48 ENVIRONMENT 1 warming bythemiddleorendof21 warming theclimate changeperspective, thismagnitudethe South.In corresponds to regional theexpected landscapes. The magnitudeLSTanomalycorresponds to oftheurban to climates found 300–600km seasonallyaveraged thanthoseofthesurrounding warmer LSTwithintheurbanizedterritories °C) Spectroradiometer (MODIS)datarevealed ResolutionImaging Moderate significantly (1.3°Cto 5.2 taiga andmiddlebioclimaticzones correspondingly. Ouranalysisof15years (2000–2014) Tazovsky, Nadym,NoyabrskandMegion. These citiesare located intundra,forest-tundra, northern around four northern West cities, Siberian namely, temperature (LST) andlandsurface productivity changes are f environment andtheearth’s system climate asthewhole. The mostsignificant environmental Igor Esau DOI: 10.15356/2071-9388_04v09_2016_04 unambiguous links between socio-economic, socio-economic, unambiguous links between iseven more difficult toIt establish of meteorological dataandsatellite images. be quantifiedonlythrough statistical analysis changes, considered inthisstudy, could (LST) temperature and landsurface productivity less apparent. For instance, thevegetation Changes inotherenvironmental features are andairquality,types isobviousto any observer. ronmental features, suchaslandscapes, landuse Anthropogenic modificationofsomeenvi- even entirely, anthropogenic environment. representUrbanized territories significantly, or green spaces, satellite dataanalysis, Siberia. MODIS,NDVI, could transform pioneersettlementsinto placesofbelonging. theSiberian planning urban incombinationwithknowledgeable micro-climates changes oftheurban oftemperatespectrum blossomingtrees landscapes. andshrubsinurban The unintended plant speciesencouragesanumberofinitiatives andinvestment to introduce even broader ofatyp it ismore consistent Survival withtheirtraditionalecological knowledge. productive trees andtallshrubs. This afforestation iswelcome populationas bythemigrant city landscapeswithmore urban re-vegetationofthedisturbed uppersoillayers,warmer cansupport * Research, Thormohlensgt. 47,5006,Bergen, Norway ABSTRACT. INTRODUCTION KEY WORDS: IN NORTHERN SIBERIAN CITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT OF GREEN SPACES WARMER URBAN CLIMATES Corresponding author Nansen Environmental Centre Center/Bjerknes andRemote Sensing for Climate 1 *, Victoria Miles *, Victoria Modern humansocietieshave accumulatedModern considerablepower to modifytheir ound in the urbanized areas.ound intheurbanized This studyconsiderscoherent changesinvegetation Surface urban heat island (SUHI), traditional ecological knowledge (TEK), urban urban (TEK), heatisland(SUHI),traditionalecological knowledge urban Surface ; e-mail: [email protected] ; e-mail: 1 st century. Warmer climates, urban andspecifically often unclear and important nuancespertain. unclear andimportant often are categories between Boundaries the proposed remains constructs weak. aside from models, thedeterministic for At thesametime, thestatisticalsupport, 2014].and Mennis, 2012;Hebbert, al., 2010;Buyantuyev and Wu, 2010; Wolfe life [e.g. Brown andRaymond, 2007; Barthelet environment ofthe urban andsocialaspects thephysical between to someconnections fruitful insuchstudies. Almostany authorpoints which naturalsciencesbenefit,isusuallynot approach, causality fromA straightforward ecologic andphysical environments. ical, southern reported albedo-dominated feedbacks in the albedo-dominated reported the cities. This isindramaticcontrastto the leading tofactors elevated averaged LSTin byotherphysicaleffectively counterweighted study, is highalbedoofurbanized territories soils. urban As we showinthisartificial features, albedoandmoisture content of development modified thermal sand inurban soils andhydrological systems. Wide useof damages to thenaturalvegetation cover, development went alongwithsignificant rather lowinthemigrants’ theurban TEK, As isvalued thenaturallandscapeinNWS centers inthecoldcontinentalclimate zone. the temperate climate zone to newurban drives migration fromthe oilandgasreserves cities. (NWS) explorationof Intensive Siberia thenorthern West characterizes interactions Similar dissonanceinthesocial-environmental harsh asinNuuk(Greenland). green as placesinpolarcitieswithclimates for afforestation urban andcreation ofurban cultural valuesoftrees drivesignificant efforts in action. They showthathighsymbolicand study gives anexample ofthemigrants’ TEK [2012] andDouhovnikoff et al., 2000].McBride adaptive environmental management[Berkes the TEK concepthasbeenshownusefulin 2013], degree inconsistent internally [Whyte, issues. Althoughratherblurandto some insolvingtheenvironmental (TEK) knowledge rely ontheirincompatibletraditionalecological settlementswhere in newpioneering people challenging dissonance couldbeparticularly climate andecosystem resources. This values may notfullyaccountfor the limiting strength, butthegroups’and policy cultural 2008]. Those groups possessbothtechnologic process [Stephenson, in thedecisionmaking mig urban to themigrants’ groups. Cultural valuesofthe qualitative environmental meaningsintrinsic donotcaptureoften asufficientbreadth of that environmental assessments impact 1998]foundstudy from Svalbard [Kaltenborn, and socialforces. For instance, asociological account interplay theenvironmental between into development shouldtake that theurban thereNevertheless, isagrowing understanding Esau I.,Miles V. rants’ groups are influentialfactor value andpsychological benefitsof urban reviewed literature highlightsthehigh cultural Although far from being exhaustive, the decline from in1989. almost80%reported in2009. residency This isaconsiderable considered city itastheplace ofpermanent dwellers. Only40%oftherespondents inthis and ecological amongthecity perspectives degrading theperception ofsenseplace greenurban spaceswasaninfluentialfactor 2010]demonstrated thatalackof [Vyhodzev, sociologicalIndeed, studiesinNiznevartovsk ofthegreen spaces(Royet al.,services 2012]. more recognized recreation andprotective as sustainability to urban be asimportant life andemotions. Those benefitsmight and psychological human benefitsenriching belonging. socialThey provide important and asplacesofidentity green spacesserve andSteemers, 2003].Urban Nikolopoulou (Zrudlo,psycho-physiological comfort 1988; eventually to thepopulation contributing onpopulation healthandlifestyles,impact growing evidenceindicates its empirical Beyond ofvegetation, thephysical impact and albedoaswell assoilcharacteristics. layer,atmospheric emissivity surface resistancesand thermal ofthelowermost of theyear, itstillchangestheaerodynamic thelargestbiologically during part inactive Although thecoldclimate vegetation remains plants iswelcome bythemigrants’ population. oftemperateThe introduction blossoming response micro-climates. onthewarmer around thecitiesisincreasing, asa perhaps reveal inand thatvegetation productivity incities. micro-climates warmer Wesupport afforestationurban andgreen spacesmight 2008],andviceversa,species (Srodnykh, the more andmore southern productive tree ofintroducedhelps afforestation andsurvival which citieshave micro-climate, NWS warmer annually.summer withnetwarming Thus, the effect inwinter andmoderate coolingeffect in found thatboreal forests have strong warming contrasting inhighlatitudes. Lietal. (2015] The albedo-vegetation feedback isalso cities oflower latitudes(e.g. Jinetal., 2005]. WARMER URBAN CLIMATES ...

49 ENVIRONMENT 50 ENVIRONMENT the social “sense ofplace” construct. the physical environment element of asakey with theStedman’s [2003]interpretation of and conclusions. Here we attempt to bridge science. presents discussion The lastsection quantitative ofthenatural earth’s rigor system the results. comply withthe These sections methods followed reporting bythe section thedataand parts. describes section The next The subsequentpresentation consistsofthree unsuitable, aswe willshowhere. thedata thusmaking located atairports, existing stationsofthe areWMO network allow UHIidentification.Moreover, many donot networks Sparse insituobservational UHI norSUHIwere cities. studiedintheNWS layer andEsau, [Davy 2016].Neither boundary in shallowstablystratifiedatmospheric the additionalanthropogenic heat urban explained bytrappingandaccumulating high latitudes. The dependencecouldbe that theUHIamplitudesincrease towards et al., 2015]. andKuttler[2005]found Wienert etal., 2013; Konstantinov Nelson, 2007;Klene and etal.,polar cities[Magee 1999;Hinkel UHIinthe warmer publications reporting study oftheLSTcontrasts. There are several heatisland(SUHI)inthe urban the surface air temperature. Therefore, we distinguish heat island(UHI).UHIisusuallyrelated to the inliterature locations are astheurban known andthesurrounding rural theurban between The systematic temperature difference constraints imposedbythelowtemperatures. airlayers couldsignificantly alleviate surface soilsandthewarmer urban The warmer insensitive to it. to vegetationthe tendedbe islikely urban on thevegetation surrounding thecities, but –soilmoisturefactor –may have animpact al., 2014].Anotherfrequently cited limiting growing et season[Barichivich and ashort cold climate withitslowwinter temperatures major vegetation here limitingfactor isthe similar development inlower latitudes. The difficult andrequires more resources than and green citiesismore spacesintheNWS green spaces. Creation of “sense ofplace” GEOGRAPHY. ENVIRONMENT. SUSTAINABILITY. 04(09)2016 indicators in263European cities. They found relations heatisland withothereleven urban for 2002–2003 to study theSUHIandits etal. [2011]usedMODISLSTproducts Schwartz atmosphere [Gentineetal., 2010]. exchangethe turbulent inthe overlying energy balanceandlesstoto thesurface sincetheyare cycles, diurnal more sensitive considerable deviationsintheseasonaland airtemperatures butmay haveto thesurface SUHI. LST datacharacterize The LSTisrelated andEsau[2016]. al. [2016]andMiles dataprocessingonly theNDVI from Esauet data. (NDVI) Therefore, below we describe of aNormalized Difference Vegetation Index data productswassimilarto theprocessing period. 8-day processing ofthese The further the average LSTs valuesofclear-sky an during stored Sinusoidalgrid (SIN) as ona1-kilometer LST product(MOD11A1)and1-kilometer (MOD11A2) are composedfrom thedaily dataThe level-3 MODISglobalLST8-day satellites. We MODISdataproducts. used two respectively) onboard of Terra andAqua (10.78–11.28 and11.77–12.27micrometers, (MODIS) system, channels31and32 SpectroradiometerResolution Imaging is provided Moderate bythehyperspectral heatislands ontheurban A newperspective intheNWS. WMO network stationsare includedintheregular airport stationsandonlythreeidentified urban was impossible.pairing There were noself- theconsideredal., cities, NWS 2015].In such and ruralstationsisdifficult[e.g. et Mishra are ofurban sparsesothatpairing networks [e.g. andOlson,2004].Theregular Moelders greenleaving urban spaceswithoutcoverage they tend to concentrate inresidential areas as micro-climates ofurban the diversity citizens’ donotcover networks observation etal., even[Meier 2015].Nevertheless, dense ofcitizens’at irregular networks observations stationsandincreasingly at regular certified from both insitumeteorological observations The UHIamplitudesare usuallycalculated DATA AND METHOD per pixel byaggregating theavailable 8-days- For eachcity, we compute annualmeanLST is approximately 10:30and22:30localtime. For Terra/MODIS thesatellite time overpass to 2°C. We process day andnightLSTdata. have anaverage LSTerror lessthanorequal controlproduct quality flag, thedatawe used to degreeKelvin centigrade. According to the EOS to GeoTIFF format from andconverted datum andwere reformatted from HDF- Zone 42Nprojection system with WGS84 System. The datawere to UTM re-projected is inHDF-EOSformat andinSINProjection reverb.echo.nasa.gov/. The downloaded data LST composites were downloadedfrom http:// TIR bands. daytime andnighttimeMODISdatainseven simultaneouslyfrom pairsof band emissivity temperature andretrieves land-surface calculating LSTs. The day/night LSTmethod A split-window isusedfor algorithm 2008]. [Wang, properties and atmospheric infrared bandsdesigned for retrievals of LST inmultiplethermal high calibrationaccuracy has Science DataSets(SDS)layers [Li,2013].It daily productof Terra-MODIS andhas12 MOD11A1 totwo eightdays oftheclearsky byaveraging LSTproduct is aneight-day from MODIS hasbeenusedinthestudy. MOD11A2 product, MOD11A2of and emissivity Terra- temperaturefrom 2001to 2015.Landsurface data temperature (LST) MODIS Landsurface areasassociated withurban we usedthe Terra/ To anomalies thermal identifypermanent from directmeasurement data. winter conditionsthantheairtemperature MODIS dataissystematically higherunder air temperature calculated according to the ofApatity.in thecity They concludedthatthe airtemperatures ofthesurface observations direct MODIS LSTandthespatiallydistributed etal. [2015]comparedKonstantinov the to quantifythesamephenomenon.Recently, over time, althoughtheywere constructed butshowratherlowcorrelationspatterns individually reveal andseasonal diurnal ofSUHIand other indicators that timeseries Esau I.,Miles V. during thegrowingduring season.Summarizing the peakgreenness achieved byvegetation the maximum development andrepresent in thisstudy. values characterize NDVImax We (NDVImax) useannualmaximumNDVI from theanalysis. water, bare soilandothernon-vegetated pixel threshold0.3–1 NDVI wasusedto exclude canopies are generallygreater than0.3.A andgreenvegetated vegetation surfaces valuesbelow0.2areThe NDVI generallynon- pixels isvariable, ranging from 10%–30%. pixels withdata. The percentage ofexcluded fromstatistical interpolation thesurrounding information usingthenearest neighbor The gapsintheraster pixels were filled with to retain onlydataofthehighestquality. data provided together withtheproducts, were quality-filtered bytheMODISreliability (UTM Zone 42N, WGS84 ellipsoid). The data the universal Transverse Mercator projection weresystem (GIS).Images reprojected to into theArcGIS geographic information wereproducts downloadedandimported green biomass. The tilesoftheoriginal data with increasing plantchlorophyll content or produces andapproaches positive NDVI +1 reflects highlyinthenearinfrared. Vegetation light, whereas structureofleaves theinternal as chlorophyll isastrong ofred absorber and nearinfrared ofvegetation, reflectance red isbasedonthecontrastbetween NDVI near infrared andredradiationbands. spectral inthe normalized ratioofreflectancefactors isdefinedasa NDVI (NDVImax). NDVI usingthemaximum annualcharacterized areThe changesinvegetation productivity offoresttype andnon-forested areas. such asdifferent classified asnaturalsurfaces land, wasconsidered asrural. Rural pixels are polygon; thesurrounding,the city non-urban rural pixels. pixels Urban were allocated by SUHI magnitudes, and we identifiedurban and winter LSTmapfor eachcity. To compute we produced temporally average summer based onthe14year timeseries. As aresult summer. The meanvalueswere calculated mean composite separately for winter and WARMER URBAN CLIMATES ...

51 ENVIRONMENT 52 ENVIRONMENT significantly modified LSTandvegetation climatology reveals thatall four citieshave characteristics. the city The MODIS-based taiga, correspondingly. Table 1summarizes tundra, forest-tundra, andmiddle northern located infour bioclimaticzones suchas andMegion)(Tazovskiy, Nadym,Noyabrsk, This studyconsidersfour cities NWS >0.05. outallpixels masked withanestimate p-value pixels withstatisticallysignificant trends, we for rejectingthenullhypotheses. To identify oftime period significant trends over acertain a pixel-wise only trend analysisandextract the response variable. isto do The purpose as andNDVImax the independentvariable regression for withyear as eachpixel stack, Leastthrough Squares theOrdinary (OLS) were obtainedfor 2000–2014 theperiod the NDVImax. The lineartrends inNDVImax seasonal meansfor the LSTandtrends for ofinterest characteristics areseries the and to identifyandtest for changes. Time inordertime series to provide metrics Statistical methodswere appliedto the Tazovskiy, Nadym,NoyabrskandMegion. centered atthefour cities. The citiesare squaresthe datawere clippedin40xkm area. For ofthisstudy, thespecificpurpose DJF) were computed across theentire NWS and winters (December–January–February, JJA) 2000–2014 summers(June–July–August, andLSTdatafor theThe MODISNDVImax dataforNDVI thewinter period. throughout NWS. We donotanalyze here the map 15-year meanNDVImax an up-to-date andgenerated 15-year datasetofNDVImax each pixel. This results ina250mresolution, composite valuefrom forNDVI each16-day themaximumwas compiledbyselecting mapfor eachyear (summer,An NDVImax JJA) differentphases between vegetation zones. the errors inbeginning ofphenological andreducesany inNDVI seasonalvariation composites eliminates into NDVImax NDVI GEOGRAPHY. ENVIRONMENT. SUSTAINABILITY. 04(09)2016 RESULTS Figure 1showsthemean seasonalLSTpatterns ofNadymisspecific interestThe city here. negative trends. changes oreven widespread significantly surrounding vegetation shows noNDVImax ofMegionwhere city thesouthernmost inthe interesting to observe is particularly vegetation productivity. greeningThis urban significant greening, i.e., increase of unforested area dodemonstrate statistically tundra-forest zone (Nadym). The patches of of forests except thatinlarch forest in the there declineinalltypes isaproductivity 2008]. More detailedanalysisrevealed that as ithasbeenpointed to in[Srodnykh, inthesandysoils nutrients effect oflacking was found. Perhaps, here the we observe andLST correlation theNDVImax between of city Tazovskiy,northernmost nosignificant 2011].However,and Milyaeva, except for the plant species[Lloyd etal., 2003; Koronatova dark-needle trees andothermore southern bybroad-leaf landdisturbances andurban create favorable conditionsfor reclaiming the anthropogenic heating(upto 50 W [Archegova, 2007],better drainageand ecosystems the establishedcold-conserving and therefore of better drained. Distortions that ishigherthanthesurrounding landscape sandygroundcities are builtontheartificial vegetation cover. addition,many northern In development destroysUrban thenatural spotsisbeyond warmer around Megion. The detailedanalysisofthese platforms,and locationsofdrilling particularly There are alsomany installations industrial sandysoils. patches ofdrier in summertime, spots are identifiedaslakes, large rivers and, the citiesbutalsoaround ofthose them.Most LSTare spots ofwarmer found notonlywithin thatthe there. onecanobserve Nevertheless, orruralsettlements There are nosub-urban sparselypopulated areas. surrounded byvery maps n localized SUHIisfound inNoyabrsk. The LST areas.urbanized The strongest andthemost seasonal temperatures are found inthe cover. Figure mean 1showsthatwarmer eed somecomments. Allfour citiesare the scopeofthisstudy. • m –2 ) Esau I., Miles Esau I.,Miles V.

Table 1. Four cities in Western Siberia included in the study. The city population (pop. in thousands inhabitants) is given from the Russian national census, 2010. The mean background NDVImax (nature) is shown for the most distant 40-km ring. The relative trends are given for the time series without the years with the minimum and maximum NDVImax. Statistically signifi cant trends at 95 % level are underlined. The biomes are abbreviated as: tundra (T); forest-tundra (FT); northern taiga forest (NTF); and middle taiga forest (MTF). The analysis is based on 2000–2014 (15 years) climatology

NDVImax Mean NDVImax trend Mean City Lat. Pop. UHI [K] UHI [K] trend N Biome NDVImax (nature) NDVImax Name Long. (Ѕ1000) Summer Winter (city core) (nature) [% dec–1] (city core) [% dec–1]

67°28’N ↓ +7.6 % 1 Tazovskiy 78°42’E 7 NTF 0.3 0.8 0.73 +1.5 % 0.63

65°32’N ↓46 NTF 1.3 1.8 0.71 +1.2 % 0.55 –1.8 % 2 Nadym 72°31’E

63°11’N WARMER URBAN CLIMATES ↓107 MTF 3.2 2.7 0.69 No change 0.60 +0.6 % 3 Noyabrsk 75°27’E

61°22’N ↓49 MTF 1.3 1.6 0.77 +0.8 % 0.52 +6.9 % 4 Megion 76°06’E ...

53 ENVIRONMENT 54 ENVIRONMENT GEOGRAPHY. ENVIRONMENT. SUSTAINABILITY. 04(09)2016 vegetation types [Bartalev et al.2014] et [Bartalev vegetation types areshown with hatching. different The boundaries. correspondingly. thecity black contours bold identify The West the wintershow for averaged theseasonally (DJF) LST andsummer (JJA) seasons, northern the of zones panels (a)The show thestatistically panels (b) The trends. significant and(c) NDVImax bioclimatic (Megion). taiga middle and different in situated Siberia: cities four of Maps 1. Fig. tundra (Tazovskiy); forest-tundra (Nadym); northern taiga (Noyabrsk); terrain disturbances were disturbances terrain reclaimed byplant Nadym in1970–2008. The human-induced the permafrost andvegetation changesin [2009]reveal summarized byMoskalenko on evapotranspiration.Longer fieldstudies SUHI dueto reduced heatconsumption and sandysoil, whichcreates theairport energy barren balancechangesdueto drier heatinginducedbythesurface indirect which creates theNadymSUHI,and anthropogenicthe direct heating, urban helpsto distinguishbetween It wintertime. spotdisappears in warmer The airport spotinsummertime. within thewarmer code23445)isfound station Nadym(WMO thatthemeteorologicalOne canobserve imageinthecollageshows. Google Earth is avastbarren soilandsandarea asthe areawith theNadymairport. The airport spot isassociated summer seasonalwarmer around Nadym. thata The reader canobserve Figure 2detailsthemeansummerLSTpattern spot emerges to thesoutheastfrom thecity. are more widelydistributed. Astrong warmer release inthecity. spots The summerwarmer is consistent anthropogenic withactive heat boundary.mostly localized withinthecity This around Nadym. spotsareThe winter warmer Esau I.,Miles V. The meteorological station Nadym (WMO nr. station (WMO meteorological The Nadym 23445) is locate Fig. 2. The mean summer LST (color scale) and the vegetation cover types (the same as in Fig. 1) Fig. in as same (the types cover vegetation the and scale) (color LST summer mean The 2. Fig. around Nadym and the Google Earth© images of the two selected warmer spots. warmer selected two the of images Earth© Google the and Nadym around communities ofbirch ( NDVImax differenceNDVImax isstatisticallysignificant thanthemore distantrings. NDVImax This humanactivity,by thedirect hashigher by theSUHIbutonlyinsignificantly disturbed to thecity, andtherefore themostaffected cores.city Figure closest 3showsthatthering around widerings the its trends ineight5-km and We studiedthemeanNDVImax further contrast withthesurrounding territory. and doesnothave suchastrong soilmoisture presumably becauseitoccupiessmallerarea SUHIhassmallermagnitude,The airport widespread andaround inthiscity theairport. found around Noyabrsk. greening The urban is trends are patterns Similar SUHIandNDVImax where theannualmeanSUHIreaches 4–5K. greenthe urban spacesisfound intheareas unaffected bytheSUHI,greeninglikely of ( greening inthelarch ( the city. Althoughthemostpronounced is found for allvegetation around cover types (greening)significant increase oftheNDVImax southfrom thisarea. further The statistically taigaecosystems are moreofnorthern typical Pinus silvestris, P. sibirica d within the summer seasonal warm spot at the airport. WARMER URBAN CLIMATES ) andtallshrubs, which Larix sibirica Betula nana ) forest is ), pines ...

55 ENVIRONMENT 56 ENVIRONMENT GEOGRAPHY. ENVIRONMENT. SUSTAINABILITY. 04(09)2016 minimum NDVImax further eastin further Tazovskiy.minimum NDVImax inNadym, butintherecord maximum NDVImax anomalously cold summerin2014resulted inthe isinterestingbiological thatthe production.It outliers intheyears ofmaximumandminimum (15 years) istoo small. Figure 3alsoincludesthe statistically insignificant asthesamplesize natural vegetation. This difference ishowever trends than thesurroundingNDVImax aroundfirst rings themexhibit larger positive Boththecitiesand (p <0.05)inNoyabrsk. trends obtained an whenthe maximum by obtained 15 change asthetrendmultiplied NDVImax year vertic triangle)the minimum(downward-looking NDVImax; of gray rectangles –3standard deviations; triangles–th dark gray rectangl NDVImax; line withsquares–themean core atthecity theNDVImax estimation)parameter between ex were years (extreme correlations series time of decay distanceThe thecentral from is given pixe inkilometers taiga). (middle Megion and taiga) (northern Noyabrsk (tundra-forest), Nadym (tundra), Tazovskiy around rings wide 5-km eight the and city-core the at trends and correlations NDVImax, of structure statistical The 3. Fig. d the minimum NDVImax wereexcluded. d theminimumNDVImax purely bytechnologically driven optimized development are andresource extraction theindustrialor atleastinsufficient. If TEK ofthemembersbecomes unreliable in migrant societies where theintuitive large demand isinparticularly knowledge of thehumansocieties. Arguably, such for sustainabledevelopmentknowledge studies isto gainrobust andquantitative One oftheaimsphysical environment DISCUSSION e years with the maximum (upward-looking triangle) (upward-looking and withthemaximum e years cluded from thecalculation to from the improvecluded of robustness l of each city. The upper panels for each city show the eachcity for panels upper eachcity. The l of e –1standard eachring; for light NDVImax deviationof andatthegiven distance. lowerpanels show: bold The s; blackcircle asthewhite –thesame circle the butfor al blacklinewithwhite circle the –themagnitudeof administrations have raisedinvestment into nego-severa.html prinyat-uchastie-v-konkurse-nadym-cvetuschiy-gorod-kray- financial resources involving significant time, administrative and different forms ofgreen planningeven those and encourages spaces andthelivingcomfort 2006]. The migrants’ thegreenTEK connects initiatives [Srodnykh,nature conservation was to establishthegreen planningand settlements intoconverted thepermanent movescitieswhentheywere intheNWS policy etal., 2015].Oneofthefirst [Kardan quality canimprovemore thantheyactually theair spaces improve thehealthperception much For instance, ithasbeenshownthatthegreen ofthegreen spaces. ontoshifted socialservices where theaccentsare(see Introduction) There are agrowing numberofpublications (seeFig.wintertime 2). colder thantheopengreen spaceseven in that thelarch forest remains significantly summer cooling. Contrary, ourresults show the andmoderate annualmean)warming forest effect leadsto strong winter (and Li etal. [2014]studysuggested thattheboreal on climatictimescales, are established. notfirmly the LST–vegetation feedbacks, particularly areenvironmental inefficient.Moreover, services is limited bythecoldclimate, andtherefore, its itsgrowth oftheyear; the largestduring part However, thepolarvegetation isinactive direct solarradiation)andchemicalfactors. is to provide protection from thephysical (wind, green oftheurban spaces that themainservice greenand urban wasargued spacesingeneral. It forest,use thestudiesofurban airpollution urban independently. As arelevant example, onecan human envir ofpublicationsthephysical and majority In psychological processes [Stedman, 2003). preconditioned bythegroups’ andsocial/ TEK, the physical environment, humanbehaviors, as senseofplace. Senseofplaceinterlinks of life described suchasthosecollectively tobecomes destructive thehumanaspects solutions, thecreated livingenvironment Esau I.,Miles V. 1 http://nadymregion.ru/news/11166-priglashaem-zhiteley- onments are stillconsidered 1 . More recently, municipal the NDVImax trend inNadymisnegative.the NDVImax The cover have beensubtracted. Atthesametime when thetrends inthenatural vegetation the largest greening urban trend (+0.6 %) NoyabrskstilldemonstratesNevertheless, or, bytheotherwords, bythehuman factor. towards policy thegreenby thecity spaces ismodulatedThe vegetation productivity the SUHIstronglysize. dependsonthecity cities suggeststhat oftheNWS sub-sample in No Tazovskiy to +3.9°C in from +1.3°C Noyabrsk. SUHIsvary The wintertime of city Tazovskiy to of +5.2°Cinthelargest city +1.7 °Cinthesmallestandnor fromseasons. SUHIsvary The summertime LSTspotsinbothwinter andsummer warmer found thatallfour citiesare associated withthe (2000–2014) inandaround four cities. We climatology mean seasonalLSTandNDVImax This studyconsidered theremotely sensed forestedof speciestheurban patches. with denserstandanddifferent composition citiesaswell soilsintheNWS as LST anddrier withthehigher couldbelinked productivity urban-background differences intheforest 2016]. We ahypothesis putforward thatthe around 28citiesinthisregion [Esauetal., are found to bereduced oreven reverted biological productiontrends. Butthosetrends forest reveals intheNWS widespread negative andEsau [2016]demonstrated thatthe Miles and intheirbiologic productivity. Recently, are limited bothinnumberoftree species climatecommunities inthecoldSiberian and Duhovnikoff, 2013]. The vegetation and TEK attachmentsto trees [McBride migrants’ groups have cultural intrinsic hasbeenshownthattheurbanIt initiatives were 2010]. delayed [Vyhodzev, dramatically degrade inthecitieswhere such attitudes towards residency thepermanent species andeven fruittrees withmore plantexperiments southern 2 jami-9412.html index/Uchenye_pytajutsja_zasadit_Novyj_Urengoj_derev- dlya-yamala-sorta-derevev.html http://newurengoy.rusplt.ru/ http://neelov.ru/1830-v-nadyme-vysadili-ekzoticheskie- WARMER URBAN CLIMATES 2 yabrsk. Thus, this Thus, yabrsk. . The population . The thernmost thernmost ...

57 ENVIRONMENT 58 ENVIRONMENT article166464/ http://www.gazprom.ru/about/subsidiaries/news/2013/july/ see project, ‘Ecopark” anew by isgiven issues conservation reduction ofproductivit GEOGRAPHY. ENVIRONMENT. SUSTAINABILITY. 04(09)2016 3 even larger areas oftemperate vegetation butasintroduction ofvegetation types patches ofthenatural to conserve efforts the ecological behavior isnotconsidered as isinteresting, plantspecies.southern It that introduces butalsoactively exoticpark, dark-needle the existingrelictforest patches, suchas migrant’s TEK. notonlyconserves The city demonstrated implementationofthe greenurban spacesinNadymconsistently positive inNadymaswell. of Development included intheanalysis, thetrends become (2014)isyear highNDVImax ofextremely LST map. Figure 3showsthatwhenthe is associated withthecoldestspotsof greening ofthelarch forest around Nadym raising LSTandairtemperatures. The sibirica the city. hasbeenestablishedthat It with thelarch forest of rim ontheeastern temperate trees (e.g. attitudeto theflowersa cherished and psychological mightexplainsuch comfort Increasing the tree andflower plantingwork. dwellers in ofcity fostering theparticipation oftheNorth”“Nadym –theblossomingcity attitude isgiven bythemunicipalprogram The ultimate expression ofsuchcultural Milyaeva, 2011]demonstrated thattheMilyaeva, 2009;Koronatova and[e.g. Moskalenko, environment oftheterritory. Many studies with littlereference to thereal physical to beratheridealized socialconstructs cities,the NWS both strategies seem afforestation.and urban As appliedto strategy focuses ongreen development natural processes, whereas thetending the minimumhumaninterferencewith cover. strategy emphasizes The conservation to reclaim naturalvegetation thedisturbed There are popularstrategies two intheNWS of thenaturalvegetation systems. contrast to thewidelypresented neglecting A good illustration of this controversial perception of the forest negatively responses to the Pinus sibirica y hasbe Malus sylvestris forest inthecity en associated en associated Larix ) in 3 . Dynamics. Dynamics. in theArctic Atmosphere, Seasand Ice Layers grant BASIC:Boundary Dynamics (no. 247268)andbytheCentre for Climate Regional Climates, Ecosystems, andSocieties the Arctic: Windows to the Future ofthe grant Anthropogenic HIARC: HeatIslandsin Forum Research Council andtheNorwegian bytheBelmont This studywassupported airports). are atthe located withintheSUHI(primarily ofmeteorologicalas themajority stations for theclimate changeanalysisintheregion may have implication alsoanunexpected heatislands.maintain theurban The SUHI afforestationthe urban atlarge could taken theseefforts,andviceversa, 2008] support LST andcreation of “urbanizems” [Srodnykh, trees andtallshrubs. urbanThe warmer planting temperate broad-leaf blossoming afforestationurban are directed towards plant species. intheThe specificefforts increasingly composedofmore southern vegetation communitiesarethat theurban vegetation. The reviewed literature indicates LST andembracethemore productive citiesareNWS associated withthewarmer modifications are broadly aligned. The and theculturallymotivated landscape heatislandeffect urban to thesurface present, thephysical climate changedue summary, thisstudyshowsthat,atIn are more difficultto quantify. which LSTamongother factors the warmer to alternativea shift ecosystems by isdriven communities. This studysuggeststhatsuch by essentiallydifferent vegetation landscapesaredisturbed reclaimed ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS CONCLUSION  13. Kaltenborn B.P. Kaltenborn (1998).Effects ofsense place onresponses to environmental impacts. 13. R.E.,ZhangD. JinM.,Dickinson (2005). The Footprint Areas ofUrban onGlobalClimate 12. GentineP., D., Entekhabi Polcher J. Behavior ofaCoupled (2010).Spectral Land-Surface 11. M.(2014).Climatology for Climate, perspective, planning inhistorical Urban city Hebbert 10. EsauI.,Miles V., R.,Kurchatova M.,Davy A.(2016). Miles Trends inthenormalized differ- 9. 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61 ENVIRONMENT 62 ENVIRONMENT GEOGRAPHY. ENVIRONMENT. SUSTAINABILITY. 04(09)2016 Davy R.). Davy layerclimate depth(2016,with forcings boundary inatmospheric explainedbyvariations Victoria Miles IgorEsau multispectral data(2003,withco-authors). multispectral forest conditionsbasedoncombineduseofsatellite SARand significant recent publication:Anapproach for assessingboreal and landusemapping;glaciological processes. The most fields ofinterest include:forest studies;high-latitudevegetation systems.sensing imageanalysisandgeo-information Hermain climate processes withthemethodsof satellite remote and Remotewhere SensingCentre shestudies inNorway University. attheNansenEnvironmental Since2002,sheis working 1993. Shereceived aPh. D. in1998attheSt.Petersburg State significant recent publication:Differences of intheefficacy processes.societal effects ofthemicro-climate The most and turbulence; modelingoftheatmospheric system; numerical layer intheearth’s boundary role oftheplanetary climate Climate Processes group. mainfieldsofinterest His include:the Remote where SensingCentre hepresently leadsa inNorway attheNansenEnvironmental and Since 2003,heisworking inSweden.of Scienceandin2003attheUppsalaUniversity foroftheRussianAcademy Mathematics the Institute Numerical from the Tomsk State University. Hereceived aPh.D. in1996at graduated inmeteorology andclimatology in1992 graduated theSt.Petersburg Forestry Academy in