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The General Brock Journal 2 The General Brock University Undergraduate Journal of History Volume 3 April 2018 ISSN 2371-8048 Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario The General Brock University Undergraduate Journal of History Editors-in-Chief Matt Jagas and Grace Viana Editorial Board Amanda Balyk Kaitlyn Carter Lucas Coia Rebecca Nickerson Vince Savoia Cover Design Chance Mutuku Special Thanks The Brock University History Department The Brock University Historical Society Brock University Printing and Digital Services Dr. Jessica Clark, Assistant Professor Dr. Colin Rose, Assistant Professor Dr. Daniel Samson, Associate Professor and Chair Tim Ribaric, Digital Services Librarian Niagara Military Museum Contents Foreword By: Dr. Colin Rose 5 Introduction By: Matt Jagas and Grace Viana 7 Early Modern Midwives: Carving a Path in the Male-Dominated Field of Medicine By: Rachel Bedic 9 The United States and Sputnik: a Reassessment of Dwight D. Eisenhower's Presidential Legacy By: Matthew Bologna 29 The Spectacle of Death By: Carina Cino 55 “The Last Battayle is Atte Hande”: Conceptions of Death in Renaissance Italy By: Lucas Coia 77 The Trials of Jamestown: an Investigation of the External Factors Influencing England’s First American Colony By: Ally Dries 101 Science versus ‘Science’: Exploring the Life of Benjamin Banneker in the Context of Thomas Jefferson’s Views in Notes on the State of Virginia By: Emma Evans 111 Art in Early Modern Italy: Artemisia Gentileschi and Caravaggio By: Joslin Holwerda 122 The Trials and Significance of Nazi War Criminals and Collaborators in France By: Gabrielle Marshall 150 Vietnamese Farmers That Changed the World: the Impact of the Vietnam War on the Cold War By: Michael Martignago 163 The Formidable Widow: a Comparison of Representations and Life Accounts of Widows in Early Seventeenth-Century England By: Rebecca Nickerson 191 Enemies Within or Without Enemies: “Enemy Aliens” and Internment in Canada during the Second World War By: Tricia Nowicki, with an introduction by Dr. Daniel Samson 206 Foreword When I was a graduate student, attending the job talks of prospective professors at the University of Toronto, I had in my back pocket a question that I levelled to each candidate: as a professor, do you see yourself as teaching history, or training historians? I thought I was very clever, trying to stump these poor souls with what, by the measure I had in mind, was a false dichotomy. A working historian requires a wide body of knowledge, informed by reading vast bibliographies of secondary and primary sources. But we also need the skills and habits of mind to interpret those materials according to their own schema, to understand their place in broader conversations among scholars, to fit the documents of the past into their historical contexts. So the question of teaching history versus training historians was nonsensical, as we strive to do both at the same time. As it turns out, the skills necessary to study history and the knowledge developed along the way are precisely the sorts of skills and knowledge that allow us to participate broadly in our contemporary society. A keen eye for the subtle differences between political or social thought—gleaned from the study of the dreaded historiography—lets us unpack the meaning behind the words of politicians and activists, to evaluate the relative positions of their platforms. A deep knowledge of the past lets us understand that these ideas have their own genealogies, have appeared in societies before, and have had consequences that may not seem obvious at first. The thick reading of historical documents gives us the ability to understand the broader societal contexts in which political and social movements develop and to understand how the meaning of ideas can shift over time according to those contexts. If 2017 was an uncertain year in Canadian and global politics, 2018 perhaps provides more certainty, but not the comforting kind. Across the developed world, the sharp rise of political populism threatens the stability of social democracies and the general liberal order within which our institutions have developed. The very premise of expertise—that rigorous training, skilled deployment of that training, and the marshalling of factual evidence should guide decision-making—has come under attack not just in Trump’s America, but in Europe, and here in Ontario as well. A large proportion of the western population feels disenfranchised by the meritocracy of expertise, imperfect as it is, and have reacted against the very idea of democratic rule. Young people in the United States, across the political spectrum, now poll at 29% approval on the statement that “democracy is not always preferable.”1 As historians, part of our job is to place historical context into present society. We know what happens when the legitimacy and strength of social and political institutions crumble, when the ties that bind people together dissolve under the assault of politics of blame and division. 1 Yascha Mounk, “The Strongman Gap,” Slate, 13 March 2018, https://slate.com/news-and- politics/2018/03/support-for-democracy-is-a-partisan-issue-now.html, accessed 15 March 2018. 5 If this seems a dreary way to foreword Volume III of The General, I think that the research herein provides hope yet. With knowledge of the past comes the responsibility to deploy that knowledge, to participate in the social and political movements of the day, and to bring the skills of historical study to bear on the problems we currently face. The essays in this volume deal with thorny issues of gender relationships and the status of women in society, how we treat the bodies of criminals and social outcasts, the impact of environmental and political instability on societies, and the consequences of globalized political conflict. Within our own department we have students directly engaging with the historical contexts of the major problems we face today. With keen eyes towards the subtleties of documentary evidence these student-researchers are taking their rightful place in the important public conversations that we must have. And that cheers me. Not just at Brock but in universities across Canada and the West history retains its vital role as a guide to understanding the present. My own students have proven deeply sensitive to the historical threads connecting the study of the past to the world around them. In my courses on violence, warfare, and social inequality in the early modern world, my students have a clear vision of the relationship of past problems to future concerns. As they move into the next stages of their lives, they are equipping themselves with the knowledge of history and the skills of historians to tackle the challenges that lie ahead. So I smile and remain hopeful. Colin Rose Assistant Professor of European and Digital History 6 Introduction In the fall of 1772, after graduating from Princeton University, the renowned American statesman William Bradford wrote to his college friend and future president of the United States, James Madison, about what he planned to do now that had graduated: What business I shall follow for life I have not yet determined. It is a matter which requires deliberation & as I am not pressed by Age I intend to be in no hurry about it. I propose making History & Morality my studies the ensuing winter, as I look upon them to be very necessary in whatever employment I may hereafter engage.1 The uncertainty that Bradford had about his future after graduation may seem familiar to many undergraduate students at Brock. Yet, we might find encouragement in seeing this and comparing it to his future accomplishments as a Commander in the American Revolutionary Army and as the second United States Attorney General under George Washington. For us in the History Department, we should especially find encouragement in his comments on the study of history and morality. So often we are asked where a history degree might lead us after graduation with the assumption that there is little else than teaching. Bradford, however, seems to suggest that there is much more and that the study of history leads one to acquire tools and skills that are not commonly found elsewhere, but would be essential to any future endeavors. The skills to read and analyse critically, to write efficiently and concisely, and above all to think historically are acquired by the student of history and, as Bradford knew, would be essential for whatever business one "shall follow for life." Bradford's grouping of morality with history addresses some of the many skills that students learn during their studies. As historians we have a moral duty to the inhabitants of the past and the ways in which we interact with and represent their history. At Brock, young historians develop empathy toward others in and outside of the classroom: whether it be empathy for those long past in the dusty documents of the archives or for our fellow classmates in long and involved seminar discussions. By learning to understand and value the contributions of others we expand and connect ideas from ancient Mesopotamia to twenty-first century Canada and gain perspective on important topics. As this ability to celebrate the subtleties of the human experience develops, we learn to apply these tools to the present world. The History Department at Brock is a community of individuals connecting with and expanding on the ideas of others towards a collaborative understanding of history that would not be possible without the enthusiastic input of everyone involved. As editors of this third edition of The General Brock University Undergraduate Journal of History, our aim is to showcase the work of our student historians, continuing the work of past two volumes of The General in displaying their engagements with the past and their contributions to the collaborative understanding 1 “William Bradford to James Madison, October 13, 1772.” Founders Online, National Archives, last modified 1 February 2018, www.founders.archives.gov.
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