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Magic in Ancient Egypt *ISBN 0292765592* MAGIC IN ANCIENT EGYPT Geraldine Pinch British Museum Press © 1994 Geraldine Pinch Published by British Museum Press A division of British Museum Publications 46 Bloomsbury Street, London WCiB 3QQ British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record of this tide is available from the British Library ISBN O 7141 0979 I Designed by Behram Kapadia Typeset by Create Publishing Services Printed in Great Britain by The Bath Press, Avon COVER Detail of faience plaque showing the protective lion-demon, Bes, c. ist century AD. FRONTISPIECE and BACK COVER One of the giant baboon statues in the area of the ruined temple of Thoth at Hermopolis, I4th century BC. Hermopolis was famous as a centre of magical knowledge. Contents Acknowledgements 7 1 EGYPTIAN MAGIC 9 2 MYTH AND MAGIC 18 3 DEMONS AND SPIRITS 3 3 4 MAGICIANS AND PRIESTS 47 5 WRITTEN MAGIC 61 6 MAGICAL TECHNIQUES 76 7 MAGIC FIGURINES AND STATUES 90 8 AMULETS 104 9 FERTILITY MAGIC 120 10 MEDICINE AND MAGIC 133 11 MAGIC AND THE DEAD 147 12 THE LEGACY OF EGYPTIAN MAGIC 161 Glossary 179 Notes 181 Bibliography 183 Illustration Acknowledgements 18 6 Index 187 Acknowledgements o general book on Egyptian magic can be written without drawing on the specialised knowledge of many scholars, and N most particularly on the work of Professor J. F. Borghouts and his pupils at Leiden. The recent translations of the Graeco-Egyptian magical papyri by a group of scholars including H. D. Betz and J. H. Johnson are essential reading for anyone interested in Egyptian magic. I gratefully acknowledge the inspiration provided by a seminar series on Egyptian magic held at Cambridge University in 1991; especially the contributions of John Baines, Janine Bourriau, Mark Collier and John Ray. I am grateful to Dr Stephen Quirke of the Egyptian Antiquities Department of the British Museum for his assistance with the illus- trations to this book and for his helpful comments on the manuscript. I would also like to thank Celia Clear and Carolyn Jones of British Museum Press for their work on the book. I am grateful to the Cambridge University Press and to Graham Fowden and Brian Copenhaver for allowing me to use quotations from their books. I Egyptian Magic gypt has long been considered a land of mystery and magic. This has led some commentators, ancient and modern, to brand the E Egyptians as an irrational, morbid and superstitious race. Pro- fessional Egyptologists prefer to distance themselves from the popular image of Egypt as the source of occult knowledge. They tend to stress the numerous practical achievements of Egyptian civilization and those Egyptian writings that expound a pragmatic and cheerful philosophy of life. This may tip the balance too far. Many of the practices described in this book seem weird, foolish, or even repulsive from the viewpoint of Western rationalism, but if they are ignored our picture of Egyptian society is incomplete. The evidence for ancient Egyptian magic spans about four and a half thousand years. Amulets go back as far as the early fourth millennium BC; while magical texts occur from the late third millennium BC until the fifth century AD. Written spells are the main source material, but objects sometimes provide evidence for types of magic scarcely recorded in the texts. These objects would have been even more useful if all early archaeologists had appreciated the need to record the exact context of their finds. The large number of well-preserved tombs and the sheer quantity of tomb objects on view in museums have ensured that funerary magic has been the subject of much research. Ritual magic performed in temples and everyday magic - the spells and rites enacted for individuals in life - have been studied far less. These three types of magic were closely related and influences passed back and forth between them. The insights that everyday magic can give into the personal lives of the ancient Egyptians make it of far more than marginal interest. The Egyptian word usually translated as 'magic' is heka. This was one of the forces used by the creator deity to make the world. In Egyptian myth, the primeval state was chaos. Before creation there was only a dark, watery abyss known as the Nun. In the Nun existed the great serpent or dragon Apep (Apophis) who embodied the destructive forces of chaos. When the first land, the Primeval Mound, rose out of the Nun, the spirit of the creator had a place in which to take shape. The creator made order out of chaos. This divine order was personified by a goddess called Maat. The word maat also meant justice, truth and harmony. Finally, the creator made deities and humans. MAGIC IN ANCIENT EGYPT 1 Necklace of shell, coral, These deities included the god Heka, who was depicted in human bone, ivory and glazed form, sometimes with the signs that write his name on his head (figs 2, 9, steatite, with hippo- 11). Heka could be identified with the creator himself, particularly when potamus amulet, c. 4000 BC. This amulet is one of the latter appeared in child form to symbolize the emergence of new life. the earliest examples of Heka is also described as the ba (the soul or manifestation) of the sun Egyptian representational god. He was the energy which made creation possible and every act of magic was a continuation of the creative process. 10 EGYPTIAN MAGIC Some Egyptian deities were merely personifications of abstract con- 2 Heka, god of magic cepts or natural phenomena and were never the focus of cult worship or (far left), stands with the goddess Maat behind private devotion. No major temples were built for Heka, but he did have the throne of Osiris. a priesthood and shrines were dedicated to him in Lower (northern) Funerary papyrus of Egypt. There was also a goddess called Weret Hekau 'Great of Magic'. the priestess Originally this was just an epithet, applied to a number of goddesses. As Nesitanebetisheru, a goddess in her own right, Weret Hekau was usually shown in cobra c. 950 BC. form. She was one of the goddesses who acted as a foster-mother to the 3 Magician's wand in the divine kings of ancient Egypt and she was the power immanent in the form of a bronze cobra. royal crowns. The snake-shaped wands used by magicians probably From a Theban burial, represent her (fig. 3). 16th century BC. Such wands may represent the All deities and lesser supernatural beings, including the forces of goddess Weret Hekau, chaos, had their own heka. It was considered as much a part of them as 'the great of magic'. 11 MAGIC IN ANCIENT EGYPT their bodies or their names. Egyptian kings automatically had heka. People who were abnormal in some way, such as dwarfs, might also be thought to possess this quality. All the dead were credited with a certain degree of heka. This ancient concept is comparable with the modern Arabic barraka, a force possessed by many types of being and by some places and objects. Anything strange, exotic or ancient can be credited with barraka1 and it was the same with heka. Another Egyptian word for magical power is akhu. This is sometimes translated as 'enchantments', 'sorcery' or 'spells'. Deities and stars used akhu power, but it was particularly associated with the blessed dead. Like heka, akhu was neither good or bad in itself. Both were powers which could be channelled towards creation or destruction. This book is primarily about the ways in which the Egyptians used these powers. Some past studies of Egyptian magic have been contemptuous in tone. According to one scholar 'Magic, after all, is only the disreputable basement in the house of religion'.2 Another scholar peppered his book on Egyptian religion with references to magic as a form of senile imbecility. This judgemental attitude was partly based on the outdated theory that magic and religion must be seen as opposites. Most defin- itions of magic concentrate on trying to distinguish it from religion. It is paradoxical that, while Egypt is famous as a source of magical knowl- edge, many of the best known theories about magic do not easily fit the Egyptian evidence. In his famous book The Golden Bough, Sir James Frazer defined magic as the manipulation of supernatural beings by a human who expects that the correct sequence of words or actions will automatically bring about the desired result. This, Frazer held, was in contrast to religion, in which humans were dependent on the divine will and supplicated deities to grant their requests. He did recognize that the same supernatural beings might be involved in both magic and religion, but he saw magicians and priests as belonging to rival groups. In Egypt, magic and religion enjoyed a symbiotic relationship. Rituals which would count as magic under Frazer's definition, were more commonly performed by priests than by any other group (see Chapter Four). Magicians are often said to be distinguishable from priests because they have clients instead of a congregation, and because they are 4 OPPOSITE Painted not expected to exercise any moral authority. However, this description limestone stela dedicated would also cover most ancient Egyptian priests, who were paid special- by a Theban artisan to ists in ritual rather than moral teachers. The theory that magic is always the god Ptah, c. 1250 BC. unorthodox and subversive, part of a religious and political counter- Scholars have disagreed on whether this is a culture, does not seem to apply in Egypt where ritual magic was magical or a religious practised on behalf of the state for at least three thousand years.
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