preserved records within the next few

generations. A lot of people have written more on ECLs but it seems

that the government does not see any importance attached to them

and these have just remained in papers. Therefore researchers should

now stress on recognizing various challenges posed to ECL‟s on the

national development. It is now the time for Tanzanian government to

give priority to research on Tanzanian languages rather than ignoring

them and left in the hands of ethnic communities without assistance

of making them develop.

 Fifth, the study of language endangerment is now so challenging that

it needs the call the attention of different scholars to join hands in the

matter. There is still a need for the strong participation of

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sociolinguists in research and projects connected to single

communities for the study of ECLs.

UNESCO in the article entitled The Treasure Within; “Understanding and valuing cultural diversity are the keys to countering racism. All individuals must feel free to explore the uniqueness of their culture and identity while developing understandings of the cultural diversity that exists in the world around them. Denying cultural expression means limiting the expression of unique perspectives on life and the transmission of knowledge from generation to generation”. (UNESCO, 1996). The words are self explanatory since it is true that the knowledge of a certain society can only be satisfactorily explained in the language of that society and that every society has a right to be free to enjoy the uniqueness of its language. This natural right should be guaranteed unconditional. Once again the following remarks by the

Honourable David Kilgour, P.C., M.P. Edmonton Southeast Secretary of State

(Latin America and Africa) Southern Alberta Heritage Language Association

Calgary, October 9, 1999 cements the importance of language beyond communication; For the linguist Edward Sapir, language is not only a vehicle for the expression of thoughts, perceptions, sentiments, and values characteristic of a community; it also represents a fundamental expression of social identity. Sapir said:

"the mere fact of a common speech serves as a peculiar potent symbol of the social solidarity of those who speak the language." In short, language retention helps maintain feelings of cultural kinship. Throughout history, many have reflected on the importance of language. For instance, the scholar Benjamin Whorf has noted that language shapes thoughts and emotions, determining one‟s perception of reality.

John Stuart Mill said that "Language is the light of the mind.

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5.4 Conclusion:

As the findings reveal, language endangerment among Kinyaturu speakers is real, serious and dangerous to the existence of Kinyaturu unless necessary deliberate concern is given. If no steps are taken, soon or later Tanzania will be only a fertile land for research about language death and exitinction

The study has shown that in the rural areas people still embrace positive attitude towards Kinyaturu. But the study further reveals that the domains of language use such as religion, meetings and gatherings, at school, transport and trade among

Nyaturu community are dominated by Kiswahili with minimal Kinyaturu. Other domains like home and traditional occassions (which are present) are covered by

Kinyaturu but again here Kiswahili is becoming a language of communication especially to the new families, workers, business persons, religious leaders and those people who happen to live in towns.

The research found that the reasons for this changing trend and attitude which is shifting from using Kinyaturu in all spheres of life to using Kiswahili in many areas include education system that grooms up children in Kiswahili and therefore they grow up with blunt attitude towards Kinyaturu but positive towards Kiswahili and

English. Religions is also a major factor because all new religions are associated with Kiswahili and all practices are conducted in it. Science and technology that is the widespread of electronic devices such as cellphones and presence of many media like Radio, Newspapers and Televisions have totally captured the mind of people since Kiswahili dominates all these. Trade and rural-urban mobility have made people interact with people from different language community which forces them to use Kiswahili that is comprehensible to all as lingua franca. The truth remains

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that, people are shifting to Kiswahili in an imaginable pace and trend while abandoning Kinyaturu to the very insignificant and informal domain of use that is home setting because among Nyaturu community, traditional practices are no longer in existence. Something must be done now.

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX I

MADODOSO KWA WANAFUNZI WA SHULE YA SEKONDARI

Mpendwa Mshiriki,

Mimi ni Chima Mayombwe, mwanafunzi wa Chuo Kikuu cha Dodoma. Ninafanya utafiti juu ya “Athari za Kiswahili kwenye Lugha ya Kinyaturu”. Kwa heshima ninakuomba unisaidie kujibu maswali rahisi yafuatayo chini ambayo ni sehemu ya masomo yangu. Ninakuhakikishia kwamba majibu na maelezo yako ni Siri sana kati yako na mtafiti tu.

Ninatanguliza shukurani zangu na ubaki na baraka za Mungu.

Jina langu ni……………………………………………………..

1. Jinsia………Me... Ke…..

2. Umri wangu ni miaka…..

(a). 12-13 (b). 14-16 (c). 17-21

4. Nasoma kidato cha;

(a). tatu (b). Nne (c). Sita

5. Ukiwa nyumbani au sokoni unapenda kuongea lugha gani zaidi?

(a). Kiswahili (b). Kinyaturu (c). Kiingerza

115

6. Kwa nini unatumia hiyo lugha nyumbani au sokoni?

…………………………………………………………………………………………

7. Ukiwa nyumbani wazazi na ndugu zako huwa mnaongea Kiswahili?

Kama jibu ni NDIYO, ni wakati gani mnaotumia Kiswahili?

…………………………………………………………………………………………

8. Mnapokuwa kanisani au msikitini lugha gani hutumika zaidi?

(a). Kinyaturu (b), Kiingereza (c). Kiswahili

9. Unajisikiaje unapoongea Kinyaturu shuleni?

(a). Vizuri sana (b). Kawaida tu (c). Vibaya

10. Unaweza Kuhesabu, Kusoma na Kuandika kwa Kinyaturu?

(a). Ndiyo (b). Kidogo (c). Hapana

11. (a). Kama ndiyo, andika tarakimu hizi kwa Kinyaturu

1……………….2……………….. 3………………..4………………..

5………………..

6 ……………….. 7……………….. 8……………….. 9………………

10……………….

116

(b). Andika maneno haya kwa Kinyaturu.

i).Babu………vi).Methali……ii)Barakvii)……….Gari………iii).Nyimbo…

viii). Vita……iv).Kusifu…. ix). Sumu …v). Balaa…x). Kuomba Mungu…..

12. Kati ya lugha ya Kiswahili na Kinyaturu, ni ipi inayohitajika zaidi katika maisha yako?

(a). Kiswahili [ ] (b). Kinyaturu [ ] (c). Zote [ ]

Toa sababu ya jibu lako

…………………………………………………………………………………

13. Nini maoni yako juu ya hatima ya Kinyaturu miaka hamsini ijayo?

…………………………………………………………………………………

14. Unatoa ushauri gani kwa makundi yafuatayo kuhusu Kinyaturu?

(a). Wazazi

…………………………………………………………………………………

b). Serikali

…………………………………………………………………………………

117

15. Nchi yetu ya Tanzania imejaliwa kuwa na makabila zaidi ya 120. Je, lugha zetu za asili zina umuhimu wowote katika zama hizi za sayansi na teknolojia?

(a). Ndiyo (b). Sio sana (c). Hapana

16. Eleza sababu za jibu lako namba 15 hapo juu.

……………………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………… …………………………

Asante sana kwa ushirikiano wako mzuri na Mungu akubariki sana.

118

APPENDIX II MADODOSO KWA WALIMU WA SHULE ZA MSINGI

Mpendwa Mshiriki,

Mimi ni Chima Mayombwe, mwanafunzi wa Chuo Kikuu cha

Dodoma. Ninafanya utafiti juu ya “Athari za Kiswahili kwenye Lugha ya

Kinyaturu”. Kwa heshima ninakuomba unisaidie kujibu maswali rahisi yafuatayo chini ambayo ni sehemu ya masomo yangu. Ninakuhakikishia kwamba majibu na maelezo yako ni Siri sana kati yako na mtafiti tu.

Ninatanguliza shukurani zangu na ubaki na baraka za Mungu.

1. Jina langu ni……………………………………………………..

2. Jinsia………Me... [ ] Ke….. [ ]

3. Umri wangu ni miaka…..

(a). 18-25 (b). 26-44 (c). 45-60

5. Ukiwa nyumbani au sokoni unapenda kuongea lugha gani zaidi?

(a). Kiswahili (b). Kinyaturu (c). Kiingerza [ ]

6. Kwa nini unatumia hiyo lugha nyumbani au sokoni?

…………………………………………………………………………………………

119

7. Ukiwa nyumbani wazazi na ndugu zako huwa mnaongea Kiswahili?

Kama jibu ni NDIYO, ni wakati gani mnaotumia Kiswahili?

…………………………………………………………………………………………

8. Mnapokuwa kanisani au msikitini lugha gani hutumika zaidi?

(a). Kinyaturu (b), Kiingereza (c). Kiswahili [ ]

9. Unajisikiaje unapoongea Kinyaturu shuleni?

(a). Vizuri sana (b). Kawaida tu (c). Vibaya [ ]

10. Unaweza Kuhesabu, Kusoma na Kuandika kwa Kinyaturu?

(a). Ndiyo (b). Kidogo (c). Hapana [ ]

11. (a). Kama ndiyo, andika tarakimu hizi kwa Kinyaturu:-

1……………….2………….. 3………………..4…………….. 5…………..

6 ……………….. 7………….. 8………….. 9…………… 10……………….

(b). Andika maneno haya kwa Kinyaturu.

i). Baba……… vi). Pika………ii). Mama……… vii).

Gari…………iii).Mtu…………. viii). Shule…… iv).Kulima……… ix).

Mimi v). Jana……………..x). leo ………………..

120

12. 13. Nini maoni yako juu ya hatima ya Kinyaturu miaka hamsini ijayo?

…………………………………………………………………………………

13. Unatoa ushauri gani kwa makundi yafuatayo kuhusu Kinyaturu?

(a). Wazazi.

…………………………………………………………………………………

.………….……………………………………………………………………

b).Serikali……………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………

14. Nchi yetu ya Tanzania imejaliwa kuwa na makabila zaidi ya 120. Je, lugha zetu za asili zina umuhimu wowote katika zama hizi za sayansi na teknolojia?

(a). Ndiyo (b). Sio sana (c). Hapana

15. Eleza sababu za jibu lako namba 15 hapo juu……………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………

12. 13. Nini maoni yako juu ya hatima ya Kinyaturu miaka hamsini ijayo?

…………………………………………………………………………………………

13. Unatoa ushauri gani kwa makundi yafuatayo kuhusu Kinyaturu?

(a). Wazazi. …………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………

121

b). Serikali. ……………………………………………………………………………

..………………………………………………………………………………………

14. Nchi yetu ya Tanzania imejaliwa kuwa na makabila zaidi ya 120. Je, lugha zetu za asili zina umuhimu wowote katika zama hizi za sayansi na teknolojia?

(a). Ndiyo (b). Sio sana (c). Hapana

15. Eleza sababu za jibu lako namba 15 hapo juu. ……………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

Asante sana kwa ushirikiano wako mzuri na Mungu akubariki.

122

APPENDIX III MADODOSO KWA VIONGOZI WA DINI

Mpendwa Mshiriki,

Mimi ni Chima Mayombwe, mwanafunzi wa Chuo Kikuu cha

Dodoma. Ninafanya utafiti juu ya “Athari za Kiswahili kwenye Lugha ya

Ninatanguliza shukurani zangu na ubaki na baraka za Mungu.

1. Jina langu ni……………………………………………………..

2. Jinsia……… Me... [ ] Ke….. [ ]

3. Umri wangu ni miaka…..

(a). 18-25 (b). 26-44 (c). 45-60 [ ]

4. Mimi ni kiongozi wa dini ya:-

(a), Kiislam (b). Kikristo [ ]

5. Ukiwa nyumbani au sokoni unapenda kuongea lugha gani zaidi?

(a). Kiswahili (b). Kinyaturu (c). Kiingerza [ ]

6. Kwa nini unatumia hiyo lugha nyumbani au sokoni?

…………………………………………………………………………………………

123

7. Kwenye shughuli za kidini na nyumba ya ibada, lugha gani inatumika zaidi?

(a). Kiswahili (b). Kinyaturu (c). Zote mbili [ ]

8. Kama ni Kiswahili, nini sababu ya kufanya hivyo?

......

10. Unaweza Kuhesabu, Kusoma na Kuandika kwa Kinyaturu?

(a). Ndiyo (b). Kidogo (c). Hapana [ ]

11. (a). Kama ndiyo, andika tarakimu hizi kwa Kinyaturu:-

1……………….2……………….. 3………………..4………………..

5………………..

6 ……………….. 7……………….. 8……………….. 9………………

10……………….

(b). Andika maneno haya kwa Kinyaturu.

i). Babu………vi). Methali……ii). Baraka………vii).

Gari……iii).Nyimbo………….

viii). Vita……… iv).Kusifu…... ix). Sumu … v). Balaa…x). Kuomba

Mungu………

12. 13. Nini maoni yako juu ya hatima ya Kinyaturu miaka hamsini ijayo?

…………………………………………………………………………………

124

13. Unatoa ushauri gani kwa makundi yafuatayo kuhusu Kinyaturu?

(a). Wazazi.

…………………………………………………………………………………

b). Serikali.

…………………………………………………………………………………

14. Nchi yetu ya Tanzania imejaliwa kuwa na makabila zaidi ya 120. Je, lugha zetu za asili zina umuhimu wowote katika zama hizi za sayansi na teknolojia?

(a). Ndiyo (b). Sio sana (c). Hapana

15. Eleza sababu za jibu lako namba 15 hapo juu.

…………………………………………………………………………………

Asante sana kwa ushirikiano wako mzuri na Mungu akubariki sana.

125

APPENDIX IV

MADODOSO KWA MWENYEKITI WA KIJIJI

Mpendwa Mshiriki,

Mimi ni Chima Mayombwe, mwanafunzi wa Chuo Kikuu cha

Dodoma. Ninafanya utafiti juu ya “Athari za Kiswahili kwenye Lugha ya

Ninatanguliza shukurani zangu na ubaki na baraka za Mungu.

1. Jina langu ni……………………………………………………..

2. Jinsia………Me... [ ] Ke….. [ ]

3. Umri wangu ni miaka…..

(a). 18-25 (b). 26-44 (c). 45-60

4. Kijiji chako kina idadi ya wakazi wangapi?

......

5. Unapokuwa ofisini kwako watu wanapokuja mazungumzo yanafanyika kwa lugha gani?

…………………………………………………………………………………

126

6. Mnapokuwa kwenye mikutano ya hadhara mnatumia lugha gani zaidi?

…………………………………………………………………………………

7. Kama ni Kiswahili,Je ni kwa nini sio Kinyaturu ambacho wakazi takribani asilimia mia moja wanazungumza na kuelewa vizuri Kinyaturu?

…………………………………………………………………………………

8. Je, wewe kama kiongozi unaweza kuongea kwenye mkutano wa hadhara kwa

Kinyaturu bila kuchanganya na Kiswahili?

(a). Ndiyo (b). Sio sana (c). Siwezi

Nini sababu ya jibu lako hapo juu dodoso no 8?

…………………………………………………………………………………

9. Nini maoni yako juu ya hatima ya Kinyaturu miaka hamsini ijayo?

…………………………………………………………………………………

10. Unatoa ushauri gani kwa makundi yafuatayo kuhusu Kinyaturu?

(a). Wazazi . ………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

127

b). Serikali.……………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

11. Nchi yetu ya Tanzania imejaliwa kuwa na makabila zaidi ya 120. Je, lugha zetu za asili zina umuhimu wowote katika zama hizi za sayansi na teknolojia?

(a). Ndiyo (b). Sio sana (c). Hapana

12. Eleza sababu za jibu lako namba 11 hapo juu.

…………………………………………………………………………………

12. 13. Nini maoni yako juu ya hatima ya Kinyaturu miaka hamsini ijayo?

…………………………………………………………………………………

Asante sana kwa ushirikiano wako mzuri na Mungu akubariki sana.

128

APPENDIX V INTERVIEW GUIDE QUESTIONS

Questions forFamilies

 Khaako ina antu bhanga? (How many family members in your family?)

 Wina mighunda a ukuu iki? (What is the size of your farm?)

 Wina mitigho inga ukhako munyampaa? (What is the total number of your

cattle?)

 Wafafiwe mwakha iki bhebhe? (which year were you born?)

 Bhebhe wahamie ung‟i iyeyi mwakha iki? (which year did come to this

place?)

Questions to the religious leaders

 Bhebhe rina rako anyu? (What is your name?)

 Waroghoe mwakha iki? (When did you get married?)

 Wina miakha inga umwimo uruyi? (How many years have you been in this

work?)

 Wina antu bhanga ikidae rako hafai? (How many members in your group?)

 Mutumia kinyafe nimugibada? (Which language do you use during the

service?)

 Asike nimutiighitya Kirimi gutufu nimukibada? (Why don‟t you use

Kinyaturu only during the service?)

129

Questions for youths

 Habari ya mwimo Muhumba/musungu/muncha? How are you young

boy/girl?)

 Bhe uguitanwa anyu? (What is your name?)

 Wafafiwe nanari isekuu/yiu? (When were you born my friend?)

 Umanyie usoma na uandika na? (Can you read and write?)

130

APPENDIX VI

TRANSLATED QUESTIONNAIRES

QUESTIONNAIRES FOR PRIMARY SCHOOL PUPILS

Dear Participant,

I am Chima Mayombwe, a student from the University of Dodoma. I am conducting a research on: “An Assessment of the Impact of Kiswahili on Kinyaturu; A Case of Chahi Dialect”. I am humbly asking for your assistance in answering the following simple questions which are part of my studies. I assure you that your answers and explanations are a top secret between you and the researcher.

Thanks and stay blessed.

1. My name is……………………………………………………..

2. Gender Male... [ ] Female…. [ ]

3. I am …..years

(a). 10-12

(b). 13-15 [ ]

(c). 16-18

4. Which language do you like to speak while at home or at the market?

(a). Kiswahili

(b). Kinyaturu [ ]

(c). English

5.Why do you like to use that language at home or at the market?

………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………

131

6. Which language is used at the church/mosque?

(a), Kinyaturu

(b), English [ ]

(c). Kiswahili

7. How do you feel when you speak Kinyaturu at school?

(a). Very good

(b). Just normal [ ]

(c). Bad

8. Can you count, read and write in Kinyaturu?

(a). Yes

(b). Very little [ ]

(c). No

9. (a).If Yes (Queation 10), write these numbers in Kinyaturu words

1……………….2……………….. 3………………..4……………….. 5………………..

6 ……………….. 7……………….. 8……………….. 9……………… 10……………….

(b).Write these words in Kinyaturu

i). Grandfather………………vi). Proverbs………………

ii). Blessing………..……….. vii). Car…………………..

iii).Songs…………………….viii).War…………………..

iv).Praise…………...... ix).Poison ……………. …

v). Bad luck…………………….x). Pray………………….

10. Between Kinyaturu and Kiswahili, which one is more important in life?

(a). Kiswahili [ ]

(b). Kinyaturu [ ] [ ]

(c). Both [ ]

132

Give the reason for your answer above ………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………

11. What do you think will be the fate of Kinyaturu fifty years to come?

………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………

12. What advice can you give to the following groups concerning Kinyaturu?

(a). Parents ………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………

b). Government ………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………

13. Tanzania is blessed with more than 120 ethnic community languages, are these important in this age of science and technology?

(a). Yes

(b). Not much [ ]

(c). No

14. Give the reason for your answer to the above question (14)

………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………

Thanks for your kind participation, may God bless you

133

APPENDIX VII

QUESTIONNAIRES FOR VILLAGER LEADER

Dear Participant,

Thanks and stay blessed.

1. My name is……………………………………………………..

2. Gender Male... [ ] Female…. [ ]

3. I am …..years

(a). 18-25

(b). 26-44

(c). 45-60

4. How many people in your village?

…………………………………………………………………………………

5. Which language do you use in your office when attending your people?

…………………………………………………………………………………………

134

6. During village meetings, which language is used?

…………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………..

7. If it is Kiswahili, why? Instead of Kinyaturu whose speakers are almost 100% native Nyaturu?

…………………………………………………………………………………

8. As a leader, can you address the village meeting in Kinyaturu without mixing with Kiswahili?

(a). Yes (b). Not easy (c). No

What is the reason for your answer in 8?

…………………………………………………………………………………

9. What is your viewa concerning Kinyaturu fifty years to come?

…………………………………………………………………………………

10. What is your advice to the following groups concerning Kinyaturu?

(a).Parents

…………………………………………………………………………………

135

b). Government

…………………………………………………………………………………

11. Our country is blessed with more than 120 ethnic community languages. Are they important in this age of science and technology?

(a). Yes (b). Not much (c). No

12. Give reason for your answer in (11) above

…………………………………………………………………………………

13. What are your views concerning Kinyaturu in the next fifty years?

…………………………………………………………………………………

Thanks for your kind participation, may God bless you

136

APPENDIX VIII

QUESTIONNAIRES FOR RELIGIOUS LEADFERS

Dear Participant,

Thanks and stay blessed.

1. My name is……………………………………………………..

2. Gender Male... [ ] Female…. [ ]

3. I am …..years

(a). 18-25 (b). 26-44 (c). 45-60

4. I am the religious leader of:-

(a), Islam (b). Christian [ ]

5. On religious sessions and matters, which language is used?

(a). Kiswahili (b). Kinyaturu (c). Both [ ]

6. If it Kiswahili, what is the reason?

......

7. Can you read, kuandika na kuhesabu kwa Kinyaturu?

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(a). Yes (b).Not much (c). No [ ]

8. (a). If Yes, write the following numbers in Kinyaturu words

1……………….2……………….. 3………………..4………………..

5………………..

6 ……………….. 7……………….. 8……………….. 9………………

10……………….

(b). Writ these words in Kinyaturu.

i). Grandfather………………vi). Proverbs………………ii).

Blessing………..

vii). Car……………..iii).Songs………….viii). War……………

iv).Praise…………... ix). Poison ……………. v). Bad luck……………

x). Pray………

9. What is your opinion on the fate of Kinyaturu in the next fifty years?

…………………………………………………………………………………

10. What is your advice to the following groups concerning Kinyaturu?

(a).Parents……………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

b). Government …………………………………………………………

Thanks for your kind participation, may God bless you

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APPENDIX IX

QUESTIONNAIRES FOR PRIMARY SCHOOL TTEACHERS

Dear Participant,

Thanks and stay blessed.

1. My name is……………………………………………………..

2. Gender Male... [ ] Female…. [ ]

3. I am …..years

(a). 18-25 (b). 26-44 (c). 45-60

4. Which language do you like to speak while at home or at the market?

(a). Kiswahili (b). Kinyaturu (c). English [ ]

5.Why do you like to use that language at home or at the market?

6. How do you feel when you speak Kinyaturu at school?

(a). Very good (b). Just normal (c). Bad [ ]

7. Can you read, write asnd count in Kinyaturu?

(a). Yes (b). Very little (c). No [ ]

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8. (a). If Yes, write the following numbers in Kinyaturu words:-

1……………….2……………….. 3………………..4………………..

5………………..

6 ……………….. 7……………….. 8……………….. 9………………

10……………….

(b). Write these words in Kinyaturu

i). Father…….. vi). Cook…………ii). Mother……….. vii). Car………..

iii).Person……. viii). School……… iv).farming……… ix). I ……….

v).Yesterday……………..x). Today ………………..

9. What is your opinion on the fate of Kinyaturu in next fifty years to come?…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………

10. What is your advice to the following groups concerning Kinyaturu? (a).Parents…………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… b).Government……………………………………………………………………… ………………… …………………………………………………………………

11. Our country is blessed with more than 120 ethnic community languages. Are they important in this age of science and technology? (a). Yes (b). Not much (c). No

12. Give reason for your answer in (11) above……………………………………………………

Thanks for your kind participation, may God bless you

140

APPENDIX X

QUESTIONNAIRES FOR SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS

Dear Participant,

Thanks and stay blessed.

1. My name is……………………………………………………..

2. Gender Male... [ ] Female…. [ ]

3. I am ….. of age

(a). 12-13 (b). 14-16 (c). 17-21

4. I am in form:-

(a). three (b). four (c). six

5. Which language dyou speak at home?

(a). Kiswahili (b). Kinyaturu (c). English

6. Why do you use that language at home?

…………………………………………………………………………………………

7. How do you feel when you speak Kinyaturu at school?

(a). Very good (b). Just normal (c). Bad 141

8. Can you write, read and count in Kinyaturu?

(a). Yes (b). Very little (c). No

9. (a). If yes, write the following numbers in Kinyaturu words

1……………….2………….. 3………………..4……………….. 5………..

6 ……….. 7……….. 8……………….. 9……………… 10……………….

(b). rite the following words in Kinyaturu

i). Grandfather…vi). Proverbs…………ii). Blessing……….vii). Car……

iii).Songs…..viii). War……….iv).Kusifu………ix).Poison …………….

v). Bad luck……………… x). Pray……..

10. Which language is more important in your life?

(a). Kiswahili [ ] (b). Kinyaturu [ ] (c). Both [ ]

Give reasons …………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

11. What is your opinion on the fate of Kinyaturu in the next fifty years?

…………………………………………………………………………………

12. What is your advice to the following groups concerning Kinyaturu?

(a).Parents……………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………… 142

b).Government………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

13. Our country is blessed with more than 120 ethnic community languages. Are they important in this age of science and technology?

(a). Yes (b). Not much (c). No

14. Give reason for your answer in (11) above

…………………………………………………………………………………………

Thanks for your kind participation, may God bless you

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APPENDIX XI : FIGURES

Figure 6: Ethnic groups of Tanzania

Source: Website

Figure 7: Nyaturu tradional house (Tembe)

Source: Field data 2015

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Figure 8: Nyaturu warrior

Source: Website

Figure 9: Nyaturu working tools

Source: Singida ethnographical Museum

Key. 1. Ng’engo (kind of panga) 2. Nseso (chisel) 3. Ighembe (hoe)

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Figure 10: Nyaturu traditional home instruments

Source: Singida Ethnographical Museum

Figure 11: Nyaturu traditional home instruments

Source: Singida ethnographical Museum

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