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Food Security & Large-Scale Land Acquisitions: the Cases of Tanzania and Ethiopia

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Food Security & Large-Scale Land Acquisitions: the Cases of Tanzania and Ethiopia Food security and large-scale land acquisitions: The cases of Tanzania and Ethiopia A dissertation submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Cincinnati in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Political Science of the McMicken College of Arts and Sciences by Jennifer Dye M.A. Political Science, University of Cincinnati, 2010 J.D. University of Cincinnati College of Law, 2010 March 2014 Committee Chair: Laura Jenkins, Ph.D. Abstract Food security is often misunderstood: overlooked in security studies and essentialized as a biological and nutritional issue, or as simply supply not matching demand. Yet, food security rests on underlying social and political questions of power, entitlement, distribution, and access within the food system and land tenure. This dissertation seeks to unearth these underlying social and political questions by examining how external large-scale land acquisitions affect food security and land tenure in the developing African state. This dissertation argues that external large-scale land acquisitions have a primarily negative impact on both food security and land tenure. Findings from the cases of Tanzania and Ethiopia show that large-scale land acquisitions maintain a system of social, political, and economic entitlements that foster uneven structures that result in low levels of food security and access to land. i ii Dedicated to Floyd and my parents iii Acknowledgements During my time in graduate school, I have received support and encouragement from a great number of individuals from various departments, colleges, and in my personal life. Thank you to all who have helped me as I worked on my dissertation. The document before you has been a work in progress for the last six and a half years. My initial research and writing on many of the ideas contained herein occurred as a result of an independent study with Dr. Anne Sisson Runyan in the spring of 2008. Since that time, there have been a number of people who have provided support, assistance, and guidance to this dissertation and to me. To the best of my recollection and ability, I would like to acknowledge some of these people below. First, I would like to thank the staff and faculty in Political Science, Women’s, Gender, and Sexuality Studies, as well as the College of Law. Without the faculty and staff support from each college and department, my interdisciplinary research and dissertation would not have been possible. Completing my law degree allowed me to explore intersections of race, gender, politics, and law. Taking classes, researching, and working with College of Law faculty were immeasurable in my pursuits of interdisciplinary research. Additionally, I would like to thank the faculty of Women’s, Gender, and Sexuality Studies. In particular, Dr. Anne Sisson Runyan; the support she offered throughout my graduate work has been invaluable. Working with Women’s, Gender, and Sexuality Studies faculty has helped bring invaluable depth and perspective to my research. The Political Science Department has been supportive of my interdisciplinary pursuits, and for that I am thankful. I would like to especially thank Dr. Barbara Bardes and Dr. Stephen Mockabee, whose support and efforts were instrumental in helping me navigate the administrative pathways to obtain my joint degree. In particular, I would like to thank my iv dissertation committee for their enthusiasm in my research topic and their efforts to improve the overall quality of my work. My chairperson, Dr. Laura Jenkins, has been a mentor, colleague, and friend – thank you for your support and patience during this project. I am also grateful for the insightful feedback and mentoring given by my committee members, Dr. Dinshaw Mistry and Dr. Adrian Parr. My committee members provided more than just insight into my dissertation, but also are individuals who are inspirational to me professionally. I am extremely grateful for their work, inspiration, advice, and mentoring throughout this whole process, and as a result I have grown as a scholar and personally. Lastly, I would like to acknowledge the most important people in my life. Mary Rose Zink, a dear friend, has been a major source of support in my life, but especially during the dissertation process. Our many coffee sessions have and are vital to my sanity. To my parents, Dean and Zola Rendell, I deeply appreciate your love and support throughout my life. To my mom, who has been in my heart along this journey, I would like to say: your unconditional love and strong faith in me carried me through when I thought I could not do it any more; I love you so much. To those who I’ve grown to love as family, Miranda, Donna, and Tim Hamrick – thank you for your friendship, support, and becoming a second family to me. Finally and most importantly, I would like to thank my husband, Floyd, for all his support and love. Words cannot express how grateful I am for everything you have done to help make this possible. v Table of Contents Abstract . i Dedication . iii Acknowledgements . iv List of diagrams, figures, and tables . vii List of abbreviations . viii Part One Chapter One: Introduction . 2 Chapter Two: Food . 24 Chapter Three: Land . 50 Part Two Chapter Four: The Case of Tanzania . 80 Chapter Five: The Case of Ethiopia . .133 Part Three Chapter Six: Conclusion . 192 References . 207 Appendices . 222 vi Figures Figure 1: Agricultural and Food Sector Hourglass, page 45 Figure 2: Conventional Conceptual Links Between Food and Land, page 52 Figure 3: Land Tenure and Food Security Feedback Loops, page 56 Figure 4: Land Acquisitions in Africa, page 66 Figure 5: Map of Tanzania, page 84 Figure 6: Process of Large-Scale Land Acquisitions in Tanzania, page 99 Figure 7: Process of Large-Scale Land Acquisitions in Tanzania on “Village Lands,” page 101 Figure 8: Map of Tanzania Regions, page 114 Figure 9: Map of Ethiopia, page 137 Figure 10: General Process of Large-Scale Land Acquisitions in Ethiopia, page 156 Figure 11: Map of the Gambella State, page 175 Graphs Graph 1: Distribution of Large-Scale Land Acquisitions in Tanzania by Zone, page 96 Graph 2: Distribution of Large-Scale Land Acquisitions in Ethiopia by States, page 152 Tables Table 1: Post-Independence Milestones in Tanzania, page 84 Table 2: National Level Food Security Indicators in Tanzania, page 88 Table 3: Tanzania Large-Scale Land Acquisitions – External Actors by Country, page 98 Table 4: Modern Period Political Milestones in Ethiopia, page 139 – 140 Table 5: National Level Food Security Indicators in Ethiopia, page 144 Table 6: Selected Incentives for External Investment in Ethiopia, page 151 Table 7: Ethiopia Large-Scale Land Acquisitions – External Actors by Country, page 154 Table 8: Consistent Regional Large-Scale Land Acquisition Terms in Ethiopia, page 160 vii Abbreviations AoA – WTO Agreement on Agriculture AISD – Agricultural Investment Support Directorate in Ethiopia ADER – Average Dietary Energy Requirement DES – Dietary Energy Supply EIA – Environmental Impact Assessment EPRFD – Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Front FAO – Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations FAOSTAT – Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Statistics Division FAIS – Food Aid Information System FDI – Foreign Direct Investment GMOs – Genetically Modified Organisms IFPRI – International Food Policy Research Institute IIED – International Institute for Environment and Development IFAD – International Fund for Agriculture and Development ILO – International Labor Organization ILC – International Land Coalition MORAD – Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development in Ethiopia NGOs – Non-government Organizations PL480 – Public Law 480 SAPs – Structural Adjustment Programs TIC – Tanzania Investment Centre TANU – Tanganyika African National Union TNCs – Transnational Corporations UN – United Nations UNCTAD – United Nations Conference on Trade and Development UNPD – United Nations Population Division WFP – United Nations World Food Programme WTO – World Trade Organization viii PART ONE Introduction and Theoretical Framework Can you imagine a country that was unable to grow enough food to feed the people? It would be a nation that would be subject to international pressure. It would be a nation at risk. George W. Bush1 This community now grows cash crops [for international markets] instead of traditional food…In addition, to save on firewood, Kenyan mothers were feeding their children processed white bread, refined rice, margarine and sweetened tea. Wangari Maathai2 1 (Bush, 2001, p. 920). 2 (Byfield, 2012, p. 6). 1 Chapter One Introduction Lack of food security has been persistent throughout history from the Irish potato famine of the 1840s, to Joseph Stalin’s use of famine as a political tool to kill Ukrainian peasantry in the early 1930s, and the North Korean famine of the 1990s. However, recent trends of increasing world food prices in 2005, 2008, and 2010 combined with the effects of climate change have drawn increased attention to prevalent issues of poverty, malnourishment, undernourishment, and hunger in the world. Indeed, the global food crisis from 2006 to 2010, marked by climbing food prices, food riots, and displacement of the rural poor, made human suffering and violence caused by food insecurity highly visible and illustrated that the issues underlying food insecurity in the global food system are complex and deep-seated. Today, there are between 805 million to 1.33 billion undernourished individuals, mostly from developing states (Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, International Fund for Agricultural Development, & World Food Programme, 2014, pp. 4, 35; Lappé et al., 2013, pp. 251-254).3 The most widely agreed 3 It is important to note that undernourishment is the condition of insufficient food and nutrients, primarily a physiological concern, whereas lack of food security, as indicated by its definition, is one that encompasses the physiological, economic, social, and political aspects related to the inability to get adequate access to food.
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