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INUVIALUIT LANGUAGE and IDENTITY: PERSPECTIVES on the SYMBOLIC MEANING of INUVIALUKTUN in the CANADIAN WESTERN ARCTIC by Alexand

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INUVIALUIT LANGUAGE and IDENTITY: PERSPECTIVES on the SYMBOLIC MEANING of INUVIALUKTUN in the CANADIAN WESTERN ARCTIC by Alexand INUVIALUIT LANGUAGE AND IDENTITY: PERSPECTIVES ON THE SYMBOLIC MEANING OF INUVIALUKTUN IN THE CANADIAN WESTERN ARCTIC by Alexander C. Oehler B.A., University of Northern British Columbia, 2010 THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN INTERDISCIPLINARY STUDIES UNIVERSITY OF NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA July 2012 © Alexander C. Oehler, 2012 Abstract: The revitalization of ancestral languages has been an issue of great concern to Aboriginal communities across North America for several decades. More recently, this concern has also found a voice in educational policy, particularly in regions where Aboriginal land claims have been ratified, and where public schools fall under a mandate to offer curricula that meet the needs of Aboriginal students. This research seeks to explore the cultural significance of Inuvialuktun, a regional Inuit language comprised of three distinct dialects traditionally spoken by the Inuvialuit of the northern Northwest Territories, Canada. More specifically, the research seeks to examine the role of current Inuvialuktun language revitalization efforts in the establishment of Inuvialuit collective and individual identities across several age groups. Tying into the sociolinguistic discourse on ancestral language revitalization in North America, the research seeks to contribute a case study from a region underrepresented in the literature on language and identity. The applied aim of the study is to provide better insight on existing language ideologies and language attitudes subscribed to by current and potential learners of Inuvialuktun in the community of Inuvik, NWT. Data obtained by the study is intended to aid local and territorial language planners in identifying potential obstacles and opportunities regarding language learner motivation. The project was conducted in partnership with the Inuvialuit Regional Corporation (IRC), the Inuvialuit Cultural Resource Centre (ICRC), the Beaufort Delta Education Council (BDEC), and Aurora College, providing qualitative access to current and potential learners, as well as current and future teachers across several educational contexts. [Keywords: Inuvialuit, language revitalization, identity, hybridity, ideologies, attitudes] ii Table of Contents Abstract ii Table of Contents iii-v List of Tables v List of Figures v Acknowledgement vi-vii Chapter One – Introduction 1.0 Introduction 1 1.1 Why the Western Arctic, why Inuvik? 2 1.2 General context: land and language 3 1.3 Current linguistic vitality 6 1.4 Disciplinary context within the Canadian Arctic 7 1.5 Purpose and problem 8 1.6 Necessity and importance of the study 9 1.7 Applicability to the Northwest Territories 11 1.8 Theoretical perspectives 12 1.9 Conclusion 14 Chapter Two – Literature Review 2.0 Introduction 15 2.1.0 General historical background 15 2.1.1 Inuvialuit culture in context 16 2.1.2 From Paleoeskimo to Inuvialuit culture 16 2.1.3 Age of discovery: trade and epidemics 17 2.1.4 The whaling era (1889-1908) 18 2.1.5 The trapping era and settlement expansion 19 2.1.6 Militarization and oil boom 19 2.1.7 The advent of Inuvialuit self-determination 20 2.2.0 Recent language history 21 2.2.1 The Herschel Island Trade Jargon 21 2.2.2 Early advantages of English 22 2.2.3 Residential schools and English-only ideologies 22 2.2.4 The Inuvialuktun Language Commission & Program 23 2.2.5 The Inuvialuit Cultural Resource Centre 24 2.3 Language, society and identity as a field of study 25 2.3.1 Language inequality 25 2.3.2 Language ideology 27 2.3.3 Language identity 28 2.3.4 Language shift and ethnic identity 31 2.3.5 Language and identity in Aboriginal North America 33 2.4.0 Residential schooling and Aboriginal languages in North America 34 2.4.1 Witness accounts 34 2.4.2 An archival perspective 35 2.4.3 Inuit activism 37 iii 2.4.4 Residential school repercussions 38 2.5.0 Heritage language as second language 40 2.5.1 Psycholinguistics and forgotten languages 40 2.5.2 Who decides when to learn? A perspective from the American Southwest 42 2.5.3 An example of tokenization in Yup'ik terms 44 2.6.0 Language revitalization and Indigenous identities in North America 45 2.6.1 'Lived' versus 'spoken' identity in Hopi 45 2.6.2 Disjunctive language ideologies in Navajo and Pueblo 47 2.6.3 Agency and stereotype deconstruction in Sámi 48 2.7.0 Theoretical perspectives: Blumer & Bourdieu 49 2.7.1 Symbolic interactionism 50 2.7.2 Symbolic power and violence 51 2.8 Conclusion 52 Chapter Three – Methodology 3.0 Introduction 54 3.1 Ethical considerations 54 3.1.1 Community access & community partners 55 3.1.2 Community collaboration 56 3.1.3 Research partners and local co-researchers 57 3.1.4 Informed consent & remuneration 58 3.1.5 Ownership and accountability 59 3.2 Data Collection 60 3.2.1 Participant observation 60 3.2.2 Questionnaires 62 3.2.3 Semi-structured interviews 63 3.2.4 Group interviews (focus groups) 65 3.2.5 Population focus: age and gender 66 3.2.6 Interview sites 68 3.2.6.1 Samuel Hearne Secondary School 71 3.2.6.2 Aurora College 71 3.2.6.3 Aurora College Learning Centre 72 3.2.6.4 Community at large 72 3.3 Methods of analysis 73 3.3.1 Inductive & deductive approaches 73 3.3.2 Methods from an epistemological perspective 74 3.4 Conclusion 76 Chapter Four – Findings 4.0 Introduction 77 4.1 Ideological disjuncture 77 4.2 The symbolic value of Inuvialuktun 78 4.3 Inuvialuktun acquisition and identity 80 4.4 Language ideologies: born of (and giving birth to) definitions of self 81 4.5 Definitions of identity: Blumer's perspective 83 iv 4.5.1 Inuvialuit identity in light of freedom and constraint 85 4.5.2 Fluidity and stability of Inuvialuit identity 89 4.5.3 Inuvialuit identity in social contexts of cause and effect 92 4.5.4 Constructing Inuvialuit identity in similarity & difference 96 4.5.5 Inuvialuit identity in the context of multiple social others 101 4.6 Language ideologies: Bourdieu's perspective 104 4.6.1 Internalized language hierarchies 106 4.6.2 Language inequality and Aboriginal independence 108 4.6.3 Relegation of Inuvialuktun to the historical domain 109 4.6.4 The symbolic meaning of Inuvialuktun 112 4.6.5 Language attitudes toward Inuvialuktun 114 4.7 Conclusion 116 Chapter Five – Conclusion 5.0 Introduction 118 5.1 Linguistic beliefs & Inuvialuit community 118 5.2 Motivators for language acquisition 120 5.3 Some recommendations to language planners 122 5.4 Conclusion 123 Appendixes Appendix I - Adult Consent Form 126 Appendix II - Consent Form for Minors 128 Appendix III – Interview Guide 130 Appendix IV - General Questionnaire 131 Appendix V - Questionnaire for Current Learners 134 Appendix VI - Research Ethics Approval UNBC 135 Appendix VII - Research Relationship Agreement 136 Appendix VIII - Aurora Letter of Consent 137 Appendix IX - BDEC Letter of Consent 138 Appendix X - NWT Research License 139 List of Tables Table 1 List of Co-researchers (demographic breakdown) 140 List of Figures Figure 1 - Map of Inuit Nunangat 5 Figure 2 - Samuel Hearne Secondary School 69 Figure 3 - Aurora College (ALCIP) 69 Figure 4 - Aurora College Community Learning Centre 70 Figure 5 - Town of Inuvik 70 Bibliography 141 v Acknowledgements First of all, my gratitude goes to my wife who has stood by me throughout the course of this project. I am also very thankful to my sons, Lars and Bergen, who continually remind me that language policy is made in the home, and who have accompanied me in most of my research endeavors. I express my gratitude to all the community members who gave of their precious time and insights, especially the students of the Aboriginal Language and Culture Instructor Program (ALCIP) at Aurora College. I would like to thank Catherine Cockney from the Inuvialuit Cultural Resource Centre (ICRC) for her advice and listening ear, Suzanne Robinson, senior instructor of the Community Education Preparation Program at Aurora College for her collaboration, and Dwayne Drescher who put in many hours of work at the computer and in the community as my research assistant. For archival assistance and information on the history of language revitalization in the ISR, I would like to thank Dr. Dave Button from the Arctic Institute of North America. At the University of Northern British Columbia my gratitude goes out first and foremost to Dr. Michel Bouchard who invested countless hours of teaching, guiding, and mentoring me, and without whom this project would not have taken place. I would like to thank Dr. Ross Hoffman, my First Nations Studies advisor whose community-based research experience was much appreciated in this project. My thanks also go out to Dr. Angèle Smith (Anthropology) and Dr. Antonia Mills (First Nations Studies) who have stimulated my thinking through their seminars. I wish to thank the University of Northern British Columbia for granting me multiple postgraduate research awards, as well as a SSHRC research award made available through aid to small universities. At Université Laval in Quebec City, I would like to thank Dr. Louis-Jacques Dorais who supported my vi work as linguistic advisor. It was a special honor to work with Dr. Dorais as he was the initial linguist called upon by the Inuvialuit to facilitate a systematic analysis of Inuvialuktun in the early 1980s, which he did by sending his then PhD student Ronald Lowe, author of all Inuvialuit grammars and dictionaries to date. I would also like to thank Kristeen McTavish from the Nasivvik Centre for Inuit Health and Changing Environments for her commitment to supporting this project by overseeing our Nasivvik Summer Student Research Award.
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