On-Going Investigations at the Predynastic to Early Dynastic Site of Kafr Hassan Dawood: Copper, Exchange and Tephra

On-going Investigations at the Predynastic to Early Dynastic site of Kafr Hassan Dawood: Copper, Exchange and Tephra

Fekri A. Hassan, Université française d’Égypte, Cairo, Egypt Geoffrey J. Tassie, TOPOI Excellence Cluster, Freie Universität, Berlin, Germany Thilo Rehren, UCL Qatar, Qatar Joris van Wetering, United Kingdom1

Continued analysis of material – primarily for certain graves dug into this layer in the ceramic – excavated during the 1990s at the south of the site that did not have any grave Predynastic to Early Dynastic cemetery site goods and has also given a terminus ante quem of Kafr Hassan Dawood (KHD) in the Wadi for all the graves below this layer. Archaeomet- Tumilat has allowed seven phases of use to be allurgical analysis of a copper bowl from grave identifi ed. Th is process has been greatly helped 913 has shown that it was made of arsenical by the acquisition of further archival material copper, which probably came from the Sinai. of the 1989 to 1995 excavations. Th e assigning Th e large amount of copper artefacts found at of these phases was also aided by the dating KHD may indicate its function as a node on of tephra from a layer covering First Dynasty the interregional exchange network between graves; it has provided a terminus post quem the Sinai and the Memphite region.

1. Thanks to Dr Victoria Smith (University of Oxford, Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art) for her analysis of the tephra and Prof. Arlene Rosen (Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin) for her analysis of the phytoliths. A debt of gratitude is also owed to Prof. Ernst Pernicka, Dr Thorsten Schifer and Dr Bernd Höppner (Curt-En- gelhorn-Zentrum für Archäometrie in Mannheim) for analysing the lead isotope abundance ratios from the arsenical copper at Kafr Hassan Dawood. Thanks are also due to Prof. Abdel Halim Nour-el-Din and Prof. Gaballa Ali Gaballa (ex-Secretary Generals of the Supreme Council of Antiquities [now the Ministry of State for Antiquities]) for their support of this project and also the late Dr Mohammed Selim el-Hangouri and his team of local Supreme Council of Antiquities inspectors from the Canal Zone for their co-operation in this project. Ms Fatma Ragab (MSA) has also been of great help in providing archival information that is allowing the analysis of the site to progress. The investigations at KHD were funded by UNESCO, The National Geographic Society, The Bioanthropology Foundation, Uppsala University, The Humanities Research Council of Canada, and The Institute of Archaeology, UCL, whereas the scientific analysis of the copper was funded by ECHO and Lynn Stagg. All images are from the archives of the SCA/UCL Kafr Hassan Dawood Mission, unless otherwise stated. Particular thanks go the Subhadra Das (UCL) for drawings, and Ken Walton (UCL) and Bram Calcoen (UCL) for photography.

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Une analyse approfondie des matériaux, Introduction principalement la céramique, recueillis au cours des années 1990 sur le cimetière pré- Th e Predynastic to Early Dynastic site of Kafr et protodynastique de Kafr Hassan Daoud Hassan Dawood (KHD) (3,400 to 2,750 BC) (KHD), dans le Ouadi Toumilat, a permis is located in the east Delta on the southern d’identifi er sept phases d’utilisation. Cette edge of the Wadi Tumilat, a natural entry and étude a été grandement facilitée par l’acqui- exit point into and out of Egypt from the Sinai sition des archives des fouilles de 1989 à and southern Levant (see fi g. 1). Archaeologi- 1995. L’attribution de ces phases a également cal fi eldwork was conducted at this large site été confi rmée par la datation d’une couche covering 38.5 hectares between 1989 and 1999 de téphra recouvrant des tombes de la 1re (Hassan 2000; Hassan et al. 2003), although dynastie; il a fourni un terminus post quem the analysis of the material is still on-going pour certaines tombes creusées dans cette (i.e. Tassie et al. 2008; Rowland 2014a). A total couche dans le sud du site qui ne possèdent of 1069 graves were excavated at this cemetery pas de mobilier funéraire et a également site, of which 752 date to this early period 2 donné un terminus ante quem pour toutes and the rest to the Late Period to Roman era. les tombes en dessous de cette couche. L’ana- Th is makes it the largest Predynastic to Early lyse archéométallurgique d’un bol en cuivre Dynastic cemetery site so far excavated in provenant de la tombe 913 a montré qu’il Lower Egypt outside of the Memphite region était constitué de cuivre riche en arsenic, (Dębowska-Ludwin 2013: 80-84). probablement importé du Sinaï. La grande Th e recent acquisition and interrogation of quantité d’objets en cuivre trouvés à KHD fuller archival data pertaining to the excavations peut indiquer que ce site était un nœud sur conducted from 1989 until 1995 has allowed le réseau d’échanges interrégionaux entre le a much greater insight into material remains Sinaï et la région de Memphis. from the site and made it possible to plot in greater depth the spatio-temporal development of the cemetery. Th e results of scientifi c analysis of geological and archaeological material have also produced some startling new results that Fig. 1 shed light on the process of state formation. Map of Wadi Tumilat.

2. Initial analysis had assigned 745 graves to the Predynastic to Early Dynastic period (i.e. Hassan et al. 2003) however, further interrogation of the data has assigned seven more graves to the early period (Hassan and Tassie in prep.). Pottery analysis has also further identified the Roman occupation at the site that now continued into at least the second century AD.

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Phasing of the Cemetery Interrogation of recently acquired data, along with that already held on KHD has allowed the team to divide the site into seven chronological phases (see tab. 1). Although the earliest phase was only observed in test pits conducted during the 1999 season (Hassan et al. 2003), it was clear this pottery (which was not removed from the graves) was earlier than any previously encountered at the site. Only a few graves have at present been assigned to the subsequent KHD II phase (3,400 to 3,300 BC), but it is possible due to their location and that of the phase I graves that several more are located beneath the two modern cemeteries that are located directly to the north of the main excavation area. Initial analysis suggested that the cemetery seemed to have grown from the north Tab. 1 (KHD I ca. 3,500 BC) to the south, where phase I graves are only suspected in the far Chronology. the latest Second Dynasty graves are located north, the spatio-temporal growth the cem- (KHD VII ca. 2,800 to 2,750 BC). How- etery was far more complex. Rather than ever, recent analysis of the data by Rowland simply expanding south, there seems to be (2014b; in preparation) shows that although various zones – similar to Cemetery N7000 there are phase VII graves in the south, and at Nag ed-Der (Savage 1997) – and may sup-

Fig. 2 Plan of SE Area of KHD.

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port a theory that the cemetery was a central a bit of sedge, some belonging to the genus burial place of several diff erent, but possibly Cyperus sp. (Hamden 2003; Rosen pers comm dependent communities/settlements. 1999). Tephra had also blown into this layer Although the associated early settlement(s) of the channel from the Agnano Monte-Spina has not been excavated, a series of drill-cores eruption in the Campi Flegrei caldera of suggest that it lies to the northeast of the southern Italy; the date of this eruption that cemetery, in the Upper Mud Unit. Hamdan produced the tephra is 2878-2576 Cal BC (2003: 225) identifi ed at least three horizons (Victoria Smith pers comm 2009). A few of with anthropogenic remains (potsherds and the Early Dynastic graves were dug into this lithics). Th ese artefacts were found at 0.40 layer (206) of the palaeo-channel (i.e. grave to 0.80 m, 1.20 to 1.90 m, 2.30 to 2.70 m 967 located to the south of grave 970) there- and 3.90 to 4.0 m below surface. Th e highest fore, making them later than the tephra (see remains were those from the later period of fi g. 3). As artefacts are generally not associated occupation whereas, the lower three corre- with these fl exed burials – in a stratigraphically spond to the Predynastic to Early Dynastic higher layer than the First Dynasty graves – a occupation phases, with the lowest seeming tentative mid to late Second Dynasty date is to corroborate a KHD I phase of occupa- probable for these graves and then the aban- tion. However, in 2013 the local Canal Zone donment of the site. Inspectorate excavated three hearths to the Th e site’s main phases of occupation and northwest of the cemetery, but did not fi nd socioeconomic growth appear to have been any associated pottery or submit any char- from KHD IV to KHD VI (3,200 to 2,800 BC), coal for radiocarbon dating. a period in which the population grew and Running in a south-north direction through enjoyed their most prosperous period. Given the cemetery, lying just to the west of the the relative dates of the latest Early Dynastic two largest graves – grave 913 and grave 970 graves (Second Dynasty) and the absolute – is an artifi cial palaeo-water channel 10.0 date from the tephra, it may be that the settle- metres wide and 1.50 m deep (fi g. 2). Th is ment at Kafr Hassan Dawood was one of those channel comprises both fl uvial and colluvial that suff ered the consequences of the signifi - sediments, including a gravel, sand and silt cant drop in the average height of the annual complex, with two contexts (204) and (208), inundation aft er the end of the First Dynasty consisting mainly of freshwater mollusc shells (Bell 1970). Th e amount of water in the west- and (205) and (207) being mainly gravel. In ern Wadi Tumilat may have been drastically the top layer (206) in the central part of this reduced, and as such environmental factors palaeo-water channel was found a layer of fi ne may also have played a part in the downfall grained quartz, clayey minerals and evidence of the community at KHD. As only a few of agriculture in the form of burnt phytoliths graves are dated to this period, and these are of wheat and a lesser amount of barley, along generally poorly furnished with grave goods, with phytoliths of wild grass husks and quite it therefore seems that life at KHD became increasingly diffi cult from the end of the First Fig. 3 Dynasty. As such, it seems that the size of the Grave 967. community that remained at KHD reduced during these hard times of the early Second Dynasty, soon these people too seem to have relocated elsewhere, as indicated by the few people that were buried during the mid to late Second Dynasty. Th e community at KHD could also have been aff ected by the political changes under Peribsen and Khasekhemwy (Wilkinson 1999: 69, 77-79), which may have resulted in a change in the interregional exchange networks (Hassan 2000).

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Fig. 4 Grave Distribution (GIS by J. M. Rowland).

Analysis of Graves 913 and 970 san et al. 2008; Rowland 2007; van Wetering & Tassie 2003). In the south of the site two Th e majority of graves at KHD were simple large rectangular mud-lined graves (6.0 m oval pit graves (e.g. grave 967), although north-south by 4.0 m east-west and 1.1 m sub-rectangular pit graves occurred, as did deep) were discovered: grave 913 and grave larger oval pit graves, such as grave 1008, 970 (see fi g. 4). Grave 913 was discovered and medium-sized mud-lined graves, such by the local Canal Zone Inspectorate under as grave 955 and grave 956 and a few oval the directorship of Mohammed Selim el- pottery coffi ns, such as in grave 1025 (Has- Hangouri in early 1995, before the lead

Fig. 5 Grave 970.

Fig. 6 Pottery wine jars (Grave 970).

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author was asked by the SCA to take over found in grave 913). Apart from grave 974, the directorship later that year (Hassan et al. a rectangular mud-lined ‘grave’ that held no 2003). Grave 970 was discovered in summer body just pottery and fragments of a quern, 1996 and excavated by the Supreme Council located just to the west of 970, only simple of Antiquities/University College London pit graves surrounded these two large burials. Mission over the course of the next two Th e building of the substructures of both seasons (see fi g. 5 & 6). An ancient robbers’ these graves seems to have fi rst consisted of trench was discovered in the east side of digging an initial grave pit, then lining the grave 970, directly over the area where the fl oor of this pit with clean very light yellow body of the tomb-owner would have been sand. Th is rectangular grave pit was then placed. However, grave 913 appears to have lined with mud. Th e numerous grave goods largely, but not totally escaped the atten- where then placed within specifi c zones, tions of the grave robbers (see fi g. 7 & 8). with the large storage jars, beer jars, cooking In autumn 1999 members of the SCA/UCL pot stand, cooking pot and lid being placed Mission studied, recorded and analysed all in the southern most zone(s) (see Tassie the material excavated from grave 913. Due 2010 for the cooking pot ensemble). In the to the robbing of grave 970, there is a large central western zone were stone vessels and diff erence in the amount of grave goods small ceramic jars, whereas in the north- recorded from the two tombs, although it western zone were stacks of rough ware can be assumed that 970 (84 objects) origi- dishes, bowls, plates and oval bread moulds, nally had a similar amount of grave goods a pressure fl aked chert knife and the remains to 913 (207 objects) as well as those objects of animal bones that appeared to be that of that were robbed from both graves (see fi g. 9 a bovid (see fi g. 5 & 7). In the north-eastern & 10 for some of the types of grave goods zone were only a few medium-sized ceramic vessels, such as beer jars. In the central eastern zone – the burial chamber – the body in grave 970 had been removed and discarded Fig. 7 by the grave robbers, but in grave 913 part Grave 913. of the skeleton was found in situ, albeit in a poor state of preservation, lying on its left Fig. 8 Grave 913 side in the fl exed position with the head looking west. pointing west, facing north-east. Around the body of the tomb-owner were placed numerous stone vessels, some being very

80 ARCHÉO-NIL ● n°25 - février 2015 Fig. 9 KHD V – 913. fi ne made of stone such as red jasper (grave 970), a potstand, jewellery (beads, bracelets) and in the case of grave 913, a copper bowl and an adze (see fi g. 7 & 10). Many of the stone vessels and some of the pottery ones had been stolen in grave 970, but enough remained to indicate that the general Fig. 10 KHD3080. zoning of objects was similar to that of 913. Th e whole grave then had mud poured into it and over the grave goods and the body, and this gave the eff ect of compartmental- ising the grave. Originally they each had a superstructure consisting of a large mound or tumulus made of a mixture of sand, grit and mud. On the east side of the tumulus over grave 970 was an off ering place where several small rough ware off ering dishes had been placed. On the south of 970 was also a ramp-like structure context (201) made of packed mud (see fi g. 2). Th ese two graves are the largest and most richly endowed graves in the cemetery, possibly belonging to two local chiefs or admin- istrators placed at the site by the newly

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formed Egyptian state (Rowland 2014a; 2003). Th e type of objects at KHD included Tassie et al. 2008: 205). Although these adzes, an amulet, awls, beads, bowls, a brace- graves contained numerous objects, many let, chisels, dishes, fi shhooks, harpoons, of these were repetitions, such as numer- knives, mirrors, needles, a spear, and wire. ous examples of beer jars, storage jars and Th e majority of these objects are tools, with tall cylindrical beakers of Egyptian alabas- only the bowls, dishes, mirror and jewellery ter and plates and dishes of siltstone. Th is items being of a more personal and decora- practice of putting fewer fi ne wares in the tive nature. Although generally only single grave had already started in the second half copper objects were found in graves, such as of the Naqada II period. By Naqada III most a copper adze, several graves at KHD con- large graves in Egypt contained a greater tained numerous copper objects, such as number of objects but less variety of forms. grave 142, grave 298, grave 371 and grave Th is practice has been related to the increas- 529. Gold also occurred at KHD, with two ing importance of storage of off erings and small gold cups, or more likely sheet gold vestiges of complex burial rites (Wengrow covers of handles or staff s of offi ce (that did 2006: 72-98). Some of these funerary rites not survive, but may have been made of wood seem to have included a funerary feast, and or ivory) being discovered in grave 73 along the off erings of bread, beer and animal prod- with a copper awl, nine ceramic vessels and ucts found within the graves may indicate two stone vessels (Hassan & Tassie et al. in that the remnants of this feast were perhaps prep). However, Minshat Abu Omar (MAO) shared with and presented to the deceased has a similar amount of objects (70 from for their fi rst meal in the aft erlife (Tassie 422 graves, although 24% of these objects 2010). Th e variety of objects placed within came from only 2% of the graves, the larg- these two graves at KHD seems to have been est and most richly furnished), but many of restricted and the individuality of grave these seem to be of a more decorative nature. off erings seems to have only been expressed As with KHD the copper objects constitute in the red jasper stone vessel (KHD2100) in between 2 to 3% of the total grave good grave 970 and the metal bowl (KHD3080) assemblage, but at MAO the copper assem- and possibly adze (KHD3254) in 913. Th ese blage includes such items as saws, chisels, two tombs, grave 913 dating to KHD Va harpoons, axes, oval adzes, bracelets, needles, (Naqada IIIC1), and grave 970 dating to beads, and very occasionally vessels, varying KHD Vb (Naqada IIIC2) represent the most from deep bucket-like bowls to fl at dishes prosperous period of activity at the site. with a small rim. Several remarkable papy- rus fl ower-shaped copper objects, which may have been encasings for horizontal beams Copper Objects (now decomposed) of a bed or catafalque, were also found (Kroeper 1988; 1996; 2004; at Kafr Hassan Dawood Kroeper & Wildung 1985; 1994; 2000). Th e Compared to other contemporary east Delta major diff erence between the two sites is that sites - such as Tell el-Farkha (38 objects from Minshat Abu Omar generally seems to have both the settlement and cemetery) – Kafr more richly furnished large graves with more Hassan Dawood has a higher than average elaborate architecture than KHD, and seems amount of copper objects (3.6% of the graves to have been the burial place of a wealthier contained copper objects), with 75 single community (van Wetering & Tassie 2003). objects3 coming from 27 diff erent graves Th e question arises whether KHD was a (Czarnowicz 2012; Tassie & van Wetering node in the interregional exchange net- 2003; Rowland 2014; van Wetering & Tassie work, with the majority of the copper pass-

3. Although 52 copper objects were recorded in Tassie & van Wetering (2003), further analysis has been able to split groups of copper objects originally recorded as one piece.

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ing through on its way to the Memphite inscriptions of Netjerikhet and Sekhemkhet region and the royal residences? Th e high in the Wadi Maghara (Abdel-Motelib et al. amount of copper at KHD may be because 2012: 19). However, the discovery of inscrip- the site was located on one of the natural tions showing the serekhs of Iry-hor, Ka and entry and exit points into and out of Egypt an unknown kinglet from the Protodynastic from the Sinai and ultimately the southern period, along with those of Narmer and Djer Levant: the Wadi Tumilat. A road existed of the First Dynasty, and that of Nebra of the that extended from the Wadi Tumilat, Second Dynasty in the Wadi Ameyra suggest east of Lake Timsah running parallel to its that mining activities were being conducted northern counterpart, the Ways of Horus, earlier than originally thought (Tallet & but located 20-30 km to the south of this Laisney 2012). Inscriptions from the reign of coastal route. It turned south past the lime- King Den have also been discovered in Wadi stone escarpment and upon reaching its el-Humur, documenting expeditions sent eastward extent in the Sinai turned north to to a specifi c area of south-western Sinai, ca. the region of Beersheva and other Canaanite 20-30 km to the east of the modern coastal sites. Several fi nds of contemporary Egyp- cities of Abu Zenima and Abu Rodeis (Resk tian pottery have been made on this road. Ibrahim & Tallet 2009). Although Egyptian Th is seems to have been the southern route miners may have been working the copper for objects coming from the south Sinai, mines in south Sinai just prior to the First whereas MAO was located on the northern Dynasty, Pfeiff er (2013) and Abdel-Motelib exchange route for objects coming from the et al. (2012) could fi nd no solid evidence for Levant across the northern part of the Sinai copper working by the Egyptian state in the and Uruk colonies possibly via ships down Sinai during this period. However, much of the east Mediterranean coast (Hendrickx & the evidence of copper working - such as Bavay 2002: 73-75). Th e copper at KHD, as wind powered smelting furnaces and slag will be discussed below, probably originated - is loosely dated to the Early Bronze Age. in the Sinai. Th e likely source for the major- Th ese recently discovered Protodynastic and ity of the copper found at Tell el-Farkha is Early Dynastic inscriptions in the Sinai seem also the Sinai (Rehren & Pernicka 2014), to correlate with the major period of cop- which may indicate that the copper passing per fi nds at KHD (Naqada IIIB to IIID1, see through KHD supplied other areas of the Rowland 2014a: 283), a site that also contains Delta as well as the Memphite region. serekhs of Ka and Narmer (Tassie et al. 2008). Whereas 20 Levantine ceramic vessels and fi ve At least prior to Ka - and also probably aft er objects of lapis lazuli have been found at MAO - certain individuals from KHD may have (Kroeper 1989; Hendrickx & Bavay 2002), exchanged copper for agricultural produce only fi ve Levantine vessels have so far been with the people of the Timnian cultural unit; identifi ed at KHD. Th is seems to indicate that herder-gatherers that lived in the Sinai and KHD was not a major site in the exchange net- seem to have practiced small-scale mining work with the Levant and had little sustained activities (Rothenberg 1979: 150-151). contact with that region. Although some of the inhabitants of KHD consumed both wine and oils – goods oft en associated with the Levant Analysis of the Copper Bowl – the fi nished products may have come from other areas of Egypt in exchange for copper from Grave 913 (Hendrickx & Bavay 2002: 74). It thus appears Although a larger sample of the metal that KHD acted as a place of transit between objects would have been desirable, only a Memphis and the Sinai and also between the small fragment of the bowl KHD3080 was Sinai and other sites in the Nile Delta. made available for analysis with the kind Th e earliest evidence of Egyptian state min- permission of Prof. Gaballa Ali Gaballa (see ing activity in the Sinai has traditionally been fi g. 10) due to Egypt’s strict cultural heri- placed in the Th ird Dynasty, attested by the tage laws. In order to maximise the amount

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Fig. 11 • Backscatter electron Fig. 12 image of the copper bowl from KHD. Backscatter electron Light grey is the original metal, now image of the copper corroded to copper oxide. Dark grey bowl from KHD. is the surrounding corrosion crust The contrast in comprising copper salts formed from this image is set the combination of copper ions leached differently to the from the metal and material from previous one in order the surrounding environment. Darker to highlight the tiny grey are sand particles. The contrast elongated lead-rich is set to a high level to underline the particles within the difference between the original outline body of the corroded of the artefact and the surrounding metal (bright white corrosion products. specks).

of information from this fragment one each arsenic and copper and c 15 wt% oxy- part of it was mounted for metallographic gen. Th e composition, being relatively rich and micro-analytical investigation, while in nickel and lead, clearly points to smelted another part was submitted for chemical copper as the source of this material rather and isotopic analysis by personnel from the than re-melted native copper. Th e shape of Curt-Engelhorn-Zentrum für Archäomet- the lead inclusions indicates the deforma- rie in Mannheim. tion of the metal when it was hammered to Th e metallographic cross section shows form the bowl. the metal to be completely corroded and Further chemical analysis of the fragment sent embedded in corrosion products includ- to the Curt-Engelhorn-Zentrum für Archäom- ing some sand grains from the surround- etrie in Mannheim was done by energy- ing sediment (fi g. 11). No sound metal is dispersive XRF, using the method described preserved in the sample, and the corrosion by Lutz and Pernicka (1996), while the lead products appear to have obliterated all orig- isotope abundance ratios were determined inal metallographic structure, apart from by multiple-collector inductively-coupled a generic elongation of the overall struc- plasma mass spectrometry (MC-ICP-MS) fol- ture parallel to the sides of the bowl. Th is lowing dissolution of the sample in a mixture

latter feature indicates a certain degree of of HCl and HNO3. Bearing in mind that the hammering and deformation of the origi- XRF instrument does not register oxygen and nal metal, which in the cross section had a normalises the analytical results to 100 wt% thickness of between 0.5 and 0.7 mm. metal content, the composition found (tab. 2) Large area analyses using an Oxford Instru- is consistent with the SEM-EDS analyses and ment energy dispersive spectrometer with off ers further information about elements INCA soft ware found around 12 to 14 wt% present at concentrations below the detection Tab. 2 oxygen, 1 to 2 wt% chlorine, 1 to 3 wt% limit of the SEM-EDS system, such as anti- Composition arsenic, and the balance copper. Small areas mony and silver. of the bowl in the corroded metal are rich in both oxy- Despite its badly corroded state it is pos- KHD3080 as determined by gen (c 25 wt%) and chlorine (c 15 wt%), and sible to state with confi dence that the metal ED-XRF, in weight contain about 1 wt% nickel in addition to was arsenical copper, with a relatively high percent. Note that the method does the dominant copper; these areas appear content of nickel. Such compositions are not determine darker grey and better polished (fi g. 12). thought to be the result of the smelting of oxygen even though the metal Embedded in the corroded metal are a naturally arsenic- and nickel-containing is fully corroded, numerous tiny bright elongated particles; ore and not actively alloyed (Pernicka 1990: and normalises the results to they consist of c 55 wt% lead, c 12 to 13 wt% 48). Active alloying, that is the intentional 100 wt% metal content.

Sample Cu As Sb Fe Co Ni Ag Pb KHD3080 bowl 97 2 0.04 0.07 <0.01 0.12 0.02 0.14

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addition of an arsenic-rich substance to lead in this sample is highly radiogenic, that pure copper, would require a much more is strongly aff ected by lead isotopes formed advanced metallurgical understanding than from the decay of uranium and thorium in can be assumed for this early period. Fur- the ore body. Th e metal is unlikely to have thermore, there is no reason to assume such been produced in the immediate vicinity of alloying, since these low levels of arsenic, the site, where no ore deposits are known not typically exceeding 2 wt% and oft en or to be expected. However, major copper being less than 1 wt%, have only very lim- sources with archaeological evidence for ited eff ect on the properties of the metal very early metal production are known fur- (Northover 1989). Finally, many secondary ther to the east, fi rstly in the Sinai and then copper ores contain naturally such low arse- in Faynan and Timna along the Arabah Val- nic contents, which would during smelting ley. Th e most appropriate comparison data lead to arsenical copper (Tylecote 1976). for our values are found in a recent paper Th e lead isotope abundance ratios of the by Abdel Motelib et al. (2012); according bowl fragment are given in table 3; given to this the bowl matches the lead isotope the relatively high lead content of the sam- abundance ratios of both the ore deposits ple and the observation that this lead is con- of Faynan/Timna and those from the Sinai centrated within the original material of the Peninsula. Unfortunately, all these areas and bowl, and not in the corrosion products, it deposits have copper ore and slag samples is safe to assume that these abundance ratios with such highly radiogenic lead, and an reliably refl ect the original metal itself, and assignment of the metal sample to one or not contamination during burial. Th e low the other of these possible sources solely values for all reported ratios indicate that the on the basis of their lead isotope ratios is therefore not immediately possible. Closer 2.0232 Pb208 to Pb206 inspection of the data shows that the KHD 0.8137 Pb207 to Pb206 metal is only just outside the documented 0.05204 Pb204 to Pb206 range of lead isotope compositions for the Tab. 3 Faynan area (fi g. 13), but well within the Lead isotope abundance ratios of the bowl KHD3080. spread of the various sources in the Sinai

Fig. 13 Lead isotope abundance ratios for the KHD object (square), 6 of the 13 Tell el-Farkha objects (triangles) compared to data for copper and copper ore from Jordan (crosses) and the Sinai (chevrons). There is no clear discrimination between the two ore regions, although the KHD square in the lower left corner indicates the radiogenic signature of the metal.

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Fig. 14 Lead isotope abundance ratios for the KHD object (square), 10 of the 13 Tell el-Farkha objects (triangles) compared to data for copper and copper ore from Jordan (crosses) and the Sinai (chevrons). There is no clear discrimination between the two ore regions, except for the shorter range of data from Jordan which do not have 207Pb/206Pb values lower than 0.82, while the KHD metal, Sinai ores and the Farkha metal extend to much lower values.

(fi g. 14). Th e relatively high content of arse- Metal Working at KHD nic and lead also points more likely to an origin from the Sinai than from the Arabah It is unfortunate that the settlement at KHD Valley deposits; this is, however, only an is located under a modern lake, which was indicative assignment. formed by the local villagers in 1997. It is Overall, the sample from the bowl from now very diffi cult to ascertain whether KHD joins a growing body of analytical data metalworking was being conducted at the from this early period of metallurgy, such site, although as the majority of objects as the copper artefacts from Tell el-Farkha were tools, some form of metalworking, if (fi g. 13 & 14; Rehren & Pernicka 2014). Th e only sharpening was probably being con- metal assemblage from KHD shares a num- ducted at KHD. Although smelting of cop- ber of similarities with the Tell Farkha mate- per was probably not undertaken at KHD, rial, such as an emphasis on tools and fi shing casting of objects as well as hammering is implements, the presence of some items a possibility. Comparing the copper objects of jewellery, and the high silver content of at KHD with those analysed from Tell el- some fi nds (see below). Unfortunately, due Farkha (Rehren & Pernicka 2014), it is to the highly radiogenic nature of the lead likely that the thicker objects, such as the isotope ratios in the analysed sample and adzes and harpoons were cast. However, the nature of lead isotope analyses in gen- the needles, fi shhooks, wire, and copper eral it is not possible to positively suggest a bowl would have probably been hammered particular origin for the copper metal used into their fi nal shape, aft er initial casting of to produce the bowl from KHD. A source a blank or rough-out. in the Sinai peninsula is likely, but an origin Many of the objects were covered by an from the major ore deposits in Timna and upper layer of hard green crystalline corro- Faynan is theoretically possible as well, even sion dominated by copper hydro-carbonates though less likely on the basis of the chemi- and possibly chlorides, and incorporat- cal composition (Segal et al. 2002: 8-10). ing various amounts of sediment particles

86 ARCHÉO-NIL ● n°25 - février 2015 On-going Investigations at the Predynastic to Early Dynastic site of Kafr Hassan Dawood

this style (Rowland 2014a). Most of the underside and some areas of the upper surface of this adze (fi g. 15) were covered by preserved organic remains, which appeared to take the form of deteriorated leather. Striations present in the remains that ran over the edges suggest that the object may have been wrapped or folded in a leather sheath (Sutherland 2009).

Fig. 15 • KHD3076. Concluding Remarks Th e research undertaken at the site of Kafr (Sutherland 2009). Beneath this layer on the Hassan Dawood during the 1990s and the thicker artefacts, such as the adzes, chisels continued analysis of data from this impor- and harpoons was a dark red layer of pre- tant Predynastic to Early Dynastic site, par- dominantly cuprite, which indicates the ticularly in light of new scientifi c advances, position of the original surface of the arte- is proving invaluable in understanding the fact, but also extends into its body as cor- origins and functioning of the early Egyp- rosion progresses. Several of the objects tian state. Further archaeometallurgical were cleaned to this surface, although sev- research on early copper from Egypt and at eral have the green surface layer only hav- the sources in the Sinai and elsewhere, such ing the sediment removed, either because as that undertaken by Abdel Motelib et al. they are still awaiting further conservation (2012) may in future enable a more likely treatment, or because they were so thin as and precise source to be identifi ed for the to have been completely mineralised and arsenical copper from KHD. not preserving even the cuprite layer; these Th e evidence taken as a whole suggests that include the copper bowl and needles. In the KHD was located at a signifi cant location on case of some of the larger adzes metal was the interregional copper exchange network preserved beneath the cuprite layer. just prior to and during the First Dynasty, Microscopic examination of the fi ve nee- when the ruling segment of this commu- dles or rods (KHD3075) from grave 1027 nity could command the resources to build revealed them to be completely miner- large tombs. Th is major period of occupa- alised, very brittle and extensively broken. tion corresponds to the founding of Mem- Th ree of them had diff erently-styled heads phis and relocation of the royal residence (Tassie 2003). Some areas of the surfaces from Upper to Lower Egypt. However, in were covered by preserved organic remains the Second Dynasty KHD seems to have that appeared to be associated and may lost its role in this interregional exchange have consisted of a reed or rush-like mate- network, probably due to worsening envi- rial into which they may have been inserted ronmental conditions in the Wadi Tumilat or wrapped. Th ese needles, measuring and possibly changes in the central govern- approximately 70 mm in length appeared ment, as indicated by the poorly furnished to have a signifi cant silver content (Suther- graves of this latter period. Although farm- land 2009: 269). Th is correlates well with ing activities were the main reason for most the rods found at Tell el-Farkha that also sites to exist, these activities may have been had signifi cant quantities of silver (Reh- increasingly hard to undertake at KHD aft er ren & Pernicka 2014: 246). Th e intention- the end of the First Dynasty. Th e building ally broken copper adze from grave 1041 of the artifi cial water channel may have (KHD3076) has a fl ared tip, suggesting that been an attempt to bring more water to the it had been used rather than fashioned into site, but if this water source also dried up

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the community would have been forced to at work during this period in the south- move. Th e site was then abandoned until its east Delta. Th e analysis of this data has also reoccupation in the Late Period. highlighted the need to return to the site to It is hoped that the continued analysis of undertake further excavation and research the large amount of data generated from to answer several outstanding questions, not the excavations at KHD will further help in least the exact date of the graves located in understanding the socioeconomic processes the north of the cemetery.

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