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Differentiation of Trace Metal Contamination Level minerals Article Differentiation of Trace Metal Contamination Level between Different Urban Functional Zones in Permafrost Affected Soils (the Example of Several Cities in the Yamal Region, Russian Arctic) Timur Nizamutdinov 1 , Eugenia Morgun 2 , Alexandr Pechkin 2, Jakub Kostecki 3 , Andrzej Greinert 3 and Evgeny Abakumov 1,4,* 1 Department of Applied Ecology, Saint Petersburg State University, 16 Line 29 Vasilyevskiy Island, 199178 Saint-Petersburg, Russia; [email protected] 2 Arctic Research Center of the Yamal-Nenets Autonomous District, 73, Respubliki St., 629008 Salekhard, Russia; [email protected] (E.M.); [email protected] (A.P.) 3 Institute of Environmental Engineering, University of Zielona Góra, 15, Prof. Z. Szafrana St., 65-516 Zielona Góra, Poland; [email protected] (J.K.); [email protected] (A.G.) 4 All Russian Institute for Agricultural Microbiology, 196608 Saint-Petersburg, Russia * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +7-9111969395 Abstract: Dynamically developing urbanization causes a number of environmental effects, including those related to the chemical transformation of soils. Relatively less information about the urban Citation: Nizamutdinov, T.; Morgun, areas of the Arctic and Subarctic zones, constructed mostly on permafrost and intensively populated E.; Pechkin, A.; Kostecki, J.; Greinert, areas can be found. By the example of the analysis of basic soil properties and concentrations of A.; Abakumov, E. Differentiation of trace metals in the soils of the cities of Salekhard, Urengoy, Nadym, Novy Urengoy and Gaz Sale Trace Metal Contamination Level (the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous District), as well as various functional zones within the cities, between Different Urban Functional the relationship between the age of the cities, the level of anthropogenic pressure and the type of Zones in Permafrost Affected Soils parent materials and the character of accumulation of metals in the soil profile of urban soils have (the Example of Several Cities in the been described. The direct correlation was found between the content of Pb, Cr, Ni, As and soil Yamal Region, Russian Arctic). sorption characteristics. In young cities built on sandy sediments, there is less accumulation of heavy Minerals 2021, 11, 668. https:// metals in the topsoil horizons. Relatively higher concentrations of Cu and Cd were noted in soils of doi.org/10.3390/min11070668 industrialized cities, regardless of functional zones. The higher content of Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, As and Academic Editors: Anna Karczewska Pb has been registered in older zones also frequently used for residential purposes. The calculated and Karolina Lewi´nska values of the PI index for some functional zones of young cities show the medium and high content of heavy metals. The analysis of Igeo and PLI indices shows a large diversity both in relation to Received: 25 May 2021 individual cities and their functional zones. Soil quality, in spite of the high level of anthropogenic Accepted: 19 June 2021 load, was assessed as mostly satisfactory. Published: 23 June 2021 Keywords: Arctic cities; urban environment; urban soils; permafrost; pollution status Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affil- iations. 1. Introduction Urbanization and urban sprawl has to a large extent a demographic background— modern cities accept a constantly growing number of inhabitants—constituting already 55.3%, and in 2050, possibly 68.4% of the total world population [1]. Strong urbanization Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. processes will be noted in previously sparsely populated and urbanized areas. It should Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. be expected that they will proceed very intensively in areas of key importance to the This article is an open access article economies of individual countries. Such areas are strongly related to the presence of raw distributed under the terms and materials and dynamically developing industry. conditions of the Creative Commons Climatic conditions, the isolation of settlements from each other, and transport inac- Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// cessibility cause a high degree of urbanization of the Arctic regions. According to various creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ estimates, more than 85% of the population of the Russian Arctic lives in cities. This is the 4.0/). Minerals 2021, 11, 668. https://doi.org/10.3390/min11070668 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/minerals Minerals 2021, 11, 668 2 of 20 highest rate of urbanization in all of Russia [2]. Large settlements in the Arctic regions were formed as a result of the industrial development of the north. The effective mining of natu- ral resources was impossible without the logistics and transport chain, the basis of which are large settlements. In the Yamal-Nenets Autonomous District, the largest settlements are inextricably linked to industrial production [3]. The first attempts to apply scientifically based methods of complex development and management of the Arctic territories began during the period of mass industrial activity in the oil and gas fields of Western Siberia. As a result, it was considered optimal to create cities of different categories: large, medium or small, depending on the specific needs of the region. As a result, in the period from 1960 to 1990 there were created 6 cities and 14 small settlements, which were focused on the search and extraction of hydrocarbon raw materials. At present about 75% of the population of the Yamal region lives in these towns [4,5]. Most of the Arctic cities were formed relatively recently. The oldest city in which our study was conducted is Salekhard, it has an ancient history and was founded in 1595 and received city status in 1938. The ages of the rest of the cities we studied do not exceed 45 years, for example, Gaz Sale was formed as a municipality only in 2004 [4]. The understanding of the conceptual role of the Arctic territories and the elaboration of projects for the development of the North as a special space for state development are widely associated with the works of academicians Agranat [6] and Slavin [7]. Currently, the development of the Arctic regions is being raised more and more frequently. The Russian Federation has adopted at the governmental level the program "Social-economic development of the Arctic zone of the Russian Federation for the period until 2025," which provides for the development of the northern regions in various directions, from mining to agriculture [8]. It is reasonable to assume that such global projects will necessarily lead to population growth and density in the Arctic regions and, as a consequence, to the increase and development of cities in the Arctic and Subarctic zones. However, intensive urban growth carries with it adverse environmental effects on the fragile Arctic ecosystem. The environmental problems of cities and their impact on the global ecosystem are well studied and unquestioned [9,10]. Urban development, and the resulting point-in-time extreme anthropogenic impact on ecosystems, has been well studied in the examples of the largest cities and their agglomerations in Europe, China, Latin America and India [11–14]. The development of urban infrastructure cardinally transforms landscapes and changes the temperature regime due to the concentration of industrial enterprises and vehicles. This leads to the formation of so-called “heat islands” which are one of the causes of climate change at the global and local levels [9,10]. Urban areas located in the Arctic and Subarctic zones require special management in terms of their impact on the environment. Built mostly on permafrost, large populated settlements may become one of the causes of the acceleration of permafrost melting, which has enormous impacts. One of the effects of thawing permafrost is a massive increase in the emission of greenhouse gases such as CO2 or methane into the atmosphere [15,16]. Since more than 60% of Russia’s territory is located in the permafrost zone, questions of controlling the anthropogenic load on Arctic territories will always remain relevant [17,18]. Dynamically developing urbanization causes a number of environmental effects, in- cluding those related to the transformation of soils. The pace of land development is proportional to the scale of these transformations [19,20]. The soil cover of the northern regions is highly vulnerable to anthropogenic impact. Soil formation in the Arctic is compli- cated due to extreme climatic conditions and the prevalence of low temperatures. However, it is the analysis of the soil cover that may be the key to assessing the degree of anthro- pogenic impact on Arctic ecosystems. Additionally, all areas with poorly developed soil cover (poorly developed soils) are susceptible to their devastation as a result of investment processes [21]. The mechanical transformations of these soils lead to the shortening of the soil profiles and the exposure of the bedrock level [22]. This enables other manifestations of soil degradation, including chemical ones, with a direct threat to the lower parts of the Minerals 2021, 11, 668 3 of 20 soil profile and geological layers [22,23]. Accumulation of trace metals in urban soils is an unavoidable effect of excessive anthropogenic pressure on ecosystems [24,25]. Since the adverse environmental impact of the urban ecosystem of the Yamal region is associated not only with traditional factors such as emissions from industrial plants and motor vehicles, but also active extraction
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