.9t Perspective on Canatia's f£cosgstems YIn OVerview oftfie 'Ierrestria{ and !Mari:ne t£cazones

Prepared for the Canadian Council on Ecological Areas Ottawa, KIA OH3

llTitten by Ed B. Wiken, David Gauthier, Ian Marshall, Ken Lawton and Harry Hirvonen

CCEA Occasional Papers (September 1996) 1996, NO. 14 ( ( Table of Contents ( ( Prelude ...... iv ( vi Acknowledgements ...... t­ Section 1 ( Introduction ...... 1 ( Section 2 ( Defining Ecozones and Ecosystems ...... 2 ( Section 3 ( The Terrestrial Ecozones of ...... 11 ( Ecozone ...... 12 Northern Arctic Ecozone ...... 15 ( Southern Arctic Ecozone ...... 18 C Plains Ecozone ...... 22 ( Taiga Shield Ecozone ...... 25 ( Ecozone ...... 28 Hudson Plains Ecozone ...... :...... 31 ( Boreal Plains Ecozone ...... 35 ( Boreal Shield Ecozone ...... 39 ( Ecozone ...... 43 ( Pacific Maritime Ecozone ...... 46 Ecozone ...... 50 ( Prairies Ecozone ...... 55 ( Atlantic Maritime Ecozone ...... 60 ( Mixedwood Plains Ecozone ...... , ...... 65 ( Section 4 ( The Marine ...... 70 ( Pacific Marine Ecozone ...... 71 Arctic Archipelago Ecozone ...... 73 ( Arctic Basin Ecozone ...... 75 ( Northwest Atlantic Ecozone ...... 77 ( Atlantic Marine Ecozone ...... 80 C Section 4 ( Conclusion ...... 83 ( Section 5 ( Literature ...... 84 ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ii ( Appendix 1 Ecological classification of subsystems of ecozones ...... 89 Appendix 2 Terrestrial and Marine Ecozones Map (color) ...... 91 Appendix 3 Terrestrial Ecozones Map (color) ...... 93 Appendix 4 Marine Ecozones Map (color) ...... 95 List of Figures 1 Marine and Terrestrial Ecozones ...... 3 2 Terrestrial Ecozones of Canada ...... 11 3 Marine Ecozones of Canada ...... 70 List of Tables 1 Some descriptive biophysical characteristics of Canada's marine and terrestrial ecozones ...... 4 2 Some quantitative environmental and socioeconomic characteristics of Canada's terrestrial ecozones ...... 6 3 Statistical Profile: Arctic Cordillera Ecozone ...... 14 4 Statistical Profile: Northern Arctic Ecozone ...... 17 5 Statistical Profile: Southern Arctic Ecozone ...... 21 6 Statistical Profile: Taiga Plains Ecozone ...... 24 7 Statistical Profile: Taiga Shield Ecozone ...... 27 8 Statistical Profile: Taiga Cordillera Ecozone ...... 30 9 Statistical Profile: Hudson Plains Ecozone ...... 34 10 Statistical Profile: Boreal Plains Ecozone ...... 38 11 Statistical Profile: Boreal Shield Ecozone ...... 42 12 Statistical Profile: Boreal Cordillera Ecozone ...... 45 13 Statistical Profile: Pacific Maritime Ecozone ...... 49 14 Statistical Profile: Montane Cordillera Ecozone ...... 54 15 Statistical Profile: Prairies Ecozone ...... 59 16 Statistical Profile: Atlantic Maritime Ecozone ...... 64 17 Statistical Profile: Mixedwood Plains Ecozone ...... 69 Significant Internet Sites Canadian Council on Ecological Areas http://www.cprc.uregina.ca/ccea/ State of the Environment Reporting, Environment Canada http://wwwl.ec.gc.ca/-soer/ Land and Biological Resources Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada http://res.agr.ca/CANSISINSDBIECOSTRAT/ l. ( Prelude (

(

In the mid 1980s, many agencies and of more importance, ecosystem classifications professionals from across Canada contributed to have been used increasingly to evaluate a broad the development of the Terrestrial Ecozones of spectrum of issues, redesign monitoring systems, ( Canada (Wiken, 1986). This product was and focus research programs, and better integrate the ( remains to be a highly significant undertaking by information sources and capabilities of ( world standards. Unlike many other ecosystem organizations from across Canada. ( classifications, this scheme considered All of these efforts are essential to be able to ecosystems as holistic entities. The use of the ( inform Canadians on the status of ecosystems term 'ecosystem' was not a veil to describe ( and to relay what this information means to them sectoral themes like the distribution of current or in the sense of their health and well-being. ( past plant species, climatic regimes or National (Government of Canada, 1996) and ( physiographic features. The focus was provincial (B.C. Government, 1995; ecosystems--distinctive areas where organisms ( Government, 1996) state of the of the (including humans) and the physical ( environment reports perhaps have been the most environment (i.e. soils, water, climate,) cohere as effective in capitalizing on the use of ecosystem ( a system. frameworks. These reports have employed ( The ecozone report was the outcome of many innovative ecosystem approaches and have ( regional and national ecosystem classifications. provided some of the best discussions on ( As well, it was a response to a need to look for a linkages between environmental and socio­ more holistic way of viewing and managing economic issues. The analysis of both status and ( Canada's ecosystems. Programs like the Canada connections has taken a broader interpretation of ( Land Inventory and conferences like Resources . 'our well-being'. Human needs-prosperity, ( for Tomorrow had already pointed-out that a clean air and water, productive soils, renewable ( more integrated and longer-term view had to be resources, protected areas,-all depend on taken on defining the relationship resource use understanding the total life support system. ( and the well-beings of Canadians. The focus on Success-socially, economically and ethically­ ( these relationships is reflected in currently vogue is dependent upon providing due care and ( concepts such as sustainable development and attention to organisms (e.g. plants, animals, ( world conservation strategies. humans,) as well as to the physical environment (e.g. soils, water, atmosphere,) of which they are ( Ecosystem classifications within Canada have a part. The ecosystem perspective is essential. ( continued to be refined at the national and regional levels (e.g. ESWG,1996; ). New Canada is often considered to be a warehouse of ( developments have also taken place at the life support systems which are considered to be ( continental and state level. The draft North 'natural' or 'native'. Unlike many other ( American Ecosystem Framework produced by countries, the landscapes and seascapes of ( the Commission for Environmental Cooperation Canada seemingly remain untouched. While this (1996) and the Ecoregions of Alaska (Gallant et is not entirely true, factors like the country's C al, 1996) published by the U.S. Geological vastness, the southern concentration of people ( Survey are examples. Provincial reports like the and the poor northern access provide credence to ( 'Ecoregions of ' (Padbury and this notion of untold wilderness areas. Having ( Acton, 1994) are also examples of recently much of what we started with in respect to . published and updated Canadian studies. Perhaps natural ecosystems, allows us the opportunity to ( ( ( ( iv further adopt an· 'anticipate and prevent' mode of ecosystems of which they are a part? How can planning rather than a 'react and cure' mode. you protect wilderness areas into the future Sustaining resources, maintaining healthy without understanding the ecosystems which ecosystems, keeping clean water and air, and they represent? How can we protect and conserve merging economic and environmental are ecosystem diversity without knowing the range forward looking goals. Achieving those ends and type of ecosystems that exist in Canada? will depend to a large degree on having" a What is essential in sustaining the components fundamental knowledge of ecosystems. How can and processes of ecosystems? Developing an you sustain a resource (i.e., timber, wild ecosystem perspective is essential. animals,) without knowing something about the

v (

( Acknowledgements

( The concept and application of 'ecozones' have a contributions to the Ecovignettes, as well as to C considerable history in Canada. Over three the Ecozone Chapters of the SOER and Indicator decades ago, the need for ecozones grew from a bulletins. The current CCEA ecozone report t much more overall need to examine Canada's full builds on many of these elements as well as ( range of ecosystem resources. Some of these provincial/territorial initiati ves and former ( needs were intended to address site and regional reports. ( planning/assessments, while others were The images for the ecozones are a new addition. ( intended for national and international purposes. Images for the ecozones were produce by The 'ecozone' concept provides a basis for the ( Autumn Downey (Arctic Cordillera, Northern broader country-wide perspective. Inherently, this ( Arctic, Southern Arctic, Taiga Plains, Taiga required the input of many professionals, Shield, Taiga Cordillera, Boreal Shield, Pacific ( organizations and disciplines from across Canada. Maritime, and Prairies), Serge Bedard (Boreal ( At times, expertise was also sought from other Plains, Pacific Marine, Arctic Basin, and Atlantic countries particularly neighbouring USA ( Marine) and William Johnson (Hudson Plains, ( The first attempt to consolidate an ecozone Boreal Cordillera, Montane Cordillera, Atlantic perspective was done through a joint project with Maritime, Mixedwood Plains, Arctic ( the Canada Committee on Ecological Land Archipelago, and Northwest Atlantic). The ( Classification (CCELC) and the Lands publication layout and graphic design as well as ( Directorate of Environment Canada. The results the map illustrations were produced by ( were published as: Terrestrial Ecozones of Serge Bedard. Canada (Wiken, 1986). While these two core ( Many organizations have assisted in producing agencies helped to publish the report, over ( this report. They include: 60 professionals and 20 agencies contributed to ( its development. • Canadian Plains Research Centre, Regina ( The State of the Environment Service of • National Atlas, Ottawa ( Environment Canada and the Canadian Council • Canadian Soil Information System, Ottawa ( on Ecological Areas (CCEA) jointly refined and enhanced the 1986 version of the ecozones of • Canadian Forest Service, Ottawa ( Canada. Beyond improving the descriptions and ( • Statistics Canada, Ottawa maps covering the terrestrial ecosystems, new ( sections were developed to cover the nation's • State of the Environment Directorate, Ottawa ( marine ecosystems. Much of this was captured in • Canadian Wildlife Service, Ottawa the Eco-vignettes initiative-a series of twenty ( posters which were published by Environment We owe special thanks to our international C Canada as a companion product to the 1996 colleagues. In the USA, in particular, we have ( State of the Environment Report (SOER) for greatly appreciate the input that we received from ( Canada. SOER staff members such as Jim Omernik and Glen Griffith. Irene Pisanty and V. Neimanis, J. Reid, W. Bond, A. LeHenaff, the North American Commission on ( G. Ironside, H. Vandermeulen, J. Anderson, Environmental Cooperation have also been very ( C. Pupp, N. Ward, T. Turner, D. Duggan, helpful in extending the ecozone concept across ( A. Kerr, R. Frith and N. Spooner made valuable North America. ( ( ( ( ( vi Section I

Introduction

This report offers a broad perspective on the human activities that exist within an ecozone. Canada's ecosystems, both terrestrial and marine. Ecozones are described holistically according to It describes as of 1996, Canada's twenty major a range of characteristics-some biological, ecosystems-the ecozones. All of Canada's some physical, some structural, some process ecozones are not in a pristine or natural state. and some relational. Many of the southern ecozones are very much Canada has been a world leader in ecosystem human modified/dominated ecosystems. classifications and evaluations since the early However, each ecozone is distinct, containing its 1960's. It is one of the few countries which has own particular sets abiotic and biotic applied a holistic definition in its development of characteristics. Some of the defining features of· ecosystem classifications and assessments. Most ecosystems may be associated with economic of Canada's focus was initially on the terrestrial resources (Le., timber species, productive landscape but the concern over applying an grassland soils,), and others may be linked with ecosystem approach to marine waters directed specific geological, climatic, or physical recent initiatives to building a parallel seascape features. Still other defining features are found in focus. the peculiar types of wildlife and vegetation or

1 ( ( Section 2 ( ( Defining Ecozones and Ecosystems ( t The Canadian system of ecosystem classification Commission on Environmental Cooperation divides the country into twenty major units­ (CEC). fifteen are Terrestrial Ecozones and five are Tables 1 and 2 which follow list the major Marine Ecozones (see figure 1). Ecozones are ( characteristics of each ecozone. Terrestrial and commonly the top level used in Canada. The ( marine ecozones are relatively large areas within hierarchy of ecosystems then subdivides into Canada and the ecosphere. Each ecozone ( ecoregions, ecodistricts, ecosections, ecosites, represents a very generalized type of ecosystem. ( and ecoelements. The lower levels are more For Canadians, the ecozones have provided a useful for regional through to site level planning, ( useful function in providing a basis for informing conservation and management purposes. ( people on the overall diversity and wealth of Since the 1970s, governments, non-government ecosystems which exist in the country. It is ( groups (NGO), universities and industry have common for the average Canadian to think of ( worked to establish a common, hierarchical Canada in the context of oceans, forests, prairies ( ecosystem framework for terrestrial and marine and the arctic. The ecozones contrastingly go ( ecosystems in Canada. The underlying principle beyond these four settings and portray Canada in of the initiative has been a basic commitment the context of twenty major ecosystems-fifteen and need to think, plan, and act in terms of terrestrial and five marine. This framework of ( ecosystems (Wiken and Lawton, 1995). This major ecosystems has been successful in ( principle has required people to move away from organizing information as well as thought. ( a reductionist emphasis of placing the sole Like many words, the term ecosystem has a long attention on individual elements that comprise an ( history. In Canada, the meaning has been ecosystem to a perspective that is more ( significantly influenced by the nation's early comprehensive-a holistic approach. concerns for landscape management and ( The ecosystem classification described in this planning. Programs like the Canada Land ( report has been a model for developing similar Inventory and the Northern Land Use Inventory ( frameworks in other countries. While work on as well as major landmark conferences like the ( further refining ecosystem frameworks within Resources for Tomorrow Conference which Canada has progressed since the 1960's, the started in the early 60s and 70s are examples of ( North American Free Trade Agreement initiatives which caused many agencies and ( (NAFTA) introduced new opportunities to individuals to take a much more integrated view ( extend the ecosystem framework to the whole of the landscape. This led to the establishment of ( continent. Canada, the , and support organizations such as the Canada Mexico agreed that a continental ecosystem Committee on Ecological Land Classification ( framework would be needed to effectively (CCELC), the Canadian Council on Ecological ( communicate and report on shared issues. While Areas (CCEA) and the Canadian Society for ( these three countries recognized their respective Landscape Ecology and Management (CSLEM). ( jurisdictions, things like transboundary pollution, These organizations were extremely innovative migratory species, ecosystems and ocean currents and brought many of the hallmark events to ( do not. To develop the continental ecological landscape ecology thinking in North America. ( framework, the three countries sponsored a ( collaborative project (EWG, 1996) through the ( ( ( 2 ( Figure 1 Marine and Terrestrial Ecozones Legend

Marine Terrestrial rn Pacific Marine [JJJ] Arctic Cordillera rn Arctic Archipelago Northern Arctic rn Arctic Basin • Southern Arctic IAl Northwest Atlantic ~ Taiga Plains rn Atlantic Marine Iliilli:I Taiga Shield o Taiga Cordillera tim Hudson Plains J I§;§ Boreal Plains llilill] Boreal Shield ~ Boreal Cordillera Iillll Pacific Maritime IlIIIiIlI Montane Cordillera ~Prairies • Atlantic Maritime Ea Mixedwood Plains

1 5

What influence did all of these programs, organisms are part of ecosystems and not apart conferences and organizations have? from them. The concept of home therefore Fundamentally, they shaped the Canadain includes those who dwell there and everything concept of ecosystem. In its simplest form, that they may need or rely on to live. ecosystem became. defined as home. Home In a more scientific manner ecosystem is defined unlike the word house conveys the idea that the more rigorously. It is a unit of nature comprised of occupants (people in the case of ourselves! organisms (including people), the physical other living creatures in the case of the environment (land, water, climate,) and the wildness) are integral parts of the setting. Stan relationships which exist between them. With the Rowe (1990) in his Home Place book and the early development of a landscape ecology focus in State of the Environment Report (19911 Canada, it has become customary to think of unit Introductory chapter) have expounded upon the of nature as a physical space(s)-the arctic, the importance of this notion. We and all other

3 ~ Table 1 Some descriptive biophysical characteristics of Canada's marine and terrestrial ecozones

Terrestrial «ozones

Norlllern Plain., hills Moraine, rock, marinc/ Very cold. dry; continuous Herb-lichen lundra Peary Carihou~ Muskox. Wolf. Arctic Hare; Hunting. tourism/recreation, some lqaluit, Cambridge Bay, Holman, Arctic Bay, Arctic Cryosol, permafrosl Red,throated Loon, Brant. ptarmigan. Greater mining Thloyoak, Pangnirlllng. Sacbs Harbour. Cape Snow Goose Dorsel. Resolute. 19loolik

Thiga Plaill, Plains, somc foothills Organic) moraine. Cold, semiarid to moist; Open lo closed mixed , Wondland Caribou, Wond , Wolf. Hunting, lrnpping, tourism! lnuvik. Forl Simpson, Wrigley, Norman Wells, IscustrinclCryosols, discontinuous permafrost cvcrgrccn-dcciduous Black Bear, Red Squirrel; Northern Shrike) recreation, oil and gas development, Aklavik, Hay Ri vcr, Forl McPherson Brunisols fores t marginal agriculture in south

Thiga Mountai.ns Colluvium, morn.inc, rock! Cold, semiarid; discontinuous Shrub-hcro-moss- Dall's Sheep, Grant's Caribou, Black Bear, Trapping, hunting, mining, Old Crow Cordillera Cryosols, G1cysols. Bruntsol. permafrost lichen tundra Grl7.zly Bear; Peregrinc Falcon, pUlrmigan tourism! reereation~ oil and gas

Atlanlie Hills and coastal plains Moraine, coUuvium~ marinet Cool, wel Mixed deciduous~ Whlle-l.aHcd Dccr~ Moose, Black Bear. Coyote, Forcsuy, agriculture.11sb processing~ Halifax, Sainllohn. Dartmouth~ Charlottetown. Maritime Brunisols, Pndzols, L uvisol. evergreen forest Raccoon; Blue Jay, Eastern Bluebird lourism/recreation Monclon, Sydney, Rimouski,Shcrbrookc

Source: Wlkcn (1986); SUIte of thc Environment Directorate, EnvironmcntCan.d.; Marine Environment Qualily Advisory Group, (1994): EcologiCal SlralillC.lion Working Group, (1996).

~ ,.-...... -., r' ~ ,,-. ~ i~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I~ ,...-...,. ~ /-", ~ ~ ~ ,--., ~ ,.-. ~\ ,.-'" ~ ,,-, .-.... ~ ,--. ...-'" ...-... ~ ,...-..., ~ ~, 'I' 'I ""'" ~ Table 1 Some descriptive biophysical characteristics of Canada's marine and terrestrial ecozones (cont'd)

Marine ccozones

A:rclic LimHcd to "shelf-type" depths; high Seasonal ice; open water Relatively high freshwater input along Higher productivity Intense summer migration into region. genera.lly Oil and gas,lhnited fishing An:hipclago Arctic islands, A:rclie and 2- 3 months in summer northern contlnenl!ll boundary and abundance of following the ice edge retreat; locally high and hunting coasts; much is rocky coastline. life lban permanent concentrations of marine birds and mammals, numerous channels and straits; high icc area including Beluga, Walrus, se.ls; Polar Bear coastal relief in easl~ low in south and west

Northwest Primarily eontinental.helf; generally Seasonal ice area Current exerts strong influence Strongly influenced Suharctic species in north Lo boreal species in Fishing, tourism AUantic low coastal relief bolb on shelf and offshore (lower-salinity by the Labrador south; important commercial species include cold water) CutTCnl and Arctic oyster, shrhnp, Snow Crab, haddock, hake, walcrs Pollock, American Plaice, codfish, halibut, flounder, herring. mackerel. CapcHn, and Atlantic Salmon

...... 0\ Table 2 Some quantitative environmental and socioeconomic characteristics of Canada's terrestrial ecozones

Arctic Cordillera 2.5 230873 2.3 19717 0.2 Perennial snow/icc 1047 <0.01 0.5 o 0.0 12 Nortilem Arctic 15.2 1361433 13.7 149447 1.5 Barren lands 16328 0.06 1.2 3450 21.1 379 Southern Arctic 8.3 773041 7.8 59349 0.6 Arctic/alpine tundra 10314 0.04 1.3 o 0.0 150

Hudson Plains 3.6 353364 3.5 8996 0.1 Thansitional forest 9938 0.04 2.8 1003 10.1 115 Boreal Plains 7.4 679%9 6.8 57831 0.6 Coniferous forest 707695 2.59 104.1 299019 42.3 13744 Boreal Shield 19.5 1782252 17.9 164118 1.6 Coniferous forest 2831824 10.37 158.9 1694777 59.8 49005

• Marine ecozones are not listed. Note: Percentages may not add up owing to rounding. Source: State of the Environment Directorate, Environment Canada.

~~0-~--0n------~-~---~--_ ~_~_~~~ __ ~_~_~~ wetland, the lake, the Carolinian forest, and even like frozen soils, frost patterned ground, arctic urban areas. They are all distinctive places with flora and fauna, arctic climatic regimes, distinctive sets of characteristics The structure permafrost, etc. functions and processes associated with the ' This conceptual way of looking at an ecosystem biological and physical characteristics in each is not restricted just to relatively large ecozones place is relatively unique and enduring. Each but applies to ecosystems of any particular size ecosystem/place is further characterized by (i.e., ecoregions, ecodistricts, ecosections, relationships (dependencies, interactions, ecosites, ecoelements,). The main thing that transactions, intra-actions,) which exist between changes is the precision which is applied to the inherent biological and physical parts or detailing the biophysical characteristics both members-these relationships are the cement descriptively and spatially. The overall which makes it possible for the system to hold ecosystem classification system, thus, forms a together on a more or less permanent basis. The bridge between macro systems and small presence of permanent and seasonal sea ice in the systems. The various orders of ecosystems are arctic are, for example, dependent upon the cold related in a hierarchy in which a lower order arctic climate regime and the patterns of oceans ecosystem is nested within a higher order one. currents. These sea ice and weather conditions This hierarchy allows us to view Canada's are, in tum, important elements in sustaining the ecosystems from a broad perspective-the habitats which are necessary for species like ecozones-or at a more detailed sub-unit level or polar bears as well as for the species upon which at any level in between. Since each ecosystem the bears prey. consists of a distinctive assemblage of physical Large order ecosystems in a landscape sense are and biological characteristics, the responses to or called ecozones in the Canadian system of the sustainability of particular human activities, classification. Ecozones may be more commonly land/sea uses or practices can be broadly known by terms such as the Arctic, the Boreal or determined. the Prairies. These units depict areas of the The marine ecosystem units are fairly new in earth's surface where a fairly definitive and comparison to the terrestrial units. As with the enduring mix of abiotic and biotic elements terrestrial ecosystem work, the units and exist. While there is a perception of overall concepts were derived through workshops and constancy in these ecosystems, it does not mean discussions held with numerous federal , that there is no change. In the boreal forest provincial, NGO and university representatives ecosystem, forest systems go through cycles that from across Canada. The marine ecosystem units may allow them to mature, bum at any stage, be like the terrestrial ones will undergone further harvested at maturity or be renewed through revision and refinement. natural processes or human intervention. They, however, change within relatively set limits over Mapped Information time and have fairly stable traits. The Prairie Maps are useful as most people have an inherent ecosystems are characterized, for instance, by sense of location. People are familiar with the many relatively stable factors -grassland type places where they live and those places they have soils, prairie fauna, prairie climatic regimes, visited. This sense of comfort often draws prairie cereal grain production, ranching, etc. individuals to the visual presentation of Human activities here greatly affect how the ecosystems-pictures, diagrams and MAPS. systems are sustained in a particular condition. Having a good knowledge about what maps The arctic ecosystems, in contrast, are not as represent is of primary importance. Mapped widely affected by human activities. The arctic information can frequently be misleading, unless ecosystems like the prairies show a markedly the assumptions and techniques used to develop stable set of characteristics over time-factors

7 ( ( them are understood. For Canada several the bedrock's age and general type. One ( important items related to Terrestrial and Marine assumption used in mapping is that the earth's ( Ecosystems include: the concept of soil cover is ignored. The bedrock may lie generalization, the nature of map lines, the several lOs of metres below the earth's surface. ( notion of map units, and the purity or relative Again, an area such as the Hudson Bay Lowland t homogeneity of mapped areas. would, for example, be referenced by the ( underlying bedrock (e.g., Hudson Platform of flat Ecosystem Generalization in Canada lying strata) rather than by the organic and C Determining zones or regionalizing information marine deposits that cover most of the surface. ( is a method of reducing or eliminating details ( Although there is no single and all-useful form of which do not, on the average, hold true over an regionalization, most agencies require a system ( area. Canada's resource base and features have that gives them the greatest flexibility. Operating ( been regionalized in map form for many under the principles of sustainable development, purposes. Forest Regions of Canada" (Rowe, multiple resources use and multiple stakeholders 1972) "Geological Provinces of Canada" ( requires an approach that supports a broad (Douglas, 1970), "Physiographic Regions of spectrum of activities (e.g., forestry, agriculture, C Canada" (Bostock, 1970), "Wetland Regions of wildlife and urbanization). It also needs to be ( Canada" (Wetland Working Group, 1981), flexible in allowing for changes in scale (Le., "Ecoclimatic Regions of Canada" (Zoltai et al., ( global to local) and time. These were the main 1983) "Marine Ecological Classification System" ( factors that were taken into account when the (MEQAG, 1994) and "Ecoregions of Canada" Canada Committee on Ecological Classification ( (Wiken, 1993; Crowley, 1967) are just a few of developed their system. An ecosystem ( the many examples. classification was viewed as a process of ( Each map addresses a different purpose and use; delineating and describing ecologically ( each employs its own criteria in deriving and distinctive areas of the earth's surface (Wtken, describing mapped areas. For example, 198611996; Environmental Conservation Service ( "Ecoclimatic Regions of Canada" largely depicts Task Force, 1981). Each area can be viewed as a ( the range of major climatic regimes. To relatively discrete ecosystem which has resulted ( determine the spatial extent of these climatic from the mesh and interplay of the geologic, ( regimes, key reference sites or mesic soil sites . landform, soil, vegetative, climatic, wildlife, are used. Soils would not be too nutrient rich nor water and human factors which may be present. ( too poor, drainage would not be overly excessive The dominance of anyone or a number of these ( nor impeded, sites would not be too exposed nor factors varies with the given ecosystem. This ( too sheltered, and so on. The development of holistic approach to classification can be applied ( vegetation and soils on these sites would be incrementally on a scale-related basis from very assessed to see where similar climatic conditions site-specific ecosystems to very broad ( prevail. Mesic sites may, however, not represent ecosystems. ( the average condition across the landscape and Map unit boundaries ( may even be a rare occurrence. In the Hudson ( Bay Lowland, a mesic site would be rare as The boundary lines shown on maps are clear and much of the plain in subject to high water-tables of even width. This may imply an equivalent C and other sites like the strandlines (Le., old degree of precision exists in how the world's! ( beaches) are too dry. country's ecosystems are separated from each ( other. Map lines are merely conveniences to The "Geological Provinces of Canada" addresses ( approximate the location where changes take another mapping purpose. These provinces place. With ecozones, the changes are associated ( delineate distinctive geological units based on ( { ( 8 ( with broad sets of biological and physical With mountainous ecosystems like the Boreal characteristics. Cordillera Ecozone or the Taiga Cordillera Ecozone, this is not the case. Within these map It is possible to represent map unit boundaries units, significant variation in biophysical using variable widths of lines. This would be characteristics occur with elevation and indeed more technica11y correct but it becomes equally with aspect. The lower elevations can be forested more distracting in communicating some of the ecosystems and the summits can be core concepts. The real importance of map unit alpine or snow bound. At times it is extremely lines is to show that distinctive entities or difficult to separate these major ecosystem types populations of things exist. The arctic using a map, so they are treated as a complex ecosystems are different than the neighbouring map unit. They should be considered as a boreal ecosystems; the wetland ecosystems are multiple set of major ecosystems that are different than the adjacent dry-upland enclosed within a particular map unit. They can ecosystems. Each ecosystem type requires its be, however, like a layered cake which has own special considerations in relationship to distinctive layers that occur in a regular pattern. management, planning and sustainable resource In the Boreal Cordillera Ecozone, for instance, use. the forested ecosystem predominates the mid and At times, the boundary area details can be lower elevations and the alpine ecosystems significant. To accurately delimit the various occupy the higher reaches. types of transitions between all ecosystem units The relative type of uniformity that one can and the neighbouring units, the boundaries might expect within a given map unit is partly a be shown as bands of grey, and not necessarily of function of the type of map unit-simple or an even width. The boundaries at the ecozone complex. The simple map unit demonstrates level may be tens to hundreds of kilometers greater overall uniformity than do complex ones. wide, depending on the particular unit and with Complex map units are largely associated with which neighbour the transition is taking place. the mountainous terrain of the arctic and the The Taiga Shield Ecozone has a comparatively west. sharp boundary with its neighbour, the Hudson . Plains. In contrast, the boundary with its more A second limitation of map units is that they do northerly map unit, the Southern Arctic, not easily illustrate ecosystem connections and commonly takes place over greater distances. relationships. Ecosystems do not stand in isolation of each other. Climate systems cross Map unit types ecosystems, water and nutrients flow between As cartographic tools, map units have certain ecosystems, animals migrate between limitations. The foremost problem is that they are ecosystems, and pollution moves from one attempting to show a three dimensional object­ ecosystem to another. These ties and exchanges an ecosystem-on a two dimensional surface. are not necessarily just between adjacent While traditional maps allow you to reasonably ecosystems but they may happen between distant represent biophysical characteristics that vary on ecosystems. Much of the pollution which affects the horizontal plane they are more cumbersome the arctic comes from Japan or the heartland of in illustrating the characteristics which change Russia. vertically. Because of this, map units have often Because map units are 'generalizations', they are been labeled as 'simple map units' or as not 100% pure. They may contain 'inclusions' of 'complex map units'. The Hudson's Bay other things. The rule of thumb is that 15 % of a Ecozone is considered to be a simple map unit as unit may be taken-up by biophysical features the characteristics of this flat lying unit are fairly which are not typical or average. The boreal uniform in horizontal or vertical dimensions. upland of the , for example, is

9 ( ( often considered as an inclusion in the Prairie mapped areas attempt to stress the predominant, ( Ecozone map unit. While inclusions are not the stable and the actual occurrences in that ( considered/shown on one scale, they are usually ecozone. Sometimes these are largely 'natural' recaptured on more detailed levels of mapping. factors but at other times they are related to C The boreal areas of the Cypress Hills typically human activities. These notions, along with the t emerge on the more detailed ecoregions and holistic focus, largely govern the criteria for ( ecodistricts maps. Inclusions are a minor delineating ecozones. ( limitation at one scale of mapping but not To match the ecozone level of generalization, necessarily at another. ( defining criteria from equivalently thematic ( Map unit numbers classifications are often used as a framework for analysis (see appendix 1). Macro-climatic ( Why did the ecozone classification result in regimes, major plant formations, major soil ( 20 map units? For the most part, they are the orders and first-order subcontinental landforms natural partitions within nature. The prairies are ( are examples of elements that would be used different from arctic, the major oceans are ( from thematic classifications. But instead of just different from the forested and arctic lands. using these elements in isolation, part of the ( Beyond these over-riding factors, the ease of emphasis is on trying to draw connections and ( understanding the character of ecosystems for relationships between them. The elemental purposes such as planning and reporting role may ( pieces interact as an assemblage to produce the playa role. What can conveniently be shown on ( basic character and pattern of the ecosystem unit. a map of a given scale before the details become Table 1 summarizes some of the biophysical ( overwhelming? What level of resolution is best characteristics of theecozones. Table 2 ( for planning? What is the most readily summarizes the environmental and socio­ acceptable way of displaying ecosystems to ( economic characteristics of the terrestrial convey an understanding? What can be used to ( ecozones. A more detailed outline of the basic best improve knowledge? All of these items are methodology, concepts and techniques is given ( weighed. in various publications (EWG,1996; Wiken, ( Defining Criteria For Ecozones 1996; ESWG, 1996; Wiken, 1986). ( Conceptually, terrestrial ecozones are Ecozone Descriptions ( "macro-order" ecosystems which possess The following sections highlight the biological, ( characteristics which tend to cohere and endure physical and socio-economic characteristics of ( in an area over the long term. While the number the ecozones. The fitst fifteen address the and kinds of shared characteristics must ( terrestrial ecozones (see figure 2) and the next obviously be general due to the large size of ( five (see figure 3) refer to the marine ecozones. ecozones, they identify ecosystems with similar The material has been adapted largely from ( kinds of properties. The descriptions of these existing studies as noted in the cited literature. ( ( ( ( C ( (

( ( C ( 10 ( Section 3

The Terrestrial Ecozones of Canada

Figure 2 Map of Canadian terrestrial ecozones

Legend Terrestrial mn Arctic Cordillera 8SI Boreal Plains EI Northern Arctic IlliTIJ Boreal Shield • Southern Arctic ~ Boreal CordDlera Ill3TI Taiga Plains a Pacific Maritime m Taiga Shield illlllfil Montane Cordillera o Taiga Cordillera IlliTIJ Prairies mIl Hudson Plains • Atlantic Maritime t::3l Mixedwood Plains

11 ( ( ( ( Arctic Cordillera Ecozone C f ( The Arctic Cordillera Ecozone features some of ( the world's most spectacular mountain glacial ( scenery. Some of Canada's highest but least­ of southeastern Ellesmere and eastern known peaks are found here, towering over ( Baffin Island belong to the older Churchill gaping V-shaped valleys and deep fjords that ( province, which is typified by Canadian Shield extend many kilometers inland. A vast mountain rock, a mix of granites, metamorphic gneisses, ( chain forms the spine of this ecozone. It runs and ancient sediments. Glacial ice engulfed ( along the northeastern fringe of the Northwest northern Canada near the beginning of the Territories and Labrador, dominating Labrador, ( Pleistocene epoch 2 million years ago. Since eastern Baffin, and Devon islands and most of ( then, huge glaciers, far exceeding the depth and Ellesmere and By lot islands. Because of the extent of present ones, have swept over this ( extreme cold, high winds, and lack of soil, the landscape at least four times. The main paths of ( higher portions of this ecozone are largely devoid the Pleistocene glaciers are marked by deep of plants and animals. Ice barrens and frost­ ( V-shaped valleys, which in coastal areas merge shattered rock prevail over much of the ( with steep-sided fjords that may rise over landscape. At lower elevations, pockets of tundra 1 000 meters above the sea. Past and present ( meadow dotted with arctic flowers and ground­ glaciers have created bowl-like cirque basins, ( hugging shrubs occupy sheltered valleys, pyramidal peaks called horns, knife-edged ridges streambanks and coastlines. During the brief ( or aretes, and other landforms. After being arctic summer, these sites are concentrations of ( depressed into the Earth's crust by the colossal life. weight of Pleistocene ice, the landscape is now ( In contrast to the biological impoverishment of rising, in places by as much as 30 cm per century. ( the land, the adjacent fjords and nearshore waters Raised beaches now well back from existing ( are richly endowed with marine life. Complex shorelines attest to this continuing process. ( current systems, localized upwellings of The climate is typically harsh, with long, nutrients, and "polynyas" (which remain ice-free ( extremely cold winters and short, cool summers, year round) create the Arctic's most productive ( although the brief summer growing season is aquatic ecosystems. enhanced by long periods of daylight. Only July ( Among the animals living here are globally and August have mean daily temperatures above ( significant populations of Polar Bear, Narwhal the freezing point. Eureka, Canada's coldest and ( Whale, and the endangered Bowhead Whale. most northerly weather station, has an average ( annual temperature of -19. 7°C and a February Landforms and climate mean monthly temperature of -38°C. A typical ( The ecozone contains one of Canada's two major year sees just 250 mm of precipitation, although ( mountain chains. The mountains of the Arctic it is much higher in Labrador. ( Cordillera span two geological "provinces," each Plants ( with its own distinctive rock type. The mountains of volcanic rock range in age from Ice and bald rock dominate 75% of the Arctic ( 1.2 billion to 65 million years old. The Cordillera. For plants and animals, this is one of ( ( ( ( 12 ( the most inhospitable places on earth. To the along moist sheltered streams and coastal areas. north, ice caps prevail; to the south, glaciers are Also favouring these habitats are the few species more common. Even lichens, which as a group of songbirds and shorebirds that come to the far are immensely adaptable, are largely absent from north to breed. Most common are Hoary Redpoll, the area. Summer lasts just a few weeks and Little Ringed Plover, and Snow Bunting. killing frosts are not unknown throughout the season. The average July temperature is only There bare few large terrestrial mammals other 5°C. Soils are virtually non-existent over much than muskox, arctic wolf and polar bear of the area due to ice cover and the slow rate of associated with this ecozone. For the most part, soil formation. Moreover, the area receives about Polar Bears stay close to the sea, where the same amount of precipitation as the Sahara biological productivity is many times higher than desert. What little moisture there is in the soil, or on land. In spring and early summer, Polar Bears in plants themselves, is liable to be sucked away take to the water and drifting ice floes in search by fierce arctic winds. of Ringed and Bearded Seals, their preferred prey. When the ice breaks up in August, Polar In spite of the generally severe conditions, Bears come ashore to feed on mussels, starfish, several hardy plant species flourish where birds' eggs, and carrion. Though Polar Bears are moisture, heat, and nutrients create favourable usually solitary, a beached Bowhead Whale microhabitats. Isolated pockets of biological carcass may attract a group of 40 or more bears. productivity can be found in sheltered streambanks and coastlines, south-facing slopes Besides Polar Bears, seals, and whales, the watered by late-melting snow, and fertilized region's unusually productive marine waters areas near animal dens and bird perching sites. support large concentrations of seabirds, which congregate by the thousands. The waters Arctic plants share several characteristics that surrounding Bylot Island and within Lancaster help them cope with the extreme conditions. Sound support huge breeding colonies of Most grow close to the ground to avoid the Northern Fulmars, Thick-billed Murres, and chilling and drying effects of summer winds and Black-legged Kittiwakes. to ensure protection beneath the snow in winter. 'Some species grow in dense mats or cushions, where temperatures can be with thick heat­ trapping and wind-stopping hairs. Wildlife Due mainly to sparse plant life, land mammals are rare in the Arctic Cordillera. Arctic Hare, Arctic Fox, Ermine, and the Collared Lemming are among the few species that live in the region. However, their densities and abundance are generally much lower than in Arctic habitats endowed with more plant cover. In most cases these animals thrive in pockets of higher plant productivity

13 ( ( Human activities Arctic communities feature a mixture of ( traditional and cash economies. Much of the Canada's Arctic Cordillera Ecozone is one of the ( .local ?opulation depends on subsistence hunting, world's most sparsely populated areas. The trappmg, and fishing. Residents are also involved ( communities of Broughton Island and Clyde in mining, oil and gas development, construction, River are home to only about 1 000 people t services, and government activities. Those Inuit (1991). The Inuit, who have occupied the region ( employed full-time as wage earners tum to for 1 000 years or more, form over 80% of the ( weekend and part-time hunting to supplement population. They consist of regional groups that their diet with preferred country foods. Some ( share a unique heritage and one language with tourism is linked with Bylot Island and ( several dialects. Auyuittuq national parks. ( ( Table 3 Statistical Profile: Arctic Cordillera Ecozone ( ( Area 250590 1{m2 (2.5% of Canada) Dominant Landcover Class % total area ( 1991 Population 1047 (0.004% of Canada's total) ArctidAlpine Tundra 4.3 Parks and reserves (strictly protected areas) =23.5% of ecozone Barren Lands 43.6 ( Endangered Wildlife Species =3 Perennial Snow or Ice 52.0 Threatened Species = 0 Total 99.9 ( ( Largest 1991 Major Employment % of Total Population Centres Population Sectors (1986) Labonr Force ( Pond Inlet, N.W.T. 974 Service 31.3 ( Clyde River, N.W.T. 565 Public Administration 28.6 Broughton Island, N.W.T. 461 Wholesale and retail trade 9.5 ( Fishing and hunting 3.8 Finance 3.4 ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( 14 ( Northern Arctic Ecozone

Covering 1.5 million square kilometers, or about one seventh of Canada, the Northern Arctic Ecozone extends over most of the non­ Brodeur Peninsula and Devon Island are among mountainous areas of the arctic islands and parts the most spectacular. They often show deep of northeastern Keewatin, western Baffin Island, V -shaped cuts along the edges of their and northern . It is among the largest arctic ecosystems in the world. Winters pass in escarpments where past or present streamflows near darkness with the polar night measured in have cut through their sedimentary layers. On weeks and months rather than hours. Snow may some islands, the plateau edges are sheer cliffs of fall any month of the year and usually remains on 100s of meters that create inaccessible coastlines. the ground from September to June. Extremely Some cliffs located beside productive marine low temperatures and an average precipitation of waters provide protected nesting habitat for about 200 mm per year characterize the climate. colonies of seabirds such as Thick-billed Murres When not covered in snow, much of the and Northern Fulmars. landscape is typified by barren plains covered in Permafrost lies beneath the entire ecozone. frost-patterned soils and the occasional rock Under a thin active soil layer, which freezes in outcrop. winter and thaws each summer, permafrost may Landforms and climate extend downwards for several hundred meters. The constant freezing and thawing creates Much of the Northern Arctic Ecozone consists of unstable soils that form cell-like shapes known 10w.rolling plains covered with soil and rock as "patterned ground." Summers are short and debris left by glaciers. In these areas, the cold, with mean daily temperatures above landscape may be covered by nothing more than freezing only in July and August Daily winter frost-patterned soils, broken limestone, and temperatures average less than -30°C in the sandstone for hundreds of square kilometers. The coldest area of this ecozone, the northern islands. area has numerous landscape features more Snow cover usually lasts from September to commonly associated with the badlands of the June, but it can snow during any month. Annual American southwest. ecozone precipitation is less than 250 mm except Many coastlines are characterized by wide flat in southeast Baffin and Labrador where it can plains that extend up to 10 kIn inland. Most of exceed 500 mm. While the northern islands have these coastal plains were once submerged. the least precipitation of the arctic ecozones, Following the retreat of the glaciation, they have moisture is plentiful - in lakes and rivers, in rebounded over the past few thousand years, muskegs and permafrost, in the snow cover, in leaving ancient beaches or strandlines far from the permanent ice, and in the Arctic Ocean. shore. Some shorelines are closely paralleled by Plants lines of "boulder barricades" pushed there by sea ice carried ashore by strong tides and storm Plant life in the Northern Arctic Ecozone is waves. generally sparse and stunted. Plant colonization is impossible for all but the hardiest of species, Broad plateaus (Le., an elevated plain)are due to the exceedingly dry climate, permafrost, common in the interior area. The plateaus on

15 ( frost-churned and calcareous soils, and gale force Wildlife ( winter winds. Not surprisingly, the number of The extreme cold, harsh soils, and limited plant ( plant species is very low - only about communities of the Northern Arctic Ecozone are 140 species compared with 3 000 in southern ( reflected in the relatively low diversity and Canada. Moss and lichen, however, seem to abundance of mammals. Of the approximately t thrive in this ecosystem. Over 600 species are 200 species of mammals found in Canada, fewer ( found in the Northern Arctic compared with than 20 occur in the ecozone. There are few ( about 500 in the more temperate latitudes. insect species and a total absence of reptiles and ( Although much of this zone is virtually devoid of amphibians. ( plants, relatively lush "oases" are found scattered Muskoxen are found across much of the across the landscape. These oases are confined ( portion of the area. They mainly to coastal lowlands, sheltered valleys, and ( roam the plains and plateaus in small herds or moist, nutrient-rich corridors along streams and individually during the summer, and in larger ( rivers. They often support thick hummocky family groups in the fall and winter. Peary ( carpets of sedges, mosses, and lichens and are Caribou, found only on the high arctic islands, vital to many species of wildlife. ( are smaller and more pale than the Barren­ ( Arctic plants have developed numerous ground Caribou which inhabit the mainland of adaptations to this harsh ecosystem. Nearly all the Northwest Territories, Baffin Island, Quebec, ( species are perennial because too little energy is and Labrador. Although they lack the spectacular C received for plants to gen:nmate, bloom, and mass migrations of many Barren-ground Caribou ( produce seeds during one brief summer. To avoid herds, most Peary Caribou make seasonal ( the chilling arctic winds, most plants are very movements of up to several hundred kilometers short. Woody species such as the Arctic Willow between arctic islands. Polar Bears also range ( assume a ground-hugging fOnTI. Others, such as widely as they journey along coastal areas or ( Moss Campion and Yellow: Oxytrope, grow in follow the sea ice in search of seals. ( dense cushions or mats that reduce heat loss The only small mammal hardy enough to survive ( caused by the wind. the harsh climate of this region is the Collared ( Lemming. It seeks protection from frigid ( temperatures under snow. To the Arctic Fox, Ermine, and birds such as the ( Gyrfalcon and Snowy Owl, the ( lemmings are a vital source of ( food. A reduction in lemming ( numbers, caused by severe weather or as yet unexplained ( population cycles, can have a ( ripple effect in many arctic ( food chains. ( In spring, thousands of migrant ( birds arrive to breed. Snow ( Geese, Brant, and Canada Geese nest in moist wetlands ( that line coastal areas and river ( valleys. Eider and Oldsquaw L Ducks nest beside small ponds ( ( ( 16 ( on grassy tundra. These areas also support large involved in mining, oil and gas development, numbers of shorebirds, including the Black­ construction, services, and government activities. bellied Plover, Ruddy Turnstone, and Red Those Inuit employed full-time as wage earners Phalarope. Hoary Redpolls, Homed Larks, and tum to weekend and part-time hunting to Snow Buntings need very little vegetation cover supplement their diet with preferred meats. for nesting and thus can survive in even the most The arctic ecozones, representing Canada's last sparse arctic landscape. natural resource frontier, are rich in mineral and Human activities hydrocarbon reserves. Beginning in 1989, the value of metallic mineral production dropped Canada's Northern Arctic Ecozone is among the because of weak global markets. Mines are least populated areas of the world. The total currently operating in the Northern Arctic population, scattered in 20 communities, is only Ecozone: the base metal Polaris mine on Little about 15 000 people (1991). Iqaluit is the largest Cornwallis Island, and the Nanisivik mine on centre, with a population numbering 3 552 in Baffin Island. Despite their locations, they are 1991. among the lowest-cost zinc producers in the The Inuit, who have occupied the area for a world. thousand years or more, form over 80% of the The arctic ecozones also have 59% of Canada's population. They consist of regional groups that estimated oil resources and 48% of potential gas share a unique heritage and one language with resources. Yet there has been no substantial several dialects. development since the 1980s. This is largely due Arctic communities feature a mixture of to external factors, such as low crude oil prices traditional and cash economies. Much of the and the global recession. Tourism is also local population depends on subsistence hunting, significant to the economy, generating trapping, and fishing. However, residents are also $11.8 million for arctic businesses in 1993.

Table 4 Statistical Profile: Northern Arctic Ecozone

Area = 1 510880 K:m2 (15.2 % of Canada) Dominant Landcover Class % total area 1991 Population = 16328 (0.06% ofCanada's total) ArctidAlpine Tundra 33.4 Parks and reserves (strictly protected areas) = 2.5% of ecozone Barren Lands 59.2 Endangered Wildlife Species = 4 Forest (Coniferous) 0.1 Threatened Species = 1 Forest (Mixedwood) <0.1 Forest (Transitional) 0.9 Perennial Snow or Ice 6.5 Total 100.0

Largest 1991 Major Employment % of Total Population Centres Population Sectors (1986) Labour Force Iqaluit, N.W.T. 3552 Service 28.2 Pangnirtung, N.W.T. 1135 Public Administration 23.5 Cambridge Bay, N.W.T. 1116 Wholesale and retail trade 12.2 Cape Dorset, N. W.T. 961 Mining 6.9 SpenceBay,N.W.T. 580 Construction 5.1

17 ( ( ( ( Southern Arctic Ecozone ( t ( When the first European visitors confronted ( Canada's Arctic, they called it the Barren-lands. ( This was largely a reflection of the treeless resulting undulating terrain is studded with nature of the landscape. For almost a million ( innumerable lakes and ponds. Some of these square kilometers, the Southern Arctic shows a ( water bodies formed in round shaped ''kettle'' pattern of sprawling shrublands, hills and plains, depressions created when ice blocks, abandoned ( wet sedge meadows, and cold, clear lakes. by the main ice sheet, became engulfed by ( The Northwest Territories portion of the glacial drift and then melted away. Other lakes ( Southern Arctic Ecozone is home to the world's occupy the depression between drumlins. ( biggest concentration of free-roaming large Occasionally emerging through this thick mantle mammals. These are Barren-ground Caribou, the ( of glacial moraine is the Canadian Shield, which so-called "Buffalo of the Tundra." They began ( consists mostly of granitic rock. Lakes in the their annual migration cycle through this area Shield country tend to conform to large fractures ( soon after the last ice age ended. Evidence of that and fault line patterns in the rock. They are ( age is still plainly visible in the glacial etchings typically deeper and clearer than low land lakes. and deposits found throughout the region. For ( The most recent passage of the glaciers can still thousands of years, abundant large mammals ( be read in these rocks, which often show scour lured hunters from both sides of the treeline. The lines in the bedrock carved by rock fragments ( Dene and Inuit used its rivers - the Thelon , embedded in the bottom of the advancing ice ( Back, and Coppermine to reach Caribou, sheet. Muskox, and Moose. They came most often in ( the fall to secure the large supplies of meat On its journey south, the glacier carved large ( necessary to carry them through the winter. chunks of rock from weak spots in the Canadian ( Though float-planes are now the main mode of Shield. Dropped a few meters or a few thousand ( access, the rivers are still used by people from all kilometers from their source, these rocks walks of life to enjoy the beauty and bounty of sometimes have little in common with the ( the frontier. surrounding bedrock, hence the name "glacial ( erratic." Landforms and climate ( Permafrost occurs continuously throughout the ( The last glaciers finally retreated from this area Southern Arctic Ecozone. Lying sometimes just a about 8 500 years ago. As the 3 km thick ice ( few centimeters below the surface, it acts as a sheet melted, it released a huge volume of soil ( dam that stops the downward flow of water. and rock debris, which is now strung across the Consequently, even though there is little ( landscape in the form of cigar shaped piles of precipitation here, the soils are often waterlogged bouldery moraine (i.e., drumlins), and etched by C or frozen. Repeated freezing and thawing of long eskers extending up to 100 km. Occurring ( these soils creates interesting features on the less frequently are outwash aprons of crudely ( surface, including cell-like polygons, bulging sorted sand and gravel, raised beach ridges along hummocks, and bare mud boils where the soil is ( the shores of phantom preglacial lakes, and so active that no plants can take root. Intense ( marine sediments from former sea bottoms. The ( C ( 18 ( frost heaving often splits apart the underlying bedrock and forces large angular "boulders" to the surface. Summers are short (about four months), cool, and moist, whereas winters are long and extremely cold. Total annual precipitation is usually less than 250 mm in the west and rarely more than 500 mm in the east. Plants This ecozone is bounded to the south by the treeline, a broad Subtle variations in the distribution, abundance ecological division between the taiga forest and and size of plants in the Southern Arctic Ecozone the treeless arctic tundra. The treeline is not reflect their sensitivity to small changes in really a clear line but rather an irregular micro-climate. The resulting variety of plants is transition zone. Within the zone, small scattered best appreciated in the autumn when the tundra clumps of stunted spruce trees grow on warmer, produces its rich display of reds, oranges, sheltered sites. They often appear in dense purples, and yellows. Berry picking is also atits cushions, or krummholz, less than a meter high best this time of year, when blueberries, that help protect them from the worst of winter cranberries, and bearberries are often found in winds. great abundance. Low precipitation and extremely low winter Wildlife temperatures are among the factors that discourage tree growth in this ecozone. The near Low biological productivity, a short growing continuous blowing of cold, dry winds and the season, and extremely cold, long winters impose presence of permafrost also restrict plant growth. severe demands on wildlife in the Southern Low shrubs such as Willow, Shrub Birch, and Arctic. As a result, the number of resident bird Labrador Tea are well adapted to these and mammal species drops sharply as one moves conditions. Where soil is sufficiently developed, beyond the trees onto the tundra. Food chains are these plants form vast shrub lands interspersed in relatively short and changes in the abundance of lower areas with wet sedge meadows and ponds. one species may profoundly affect another On the most exposed sites, low shrubs give way species. For instance, a cold, late spring to mats of lichens, mosses, and ground-hugging drastically reduces the nesting success of Canada shrubs such as Mountain Cranberry and Least Geese. This causes trouble for Arctic Fox, which Willow. depends heavily on egg predation at this time of year. Where hummocks, mud boils, patterned ground, and other permafrost-related features are present, Close to a million caribou migrate south each ribbons and circles of vegetation result in year, including the Bluenose, Bathurst, Beverly, response to different amounts of moisture or and Qaminirjuaq herds in the Northwest levels of soil disturbance. Territories, the Porcupine herd of the northern Yukon, and the Leaf River and George River

19 ( C herds of northern Quebec and Labrador. They popUlation in 1991 of 1 706. The Inuit, who have ( move from their summer calving grounds along occupied the region for a thousand years or more, the northern fringe of the ecozone to their winter form over 80% of the population. They include C range in the taiga forest. During migration, they regional groups sharing a common heritage and ( travel in large groups, often using the many one language with several dialects. e­ snake-like eskers as natural highways through Arctic communities feature a mixture of ( the tundra. traditional and cash economies. Much of the c Flocks of ducks, loons, geese, and swans migrate local population depends on subsistence hunting, ( through the ecozone. Like Caribou, Willow trapping, and fishing - activities valued for their Ptarmigan migrate only as far as the taiga forest contributions to independence, self-esteem, ( to find food and shelter during the winter tradition, and a healthy lifestyle. Residents are ( months. The brief summer sees the hatching of also involved in mining, oil and gas ( countless billions of insects. The broad silhouette development, construction, services, and ( of the Rough-legged Hawk is a familiar sight as government activities. Those Inuit employed it scans the mossy hummocks and shrub lands for full-time as wage earners tum to weekend and C voles and lemmings. part-time hunting to supplement their diet with ( preferred meats. ( A limited number of Grizzly Bears can be found in the Northwest Territories portion of the The arctic ecozones, representing Canada's last ( Southern Arctic Ecozone, as can Muskox and natural resource frontier, are rich in mineral and ( other prominent wildlife species. The Barren­ hydrocarbon resources. Since 1989, however, the ( ground Black Bear is common throughout value of total metallic mineral production has ( Northern Quebec. Moose are also present, fallen due to a weak global markets. The Lupin particularly along the treeline to the south. Polar gold mine is now the only mine operating in the ( Bears roam the coastal areas during the summer Southern Arctic Ecozone. ( and venture onto the growing pack ice as winter The arctic ecozones have 59% of Canada's ( sets in. estimated oil resources and 48% of potential gas ( Human activities resources, but there has been no substantial ( development since the 1980s. This is largely due Canada's Southern Arctic Ecozone is one of the ( to external factors, such as low crude oil prices most sparsely populated areas of the world. The and the global recession. Tourism is also ( total population, scattered in 17 communities, significant to the economy, generating ( numbers only about 10 000 people (1991). $11.8 million for arctic businesses in 1993. Rankin Inlet is the largest centre, with a ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( C

20 ( ( I.

Table 5 Statistical Profile: Southern Arctic Ecozone

Area = 832390 Km2 (8.3% of Canada) Dominant Landcover Class % total area 1991 Population = 10 314 (0.04% of Canada's total) Arctic/Alpine Tundra 58.3 Parks and reserves (strictly protected areas) 0% of ecozone Barren Lands 36.6 Endangered Wildlife Species = 3 Forest (Coniferous) 0.1 Threatened Species = 0 Forest (Deciduous) <0.1 Forest (Mixedwood) <0.1 Forest (Transitional) 5.0 Total 100.0

Largest 1991 Major Employment % of Total Population Centres Population Sectors (1986) Labour Force Rankin Inlet, N.W.T. 1706 Service 30.5 Arviat, N.W.T. 1323 Public Administration 25.4 Igloolik, N.W.T. 936 Wholesale and retail trade 12.0 Tuktoyaktuk, N.W.T. 918 Construction 6.3 Coral Harbour, N.W.T. 578 Transportation 4.5

21 (

Taiga Plains Ecozone C t

The Taiga Plains Ecozone is an area of low-lying plains centred on Canada's largest river, the ( Mackenzie, and its many tributaries. Taiga is a of broad lowlands and plateaus. The nearly level Russian word which refers to the northern edge ( to gently rolling plains are occasionally of the boreal coniferous forest. With an area of ( interrupted by some of the large river valleys, about 550 000 square kilometers, it is Canada's which can be hundreds of meters deep. ( sixth largest ecozone. Approximately 90% of the ( Taiga Plains is located in the western Northwest Underlying these landforms are horizontal beds Territories, with small extensions into of sedimentary rock consisting of various northeastern and northern combinations and ages of limestone, shale, ( . It is bounded to the east by Great Bear sandstone, and conglomerates. Many of the ( and Great Slave lakes, to the west by the rolling limestone deposits contain clearly visible fossils ( . foothills of the Mackenzie Mountains, to the of marine creatures that lived here hundreds of north by the Mackenzie Delta, and to the south millions of years ago. Trapped in isolated ( by the spruce forest of the Boreal Plains. pockets and cracks within the sedimentary layers ( are rich natural reservoirs of oil and gas, created The northern reaches of the ecozone feature a ( from the carbon residues of early life forms. rich diversity of plants, birds, and mammals from ( both the Subarctic and the Arctic. The southern Several waves of glaciers over the region have ( portion is home to the world's largest Wood left behind deposits of sand, gravel, and ( Bison herd, contains the only known nesting site boulders. These glacial moraine areas of the endangered Whooping Crane, and predominate and occur in various forms and ( encompasses the sprawling Peace-Athabasca thicknesses, such as the elongated ridges called ( Delta, a wetland habitat of global significance. drumlins and undulating and low-relief hills. ( Alluvial deposits are common along major rivers Settlement of the Taiga Plains began around ( and the braided networks of abandoned stream 11 000 years ago, near the end of the last ice age. beds. Large wetlands and muskeg dominate the ( At this time the Paleo-Indian people began lowest areas. The organic soils found in the ( moving through an ice-free corridor that eskers of this ecozone are generally shallow, stretched down the Mackenzie Valley to the ( highly acidic, and nutrient-poor. The mineral Peace-Athabaska area of western Alberta. Over ( soils are also poorly developed and often frozen. the past 300 years, the area has played a major ( role in the northern fur trade, development of The Taiga Plains Ecozone contains most of the ( frontier oil and gas resources, and provision of a Northwest Territories' two "Great Lakes", Great major water transportation route through Slave and Great Bear, which were carved by ( northwestern Canada. glaciers along the western margin of the ( Canadian Shield. Numerous smaller lakes dot the Landforms and climate ( broad floodplains of the ecozone, which is ( A northern extension of the flat crisscrossed with patterns of former meandering that dominate the Prairie provinces, the Taiga channels and crescent-shaped oxbow lakes. ( Plains feature typically subdued relief consisting Other signs of the dynamic power of large rivers (

( ( 22 include steep, fast-eroding riverbanks and ice­ such as Labrador Tea and Leatherleaf, plus a scoured shores. wide array of berry-producing species, including Cranberries, Currants, and Blueberries. Lichens The ecozone experiences considerable variation and mosses dominate the ground cover, often in daylight over the course of a year. Areas north forming a thick continuous carpet. Wetlands of the Arctic Circle endure at least one day in feature various sedges and mosses. which the sun never rises and at least one in which it never sets. Forest fires that destroy several thousand hectares of trees are not uncommon in this The is characterized by short, ecozone. On average, 1% of the Northwest cool summers and long, cold winters. The mean Territories' forests bum every year. Many taiga annual temperature ranges from -1 DoC in the plant species benefit from the regular cycle of Mackenzie Delta region to -1 DC in Alberta and fires, which can purge old, stagnant forests of British Columbia. From north to south the mean insects and disease. The distinctive mosaic of summer temperature ranges from 6.SoC to 14 DC. forest types created by fires usually results in a The mean winter temperature ranges from -26DC boost to the overall productivity and diversity of in the north to -lSoCin the south of the ecozone. habitats available to wildlife. Precipitation is low to moderate, averaging 2S0 to SOD mm a year across much of the Wildlife ecozone. Snow and freshwater ice-cover persist The islands and flood-enriched shores of the for six to eight months annually. Mackenzie, Liard, and Slave rivers are favourite Plants habitats for many wildlife species, including Moose. In summer, Moose feed mostly on Permafrost, where present, detracts from the aquatic vegetation in shallow waters. In winter, soil's productivity by chilling it and creating they browse heavily on shoreline willows, waterlogged conditions in the thawed "active leaving behind abundant signs in the snow in the layer" near the surface. Taiga Plains plant form of tracks, trails, droppings, and shed communities are relatively simple, dominated by antlers. a 'few species well-adapted to poor soil conditions and the harsh subarctic climate. Barren-ground Caribou from the Porcupine Herd overwinter in the northwest comer of this Tree species of the northern taiga forest include ecozone, while scattered groups of Woodland Black Spruce, White Spruce, Jack Pine, Caribou are found throughout the area during all Tamarack, Paper Birch, Trembling Aspen, and Balsam Poplar. Though less frequent, White Spruce and Balsam Poplar may grow to an impressive height and girth on the nutrient-enriched alluvial flats bordering rivers, rivaling the largest of trees found elsewhere in Canada. Willow and alder shrubs also flourish in this habitat. Low shrubs are abundant throughout this ecozone and include many species of heather,

23 seasons. Other common mammal species include Dolly Varden, Burbot, Walleye, and Northern ( Wolf, , , Lynx, Black Pike are among the many fish species able to ( Bear, Marten, Mink, Ermine, Wolverine, River thrive in the Taiga Plain's cold, nutrient-poor Otter, Porcupine, , Red Squirrel, Beaver, lakes and rivers. C and Northern Red-backed Vole. Two thirds of the Human activities F­ 3 000 Wood Bison in Canada range freely in the e Mackenzie Bison Sanctuary along the eastern The sparse human population of 22 000 is 60% ( shore of Great Slave Lake. aboriginal. Water access dictated the location of most communities in the Taiga Plains Ecozone. c Common bird species that breed here during the As a result, many are found in ecologically rich ( brief spring and summer include the Red­ valleys and estuaries. Even the largest towns, throated Loon (in the northernmost part), 'Ring­ such as Fort Nelson in British Columbia necked Duck, Greater Scaup, Canvasback, ( (3804 residents) and Inuvik in the Northwest Sharp-tailed Grouse, Hawk Owl, Northern Territories (3 178), are immediately adjacent to ( Shrike, and Fox Sparrow. During this time of vast tracts of pristine land. The few all-weather ( year, fish-eating raptors such as the , roads reach every community with a population Peregrine Falcon, and Osprey are familiar sights ( over 1 000 persons, such as Hay River, Fort as they soar above the shorelines. Hundreds of ( Smith, and Fort Simpson, all in the Northwest thousands of Ducks, Geese, and Swans use the Territories. ( region's many lakes, rivers, and wetlands as staging or nesting areas. The Mackenzie Valley Relatively few areas in the Taiga Plains are C forms one of North America's better-traveled dominated by human activity. Much of the local ( migratory corridors for waterfowl breeding along economy is based on subsistence hunting, ( the arctic coast. trapping, and fishing. However, the economy ( does include a small number of industrial Year-round bird species adapted to long, cold ( activities such as mining, extraction, winters include the Common Raven, Sharp-tailed and, in recent years, forestry. ( Grouse, Gray Jay, Common Redpoll, and Willow ( Ptarmigan. High insect populations make the Fossil fuel reserves in the Mackenzie Valley are ecozone a welcome breeding habitat for insect­ currently being exploited at the Pointed ( eating forest birds and other insect eaters. Mountain and Kotaneelee gas fields, located on ( the Liard Plateau, and at the Norman Wells oil Lake Trout, Lake and Mountain Whitefish, ( field, which is Canada's fourth-largest producer. Arctic Cisco, Longnose Sucker, Arctic Grayling, ( ( Table 6 Statistical Profile: Taiga Plains Ecozone (

Area = 647 000 Km2 (6.5% of Canada) Dominant Landcover Class % total area ( 1991 Population = 21429 (0.1 % of Canada's total) Arctic/Alpine Tundra 3.0 ( Parks and reserves (strictly protected areas) = 0.8% of ecozone Barren Lands 0.7 Endangered Wildlife Species = 2 Forest (Coniferous) 34.5 ( Threatened Species = 2 Forest (Deciduous) 3.6 Forest (Mixed wood) 29.9 ( Forest (Transitional) 28.3 Total 100.0 ( ( Largest 1991 Major Employment % of Total Population Centres Population Sectors (1986) Labour Force ( Fort Nelson, B.C. 3804 Service 27.1 C Inuvik,NWT 3178 Public Administration 18.3 Hay River, NWT 2669 Transportation 10.7 ( Fort Smith, NWT 2480 Mining 10.3 Fort Simpson, NWT 1142 Wholesale and retail trade 10.3 ( ( ( 24 Taiga Shield Ecozone

The Taiga Shield Ecozone stretches across part of Canada's subarctic north. This is the Athapaskan "land of little sticks" that stretches Province north of Great Slave Lake. They were from Labrador to Alaska and from Siberia to formed near the dawn of the Earth's geological Scandinavia. In northern Canada, much of this history 4 billion years ago. forest rests on the Canadian Shield, the bedrock heart of the continent. With an area of over During the Precambrian Era, Shield rocks were 1.3 million square kilometers, the Taiga Shield is warped, folded, and faulted by violent spasms in one of Canada's largest ecozones. One-third of it the Earth's crust. Since their birth, relentless lies in the Northwest Territories. weathering and erosion from countless rainstorms, rivers, floods, and the annual The unique natural history of this area includes freezing and thawing cycle have worn down the bald Precambrian bedrock that dates back to the rocks. In places, the Shield was repeatedly planet's earliest days. Dotting the ancient plucked and scoured by the advance of glaciers, landscape are millions of lakes and wetlands that leaving areas now frequently infilled as lakes. were carved by successive waves of glacial Elsewhere it was blanketed by boulders, gravel, erosion or which conform to natural depression and sand released by glaciers in retreat. in the bedrock. The Taiga Shield is an ecological crossroads where climates, soils, plants, birds, This story of geological creation and change is and mammals from two worlds - the Boreal plainly recorded in exposed bedrock and surface and the Arctic meet. deposits of the Taiga Shield. Volcanic rocks testify to the earliest eruptions of lava that In the Northwest Territories, settlement of the created the Earth's crust as we know it. Some of ecozone began over 7 000 years ago as the Paleo­ these eruptions occurred under extreme water Indians followed Barren-ground Caribou pressure at the bottom of ancient seas, creating northwards in the wake of receding glaciers. globular "pillows" of lava. Vast areas of granite, More recently, this area has played a major part once buried deep beneath the rock surface, reveal in the story of Canada's development due to its the power of billions of years of erosion. And the pivotal role in the northern fur trade, its passage of glaciers can be read by recognizing concentration of rich mineral resources, and its the striations and grooves etched in the rocks. position as a cultural and political focal point for Soils are usually shallow and coarse and today's Aboriginal peoples, the Dene and the sometimes laced with patterns caused by the Inuit. presence of permafrost. Landforms and climate The Taiga Shield Ecozone experiences The Canadian Shield's massive rolling hills of considerable variation in daylight over the course ancient bedrock cover almost two-thirds of of a year. Areas north of the Arctic Circle endure Canada. As monolithic as the Shield may seem, at least one day in which the sun never rises and it is actually made up of seven distinct geological at least one in which it never sets. "provinces." The world's oldest rocks are found The subarctic climate is characterized by short, on the Taiga Shield in the Slave Geological cool summers and long, cold winters.

25 ( ( , Precipitation is low to moderate, averaging Permafrost is another major influence, especially I. 250 to 500 mm a year across much of the in low areas where the soggy ground or active ( ecozone. On the Labrador coast, it ranges up to layer above the permafrost regularly freezes and 1 000 mm annually. Snow and freshwater ice­ thaws. As trees grow in these ever-shifting soils, ( cover persist for six to eight months. Dams and they often tip in random directions. t diversions have changed seasonal patterns of Wildlife ( flow on several rivers in the eastern Taiga Shield. ( One of the most spectacular wildlife displays in Plants the Taiga Shield is the return of ducks, loons, ( Cool temperatures, a short growing season, geese, and swans during the spring migration. C frequent forest fires, and thin, acidic soils The area's abundant water attracts hundreds of ( covering permafrost are among the many thousands of birds, which come to nest or simply ( challenges faced by plants in this ecozone. The feed and rest before journeying farther north to open, stunted forests of the Taiga Shield are arctic breeding grounds. ( dominated by a few highly adaptable tree species ( As an ecological crossroads between two very such as Black Spruce and Jack Pine. These different ecosystems the boreal and the arctic ( forests are mixed with innumerable bogs and - the ecozone offers a relatively wide variety of ( other wetlands, scattered stands of Paper Birch habitats for birds. Lakes, wetlands, and forests and Trembling Aspen, and bare rock outcrops are interwoven with open shrublands and sedge dominated by lichens and ground-hugging meadows more typical of the tundra. At the shrubs. southern limit of their summer range are such ( Forest fires add to the distinctiveness of the species as the Arctic Tern, while a host of other ( Taiga Shield by creating conditions favorable for water birds, including the Common Tern and ( plant communities that vary widely in species White-throated Sparrow, reach their northern -( composition and age. Although fire often limit on the Taiga Shield. destroys large areas of forest and occasionally ( Among the mammals of the ecozone are Barren­ threatens human activities or property, it also has ( ground Caribou, which migrate south from the a renewing effect on the landscape by triggering tundra to their winter range in the taiga forest. ( new growth, purging forests of insect pests and Close to a million Caribou from the Bathurst, ( disease, and increasing the variety of habitats Beverly, and Qarninitjuaq herds in the Northwest available to wildlife. ( Territories, and the Leaf River ( and George River herds of northern Quebec and Labrador, ( make this journey each fall and ( return to calve on the tundra ( each spring. ( Mice, Voles, Shrews, Weasels, ( Canids, and other carnivores, ( plus all the tundra dwellers such as the Grizzly Bear and ( Arctic Fox, make regular visits ( to the trees of the Taiga Shield. ( In all, there are about ( 50 species of mammals inhabiting the ecozone. The ( ( ( ( 26 ecozone's waters, meanwhile, are home to Lake (11 390 persons), are surrounded by wilderness. Trout, Lake Whitefish, Arctic Grayling, Burbot, There are few all-weather roads, but they reach and Northern Pike. every community with at least 1 000 persons. In the Quebec portion of the ecozone, several Human activities thousand kilometers of roads for logging, The human population of about 340 000 persons mining, and other uses have been built in recent is 60% aboriginal, divided into Algonquian­ decades. speakers in most of the ecozone and Athapaskan­ The economy combines a small number of speakers in the western portion. The population industrial activities. Two of Canada's three is concentrated in a few permanent settlements, largest hydro developments are found in the the location of which largely reflects the history ecozone. The economic importance of mining to of recent colonization. the economy of the Taiga Shield is significant. Coastal settlements were established in the In 1991 diamonds were discovered in the Slave eastern Taiga Shield during the fur trade and Geological Province in the Northwest Territories. whaling eras. The location of more recent Uranium mining is conducted in northern communities, including Yellowknife in the Saskatchewan, gold is extracted near Northwest Territories, Uranium City in Yellowknife, and iron is mined in Quebec and Saskatchewan, and Churchill Falls and Labrador Labrador. In 1995, vast deposits of nickel, copper City in Labrador, reflects the location of ore and other metals were discovered at Voisey's bodies or hydro-electric potential. Even the Bay, near Nain in Labrador. Despite largest towns, such as Yellowknife urbanization, subsistence hunting, trapping, and (15 179 persons) and Labrador City fishing are still practised widely.

Table 7 Statistical Profile: Taiga Shield Ecozone

Area =1366400 Km2 (13.7% of Canada) Dominant Landcover Class % total area 1991 Population = 33589 (0.12% of Canada's total) ArctidAlpine Tundra 24.4 Parks and reserves (strictly protected areas) = 0% of ecozone Barren Lands 1.1 Endangered Wildlife Species 3 Forest (Coniferous) 13.9 Threatened Species = 3 Forest (Deciduous) <0.1 Forest (Mixedwood) 1.2 Forest (Transitional) 59.4 Total 100.0

Largest 1991 Major Employment % of Total Population Centres Population Sectors (1986) Labour Force Yellowknife, NWT 11860 Service 26.7 Labrador City, Labrador. 11390 Public Administration 19.9 Goose Bay, Labrador. 8610 Mining 17.5 Uranium City, Sask. 1411 Wholesale and retail trade 10.3 Churchill Falls, Labrador. 1370 Transportation 5.5

27 ( (

( Taiga Cordillera Ecozone ( t ( The Taiga Cordillera Ecozone is well known for its mountain peaks, rivers slicing between sheer ( rock walls, broad uplands dominated by alpine Landforms and climate and arctic shrubs and flowers, plus vast wetlands ( and spruce-lined valleys that support many kinds Much of the Tundra Cordillera Ecozone is C of wildlife. This land hosts some of Canada's characterized by steep, mountainous terrain ( largest waterfalls, deepest canyons, and wildest consisting of a series of sharply etched ridges ( rivers. and narrow valleys. Other features include rolling foothills, upland plateaus, and low-lying ( Straddling the Yukon-Northwest Territories basins. ( border, this ecozone contains the northernmost arc of the Rocky Mountain chain. To the The geological history of this region began about ( northwest are expansive wetlands and rolling half a billion years ago. At that time, much of the ( hills that stretch to the Beaufort coast. Treeless area was a shallow marine platform off the west ( arctic tundra dominates its northern reaches and coast of the ancient protocontinent that later gave { gives way to a mix of alpine tundra and lowland rise to North America. Rivers flowing off the forests farther south. "Cordillera" refers to the protocontinent deposited sand, mud, and gravel ( series of mountain ranges and valleys that form on this platform, creating the sandstones, ( this ecozone's rugged interior. Here the mark of mudstones, and shales that today make up much ( forces that create and destroy mountains can be of the area's abundant sedimentary rocks. ( clearly seen in the record of the rocks. Limestone and dolomite, formed from the skeletal debris of marine organisms, are also The diverse habitats, from valley bottoms to common. mountain tops, support a wide range of mammals, including two kinds of caribou and The original sedimentary rocks started to ( bears. The birds that nest here include a mixture undergo significant folding and uplifting about (' of species typical of the Arctic and Subarctic, as 200 million years ago. This occurred as the ( well as eastern and western Canada. platform on which they were laid down slowly ( drifted west, colliding with and overriding other The earliest human inhabitants of this area crustal plates in its path. New chains of ( migrated across the Bering land bridge during the mountains sprang up in response to these ( decline of the last ice age about 12000 years collisions. The most active period of mountain ago. An ice-free corridor paralleling the C building occurred about 100 million years ago, Mackenzie Mountains allowed early colonization ( when local stresses beneath the Earth's crust by the Athapaskan ancestors oftoday's Slavey, forced red-hot molten rock toward the surface to C Mountain Dene, and Gwich'in peoples. produce the igneous rocks visible today. ( Industrial developments related to this area's rich oil, gas, and mineral reserves are few, and the Since then, these rocks have undergone slow but ( northwestern rim of the country remains a vast sure destruction by a variety of erosive forces: ( wilderness area. glacial ice sheets that engulfed much of the ( region several times over the last few million ( years; streams and rivers carved down through C ( ( 28 the high plateaus and mountains; and the simple very large flowers relative to the rest of the plant. action of gravity, which caused mountains to Their function is to attract insect pollinators gradually collapse. Some of the most unusual during the short growing season. landscapes are, however, now near the Beaufort Further downslope is the subalpine transition Sea. These areas escaped glacial scour. zone, which is dominated by scattered Alpine Fir The cyclic freezing and thawing action of trees and a dense understory of Willow and permafrost-rich soils enhances these processes of Shrub Birch. White and Black Spruce replace fIrs disintegration. The resulting polygon and stripe­ in the lower parts of this zone. Below the like patterns often seen in alpine areas attest to subalpine zone on the lower flanks of the the dynamic state of this ecosystem. mountains is the montane zone, characterized by spruce-lichen woodlands and flat benches of The climate is extremely cold and humid, with Lodgepole Pine. Isolated stands of deciduous long, dark winters and short, cool summers. trees such as Trembling Aspen and Paper Birch Precipitation is low to moderate, averaging from are found here, growing in the aftermath of forest 250 to 300 mm a year across much of the fires. ecozone. Snow and freshwater ice-cover persist for six to eight months annually. In the lowland zone, sheltered conditions, abundant moisture and relatively well-developed Plants soils promote the growth of dense spruce­ The types of plants in this ecozone and the feathermoss forests and riverside communities of lushness of their growth are strongly influenced Balsam Poplar, Willow, and Alder. Marshes and by their position on mountain slopes, which other productive wetlands are also common in determines the amount of available soil moisture this zone, particularly along flat river Valleys. and sunlight. Western slopes often have more Wetlands reach their greatest extent in the Old luxuriant plant cover than eastern ones, since Crow Flats, a vast plain of wetlands and lakes. clouds deposit most of their moisture on western Many of the lakes take on a natural square like slopes before continuing east. Similarly, northern form. and southern mountain slopes show pronounced Wildlife differences in plant growth because of differences in the amount of sunlight they Because of its diversity of habitats, from dense receive. South-facing slopes tend to be warmer spruce forests to arctic tundra, from alpine and drier, conditions that favour soil nutrient release and plant growth common in more temperate climates. Plants on north-facing slopes typically include species better adapted to cold climates. Four main vegetation zones are found in this ecozone. Extensive areas of alpine tundra occur on the upland plateaus and highest mountain slopes. Here, scattered among lichens, sedges, and mosses are species that typically possess

29 ( mountain peaks to marshy flats, the Taiga annual migration of the Porcupine Barren-ground ( Cordillera Ecozone includes a wide array of Caribou, a herd of more than 150000 animals ( wildlife species representative of both arctic and that winters in the northwestern woodlands. temperate climates. f Evidence of this ecozone's wild and unspoiled Mammals most common in alpine terrain include character is Canada's largest concentration of t the American Pika, Hoary Marmot, Grizzly Bear, Wolverines, a species that has been called a true ( and Dall's Sheep. Mountain Goats, which are not wilderness creature. Like other members of the C really goats at all but members of the antelope weasel family, this solitary nomad is curious, family, are found on mountains in southern bold, and strong. It will fiercely defend its food regions. During the spring and summer, alpine against the attack of animals many times its size. habitats are populated with several tundra­ Renowned for evading traps and robbing the ( adapted birds, such as the White-tailed most carefully protected caches of food, the ( Ptarmigan, Horned Lark, and Water Pipit. Wolverine plays a leading role in the camp-fire ( tales of this region. Woodland Caribou, Lynx, Marten, and Black C Bear are common mammals of the lower forested Human activities ( habitats. Common birds in this zone include the The Taiga Cordillera is a sparsely populated ( White-winged Crossbill, Varied Thrush, and ecozone and home to the Vuntut Gwich'in Gray Jay. River and wetland habitats support ( people. The total population consists of several waterfowl species, including 300 people, 256 of whom reside in the settlement r Canvasback, Common Golden-eye, Mallard, and of Old Crow, the Yukon's most northerly ( the rare Trumpeter Swan. community. Much of the area remains essentially ( The Yukon's Old Crow Flats represent only a untouched wilderness. Subsistence hunting, ( small part of this ecozone, yet it is a large and trapping, and fishing dominate much of the local ( notable wetland that has received international economy. The Northern Yukon Park and the recognition. Swans, Canada Geese, and other area's spectacular scenery makes this ecozone ( species' nest or stage here each year in the tens of attractive to tourists from around the world. ( thousands. Another wildlife spectacle is the (

Table 8 Statistical Profile: Taiga Cordillera Ecozone C (

Area=264840Kml (2.7% of Canada) Dominant Landcover Class % total area ( 1991 Population 309 (0.001 % of Canada's total) Arctic!Alpine Tundra 28.8 ( Parks and reserves (strictly protected areas) = 5.3% of ecozone Barren Lands 27.3 Endangered Wildlife Species = 1 Forest (Coniferous) .34.0 ( Threatened Species = 0 Forest (Deciduous) 0.3 Forest (Mixedwood) 1.6 ( Forest (Transitional) 7.3 Perennial Snow or Ice 0.0 C Total 99.4 (

Largest 1991 Major Employment % of Total ( Population Centres Population Sectors (1986) Labour Force C Old Crow 256 Mining 36.3 Service 21.1 { Public Administration 15.2 \ Transportation 8.0 ( Wholesale and retail trade 3.8 ( ( ( ( ( 30 Hudson Plains Ecozone

Canada has approximately 25% of the world's wetlands. The Hudson Plain alone embraces the bulk of this figure. Some say it is the largest make fog common on the coast. The short cool coextensive wetland on the planet. summers provide a brief window for the For the early explorers and fur traders, the thousands of migratory birds that make their Hudson Plain Ecozone acted as a gateway to the home on the plains. interior of central Canada. The area has been The wetlands and fog brought early notoriety to associated with the early wars between England this area. For the people in the coastal and France and with the harshness of pioneering fortifications established by the Hudson's Bay days. Its sense of prominence is largely tied to Company, the long bitter winters were historical events. Today, it gains much of its considered generally insufferable. Summers recognition from the profile of Polar Bear brought little relief. They summarized the warm Provincial Park. season by calling the place an insect-infested Most of the ecozone lies in northern Ontario but landscape of bog and fog. it reaches into and, to a lesser extent, Landforms and climate Quebec. It occupies about a quarter of Ontario and 4% of Canada, covering 369 000 square Few areas in Canada are comprised of extensive kilometers of land and 11 800 square kilometers plains. Only parts of the central prairies and of water. About 10 000 people live there, Northwest Territories are comparable. Churchill representing just 0.04% of Canada's population. in northern Manitoba represents the approximate The density is 2.7 people per 100 square western edge of the Hudson Plain and it extends kilometers, whereas the Boreal Shield to the about 1 300 kilometers east to just beyond Fort south has 155 per 100 square kilometers. Only Rupert in Quebec. To the north, the plains the Taiga Cordillera and the Arctic Cordillera shoulder the waters of Hudson Bay and James ecozones have fewer people. Fewer than 10% Bay. From this coastline, the plain arcs south for reside in urban areas. 200 to 300 kilometers to Gillam, Mba., and close to Kapuskasing,Ont. Rising slowly from sea Overall, the Hudson Plain is poorly drained, flat level, this flat low land reaches an average and dominated by extensive wetlands. The elevation of just 120 meters. greenery of the plains is marked by a series of arcing and evenly-spaced white lines. These belts The mineral soils that cover much of the area are of raised beaches show the steady progress of finely-textured silt and clay deposited by both rebounding from the weight of the ice sheet that marine and glacial processes. Outcrops of the covered the area thousands of years ago. They underlying sandstone and shale are rare. During present striking patterns of successive ridges the last ice age, the weight of the glaciers alternating with bogs and depressed the Hudson Bay region and the ocean waters later flooded areas up to 300 kilometers swamps. A cold and long subarctic winter inland from the current coastline. During the prevails for much of the year. Rising retreat of the massive continental ice sheets, temperatures and melting ice in the summer drainage into Hudson Bay was blocked and

31 c

expansive lakes - Agassiz and Ojibway - were stretches of trapped water, and spring floods can ( formed along the margins of the retreating ice. push water levels 10 to 15 meters higher than ( Seven thousand years later, the area is still rising. usual. This has led to the development of the striking C The narrow river Valleys often provide the only stripe-like features marking a succession of areas of marked relief from the plains. These t beach ridges. The lines, often composed of sandy major rivers are fed by streams with gentle ( material, radiate like ripples from the present-day gradients and sluggish flows. Small, shallow coast, marking different stages of the rebound. ponds and lakes are numerous and dot the Since glaciation, the flat terrain, impervious soil landscape in a leopard-like pattern. Ocean tides ( and poor drainage have promoted the are weak and the currents flow counterclockwise development of wetlands throughout the plains. around the bay. ( Web-like or polygon patterns in organic soils are ( Hudson Bay moderates the temperature of the typical of northern wetlands. The widespread lowlands during summer but the effect ( permafrost and ground ice also contribute to poor diminishes in winter when the bay is ice-covered. ( surface drainage and the slow rate of decay. Cold, dry arctic air typically lingers over the area ( Frozen organic soils predominate, while partly ~ throughout winter. With little marked relief, the decayed organic soils are more common in ( temperature and precipitation correlate closely southern parts and moderately weathered mineral with latitude. ( soils are restricted to the warmer and drier locations, such as the beach ridges. Rivers and Temperatures throughout the year tend to be streams generally flow north-easterly to the coast colder near the coast and warmer inland. ( and most have headwaters in the Boreal Shield Summers are cool and brief. The average mean t ecozone to the south. daily temperature in July ranges from 12°C to ( 16°C and in January it hovers around -25°C to Major rivers include the Nelson and Hayes in 23°C. Frost free periods are shortest (about Manitoba, the Severn, Winisk, Albany and 70 days) on the coast and longest (80 days) along c Abittibi in Ontario, and the Eastmain and La the southern margin. The average growing ( Grande in Quebec. These rivers follow fairly season ranges from 500 to 1 000 growing degree long and straight routes. Flow varies dramatically ( days above 5°C. Average annual precipitation is over the course of the year and is virtually non­ ( approximately 500 mm to 700 mm per year, and existent between September and January. In late is lowest in the north. Rainfall peaks in the ( summer, the channels may contain pools and month of July at about ( 100 mm. Of this precipitation, ( snow accounts for very little; ( snowfall may be in the 2 000 mm range, half that of ( the Great Lakes area. The ( mean maximum depth of snow ( averages less than 1 000 mm. The spring break-up on major l rivers tends to occur in late ( April or early May and ice ( jams can raise river levels by ( 7 to 10 meters. C t ( (

( 32 \~ ( Plants Mexico. Other migratory bird species returning to these lowlands include Canada Goose, Black Plant species in the Hudson Plain follow Duck, Oldsquaw, King Eider, Pintail and latitudinal and soil drainage patterns. Where the Whistling Swan. While fewer in number, upland boreal forests and the tundra merge in the bird species such as Willow Ptarmigan, Spruce lowlands, vegetation resembles that of the arctic Grouse, Snow Owl, and Raven can also be found tundra and to a larger degree the taiga and are among the few year-round residents. transitional forests. Trees here are few and far Osprey, Gyrfalcon, Duck Hawk and Peregrine between. Falcon are birds of prey reported in the area. The treeless areas extend about 30 kilometers Small mammals include Muskrat, Ermine, south from the coast but stands of trees can Weasel, Marten and Wolverine. Large mammals penetrate further north where sites are sheltered have traditionally been more abundant in the or better drainage and deeper soil are available. interior Shield country to the south, but Arctic tundra can be divided into low and high Woodland Caribou, Moose, Black Bear and types. This area is largely representative of the Timber Wolves are not unknown. Other species low arctic. Wet areas are dominated by tussocks include the Canada Lynx, Snowshoe Hare, and of sedge, Cottongrass and Sphagnum Moss. Striped Skunk. Closer to the coast are such Dwarf Birch and Willow shrubs are also species as Polar Bear, which ventures onto the common. On drier sites, shrubby and the low­ sea ice in winter, and Arctic Fox. Marine lying Lapland Rosebay, Crowberry, Blueberry mammals include Walrus, Bearded, Ringed and and Cloudberry take hold. Herbs such as Arctic Harbour seals, along with Beluga Whale and the Aven, Purple and Prickly Saxifrage, and rare Bowhead whales. Lou sew art are also found. Famous in many arctic areas are the clouds of South of the tundra is a transition zone known as insects. In summer the abundant and poorly the taiga. In the lowlands, it can be fairly narrow drained wetlands provide the ideal breeding or up to tens of kilometers wide. Open stands of ground for massive numbers of mosquitoes and White Spruce dominate drier areas, while low other biting insects. An area of one hectare can stands of Willow, Black Spruce and Tamarack produce more than 10 million mosquitoes. Black are common on wetter and more exposed sites. Fly and N o-see-um are other pests to humans and wildlife. The low taiga areas are similar to the high boreal forests. The basic components are boreal in The common fish found in inland streams and nature but growth and productivity are low and lakes are Brook Trout, Northern Pike and forest stands tend to be more open. White Walleye. Some, including the Brook Trout, are Spruce, Black Spruce, Larch, Balsam and Poplar migratory, wintering in the interior lakes and are the most common trees and Willow and summering in the river mouths and estuaries of Dwarf Birch are typical shrubs. White spruce in Hudson Bay. association with Moss, Caribou Lichen Human activities and Crowberry cover the better-drained and elevated areas. Human activities have strong historical roots in the Hudson Plain. The ill-fated expedition of Wildlife Henry Hudson, who was set adrift by his Summer on the Hudson Plain sees the greatest mutinous crew in 1611, left the legacy for most numbers and variety of wildlife. It is associated of the names on today's maps. Later, interest in with the nesting and rearing stages of millions of fur drew other English and French explorers to Snow Geese, which migrate to Canadian this area. In the late 1600s, the Hudson's Bay wetlands from areas as far south as the Gulf of Company erected a series of forts along the bay

33 ( ( at the Albany, Rupert, Moose and Hayes rivers Bay Company eventually strained the native ( and, later in the early 1700s, on the Churchill economy, affecting subsistence and commercial River. These posts were the early gateways to the activities. riches of central Ontario, Manitoba, ( Today, the settlements of Churchill and Saskatchewan and the Northwest Territories. Moosonee are perhaps the most recognized in the f To people that lived in the forts, the surrounding ecozone; each lies at the end of a railway line. ( lowlands were dubbed the "land of bog and fog" Fort George, Eastmain, Fort Albany, ( or the "insect-infested swamp." Further to the Attawapiskat, Lake River, Winisk, Fort Severn ( south, the low lands were bordered by an area of and Shamattawa are less well known. Except for ( "little else than rocks with innumerable lakes." these largely coastal villages, the area is almost They regarded the area as a "food desert" unpopulated, home to only 10 000 residents. ( because many of the initial settlers found food While the ecozone is ecologically diverse, it is ( supplies difficult to find. By European standards, not well-endowed with timber and minerals. ( it was a harsh and testing environment. In many Instead, tourism, fishing, hunting, and trapping ( respects, the fur trade brought European and provide the main economic base. Polar Bear aboriginal cultures together and for years it was a Provincial Park draws many tourists. The varied ( prosperous venture. Unfortunately, fierce wildlife, contrasting landscapes, ocean coasts ( competition for furs between the North West and scenic rivers of the area have become ( Company from and the Hudson's popular attractions. ( ( Table 9 Statistical ProfIle: Hudson Plains Ecozone ( ( Area = 362 360 Km2 (3.6 % of Canada) Dominant Landcover Class % total area 1991 Population =9 938 (0.04% of Canada's total) Arctic! Alpine Tundra 6.1 ( Parks and reserves (strictly protected areas) = 7.8% of ecozone Barren Lands 0.1 ( Endangered Wildlife Species 2 Forest (Coniferous) 12.3 Threatened Species = 1 Forest (Mixedwood) 0.9 ( Forest (Deciduous) <0.1 Forest (Transitional) 80.5 ( Total 100.0 ( Largest 1991 Major Employment % of Total ( Population Centres PopUlation Sectors (1986) Labour Force Churchill, Man. 1143 Service 30.9 ( Attawapiskat, ant. 1041 Public Administration 17.6 Moosonee, Ont. 1003 Construction 15.5 ( Wholesale and retail trade 11.0 ( Transportation 10.5 ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( L ( ( 34 Boreal Plains Ecozone

The Boreal Plains Ecozone is part of the flat Interior Plains of Canada, a northern extension of the of North America. The subdued glacial meltwater, creating extensive deltas and relief consists of low-lying valleys and plains dunes. Lake Winnipegosis, for example, is a stretching across the mid portions of Manitoba remnant of the bygone Lake Agassiz. Underlying and Saskatchewan, and continuing through these landforms are horizontal layers of almost two-thirds of Alberta. It covers sedimentary bedrock laid down millions of years 650 000 square kilometers, an area larger than ago during the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods. the Yukon. The majority of the surface waters are part of three watersheds: those of the Most of the major rivers have their origin in the Saskatchewan River, the Beaver River, and Rockies. These rivers flow east across the Peace, Athabasca, and Slave rivers' watershed. ecozone and are the products of rainfall, snowmelt and glacial runoff at their headwaters. Timber covers 84% of the Boreal Plains and forestry is the primary industry. Less than 20% of The climate of the Boreal Plains Ecozone is the land area is devoted to agriculture. However, determined by its location in the heart of North precipitation and surface and groundwater America. The to the west sources are more than adequate to meet block moisture-bearing winds from the Pacific. agricultural demand. The result is short, warm summers and long, cold winters. The annual precipitation, approximately The ecozone has traditionally been viewed by 450 mm, is greater than the evaporation rate, some as the next untapped resource frontier. The resulting in surplus moisture of up to 100 mm ecozone's relative remoteness and absence of near the southern edge of the ecozone and up to large population centres has resulted in little 300 mm in the northern and foothills regions. comprehensive scientific study. To explore, produce and deliver the potential oil and gas Plants products believed to be buried under the Nearly half of the Boreal Plains is occupied by ecozone, vast road, railway and pipeline productive forest land. The pace of logging networks have been developed and thousands of increased after 1956 when the first pulp mill was kilometers of seismic exploration lines cut established in Alberta. Others followed in through the forests, providing access to Saskatchewan in 1968 and Manitoba in 1971. previously remote areas. Technology improvements during the 1980s led Landforms and climate to a 20-fold increase in the harvesting of previously little-valued Aspen. Between 1951 to Multiple ice ages had a pronounced effect on the 1991, the amount of forest logged increased by Boreal Plains. Continental glaciation flattened 82%. Pressure is mounting to find methods to log the landscape and left behind a variety of glacial without causing irreversible damage to the deposits consisting almost entirely of undulating environment. and level to gently rolling plains dotted with small lakes. Following glacial retreat 8 000 to Today, most of the ecozone is associated with the 11 000 years ago, larger lakes developed from boreal forest. It is composed of White and Black

35 ( (

Spruce, Balsam Fir, Jack Pine and Tamarack in habitats have greatly diminished. Although ( some peatlands. Of the broadleaf trees, Aspen logging is believed to be partly responsible for an and Poplar are the most common, and Birch increase in Moose popUlations since 1955, forest exists in some areas. Fire, the most powerful habitat has been lost steadily to timber influence on the forest, determines distribution harvesting. Fish in major rivers and lakes must t and growth rates. In a typical year, more than one now face subsistence and commercial fisheries ( million hectares bum, despite increasingly and an array of recreational activities. Within ( effective fire suppression and prevention efforts. these aquatic ecosystems, there is concern for In particularly bad fire years, such as 1989 and high-value fish stocks, particularly Walleye and ( 1995, huge areas were devastated by fire. The Sauger, which are sought after by both ( forests are also affected by native insect pests commercial and recreational fishers. Habitats ( and disease. Unchecked outbreaks of Spruce also suffer from increasing water consumption ( Budworm have killed extensive tracts of spruce and toxic farm run-off. and fir forests. Other insects, such as the Tent C Wetlands form an essential part of wildlife Caterpillar, have defoliated and damaged ( habitat, often surviving forest fires to provide Trembling Aspen stands, most notably in 1988. refuge and initial browsing lands for wildlife. ( Secondary organisms, including other insects and River levees also provide productive and ( fungi, often attack and kill trees weakened by sheltered areas, especially during harsh winters. defoliation or drought. ( Floodplains and associated marshes form unique The characteristic soils are grey Luvisols, waterfowl and Muskrat habitat. Bogs, with their ( developed in loamy conditions under a forest ground and tree lichens, are the main habitat for ( canopy. Lakes and wetland areas, such as sloughs Woodland Caribou. ( and marshes, are areas of rich vegetation. In The most prominent local species include Timber ( poorly-drained areas, extensive bogs have Wolf, Black Bear, Moose, Woodland Caribou, ( developed. Mule Deer, , and Beaver. Typical bird species ( Wildlife are Gray Jay, Common Loon, White-tailed ( Sparrow, American Redstart, Canada Warbler Human activities have divided the original and Ovenbird. Game birds found in the region ( ecosystems of the Boreal Plains into fragments. include species of grouse, geese, ducks and ( As a result, most wildlife populations and their ptarmigan. The ecozone's lakes and streams teem ( with Walleye, Lake Whitefish, Northern Pike, Burbot, Perch, ( and scattered populations of ( Lake Trout. Little is known of ( the insects and arthropod ( communities. ( At least four vertebrate species ( have disappeared from the area: the Plains Grizzly, Swift C Fox, Black-footed Ferret, and ( Greater Prairie Chicken. ( Peregrine Falcon (anatum), ( Mountain Plover, Eskimo Curlew, Piping Plover, and ( Whooping Crane are ( ( C ( 36 endangered, according to the Committee on the and gas reserves in Alberta, where they have Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. been a focal point of the economy for the last Threatened species include the Borrowing Owl 50 years. In Manitoba and Saskatchewan, and Ferruginous Hawk. meanwhile, several hydro-electric power plants were built. Human activities Today, only about 700 000 people, many of them The Boreal Plains entered the history books as a relatively young, live in the ecozone. Despite gateway to the great northwest interior of North rapid urban development over the past two America. Trading companies established posts decades, just 40% live in major cities. Most along the major rivers at such sites as The Pas municipalities are relatively small compared with and Cumberland House. But the most significant those of the Prairie Ecozone. impact on the ecozone was the fur trade. Bison was hunted, first for its meat, which was The most recent major development is the consumed by fur traders in the 1780s, and then increased use of forests. Between 1951 and 1991 for its hides, which forest harvests increased by 82%. Agriculture ha~ also become a more visible influence. Farmland were sold to the North American fashion has increased by 8% over the last 20 years, but industry. Thousands of bison were killed each still occupies less than 10% of the Boreal Plains. year, leading to the virtual elimination of free­ Agricultural activities are dominated by wheat, roaming bison by the 1880s. pasture and rangeland. Development accelerated greatly after 1870, The economic structure of the ecozone reflects a when the Hudson's Bay Company surrendered its relatively high dependence on the service sector charter and sold Rupert's Land, which included which employs 65% of the labour force, and the' the entire Boreal Plains Ecozone, to Canada. As primary industries. Over the past century, much a means of securing the area from potential of the ecozone has been put to use harvesting expansion of the United States, Canada n~tural r~sources. Forestry predominates, along encouraged land development. Much of the With ~gnculture, oil and gas development, hydro­ arable land was occupied in the years following electnc power generation, fisheries and mining. the completion of the transcontinental railway in The Fi~~t Nations of the ecozone are tied tightly 1885, which also introduced coal mining. With to traditlOnal places of spiritual significance and the settlement of the prairies came demand for ancient burial grounds. They use the ecozone's lumber. Nearly half the ecozone is occupied by forests as both their home and workplace. productive forests. Logging was concentrated in Wildlife is particularly valuable to those who the southern fringes and, by 1900, large sawmills rely on hunting, trapping, and fishing as a were in operation. primary source of food. Demand for petroleum products early in the 20th century led to the discovery of the substantial oil

37 ( ( Table 10 Statistical Profile: Boreal Plains Ecozone (

Area =737800Km2 (7.4% of Canada) Dominant Landcover Class % total area 1991 Population == 707 695 (2.59% ofCan ada's total) AretielAlpine Tundra 0.6 C Parks and reserves (strictly protected areas) == 9.0% of ecozone Barren Lands 0.2 Endangered Wildlife Species == 2 Forest (Coniferous) 50.8 t Threatened Species 5 Forest (Mixedwood) 22.9 ( Forest (Deciduous) 16.8 Forest (Transitional) 0.0 ( Cropland 6.6 Rangeland and Pasture 2.2 ( Total 100.0 ( Largest 1991 Major Employment % of Total ( Population Centres Population Sectors (1986) Labour Force ( Fort McMurray, Alta. 34706 Serviee 27.6 Grande Prairie, Alta. 28271 Publie Administration 18.8 ( Fort St. John, B.C. 14156 Wholesale and retail trade 13.2 Dawson Creek, B.C. 10981 Mining 8.8 ( Hinton, Alta. 9046 Transportation 8.0 ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( c. c ( c ( ( C ( ( 38 Boreal Shield Ecozone

Almost two thirds of Canada lies on the rock of the Boreal Shield Ecozone. Canada's largest ecosystem, the boreal forest, forms a continuous Landforms and climate belt from the east coast to the Rockies. Scientists call the area where the Canadian Shield and the Canadian Shield rock forms the nucleus of the boreal forest overlap the Boreal Shield, the North American continent. Other geological largest of Canada's 15 terrestrial ecozones. structures assumed positions around or on top of the Shield millions of years after it was formed. Stretching 3 800 kilometers from Newfoundland The Rockies are relative newcomers on the to Alberta, the Boreal Shield includes parts of six geological stage, having risen a mere 60 million provinces, covers more than 1.8 million square years ago. Most Shield rocks were formed well kilometers, and encompasses almost 20% of over a billion years earlier, during the very first Canada's land mass and 10% ofits fresh water. chapter of the planet's history known as the Some of Canada's largest rivers have their Precambrian era. headwaters in the Boreal Shield, including the Nelson, Churchill, Rupert and St. Lawrence. What once may have been a towering mountain Huge bodies of freshwater, including lakes chain is today a massive rolling plain of ancient , Superior and Huron, lie along its bedrock. During the late Precambrian era, borders. Within it are countless other lakes, some geological activity in the ~arth's crust warped, big, such as Lake Nipigon and Lac St. Jean, folded and faulted the Shield. The foundation of others so small they remain nameless to this day. much of the ecozone is now metamorphic gneiss, a highly banded rock formed by intense pressure The Boreal Shield is home to animals renowned and heat. Many of the minerals that contribute to as emblems of Canada's north woods: the the Boreal Shield's economy may have formed Beaver, Moose, Woodland Caribou, Wolf and during these geologically turbulent times. Black Bear. This well-watered land also provides habitat for migratory ducks and geese drawn here During the last ice age that ended 10 000 years each spring by the thousand. ago, the advance of glac.iers repeatedly plucked and scoured the Shield, carving striations in the The original inhabitants of this land - the bedrock and carrying large boulders many Beothuk, Algonquians, and Iroquois abided kilometers. In retreat, glaciers blanketed much of by its complex cycles and the movements of its the landscape with gravel, sand and other glacial animals. By the late 1700s, the area's rich fur, deposits. The many poorly drained depressions timber and mineral resources had attracted the left behind, as well as natural faults in the interest of Europeans. Two hundred years later, bedrock, now form the millions of lakes, ponds frontier resources still form the backbone of the and wetlands that give this ecozone its Boreal Shield's economy. While industrial distinctive character and charm. development remains relatively small, far-sighted management practices will be needed to sustain The climate of the Boreal Shield is generally the Shield's resources for the use of future continental with long cold winters and short generations. warm summers. Cold air masses over Hudson Bay bring relatively high levels of precipitation

39 ( ( to much of the area, from 400 mm in the west to property, it also renews the landscape by ( 1 000 mm in the east. The average midwinter triggering new growth, purging old forests of ( temperature is -15°C, while in midsummer it insect pests and disease, and increasing the hovers around 17°C. The typical year sees variety of habitats available to wildlife. ( between 60 and 100 frost-free days. Regions Wildlife f bordering the Great Lakes and the Atlantic tend ( to be warmer in winter and cooler in summer Each spring the abundance of water in the Boreal ( thanks to the moderating influence of large water Shield Ecozone attracts hundreds of thousands of bodies. ducks, loons, geese and swans. They come either ( to breed or simply rest and feed before flying on ( Plants to more northerly nesting grounds. Among the ( Cool temperatures, a short growing season, more common waterfowl species that summer ( frequent forest fires, and acidic soils challenge here are the Bufflehead, American Black Duck, plant life in the ecozone. In spite of this, almost Wood Duck, Ring-necked Duck and Canada ( 88% of the area is forested by a few highly Goose. Also found are the Boreal Owl, Great ( adaptable trees, such as Black Spruce, White Horned Owl, Evening Grosbeak and Blue Jay. ( Spruce, Jack Pine and Balsam Fir. Black Spruce, The songbird perhaps most often associated with ( the most common species, yields high-quality this part of the Canadian Shield is the White­ wood pulp and is a prime species for Canada's throated Sparrow. ( large paper industry. Further south are broadleaf ( Among the characteristic mammals of this tre~ such as Paper Birch, Trembling Aspen and ecozone are Woodland Caribou, White-tailed ( Poplar, and conifers such as Balsam and White, Deer, Moose, Black Bear, Wolf, Lynx, Snowshoe ( Red and Jack Pine. In southeastern parts of the Hare, , Marten and Striped Skunk. The ecozone, species characteristic of more temperate ( ecozone's many wetlands, ponds, rivers and climates, including Yellow Birch, Sugar Maple, ( lakes provide important habitats for Beaver, Black Ash and eastern White Cedar, are Muskrat and Mink. ( common. ( In the Atlantic marine environment, typical Throughout the Boreal Shield, these forests are mammals include Grey, Harp and Hooded seals ( mixed with innumerable b~gs, marshes and other and Sperm, Killer, Atlantic Pilot, Fin and Blue ( wetlands. Covering nearly 20% of the ecozone, whales. The endangered Northern Right and these wetlands are among its most diverse and ( Bowhead whales and threatened Humpback biologically productive ecosystems. Some larger ( Whale are also found in this region. wetlands in southern regions have been ( converted into commercial berry farms, which The biologically-rich marine areas off Quebec's ( produce large volumes of cranberries and north shore as well as the continental shelf of blueberries for markets around the world. Newfoundland and Labrador are vital to ( Canada's commercial fisheries. The rocky shores ( Where the scouring effects of glaciation were of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the intense, bare rock outcrops predominate. The ( Newfoundland coast provide exceptional nesting outcrops are masked by arrays of lichen and habitat for many seabirds. Lake Trout, Lake ground-hugging shrubs. Whitefish, Burbot and Northern Pike are among l Forest fires add to the distinctiveness of the the most common fish species thriving in the ( Boreal Shield by leaving a wide variety of plant ecozone's many freshwater lakes and rivers. ( life varying in species composition and age. ( Although fIre often destroys large tracts of forest and occasionally threatens human activities or ( ( C ( 40 ( Human activities The total population of this ecozone is now approximately 2.8 million, or about 11.5% of Canada's population. AlmoSit 60% live in urban centres, including St. John's, Chicoutimi, Rouyn-Noranda, Timmins, Sudbury, Thunder Bay, Sault Ste. Marie and FUn Flon. Since the days the fIrst humans migrated into the ecozone near the end of the last ice age, the Boreal Shield's network of rivers and lakes has served as a crucial farming are widespread. These practices may, transportation route, a foundation for rich over the long term, reduce the diversity of both domestic fIsheries, and a natural wellspring of plant and animal species and increase the forest's fur-bearing mammals. More recently these vulnerability to disease. waters have come to be known for mining, outdoor recreation and the development of Many Shield lakes and soils are extremely hydro-electric power. sensitive to changes in pH. Acid rain from local sources and from the long-range transport of Much of the freshwater resources of the Boreal airborne pollutants has already taken a toll. It Shield are relatively untouched by human may be weakening the general vigour and growth activity. Others have been widely exploited. rate of trees, as well as of aquatic species, in Flow alteration and mercury contamination from sensitive areas. hydro dams and associated river diversions, acidification from mine tailings and smelter Mining, forestry, hydro generation and fisheries emissions, and sedimentation and stream are all important contributors to the economy. disruptions from extensive logging activities are Close to 60% of the employment in the ecozone the consequences of industrial development. is in service industries, public administration, wholesale and retail sectors. As for the boreal forest, fIre suppression, insect control, clear-cutting and single-species tree

41 ( ( Table 11 Statistical Profile: Boreal Shield Ecozone ( ( Area =1946 370 Km2 (19.5 % of Canada) Dominant Landcover Class % total area ( 1991 Population 2831824 (10.37 % of Canada's total) Built-up Areas <0.1 Parks and reserves (strictly protected areas) = 3.0% of ecozone Barren Lands 0.8 Endangered Wildlife Species = 7 Forest (ConiferoUS) 58.2 r Threatened Species 12 Forest (Mixedwood) 30.6 Forest (Deciduous) 4.7 C Forest (Transitional) 5.1 ( Cropland 0.6 Total 99.9 ( ( Largest 1991 Major Employment % of Total Population Centres Population Sectors (1986) Labour Force ( St. John's, Nfld. 121029 Service 30.5 ( Chicoutimi, Que 112500 Wholesale and retail trade 15.9 Sudbury, Ont. 110666 Manufacturing 14.7 ( Thunder Bay, Ont. 109333 Public Administration 9.4 Sault Ste. Marie, Ont. 72822 Construction 5.9 ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( C ( C ( l ( ( ( ( l ( ( ( ( ( 42 Boreal Cordillera Ecozone

Consisting of extensive mountains and valleys separated by wide low lands, this ecozone spans 444 000 square kilometers, occupying the are lower and more subdued than the Coast and southern Yukon and northern half of British southeastern mountains. Deep glacial deposits Columbia. It is bordered by the Coast Mountains are widespread in broad valleys, while the to the west and extends north from the Montane mountains except on the higher ridges and Cordillera to the Mackenzie and Selwynn peaks commonly have a thin cover of Mountains beyond Dawson City and Keno in the colluvial debris. Yukon. To the east, it reaches as far as the Peace River country. The climate is an interior subalpine type, and the mean annual temperature is -0.7 to -O.3°C. The Boreal Cordillera Ecozone contains most of Average temperatures top lOoC for only one the Yukon's population. is the largest month a year, although up to three months is centre with a population of 23 000, while the possible at medium elevations. Mean annual entire ecozone is home to just 31 000 people precipitation is 460 to 700 mm with 35 to 60% (1991). The portion of the ecozone in B.C. is falling as snow. Winters are long and cold, sparsely populated. The relatively small summers brief and cooL Moist Pacific air population does not preclude land-use conflicts. frequently causes sudden, often violent storms Much of the valuable land for residential , during summer. A more stable air mass usually agricultural and wildlife habitat is located i~ prevails in winter, but cold spells can be broken confined valleys. by warm chinook winds. First Nations have a significant voice in Above the treeline, at elevations higher than managing the environment of the Yukon portion 1 000 to 1 400 meters, alpine weather is the of this ecozone through the Yukon Umbrella norm. This area is cold, windy and snowy and Final Agreement signed into law in February characterized by low temperatures during the 1995. As the individual land claims are settled, growing season and a short frost-free period. the agreements will provide the framework in Mean annual temperature ranges from -4 to 0° C. which future uses of these lands will be Frost can occur at any time and the average adjudicated and reconciled. temperature remains below freezing for seven to Landforms and climate 11 months each year. Mean annual precipitation is 700 to 3 000 mm, 70 to 80% of which falls as The Boreal Cordillera Ecozone encompasses the snow. Many high-elevation areas such as the St. St. Elias, Skeena, Cassiar, Ominica, and northern Elias Mountains have perpetual ice and snow Rocky mountains as well as the Stikine, Yukon cover. and Klondike plateaus. Plants The plateaus generally display the flat to rolling features of mature erosional surfaces and are Lower elevations are generally forested by White dissected by streams. Ice age glaciers covered Spruce and Subalpine Fir. A pattern apparent in virtually all plateau areas and left widespread many valleys is intermittent-to-closed forest deposits of glacial debris. The mountain systems cover of White Spruce with variable amounts of

43 ( ( weather and the long cold ( winters that follow. Moose and ( Caribou are the most abundant and widespread ungulates. ( Valley bottoms provide the r­ best winter range for both ( species, but much of this ( ecozone is abandoned by mid­ winter because of deep snow. ( Mountain Goats are year-round ( inhabitants and tend to avoid ( the deep snow because of the ( steep terrain they inhabit. Stone Sheep are found on ( steep south-facing grasslands ( Pine and Aspen in the valley bottoms and on associated with rugged terrain. Dall Sheep, ( lower slopes. The best forest growth is Grizzly Bear and Black Bear are also present. associated with White Spruce on fine-textured Other typical forest species are the Spruce C moist soil near wetlands and water. Subalpine Fir Grouse, Common Raven, Gray Jay, Boreal ( dominates higher up, especially on northern and Chickadee, Red-breasted Nuthatch, Three-toed ( eastern slopes, where it often forms nearly pure Woodpecker, Ruby-crowned Kinglet, Red ( stands. Black Spruce, Lodgepole Pine, and Squirrel, Wolverine and Marten. No reptiles are ( Trembling Aspen are relatively minor species, present and the Western Toad, Wood Frog and although locally abundant. Wildfires are not as Sported frog are the only amphibians. ( common as in adjacent ecozones to the east ( The many open and shrubby valley bottoms are although the occasional stand of Lodgepole Pine, important as summer range for Moose and ( which grows in the aftermath of fires, is not Caribou, but are too exposed and snowy to be ( unknown. used as winter range. The Willow Ptarmigan, ( Upper elevations near treelines are dominated by Arctic Ground Squirrel and Wilson's Warbler are ( deciduous shrubs, mainly scrub birch and common in these areas. willows. Tree species are in stunted or ( Human activities "krummholz" form. The most common ( krummholz species are Subalpine Fir, Close to half of the ecozone's labour force is ( Englemann Spruce, White Spruce, Mountain engaged in public administration or services, ( Hemlock, and Whitebark Pine. Groves of stunted with another 12% in commerce. This reflects, in aspen and Balsam Fir occur at timberlines, large part, the nature of Whitehorse,the capital ( usually on southern slopes. Alpine vegetation and commercial centre of the Yukon. ( consists of shrubs, herbs, moss and lichen, with Most historic and present-day placer mining is ( much of this area totally lacking in vegetation confined to the Klondike plateau in the ( and dominated by rock, ice and snow. unglaciated areas of the Klondike, Sixtymile, ( Wildlife lower Stewart and Indian River drainages. Of the ( 21 creeks that produced the most gold between The profound effect of the ecozone's climate on 1978 and 1987, only three were not in these ( wildlife is especially apparent during late drainages. ( summer, when many species migrate south to avoid the abrupt transition to cooler autumn ( ( ( ( 44 Because placer deposits are associated with (gold-silver). Major hard rock mining properties streambeds, much activity is within the in the past have included the lead-zinc mine at floodplains of streams, which may be dammed, Faro, the Keno-Elsa Silver Mine, Ketza River diverted and stripped of vegetation. As a result, Gold Mine, Mount Nansen Gold Mine and the impacts on fish habitat and water quality persist Brewery Creek Gold Mine. All have been closed long after mining has ceased. Current regulations in recent years, but Faro reopened recently and a restrict sediment levels in placer effluent and couple of others are planning to resume measures must be taken to restore or compensate operations in the near future. for lost habitat. Forestry operations are small and centred around Important mineral deposits are found within the Watson Lake in the Yukon and areas of ecozone. Among these are the Casino deposit northeastern British Columbia. The forestry (copper-gold-molybdenum), Carmacks deposit sector is growing and expected to become the (copper-gold) and the Mount Nansendeposit major employer and economic contributor for the southeast Yukon.

Table 12 Statistical Profile: Boreal Cordillera Ecozone

Area =464 600 1{m2 (4.7% of Canada) Dominant Landcover Class % total area 1991 Population =30 839 (0.11 % of Canada's total) ArcticlAlpine Tundra 30.6 Parks and reserves (strictly protected areas) = 6.1 % of ecozone Barren Lands 9.6 Endangered Wildlife Species = 1 Forest (Coniferous) 51.5 Threatened Species = 0 Forest (Deciduous) 0.2 Forest (Mixedwood) 2.2 Perennial Snow or Ice 5.5 Total 99.6

Largest 1991 Major Employment % of Total Population Centres Population Sectors (1986) Labour Force Whitehorse, Yukon 16335 Service 27.6 Dawson, Yukon 10981 Public Administration 18.8 Faro,Yukon 1221 Wholesale and retail trade 13.2 Haines Junction, Yukon 477 Mining 8.8 Mayo Landing, Yukon 243 Transportation 8.0

45 ( ( ( ( Pacific Maritime Ecozone ( f ( The Pacific Maritime Ecozone contains Canada's ( tallest trees, the most rainfall, and the longest ( and deepest fjords. A combination mountain - classic fjords, some of the world's longest and maritime climate gives this ecozone its ( deepest. They slash inland up to 190 kilometers, distinctive character. ( with sheer sides plunging over 2 000 meters. The In few other areas on earth can one experience deepest fjord in the world is Findlayson Channel, ( such a variety in so short a distance - from with soundings of over 795 meters. ( undersea kelp forests to alpine tundra, from the The ecozone lies within the Pacific Ring of Fire, ( lush, flat plains of the Fraser Delta to the a narrow, semi-circular area known for volcanic ( massive glaciers punctuating the northern British eruptions and earthquakes caused by friction Columbia coast. ( between the Earth's crustal plates. Hot springs ( As the name implies, the ecozone includes the that beckon back-country adventurers bear land bordering Canada's Pacific Coast. Covering testimony to crustal "hot spots" found throughout ( more than 195 000 square kilometers, it includes this area. ( the Coast Mountains, B.C.'s marine islands, plus This ecozone has some of the warmest and ( a small corner of southwestern Yukon. wettest weather in Canada. Its maritime climate ( Landforms and climate receives as little as 600 mm of precipitation per ( year in the lower Georgia Strait, while the area to The Coast Mountains dominate most of the the north is typically much wetter, receiving up ecozone, rising steeply from the fjords and deep to 3 000 mm. Compared to the rest of Canada, ( channels that line the Pacific coast. Glaciers and there is little variation in monthly temperatures. ( snowfields cap the tallest ranges. The ecozone Averages in July range between 12 and 18°C includes Mount Waddington, at 4 000 meters ( and, in January, between 4 and 6°C. The frost­ B.C.'s highest mountain. The mountains of ( free period is up to 220 days long in the moist Vancouver Island and the Queen Charlotte southerly valleys, decreasing to about 100 days ( Islands, although not nearly as high, make up in in the mountains. ( ruggedness what they lack in elevation. Igneous and sedimentary rocks lie beneath most of the Plants ( area while fallen rocks and glacial deposits ( The combination of heavy rainfall and year­ predominate on the surface. round mild temperatures support some of the ( In contrast with the mountains, the Estevan most spectacular temperate rain forests in the ( Coastal Plain is a long narrow strip of rocky world. Here are Canada's most productive forests ( coastline dotted by the occasional beach. Found and its biggest and oldest trees. A record­ ( only along the west coast of Vancouver Island, breaking Douglas Fir near Red Creek measures this unique landscape is constantly changing as it over 14 meters around and 80 meters high; a ( bears the full brunt of the Pacific's ceaseless western Red Cedar on Meares Island is 20 meters ( waves and scouring winds. around; Carmanah Creek is home to the world's ( tallest Sitka Spruce at 95 meters; Cathedral Striking mazes of fjords and channels dissect the ( Grove is dominated by Douglas Fir as tall in feet coastline from Vancouver to Alaska. These are ( ( ( 46 ( as they are old in years - up to 250 feet Wildlife (85 meters). Yet these trees are still young Characteristic land mammals of this area include compared to other western Red Cedars, which the Black-tailed Deer, Black and Grizzly bears, reach over 2 000 years of age. Mountain Lion (or Cougar), Fisher, and The forest ecosystems found here vary with American Pika. Bird species unique to this area elevation and precipitation. In low-lying coastal include the American Black Oyster Catcher, areas, Western Hemlock forests dominate; in Tufted Puffin, Chestnut-backed Chickadee and, higher elevations subalpine Mountain Hemlock in southern regions only, the California and forests are more common; and small areas of dry Mountain Quail. Other representative birds are Douglas Fir forests are found on the leeward side the Northern Saw-whet Owl, Northern Pygmy of the mountains. It is the coastal Western Owl, Steller's Jay, Bald Eagle and Blue Grouse. Hemlock forests that make up the famous Several species and subspecies of wildlife rainforests of this ecozone. evolved on the islands of the region: the Coastal temperate rainforests are globally scarce, Vancouver Island Marmot, found only in alpine originally covering barely 0.2% of the earth's meadows on Vancouver Island; the "Blond" or land area. Today, the largest undeveloped tracts "Kermodei" bear, a subspecies of Black Bear of these forests are found in South America and found on a few north coastal islands; and the North America, much of which - approximately Roosevelt Elk, among others. Some are rare or 106 000 square kilometers is in the Pacific endangered; others, such as the Dawson Caribou, Maritime Ecozone. These forests contain once confined to Graham Island, are extinct. ecosystems with the highest biomass per hectare The marine ecosystems of the ecozone support a on Earth. The western coastal forest is composed tremendous abundance and diversity of mostly of Western Red Cedar, Western Hem1ock, organisms. Many seabirds, including the little­ Douglas Fir, Mountain Hemlock, Amabilis Fir, known Marbled Murrelet, nest along the coast. Sitka Spruce, Yellow Cedar and Alder. Douglas The area's many islands, estuaries and fjords Fir is confined largely to southern regions while, provide critical habitat for countless migrating in the north, Amabilis Fir is more common. As shorebirds and waterfowl, including the the elevation increases, the Mountain Hemlock Trumpeter Swan and Sandhill Crane. and Yellow Cedars give way to stunted clumps of Contributing to the biological richness of the trees known as "krummbolz." Above 900 meters, ecosystem are a shallow continental shelf, ice- treeless alpine tundra takes over. A unique forest ecosystem in the dry rainshadow climate of the Gulf Islands and Saanich Peninsula is the Arbutus and Garry Oak woodland. Among B.C.'s rarest forests, it is considered one of the most endangered ecosystems in North America. Urbanization, wildfire suppression and the introduction of exotic species such as Scotch Broom have destroyed about 95% of its original range.

47 ( (

free coastal waters, deep-water upwellings of habitats and prime agricultural land particularly ( nutrients, and numerous freshwater discharges challenging. ( from coastal rivers. For well over a century, logging and related ( Typical marine mammals include the Northern forest industries have been the economic Sea Lion, Northern Fur Seal, Harbour Seal, and a mainstay of many communities in this ecozone. r­ host of whales: the giant Beaked Whale, Sperm They have also changed the landscape ( Whale, Grey Whale, Killer Whale, Pacific Pilot dramatically. In the past 120 years, over 2 million ( Whale and Blue Whale. The endangered Sea hectares of the t,?mperate coastal rainforest were ( Otter has been reintroduced to the northwest clear-cut. Between 1920 and 1992, while the area ( coast of Vancouver Island. Several species of logged each year doubled in the rest of Canada, it salmon and their spawning streams are located tripled in the Pacific Maritime. ( throughout the ecozone. Pacific Herring and ( The commercial fishing industry is another major Pacific Halibut are also found here. Common player in the ecozone. Both native and ( freshwater species include the Cutthroat Trout, aquaculture stocks of salmon are especially ( Dolly Varden, and Steelhead. prized. Most Sockeye, Pink, and Chum Salmon ( Human activities stocks have increased since the 1960s. However, ( Chinook and Coho Salmon stocks are low due to Although the Pacific Maritime ecozone is rich in overfishing, habitat damage, and natural factors. ( wild fauna, flora, and ecosystems, much of the Contamination by organochlorine compounds ( south is heavily stressed by population growth, released from pulp mills sometimes interferes urban development, and the forestry and pulp ( with the harvesting of shellfish, as the toxins and paper industries. tend to accumulate in their tissues. Three-quarters of British Columbians, or about ( Since the days when the native Haida people 2.5 million people, live here. Most are ( routinely plied their dugout canoes along the concentrated in the Georgia Basin, the area west coast, the area has been an important ( embracing the large urban centres of the Lower marine transportation route. Boat traffic now ( Mainland and Victoria. The population has includes huge cargo ships, fishing vessels, grown by leaps and bounds over the past few ( ferries, and all kinds of recreational craft. A fast­ decades, largely as a result of immigration. For ( growing industry here is water-based tourism, instance, the population of the Gulf Islands rose offering everything from sea kayaks to multi­ ( by an astonishing 58% between 1971 and 1985. level tour boats. ( Rapid urbanization makes protecting wildlife C ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( 48 ,( Table 13 Statistical ProrIle: Pacific Maritime Ecozone

Area = 218 980 Km' (2.2 % of Canada) Dominant Landcover Class % total area 1991 Population = 2 504 393 (9.17 % of Canada's total) Arctic/Alpine Tundra 1.1 Parks and reserves (strictly protected areas) 10.0% of ecozone Barren Lands 12.8 Endangered Wildlife Species = 4 Forest (Coniferous) 68.9 Threatened Species 1 Forest (Mixedwood) 10.9 Forest (Deciduous) 0.5 Forest (Transitional) 0.1 Perennial Snow or Ice 4.9 Built-up Areas 0.4 Cropland 0.4 Total 100.0

Largest 1991 Major Employment % of Total Population Centres Population Sectors (1986) Labour Force Vancouver, B.C. 1409361 Communications 15.4 Victoria, B.C. 262223 Mining 13.6 Nanaimo, B.C. 62731 Finance 5.8 Chilliwack, B.C. 37942 Wholesale and retail trade 5.7 Port Alberni, B.C. 20590 Manufacturing 5.4

49 ( ( (

( Montane Cordillera Ecozone ( \ ( The Montane Cordillera Ecozone is the most ( diverse of Canada's 15 terrestrial ecozones, ( exhibiting some of the driest, wettest, coldest, deep lakes and major river systems, including the and hottest conditions anywhere in the country. ( Fraser and the Columbia River headwaters. The ecosystems are variable, ranging from alpine ( tundra and dense conifer forests to dry sagebrush Much of this ecozone is rugged and ( and grasslands. Much of the region is rugged and mountainous. The major plains are more ( mountainous. extensive in the north and extend out as intermontane valleys towards the southern half of ( The ecozone covers 473 000 square kilometers the ecozone. Most of these plains and valleys are ( of Canada, stretching from north-central British covered by glacial moraine and to some degree Columbia south to the United States border. It ( ancient riverbed and lakebed deposits, whereas encompasses the Alberta Foothills as well as the ( the mountains consist largely of fallen rock interior mountain ranges and valleys of B.c., debris and rocky outcrops. ( including the Okanagan and the East and East ( Kootenay valleys. The Columbia and Rocky mountains within this ecozone have a complex geology consisting ( The Montane Cordillera encompasses two of the largely of folded and faulted sedimentary ( four significant agricultural areas of the bedrock. The mountain cliff faces disintegrate province; the Creston Valley and the Okanagan ( rapidly to form course, roc~y slopes, fans and Valley. In the latter, orchards, vineyards and cash ( aprons. crops take advantage of favourable soil ( conditions. Cattle ranching is dominant Moist Pacific air carried by westerly winds drops throughout much of the other interior plateau and large amounts of rain and snow as it ascends the C valley lands. windward side of the Coast Mountains. The air drops over the eastern slopes into the Montane ( Forestry is the major industry of the lower and Cordillera, where it compresses and warms, middle slopes, while the interior wet belt is the ( causing clouds to thin out. The pronounced most productive fibre production area in the ( rainshadow cast by the massive Coast Mountains inland of B.C. Mining is an important activity makes the valley bottoms of the south-central ( within the ecozone - five of B.C's eight coal interior the driest climates of B.c. The air ( mines and three of Alberta's 11 are located releases moisture again, creating an interior rain within its boundaries. ( belt as it ascends the Columbia, Skeena, ( Landforms and climate Ominica, Cassiar, and finally the Rocky mountains, which define the eastern extent of ( . The 473 000 square kilometers of the Montane this ecozone. ( Cordillera Ecozone stretch from north -central British Columbia southeast to the southwestern Annual precipitation in the higher elevations ( comer of Alberta. The ecosystems range from ranges between 1 200 and 2 200 mm. The ( alpine tundra and dense conifer forests to dry . northern and interior portions of the ecozone ( sagebrush and grasslands. Wetlands and small receive between 500 and 800 mm annually. The lakes dot the landscape, but there are also large, driest rainshadow areas around Merritt and ( ( ( 50 ( Cache Creek and the southern Okanagan receive and Alpine Larch. Subalpine heather and grassy well below 500 mm of precipitation. meadows are also common. Snow avalanche tracks are evident throughout much of the high­ Much of the ecozone has an interior continental snowfall areas. climate dominated by easterly moving air masses that produce cool wet winters and warm dry High-elevation forest gives way to one summers. Periodic inundation by dry, high­ dominated by White Spruce, interior Douglas Fir pressure, continental air masses results in a few and Lodgepole Pine at mid elevations of 400 to cold winter days and a few hot summer days. I 500 meters. Where the precipitation is Temperatures vary with altitude. In the alpine, no relatively high (up to 1 500 mm annually) an month has an average daily temperature above interior wet belt forms, dominated by tree cover 10°C. The upper forested slopes bave seven to of western Red Cedar and western Hemlock. nine months per year of monthly mean This area is concentrated on the lower slopes of temperatures of no more than O°C. The the Columbia Mountains and the windward side Ponderosa Pine forests are the driest and, in of the Rockies and much of the Shuswap and summer, the warmest forests in B.C., with mean Quesnel highlands. At lower elevations, July temperatures averaging 17°C to 22°C. The particularly along dry valleys, Ponderosa Pine is hot, dry summers result in large moisture deficits dominant. Wildfires play an important role during the growing season. The rainshadow maintaining these forests. Stands are often open grasslands and valley bottoms are characterized and park -like with an understorey of bluebunch by hot, dry summers and moderately cold winters wheatgrass. More moist sites are characterized with little snowfall. It is not unusual to have by Douglas Fir, and water and paper birches, daily high summer temperatures topping 30°C. while the dry southern interior is devoid of trees and dominated instead by big sagebrush, rabbit­ Plants brush and antelope-brush. Grasslands featuring Vegetative cover varies widely; alpine bunchgrasses and other grasses and shrubs environments contain various herbs, lichen and appear in the valley bottoms and on plateaus in shrubs, whereas the subalpine regions are south-central B.C. from Riske Creek in the north dominated by tree species such as Alpine Fir and to the Canada-U.S. border. Similar grasslands Englemann Spruce. With decreasing elevation, occupy smaller areas in the Kootenays of the mountainous slopes and rolling plains split southeastern B.C. into three forest groups: a marginal band at upper The natural grasslands in this ecozone have not elevations characterized by Engelmann Spruce, fared well. Most existing prior to European Alpine Fir and Lodgepole Pine; a second zone settlement have vanished, thanks to fire characterized by Ponderosa Pine, interior suppression, introduced species, and cattle Douglas Fir, Lodgepole Pine and Trembling grazing. Much of the grassland in the Okanagan Aspen in much of the southwest and central Valley, for example, has been completely portions; and another featuring western replaced by settlements, orchards, and crops. Hemlock, western Red Cedar, interior Douglas­ Today, introduced species have colonized many fir, and western White Pine in the southeast. grasslands and the pockets of natural dry The Englemann Spruce-Subalpine Fir belt occurs grasslands that survive are unique to Canada, at elevations of between I 200 and 2 300 meters. dominated by species such as Bluebunch It forms a continuous cover at its lower and mid Wheatgrass that rarely occur east of the Rocky elevations and becomes subalpine parkland at its Mountains. upper limits. Lodgepole Pine is widespread after Extensive wetlands are infrequent in the fire and is predominant in the drier regions. mountainous portions of this ecozone. On slopes, Other common species include Whitebark Pine

51 ( ( wetlands are generally restricted to small Common birds include Pileated Woodpecker, ( transitional and non-forested bogs, marshes and Northern Flicker, Clark's Nutcracker and Red ( skunk cabbage swamps. Much of the valley Cross-bill. . wetlands have been destroyed by urbanization ( Ponderosa Pine parklands provide habitat for and agriculture. Less than 15% of the original species that forage on large conifer seeds wetlands of the Okanagan Valley remains and is (Clark's Nutcracker, Pygmy Nuthatch and ( under constant threat from development. Yellow-pine Chipmunk), bark insects (Northern Wildlife ~licker and White-headed Woodpecker) or flying ( msects (Common Poorwill). The open forest Wildlife is as diverse as the vegetative cover. In ( canopy passes sufficient light for the production the alpine tundra, the snowpack does not melt of shrubs palatable to wintering ungulates (Mule ( until well into summer and plantlife is sparse. Deer and White-tailed Deer). Dense stands of Several species have adapted to the harsh ( Douglas Fir and Ponderosa Pine, meanwhile, climate, including Mountain Goat, Gyrfalcon, ( provide a warm cover for wintering ungulates White-tailed and Willow Ptarmigan, Water Pipit and an abundant seed and insect source for a ( and Rosy Finch. Mule Deer, Rocky Mountain variety of birds, small mammals, and coyotes. ( Elk, Stone Sheep, Grizzly Bear and Black Bear ( are common in lush meadow habitats and the The treeless bunchgrass areas are small relative stunted spruce groves known as krummholz. to the adjacent forests, but they have an ( abundance and diversity of wildlife. This is ( Throughou t the middle and upper elevations partly due to the wide range of habitats created ungulates such as Mountain Goat, Moose, ( by the juxtaposition of grasslands, shrublands, Caribou and Mule Deer are common. Rocky wetlands and forest. The grasslands also ( Mountain Elk, Bighorn Sheep, White-tailed Deer represent a northern extension of the ( and Stone Sheep are found less frequently. intermontane steppe of the western Great Basin Grizzly Bear and Black Bear are the most ( in the south. Southern species such as Pallid Bat, common large mammals. The conifer forests are ( Burrowing Owl and Short-homed Lizard reach also important habitat for fur-bearers such as their northern breeding limit here. On the other ( Marten, Fisher, Red Squirrel and Wolverine and hand, northern species that rarely move further ( a diverse collection of birds that feed on conifer south, such as Snowy Owl and Gyrfalcon, can be ( seeds, bark insects and small mammals. found on open rangelands in winter. ( Encroachment and pressures of ( development on the grasslands ( and lower slopes of many of ( the valleys within this ecozone have led to the destruction of ( habitat for many indigenous ( species. In 1995, the ( Committee on the Status of ( Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) listed seven mammals that inhabit this ( ecozone as vulnerable. ( COSEWIC also lists 10 bird ( species as either vulnerable or threatened and four ( ( ( ( 52 ( Mountain Plover, Sage Thrasher, Burrowing Owl This ecozone contains six national parks, and Peregrine Falcon (anatum) as endangered. including the oldest in Canada, Banff National Four fish species and seven plants are also listed Park. As well, there is an extensive network of byCOSEWIC. provincial parks. The largest provincially protected area is Ts'yl-os, a 2332 square­ Human activities kilometre park that is home to California As the dry Ponderosa Pine is of limited Bighorn Sheep and B.C.'s third largest salmon commercial value for forestry, the dominant land run. A major concern is that many parks, most use is cattle grazing. Grasslands, although notably those of the Rocky Mountains, are chronically overgrazed in the past, are now better becoming islands in a sea of development, their managed. Flat areas, especially on ancient ecological integrity threatened by habitat riverbeds and lakebeds, are irrigated for hay destruction and fragmentation. production. Overall, the arable land in B.C. Within these parks, roads and railways remove accounts for less than 5% of its total land base. habitat, form barriers to the movement of The Montane Cordillera encompasses two of the wildlife, and are a direct cause of wildlife few significant agricultural areas of the province: mortality. Townsites and other developments the Creston Valley and the Okanagan Valley. In further fragment the landscape. Outside the the latter, favourable soils, when irrigated, are parks, adjacent lands that once formed extended used for orchards and vineyards as well as cash blocks of wilderness are now subject to a variety crops. of pressures, including new roads and industrial The forested lower slopes often provide summer activities. range for cattle. Forestry is the main industry of The dry Valleys and lower slopes have intense the lower and middle slopes with the interior wet recreational use, including hiking, cycling, belt being the most productive area for fibre horseback riding and some hunting and fishing. production of all of the inland areas of B.C. Nine Most of the major lakes are lucrative tourist pulp and paper mills are located throughout the attractions, thanks to the many beaches and hot ecozone. The Fraser-Thompson River systems summers of this ecozone. Land-use conflicts are have seven such operations: three near Prince common in the Valleys as a result of the pressure George, two at Quesnel, one at Williams Lake from the agricultural, recreational, transportation and one at Karnloops. The others are at Castlegar and industrial sectors, as well as urban and Skookumchuk on the Columbia River. In development and the needs of wildlife. addition, many small and large sawmills are found throughout the ecozone. Canada is the Many of the interior cities have grown largest exporter of forest products in the world substantially over the past 20 years. For example, and B.c. produces 45% of the Canadian total. from 1971 to 1991 Karnloops grew 55% to Although no specific figures are available by 68 000 and Prince George by 42 % to 70 000. ecozone, the Montane Cordillera is a substantial With urbanization has come extensive contributor to the B.C. forest sector. transportation and communication networks, and major population centres in Alberta and the Mining is another important activity within the Lower Mainland of British Columbia have ecozone. Five of B.C's eight coal mines and increased recreational pressure on the ecozone. three of Alberta's 11 occur within its boundaries. With a growing population base of over four A major lead-zinc refinery is located at Trail. million to draw from, these pressures are not Copper, gold, silver, molybdenum and other insignificant. precious metals are also mined within the ecozone and two areas are seeing active diamond The labour force within the ecozone is becoming exploration. increasingly service-oriented. Of the total labour

53 (

force, 32% are employed in the service sector, high but runoff low. The impact of pulp mill ( 15% in commerce, 11 % in forestry, 7% in effluent on the construction, 5% in agriculture, 5% in Fraser and Thompson rivers is also cause for transportation, and 4% in mining. ( concern. However, great strides have been made Urbanization and industrialization have placed recently toward the elimination of t increased pressures on both the quantity and organochlorine compounds and suspended solids ( quality of water supplies. Shortages are now as companies work to meet regulations that c common in parts of the Okanagan and Thompson require reductions of dioxins and furans to below ( basins, particularly in summer when demand is detectable levels. ( ( Table 14 Statistical Profile: Montane Cordillera Ecozone (

Area =492110 Km2 (4.9% of Canada) Dominant Landcover Class % total area ( 1991 Population = 751 761 (2.75 % of Canada's total) Arctic!Alpine Tundra 4.2 ( Parks and reserves (strictly protected areas) 16.1 % of ecozone Barren Lands 10.4 Endangered Wildlife Species =4 Forest (Coniferous) 64.4 ( Threatened Species = 7 Forest (Mixedwood) 15.2 Forest (Deciduous) 3.5 ( Perennial Snow or Ice 0.5 Cropland 0.1 ( Rangeland and Pasture 1.6 Total 99.9 ( ( Largest 1991 Major Employment % of Total Population Centres Population Sectors (1986) Labour Force ( Prince George, B.C. 61254 Service 30.5 ( Kelowna, B.C. 57945 Wholesale and retail trade 15.4 Kamloops, B.C. 57466 Manufacturing 13.6 ( Penticton, B.C. 27494 Construction 5.8 Vernon, B.C. 26653 Transportation 5.7 ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( C ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( 54 ( Prairies Ecozone

The Prairie Ecozone is often characterized as flat, rural, wheat- and oil-producing, or cold. The tenns describe significant aspects of the Today, the Prairie ecozone is home to high environment and the economy but understate its numbers of threatened and endangered wildlife diversity, character and recent evolution. species and its native ecosystems are among the This ecozone is part of the Interior Plains of most endangered natural habitats in Canada. Canada, which are a northern extension of the Landforms and climate Great Plains of North America. The relief is typically subdued, consisting of low-lying Multiple glaciations have shaped the Prairie valleys and plains sloping eastward. With its Ecozone. Continental glaciation flattened the base along the Canada-United States border, the landscape and left behind a variety of glacial ecozone stretches from the Rocky Mountains in deposits. For example, the flat fertile plain that Alberta to the in Manitoba, dominates southern Manitoba resulted from the reaching across the southern third of the Prairie heavy clay soils that lay beneath the former provinces. glacial Lake Agassiz. Cedar Lake and lakes Manitoba, Winnipeg, and Winnipegosis are The Prairie ecozone, spanning an area of remnants of this bygone inland sea. Ponds and 520 000 square kilometers, is larger than the small lakes occupy many of the depressions in Yukon Territory and is one of the Canadian moraines. Following the glacial retreat 8 000 to regions most altered by human activity. Farmland 11 000 years ago, the ecozone evolved into dominates the ecozone, covering nearly 94% of treeless grasslands covering the southern third of the land base. what is now Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Termed the Breadbasket of Canada, the Prairie Manitoba. Ecozone contains the majority of the country's Underlying these surface landforms are productive agricultural cropland, rangeland, and horizontal layers of sedimentary bedrock pasture. The area is the source of much of our consisting of various Cretaceous and Tertiary food and, as a result of the export of grains, sediments. Trapped in isolated pockets and oilseeds, and animal products, is an important cracks are rich reservoirs of oil and gas. source of foreign exchange. The Prairie Ecozone is now typified by large Agricultureis the major agent of change in this tracts of flat to rolling plains. A great variety of ecozone, influencing most native communities of surface landfonns, from hummocky lands to plants and animals. Loss of habitat is the most deeply entrenched river Valleys, also exist. critical threat to the flora and fauna. Little of the natural vegetation is left, a situation that made Most of the major rivers have their origin in the life difficult for some animals unique to the Rockies. These rivers flow east across the grasslands. Wetlands, which provide critical ecozone and are fed by rainfall, snowmelt, and habitat for 50% of North America's waterfowl, glacial runoff at their headwaters. Many smaller have been altered by agricultural practices and rivers and streams of the Prairie Ecozone have only half the pre settlement wetland area remains.

55 highly variable flows and are often dry for long Plants ( periods. The shift from grassland to cropland in the ( The ecozone's climate is determined by its Prairies has increased losses of organic matter C location in the heart of North America and by the and plant nutrients from the soil. It is estimated neighbouring Rocky Mountains, which block that the original organic matter levels have fallen moisture-bearing winds from the Pacific. The by 40 to 50%. Over the past century the ecozone ( result is a pronounced, subhumid to semi-arid has been radically transformed and only a small ( climate. Winters are very cold. The mean fraction remains in its native state. Perhaps less C temperature in the coldest month is -9.4°C at than 1 % of the Tall-grass Prairie, 18% of the ( and -18.3°C at Winnipeg. Summers Short-grass Prairie, and 24% of the Mixed-grass are short and warm. Mean temperatures for the Prairie remain. ( warmest month are 16.1°C at and ( Today, the Tall-grass Prairie region of Manitoba 19.7°C at Winnipeg. Although dry, arctic air is almost completely cultivated. Over 90% has ( predominates in winter, periodic chinooks been converted to crops or drastically changed by ( (strong, warm and dry westerlies that blow in grazing and haying. And 75% of the Mixed-grass from the Rockies) bring spring-like conditions to ( Prairie and has been converted southern Alberta and, to a lesser extent, southern ( to cropland or seeded to non-native forage Saskatchewan, reducing snow cover and species. The Aspen Parkland, the northern ( removing moisture from an already dry region. transition zone to the Boreal Forest, has ( A water deficit is typical as the ecozone receives expanded south into former grasslands since ( considerably less precipitation than other parts of settlement put an end to prairie fires. The natural ( Canada and the world. Annual precipitation is vegetation is generally dominated by Spear extremely variable, ranging from 250 mm in the Grass, Wheat Grass, and Blue Grama Grass. ( arid grassland regions of southwest Sagebrush is abundant. Local saline areas feature ( Saskatchewan and southeast Alberta to slightly Alkali Grass, Wild Barley, Greasewood, Red ( less than 700 mm in the Lake Manitoba plain, Samphire, and Sea Blite. Drier sites in the the warmest and most humid region in the Prairie southwest are home to yellow Prickly Pear Ecozone. About a quarter of the precipitation Cactus. ( falls as snow. Summer thunderstorms are often ( The Short-grass Prairie occupies the driest severe, and south-central Alberta is reputed to be southerly arc of the region, where brown and ( one of the worst hailstorm belts in North dark brown soils are dominant. The northern ( America. In summer, warm, moist air masses edge of the ecozone is dotted with groves of from the southern United States invade southern ( Trembling Aspen and Balsam Poplar and Manitoba, causing numerous thunderstorms and ( characterized by black Chernozemic soils. The occasional tornadoes. most productive soils in the region are the black, ( High winds predominate in the ecozone. Mean dark grey, and dark brown soils of the Aspen annual wind speed in many places is 18 to Parkland and the Tall-grass and Mixed-grass 21 kmIh.ln contrast, Vancouver's mean annual Prairie. ( wind speed is 12 kmIh while Toronto's is about Lakes and wetland areas are rich in vegetation. 16 kmIh. Wind accelerates evaporation, causing ( Depending upon rainfall, there are between much of the dryness. In combination with ( 1.6 and 7.1 million wetlands in this ecozone, and precipitation and evaporation patterns, wind lakes cover 7 800 square kilometers. The greatest ( determines the amount of soil erosion and the number of wetlands occur along the subhumid ( resulting land degradation. Northern Grasslands and adjacent Aspen ( Parkland, where they make up half the land area. ( ( ( 56 ( However, lake and wetland areas are under have disappeared from the area. The Peregrine threat. Virtually every major natural water system Falcon, Mountain Plover, Eskimo Curlew, Piping has been extensively modified and developed for Plover, Burrowing Owl, and Whooping Crane hydro and thermal power generation, irrigation, are all endangered. flood protection, and water management. Agriculture has probably had the greatest impact Agriculture and urbanization have cut the on the ecozone. By replacing natural grasslands number of wetlands in half. with crops, draining wetlands, and destabilizing Few deciduous trees and shrubs grow in the natural chemical balances in the soil with ecozone except in the eastern regions, sheltered pesticides, the number and range of wildlife locations along waterways or at upper elevations. species has changed dramatically. As well, The east is characterized by Trembling Aspen competing, non-native species have been and shrubs, whereas the southwest displays a introduced. mixed montane-type open forest of Lodgepole Within aquatic ecosystems, high-value fish Pine. Southwest Manitoba contains a forest stocks are under pressure, particularly Walleye reserve that occupies most of the higher and Sauger, which are prized by commercial and elevations of Turtle Mountain. recreational fishers. Stocks have been reduced Wildlife through overfishing and are sensitive to water quality in the controlled-drainage systems as well The Prairie Ecozone provides habitat for many as to natural fluctuations. For example, animal species. Intermittent sloughs and ponds contaminants from the widespread use of on the plains offer major breeding, staging, and pesticides have damaged fish habitat. nesting grounds for migratory waterfowl using the Central North American flyway. More than Human activities half of all North American ducks are born in Between 1670 and 1870, the Hudson's Bay Prairie Ecozone wetlands. River valleys also Company was granted exclusive fur trading offer sheltered habitats important to wildlife, rights to the area drained by the rivers flowing especially during the harsh winters. The Prairies into Hudson Bay, then called Rupert's Land. offer unique habitat for the Black-tailed Prairie Dog, while its southern region is home to the The earliest significant human modification of Short-horned Lizard and Western Rattlesnake. the native prairie ecosystems was spurred by Manitoba provides habitat for Black Bear, Moose, Sharp­ tailed Grouse, Beaver, and Red Fox. Also present are various species of frog and toad. Local fish include Walleye, Lake Whitefish, and Northern Pike. Considering its area and population, the Prairie Ecozone has a disproportionate number of threatened and endangered wildlife species. At least four vertebrate species - the Plains Grizzly, Swift Fox, Black-footed Ferret, and Greater Prairie Chicken -

57 ( ( European demand for products of the fur trade, resource-based employment, with agricultural ( particularly those from bison. The killing of activities and food processing accounting for ( thousands of bison each year by European nearly 62% of the totaL Its minerals industry settlers led to the virtual elimination of free­ (fossil fuels and related products) accounts for ( roaming bison by the 1880s. nearly a third of Canada's total employment in f this sector. In 1991, the Prairie Ecozone had an Settlement and landscape modification greatly C estimated Gross Domestic Product of roughly increased after 1870, when the Hudson's Bay ( $91 billion, representing about 15% of Canada's Company surrendered its charter and sold total GDP. ( Rupert's Land to Canada. To secure the area ( against potential encroachment by the United The Prairie ecozone has been farmed with a States, Canada encouraged land development. In limited variety of crops. Only 15 field crops ( the early part of this century, following the (grain, oil seeds , and pulses) and even fewer ( completion of the transcontinental railway in forage crops occupy more than 95% of the ( 1885, a massive migration saw more than cropped area. With the exception of canola, ( 200 000 homesteaders stake their claims. which has recently surpassed wheat in the amount of area seeded, these crops have been the ( Railways played a leading role in defining the mainstay of production since European ( pattern of development. Towns emerged along settlement. Beef and dairy cattle, swine, horses, the rail line as collection points for grain and ( chickens, and turkeys are the primary livestock exports and as distribution points for ( domesticated animals. incoming supplies. By 1916, Canada was leading ( the world in wheat exports. Twenty-five years Mining, particularly the production of fuels, is ( later, 60% of the Prairie Ecozone was under the second most important industry. Although the cultivation and the landscape resembled a value of mineral production increased in both ( checkerboard. Saskatchewan and Alberta between 1976 and ( 1991, land use for oil production has declined In 1936, farmers represented 50% of the ( over the past decade, reflecting changes in world population. Today that number has fallen to less ( prices and incentives for exploration and than 10%. Population decline in the rural areas development. By 1991, the value of mineral ( and growth in the urban areas has been the production in the Alberta portion of the ecozone ( general rule since the 1950s. Although urban use made up 46% of Canada's total mineral activity. of land is tiny in terms of area (0.3%), it remains ( an important influence on the ecozone. Today, The Prairie economy is now shifting from ( the proportion of the urban population is 81 % primary and secondary industries toward service­ ( compared with 76% for all of Canada, a based sectors. The primary and secondary ( remarkable figure given that agricultural industries are geared mainly at processing food, activities dominate the landscape of this ecozone. wood, metals, chemicals, and petrochemicals. In ( In 1991, the total popUlation of the Prairie the 1980s, agriculture generated about $5 billion, ( Ecozone was approximately 3.8 million, an or 25% of all exports from the region. This ( increase of 25% since 1971. The major accounted for 2 % of global grain, rice and ( population centres are , Edmonton, vegetable oil output. Mineral and fossil fuel , Regina and Winnipeg. exploitation and other goods and services ( generate $15 billion annUally. ( The economic structure of the ecozone reflects a dependence on the primary industries of ( agriculture, mining, and gas and oil extraction. ( The Prairies provide 19% of Canada's total C ( ( ( 58 ( ( c Table 15 Statistical Profile: Prairies Ecozone

Area=478110Km2 4.8% of Canada) Dominant Landcover Class % total area 1991 Population = 3851089 (14.11 % of Canada's total) Built-up Areas 0.3 Parks and reserves (strictly protected areas) =1.0% of ecozone Barren Lands 0.1 Endangered Wildlife Species = 7 Forest (Coniferous) 0.5 Threatened Species 5 Forest (Mixed wood) 1.9 Forest (Deciduous) 4.5 Rangeland and Pasture 24.8 Cropland 67.7 Total 99.6

Largest 1991 Major Employment % of Total Population Centres Population Sectors (1986) Labour Force Calgary, Alta. 710677 Service 32.0 Edmonton, Alta. 703066 Wholesale and retail trade 16.7. Winnipeg, Man. 612769 Agriculture 9.1 Saskatoon, Sask. 186178 Manufacturing 8.7 Regina, Sask. 179178 Public Administration 7.6

59 ( ( ( ( Atlantic Maritime Ecozone (

( Mixedwood Acadian forests, sand dunes ( stretched along seaboards, and coastal islands are ( some of the unique ecosystems of the Atlantic Mi'kmaq-Maliseet to the French, then to dual Maritime Ecozone. It extends from the Gaspe ( sovereignty of France and Britain in 1713, and Peninsula at the mouth of the St. Lawrence River ( eventually to the British in 1763. southwest through Quebec to the U.S. border ( south of Sherbrooke. It also includes the three Landforms and climate ( maritime provinces of The Atlantic Maritime Ecozone constitutes a (p.E.!.), Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. r cluster of peninsulas and islands which form the ( The harvesting of forests was made possible after northeastern end of the Appalachian mountain ( the end of the last ice age 10,000 years ago. As chain that runs from Newfoundland to Alabama. the climate continued to moderate, southern The highest point, Mount Carleton in New ( temperate vegetation migrated porth, merged Brunswick, reaches 807 meters. In the uplands, ( with existing boreal forests, and spread as the repeated glaciation has produced shallow, stony ( unique mixedwood forest now characteristic of soils, and outcrops composed of granite, gneiss, much of the area. The ecozone's forests have and other hard, crystalline rocks. Rough upland ( contributed to the development of a distinctive terrain and poor soils are often unsuitable for ( Atlantic Canadian way of life since the area was farming and have discouraged extensive ( first settled. settlement. The inhospitable highlands feature ( cold, wet climates and acidic soils, but yield vast Where tidal mixing and upwelling of deep forests. ( nutrient-rich waters occur, excellent finfish and ( lobster fisheries have prospered. Fishing has Coastal lowlands of the Northumberland Plain ( traditionally played a pivotal role in the accommodate the greater share of the population ecozone's history. Today, it is threatened by a and agricultural activities. Here, deeper soils are ( diminishing resource base, and aquaculture, traced to marine deposition and glacial erosion of ( mining, and tourism are the preferred underlying sandstone, shale, and limestone C alternatives. bedrock. With the exception of P.E.I., abrupt transitions between uplands and low land basins ( The history of human settlement within the mark much of the ecozone's landscape. The ( Atlantic Maritime Ecozone is intimately linked majority of the ecozone is overlaid by nutrient­ to its coastline. Both the Mi'kmaqs and Maliseet ( poor Podzol soil and better-quality grey-brown aboriginal populations, who once inhabiting C Luvisol soils. most of the ecozone, relied upon coasts and ( major waterways for transportation, food, and Numerous lakes speckle rugged regions of ( . recreation. The first Europeans to arrive in igneous rock, such as volcanics and granite, Atlantic Canada in the 17th century settled in which are covered by a thin layer of soil. Rivers ( coastal lowlands with promising harbours. and streams predominate in areas of sedimentary ( bedrock and thicker soils. Over The ecozone saw frequent battles over natural ( 11 000 kilometers of coastline are deeply resources. Control was passed from the ( indented by tidal inlets and sand dunes. Almost ( ( ( 60 ( 4 000 offshore islands dotted with lagoons and characterized by a mixture of coniferous and extensive marshes ring Nova Scotia. Red deciduous species. Hardwoods, such as Sugar sandstone cliffs and hard volcanic rocks in the Maple, Beech, and Yellow Birch, dominate Bay of Fundy tower over intertidal beaches up to shallow but well-drained slopes and hillsides. 5 kilometers wide. Conifers, especially Red Spruce, are concentrated in moist soils, coastal fringes, and The proximity of the Atlantic ocean creates a . areas recovering from disturbances. All three moderate, cool, and moist maritime climate. regions are interlaced with numerous lakes and Most of the ecozone experiences long, mild wetlands. winters (averaging about -4°C in January) and cool summers (the mean daily July temperature Moss, lichen, ferns, and heathers are typical of is IS0C). Coastal communities are generally swampy areas and rocky barrens. Seaweed and .. several degrees warmer in winter and slightly kelp grow along exposed coastlines. Acadian cooler in summer. forests are decorated with wildflowers such as Trailing Arbutus, Lady Slipper, Pitcher Plant, During late spring and early summer, the mixing and several varieties of violets. The Ostrich Fern, of the cold Labrador Current and the warm Gulf harvested for its fiddlehead in the spring, thrives Stream produces frequent banks of sea fog over on deciduous-covered streambanks in New coastal areas. Average precipitation varies from Brunswick and Nova Scotia. Blueberry, Pin 1 000 mm inland to 1 425 mm along the coast. Cherry, and Speckled Alder are also common. The average annual growing season ranges from The Purple Loosestrife, an introduced species, 1 500 to over 1 750 growing degree days above has proliferated and displaced many native 5°C. Frost-free days, on average, fluctuate from wetland species. SO in the New Brunswick highlands to ISO along the coast. With a storm frequency higher than At least 10 plants are recognized as either anywhere else in Canada, sunshine can berare. endangered or threatened by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada Plants (COSEWIC). The endangered Water-pennywort, Centuries of forestry, agriculture, and natural a small creeping species of tropical origin, is disturbances have left few pockets of old-growth limited to two localities in southeastern Nova forest. Today, forests are predominantly Scotia. Cottage development and recreational secondary and tertiary growth on old clear-cuts activities have placed the Water-pennywort at and abandoned farms. Decades of logging are risk. The Furbish's Lousewort grows exclusively also responsible for habitat destruction, soil along a 200-kilometre stretch of the Upper Saint erosion, and increased nutrient loss. John River in New Brunswick. Habitat destruction due to farming, forestry, and flooding The Atlantic Maritime Ecozone ranks as the third from hydro-electric development has put the most forested ecozone with 76% of its surface Furbish's Lousewort on the endangered list. area covered with forests, which are divided into three distinct regions: Boreal, Great Lakes-St. The Spruce Budworm has significantly Lawrence, and Acadian. The Boreal region, influenced the ecozone's forests. The most recent associated with fir and spruce, stretches from the outbreak, beginning in the late 1960s, either northwestern tip of New Brunswick into the destroyed or severely damaged large expanses of Gaspe Peninsula. Eastern White Pine, Red Pine, spruce forests. Since 1991, the budworm Yellow Birch, and Eastern Hemlock typify the population has collapsed in all but northern New relatively small Great Lakes-St. Lawrence region Brunswick. Other species, such as Jack Pine, of northern New Brunswick. Acadian forests, have taken advantage of the blight, forest fires, covering 44% of the entire ecozone, are and other disturbances.

61 ( ( unique freshwater habitats of ( the Atlantic region. Tens of ( thousands of shore and migratory birds feed on ( crustaceans in the tidal t mudflats of the Bay of Fundy. ( With productive seas and ( substantial coastal estuaries, the Atlantic Maritime Ecozone ( is often referred to as "an ( international crossroads for ( seabirds." ( Much of the ecozone's wildlife ( is dependent on forest ecosystems. Terrestrial C mammals include Black Bear, ( Bobcat, Snowshoe Hare, Northern Flying ( Wildlife Squirrel, and White-tailed Deer. Large moose ( Although the ecozone represents only 2% of herds concentrate in various regions, especially Canada, it embraces a wide variety of critical in the heart of the Chics-Chocs mountains of the C terrestrial, freshwater, and marine environments. Gaspe Peninsula. Wolves, Mink, and the ( Kelp and seaweed along rocky coasts provide occasional Lynx also reside in the ecozone. ( shelter and food for various marine communities Alteration and loss of habitat from human ( of mussels and crab. The Scotian Shelf off Nova acti vities are the greatest threat to wildlife. ( Scotia is one of the most productive offshore Fragmented landscapes and species decline can areas in the ecozone. Low-lying beaches and ( be attributed to logging, agriculture, overfishing, tidal flats of the Upper Bay of Fundy and the ( and urbanization. The Grey Whale has southern Gulf of St. Lawrence are dominated by disappeared from the Atlantic after centuries of ( burrowing crustaceans. The Gulf is well-known hunting. The endangered status of the Acadian ( for its scallop, mackerel, groundfish, and herring Whitefish is the result of overfishing and water fisheries. Seals, dolphins, porpoises and Black ( quality degradation ·from acid rain and other Guillemots are among the higher predators ( contaminants. The threatened Roseate Tern's within the ecozone. Both seal- and whale­ feathers were exploited by the fashion trade of ( watching are popular tourist attractions. the 19th and early 20th centuries. Today, the ( Rivers draining the area are vital for the species is challenged by expanding Herring Gull ( commercially important Atlantic Salmon and populations preying on its eggs and chicks. other ocean fish that return to inland streams to C Many initiatives have been taken to preserve the spawn. Brook Trout, Gaspereau, Halibut, and ( ecozone's unique fauna. Provincial regulations Bass are highly valued by recreational and ( and protected areas help maintain species and commercial fishers. habitat. Machias Seal Island, a migratory bird ( Lakes and waterways within forests supply sanctuary in the Bay of Fundy, is home to the ( habitat for herons, loons, and freshwater ducks, only colonies of the Atlantic Puffin and Razorbill ( while osprey and eagles nest in tall trees. Canada in New Brunswick. Several species also seek ( Goose, Blue-winged Teal, Ring-necked Duck, refuge in the ecozone's six national parks. The and 31 other bird species breed exclusively in the threatened Blanding's Turtle population, for ( ( ( ( 62 ( example, is almost exclusively confined to acidic northwestern New Brunswick, along with waters and peaty soils within Kejimkujik prosperous fruit orchards in the Annapolis­ National Park. Cornwallis Valley of Nova Scotia, are two exceptions. In 1991, agriculture accounted for Human activities 31 % of total resource-based employment. No single resource has influenced socio­ Although lessland area is farmed today, that economic development in the Atlantic Maritime which remains is used more intensively. In fact, Ecozone more than fish. For 500 years the seas only 8.7% of the ecozone's surface cover area is off Atlantic Canada were one of the world's now classified as agricultural cropland. richest commercial fisheries. Traditional fisheries Both forestry and tourism contribute significantly focused on groundfish: Cod, Pollock, Haddock, to the ecozone's economy. The 1991 forestry and Plaice, and, closer to shore, Mackerel. Modem forest products labour force consisted of some fishing technology led to new heights in the 48 000 workers. The ecozone's economically number of ships and catch levels. The Northern strong pulp and paper industry uses roughly 65% Cod catch rose from about 200 000 tonnes to of the total volume of wood harvested. Naturally 300000 tonnes a year between 1850 and 1950. scenic landscapes are principal attractions for With the introduction of foreign fleets, the tourists. Places of interest include Cape Breton annual catch in the northwest Atlantic climbed to Island and its celebrated Cabot Trail, and the Bay a peak of 800 000 tonnes by the late 1960s. A of Fundy, which features 16 meter tides, the drastic decline to 200 000 tonnes a year in the world's highest. Hiking, birdwatching, and 1970s was followed by a catastrophic collapse in photography are popular ecotourism activities. the 1980s. The collapse of the groundfish industry is the result of severe economic The Atlantic Maritime Ecozone had an estimated pressure causing the resource base to diminish. 1991 Gross Domestic Product of approximately $40 billion, contributing 7% of Canada's total. Traditional fishing-dependent communities now The ecozone provides 12% of Canada's total face many challenges. Aquaculture, or fish resource-based employment, with the fishery and farming, may compensate for some of the fish products sector accounting for 25% of this economic setbacks. This new and expanding total. industry can employ some former fishers and helps satisfy a world-wide demand for high­ Home to over 2.5 million people in 1991, the quality fish products. Today, aquaculture ecozone represents 9% of Canada's population concentrates primarily on finfish, such as and 6% of its urban population. Contrary to most Atlantic Salmon, and various shellfish, such as ecozones, more people live in rural areas than Blue Mussel, Oyster, and Lobster. In 1993, P.E.I. cities. Today, the urban population sits at 49%, alone exported neady 4500 tonnes of cultured significantly less than the national average of mussels, worth almost $10 million. 76%. Halifax represents the largest metropolitan area, with 320 000 residents in 1991. Small A relatively short, cool growing season and fishing villages and resource-dependent mediocre soils have hampered farming in many communities hugging coastlines are more regions. Specialized potato farms on fertile commonplace than large urban centres. lowland soils throughout most ofP.E.I. and

63 c ( Table 16 Statistical Profile: Atlantic Maritime Ecozone ( ( Area =203 750 Kmz (2.0% of Canada) Dominant Landcover Class % totalarea ( 1991 Population = 2 510 203 (9.2% of Canada's total) Built-up Areas 0.2 Parks and reserves (strictly protected areas) 1.6% of ecozone Barren Lands 1.6 (­ Endangered Wildlife Species =9 Forest (Coniferous) 30.7 Threatened Species = 8 Forest (Mixedwood) 46.2 ( Forest (Deciduous) 13.7 Forcst (Transitional) 0.4 ( Cropland 6.5 Water Bodies and Rivers 0.0 c Thtal 99.4 (

Largest 1991 Major Employment % of Total ( Popnlation Centres Popnlation Sectors (1986) Labonr Force ( Halifax, Nova Scotia 253028 Service 29.7 Saint John, N.B. 90457 Wholesale and retail trade 16.3 ( Moncton, N.B. 80744 Manufacturing 13.3 Dartmouth, N.S. 67798 Public Administration 10.6 Charlottetown, P.EJ. 33153 Construction 6.6 c ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( c c ( ( c ( ( ( ( ( 64 Mixedwood Plains Ecozone

An extensive system of waterways, including the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes, combines with surrounding rich fertile soils to Beneath the urban centres and agricultural fields create one of the most productive ecozones in are mesozoic and paleozoic sedimentary rock. Canada. The Mixedwood Plains Ecozone, encompassing a relatively small area of Striking physical features break up the gently 175 963 square kilometers,· is bounded by three rolling plains of most of the ecozone. One of the Great Lakes in southern Ontario and extends most prominent is the Niagara Escarpment from along the St. Lawrence shoreline to . Niagara Falls to the northern tip of the Bruce With its relatively mild climate, it represents the Peninsula and Manitoulin Island. most populous and prosperous terrestrial Limestone, shale, and sandstone are ecozone. characteristic of the flat-lying St. Lawrence Native communities, including the Mohawk, low lands. Mount Royal rises to 227 meters Algonquian, Iroquoian, and Cree, inhabited the above sea level from the widest and flattest favoured plains long before European settlement. sections of the Montreal Plain. Some visually The earliest French arrivals, also recognizing the dominant landforms in the area are the St. St. Lawrence River's many advantages, Narcisse terminal moraine on the north side of established themselves along the shoreline at the St. Lawrence River, and the Drummondville Quebec City in Hamilton, and Toronto in Upper and Highland Front moraines of the south shore. Canada during the mid-18th century. Over 6 000 drumlins are scattered among the Interlaced with national and international extensive sand and limestone plains in the transportation routes, the ecozone has become ecozone's southern stretches between lakes the industrial and commercial heartland of Huron, Ontario, and Erie. Canada. Urban centres encroach on remaining The ecozone is endowed with abundant prime agricultural land as the population freshwater resources, including four of the Great continues to grow. Settlement and resource Lakes - Superior, Huron, Erie, and Ontario - extraction have dramatically altered the land. and the St. Lawrence River from Kingston to Landforms and climate Quebec City. These Great Lakes constitute nearly 20% of the world's fresh water. The outflow of Until the most recent continental ice sheet the St. Lawrence is the greatest of any river in retreated 11 000 years ago, the Mixedwood Canada and ranks thirteenth worldwide. Plains Ecozone was buried under more than a Tributaries, such as the Ottawa, Maurice, and kilometer of ice. Following the ice age, the St. Saguenay, bolster the river's flow along its 600- Lawrence and lower Ottawa Valleys were kilometre route to the gulf. Rivers and lakes covered by the Champlain Sea for another occupy roughly 42% of the ecozone's total 1 200 years. Thick marine clay deposits in surface cover. southern and southeastern Ontario and southwestern Quebec are the products of glacial Variations in climate, vegetation, and soils action and the now extinct Champlain Sea. influence the land-use patterns. Podzol soils in

65 ( ( northern stretches, while generally useless for woodlots, urban forests, or protected areas. ( agriculture, are suited to Heavily forested areas are, however, more forestry and recreation. ( In the south, grey-brown Luvisol soils, developed common around the northern lakes. Presently, the under forest vegetation from glacial deposits, are ecozone's forests consist of 12.8% mixedwood, ( favoured for agricultural crops such as tobacco 2.1 % deciduous, and 0.2% coniferous trees. t and fruit. Even though the Mixedwood Plains represent ( The climate of the Mixedwood Plains produces Canada's smallest terrestrial ecozone, they ( relatively warm summers and cool winters contain over half the nation's endangered and ( moderated by surrounding water bodies. Mean threatened species. The American Ginseng, ( daily January temperatures range from -3°C to- designated as threatened by the Committee on 12°C, whereas mean daily July temperatures are the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada ( 18°C to 22°C. The ecozone supports a wide (COSEWIC), inhabits rich moist deciduous ( variety of agricultural activities with an average forests in southwestern Quebec and southern ( annual growing season, north to south, ranging Ontario. Populations have been drastically ( from 1 750 to 2500 growing degree days above reduced by excessive cattle grazing, logging, and 5°C. This region also receives 720 to 1 000 mm the commercial harvest of its roots. In the late ( of precipitation annUally. Due to its location in 1980s the Blue-eyed Mary disappeared from ( the midst of a significant North American storm open woodland sites along waterways in south­ ( belt, weather in the plains can change rapidly. central Ontario. ( Several southern cities, such as Woodstock and Influenced by the surrounding Great Lakes and Guelph, receive considerable amounts of snow. ( tropical air from the Gulf of Mexico, the ( Plants Carolinian forests are home to a unique combination of plants and wildlife. Stretching ( Vast tracts of forest once blanketed most of the from Windsor in the west to the eastern border of ( Mixedwood Plains. Areas to the north and east of Metropolitan Toronto, this zone represents one of Toronto were covered in the Great Lakes-St. ( Canada's most vulnerable ecosystems. Today, Lawrence forest region, characterized by Eastern ( forest cover ranges from a mere 3 to 16%, and White Pine, Eastern Hemlock, Yellow Birch, and 40% of Ontario's rare plants are restricted to the ( Red Pine. An abundance of broad-leaved species, region. Endangered species include the Prickly ( such as Sugar Maple, Red Oak, Basswood, and Pear Cactus, Small-whorled Pogonia, Cucumber White Elm, were also widely distributed ( Tree, and Wood Poppy. throughout the area. A small portion of the ( deciduous, or Carolinian, forest region reaches Trilliums, Clover, Black-eyed Susans, its northern limits in southwestern Ontario Goldenrod, and Wild Raspberry are common in ( between lakes Huron, Erie, and Ontario. Tulip­ the ecozone's remaining forests. Thickets and tree, Blue Ash, Red Mulberry, and Kentucky abandoned fields give rise to successional ( Coffee-tree are confined largely to the warmest species such as Staghorn Sumac, Highbush ( portions of the ecozone. These unique deciduous Cranberry, Red-osier Dogwood, and Willow. ( forests are intermixed with Black Walnut, Various aquatic species inhabit the few ( Sycamore, and the more common Great Lakes­ remaining wetlands in the Great Lakes Basin and St. Lawrence forest species. along the shorelines of Lake St. Clair, Lake Erie, ( and the St. Lawrence River. Native and exotic ( Very little of the original forest remains today. plants, such as cattails, water lilies, sedges, and Centuries of agriculture, logging, and ( the introduced Purple Loosestrife, can be found urbanization in particular, fragmented the ( in wetlands as welL landscape into isolated pockets of forest. In ( Ontario, many of these pockets are now farms, ( ( ( 66 Wildlife The Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River were primary attractions for early settlers to the Mixedwood Plains, and not only as a travel route. The waterways supported a tremendous wealth of fish and other aquatic species that stimulated economic growth and regional development. The Great Lakes were once dominated by large, bottom­ dwelling species such as Lake Trout, Whitefish, and Sturgeon. Walleye and Baltimore Oriole popUlations. The Long Point Largemouth Bass flourished in sheltered bays Biosphere reserve in southern Ontario now plays and the warm, shallow Lake Erie. a vital continental role in the protection of For decades aquatic communities have suffered migratory bird habitat. Attracted to extensive from the effects of intense commercial fishing marshes for staging and overwintering purposes, and habitat destruction. Many spawning and roughly 280 bird species have been banded in the feeding areas have been lost to siltation, region since 1960. For the Henslow's Sparrow, pollution, and dredging. Centuries of overfishing however, habitat protection has been minimal. A forced the Great Lakes commercial fisheries to native to meadows and abandoned agricultural focus primarily on introduced non-native species, fields in southern Ontario, the sparrow was such as Rainbow Smelt, White Perch, and declared endangered by COSEWIC in 1993. Common Carp. Today the St. Lawrence River Long-term population declines are related to and its marine habitats support a diverse intense cultivation and urban sprawL collection of aquatic species, including Atlantic Two of the three reptiles listed as threatened by Tomcod, Northern Pike, baleen whales and the COSEWIC reside within the ecozone. The endangered Beluga Whale. eastern Massasauga Rattlesnake, commonly The introduction of various exotic species is also perceived as dangerous, is restricted to responsible for serious economic and ecological diminishing wetlands in Ontario. Stretches of the damage. Both the Sea Lamprey and Zebra St. Lawrence River, as well as lakes St. Clair, Mussel, for example, have dramatically altered Erie, Ontario, and Champlain, are home to the aquatic ecosystems. The Zebra Mussel, increasingly rare Spiny Softshell Turtle. aggressively spreading through most of the Forests and grasslands support a wide variety of ecozone's waterways since 1986, has disrupted terrestrial organisms in the Mixedwood Plains. food chains by reducing phytoplankton and Characteristic mammals include White-tailed zooplankton populations. Deer, Black Bear, eastern Cottontail, and Grey Numerous bird species, including the Cardinal, and Black Squirrels. Foxes and wolves make Green Heron, and Carolina Wren, are unique to appearances outside urban settings, while coastal the ecozone. Typical residents of remnant forest wetlands and tributaries provide crucial habitat· patches and urban greenspace include Blue Jay, for beaver and muskrat. Although many species Whip-poor-will, Red-headed Woodpecker, and have lost varying degrees of habitat to urban

67 ( expansion, a handful have proved resilient. 34% of Canada's resource-based employment, ( Nuisance animals, such as raccoons, house mice, and half of that number work in the agriculture ( and groundhogs, have found special niches and food industry. The ecozone's service within urban ecosystems and thrive there. industry, constituting a third of the labour force, ( is immensely important to national and Human activities t international trade and commerce. Oil refineries, ( Most human activities in the ecozone, both past power-line corridors and industrial parks dotting and present, are associated with urbanization. vast tracts of the landscape are evidence of the C Containing 52% of Canada's 1991 population, it ecozone's dominant service and manufacturing C is the most densely populated ecozone in the industries. ( country. Of the nation's 25 largest cities, 13 fall Fertile soils and a relatively mild climate have ( within the ecozone. The largest - Toronto, created excellent agricultural land. In fact, the ( Montreal, Ottawa, and Quebec City - are ecozone contains over 50% of Canada's class connected by extensive networks of ( 1 agricultural land, and 62% of the land with a expressways. Between 1966 and 1991, Toronto's ( . capability of classes 1,2, and 3. The Niagara population grew by 80%, and the Toronto Peninsula, famous for its fruit orchards and ( metropolitan area now houses 14% of all vineyards, is the warmest and most intensively ( Canadians, compared with 11.5% living in the cultivated part of the ecozone. Com, soybeans, Montreal area. ( and specialty crops such as tobacco and ( Even though 85% of residents live in urban vegetables are concentrated in southern regions areas, settlement patterns have changed from the enjoying 2 000 to 2 500 growing degree days. ( traditional compact, centralized city to new The cultivation of mixed grains also enhances ( suburbs spreading into surrounding countryside. hog, dairy, and beef livestock production ( Smaller cities are no exception. Kitchener­ throughout the ecozone. Today, urban expansion ( Waterloo, for example, grew by 57% between is the primary reason for loss of prime 1971 and 1991. Several outlying municipalities agricultural land. ( north and east of Montreal, such as St-Lazare ( Tourism and recreation continue to strengthen and Blainville, also grew by over 40% from the ecozone's economy. Niagara Falls, the CN ( 1986 to 1991. Home to 11 million people in Tower in Toronto, and the historic cities of ( .1971, the entire ecozone grew to 14 million by Montreal and Quebec are a few of the many 1991. ( popular tourist attractions. Numerous northern ( Intensive urban development in the Mixedwood communities, once heavily dependent on logging Plains has led to severe environmental and mining, have turned to tourism for additional ( degradation. Relocation to the suburbs and urban sources of revenue. Cottage development along C. fringe escalated dependency on private the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence shorelines has ( automobiles. Consequently, residents in the intensified as urban residents spend more of their ( Windsor-Quebec City corridor now breathe some leisure time beyond city limits. Marinas, resorts, of the highest levels of air pollutants, including and restaurants are now common sites in the ( ground-level ozone and suspended particulates. countryside. The area had an estimated Gross Domestic ( Product in 1991 of $325 billion, contributing ( 55% of Canada's total. The ecozone provides ( ( ( ( ( C 68 Table 17 Statistical Profile: Mixedwood Plains Ecozone

Area = 194 430 KJn2 (2.0% of Canada) Dominant Landcover Class % total area 1991 Population = 14016101 (51.35 % of Canada's total) Built-up Areas 1.7 Parks and reserves (strictly protected areas) = 2.7% of ecozone Barren Lands 0.0 Endangered Wildlife Species 21 Forest (Coniferous) 0.5 Threatened Species = 20 Forest (Mixedwood) 32.6 Forest (Deciduous) 5.5 Cropland 59.4 Total 99.7

Largest 1991 Major Employment % of Total Population Centres Population Sectors (1986) Labour Force Toronto, Ont. 3550733 Service 30.7 Montreal, Que. 2905695 Manufacturing 21.5 Quebec, Que. 574397 Wholesale and retail trade 16.6 Hamilton, Ont. 553679 Public Administration 6.6 Mississauga, Ont. 427498 Finance 5.8

69 ( ( Section 4 (

The Marine Ecozones of Canada c r ( C Figure 3 Map of Canadian marine ecozones C ( Legend ( ( Marine mJlllD Pacific Marine CJIJ Arctic Archipelago ( l§Sl Arctic Basin m Northwest Atlantic ( • Atlantic Marine ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( l ( ( ( ( ( ( 70 ( Pacifzc Marine Ecozone

The waters of the Pacific Coast are perhaps best known to Canadians today because of the popularity of tourism and the prominent, but underlies the entire length of the ecozone. This troubled,. fishing industry. However the Pacific shelf is the leading edge of the great North coast of British Columbia is also home to ancient American continental tectonic plate. As the plate indigenous cultures. subduets the Pacific tectonic plate which forms On his third voyage around the world in 1778, the bottom of the Pacific Ocean, the geological Captain James Cook became the first European forces at work along the edge of this shelf cause to be recorded landing on the Pacific coast of undersea volcanoes and earthquakes for which present-day British Columbia. There he this region is famous. encountered the ancient communities of the Sea ice is generally absent in the Pacific Marine "People of the Totem". Humans had already Ecozone. Due to the geographic barrier imposed been living in coastal British Columbia and the by the Alaskan peninsula, cold currents do not Queen Charlotte Islands for at least 8 000 years. flow down the west coast. There is little oceanic The heavily forested, mountainous terrain along water exchanged between the Arctic and Pacific the coast led to the emergence of a sea-dependent Ecozones. From south to north within Canada's culture. In their own waters, the people of the borders, ocean surface temperatures vary only Pacific coast had learned sea-faring and fishing about 3°e. Within the ecozone, ocean skills superior to the first European explorers. temperatures vary over the seasons within a The Haida, in particular, had a reputation for narrow range of approximately 7°C, a striking undertaking extended sea voyages. contrast to the 20°C variation along the east The Pacific Marine Ecozone is home to abundant coast. Seasonal ice can only be found outside plant and wildlife, but is also coming under Canada's territorial waters at the northern pressure from one the fastest growing human boundary of the Bering Sea, in the Sea of populations in North America. The Ecozone Okhotsk, and in bays and inlets, especially where extends from the southern tip of Vancouver there are considerable flows of fresh water off Island to Dixon Entrance, north of the Queen the land. Based on its stable temperatures the Charlotte Islands. However, from an ecological Pacific Marine Ecozone may be considered a perspective, and ignoring international transition zone between the polar waters of the boundaries, this ecozone actually extends north Arctic and the temperate waters of the mid­ to Alaska and the Bering Sea, and south along latitude Pacific Ocean. the coasts of the states of Washington and Plants Oregon. The Pacific Marine Ecozone forms an important segment of the eastern Rim of the Throughout this ecozone, freshwater discharges Pacific Ocean. from rivers such as the Fraser, Skeena, and Nass carry nutrients to the ocean, stimulating the Landforms and Climate growth of Phytoplankton and algae, among The ecozone takes in all of Canada's Pacific west others. Towards the southern end of Vancouver coast beginning from the fjord-dominated coast Island, deep water upwelling also encourages a and extending westward out to sea over a prolific ocean environment. Unlike the Atlantic narrow continental shelf and slope which marine ecozones, the Pacific Marine Ecozone

71 ( abundant. Salmon, halibut, steelhead and dolly varden, ( among others form the backbone of commercial ( fisheries. Over the years, t salmon and herring stocks have been overfished, and while herring stocks are rebounding, salmon stocks are ( still in dangerous decline. ( Marine mammals include ( Stellar sea lions, sea otters, ( northern fur seals, Orca and ( gray whales. Very large breeding bird populations ( include ducks and geese, ( has little geographical connection with the petrels, guillemots, murrelets and auklets, with Arctic, so it has different popUlations and ( some puffins and murres. Several species of . distributions of species than the Atlantic ( raptors, including bald eagles and osprey feed In Ecozones. In the intertidal zones (between high the near-shore marine wetlands and rivers. All of ( and low tide and always underwater) lie vast the B.C. breeding populations of Brandt's ( forests of Macrocystis, or Giant Kelp along with cormorants occur on the west coast of Vancouver several varieties of seaweeds and coral reefs. ( Island. Soon after records of Captain Cook's voyages ( were published in 1784, British and American Human Activities \ traders sailed to the Pacific waters in -search of The temperate climate, esthetically pleasing ( sea otters. By the early 1930s, the Pacific scenery, and booming economy have combined popUlation of sea otters was extirpated by ( to make Canada's Pacific Coast a desirable hunting. As a result, sea urchin populations ( place for humans to live. As a result.. the Pacif~c exploded, decimating many of the kelp forests Coast is the fastest growing populanon centre In ( and their associated algae communities. Today, the country. By 2016, the population of greater otter populations are rising again. The kelp ( Vancouver is expected to reach 5-million (Re. habitat may also recover. Along the water's edge, ( Ministry of Environment, 1993). Throughout~e coastal salt marshes and mudflats contain vast ecozone, fishing, shipping, and marine recreatIOn ( beds of eelgrass, important sites where Pacific are the main human activities which contribute to ( herring schools lay their roe. the area's high standard of living. But these { Wildlife lucrative activities, along with oil pollution ( from shipping, urban run-off, destruction of The Pacific Ecozone is home to about shore-line habitat, and industrial pollution, are ( 3800 species of marine invertebrates, a mixture also among the main human ecological impacts. ( of neritic (living in the tide waters and In 1967, overfishing led to a collapse of the landwashes), oceanic, sub-polar and benthic (or ( herring stocks. Government controls stopped bottom-dwelling) plankton. These populations ( almost all herring fishing, allowing the stocks to make up 3.5% of all the marine invertebrates in rebuild. By 1993, most of the Pacific herring ( the world. The large invertebrate populations stocks were in good condition. Today, salmon ( provide rich food sources for fis~. .. stocks are overfished and continue to decline to Approximately 220 fish species lIve WIthin the C dangerously low levels. ecozone. The Pacific Herring is the most ( ( ( 72 ( Arctic Arc ...... r ••.•••. ".. Ecozone

This Ecozone defines the fjords, channels, straits and open waters that surround Canada's northern archipelago - the hundreds of islands that make ieads and areas of open water can be found up the Queen Elizabeth chain. The islands of the farther north. From year to year, ice conditions archipelago form the Northern Arctic Terrestrial are variable and unpredictable. Ecozone. Since the Arctic Marine ecozone surrounds the islands, the ecozones are The short cool summers of the Land of the inextricably interrelated. The Marine Ecozone Midnight Sun give way to long cold winters. follows the northern continental shelf from Long periods of daylight in the summer help to Mackenzie Bay in the Beaufort north to the stretch the short summer growing season, Lincoln Sea between Ellesmere Island and however the air temperature never gets very Greenland. It then curves southward through the warm. Even in July, mean daily temperatures Nares Strait, taking in all of Baffin Island, except average only 10°e. In winter, temperatures for those section of the east coast which are part average about -30°C, and can get much colder. of the Northwest Atlantic Ecozone. The ecozone In the southern range of the ecozone lie Hudson encompasses all waters to the south-west of and James Bays. Their more southern latitudes, Baffin Island, including the Gulf of Boothia, shallower waters and more temperate climates Foxe Basin, and then on south into one of encourage a proliferation of vegetation and Canada's most prominent geographic features, wildlife. Hudson Bay. Plants Landforms and Climate In the high Arctic, sea ice covered with snow Scoured by glaciers, the Arctic Archipelago is absorbs much of the solar radiation necessary for characterized by precipitous fjords and channels. photosynthesis. But by late summer, the ice has Water depths average 200 to 500 meters, thinned out enough to allow a seasonal however deep water runs down to 900 meters Phytoplankton bloom. The largest natural around the Queen Elizabeth Islands. Sea ice upwelling of sea water in the ecozone is the jammed fast to the land and glaciers are abiding North Water Polynya. It occurs in northern features of the area. On eastern Ellesmere Island, Baffin Bay near the Nares Strait, encouraging an glaciers which extend into the sea break off, or earlier and more prolific bloom of Phytoplankton "calve" huge icebergs into the Nares Strait. In the than is found in the rest of the ecozone. Further Northwestern Archipelago, sea ice exists all south in the ecozone, intertidal zones support year-round. The rest of the ecozone is an area of large forests of kelp. seasonal ice cover. Through most of the ecozone, maximum ice thickness is reached in May, Wildlife followed by spring breakup. By September, most During the few weeks of Arctic summer, dozens of the ice has either melted or been carried away of species of migrating birds make use of the to the south by currents. Polynyas, places where unpredictable sections of opel). water which currents and upwellings create open water, can appear in the ecozone. As the ice breaks up, the occur throughout the ecozone. In summer, shore ice edges become very important areas for

73 ( ( mammals and seabirds. Feeding, staging, and bears in Canada builds dens along the coast of ( moulting are some of the critical annual activities Hudson Bay near Churchill, Manitoba. The tidal performed in the ecozone by small numbers of flats and salt marshes of Hudson Bay welcome loons, Tundra Swans, Geese, ducks, and several some of the world's largest concentrations of ( species of shorebirds, jaegers, gulls, Arctic terns, breeding and migrating waterfowl. One of the t alcids, and fulmars. largest known populations of Peregrine falcons in the world is found along the northwest coast Polar bear and ringed seals roam throughout the ( of Hudson Bay. region. Bearded and harp seals are found along ( the east coast of Ellesmere Island, especially Human Activities ( where open waters promise easy breathing. In The waters of the Arctic Archipelago Ecozone winter, the unfrozen North Water Polynya serves ( wash the shores of three Canadian provinces and as a refuge for these air-breathing mammals. two Territories. Biologically, the Arctic Early in the 20th century Arctic bowhead whales Archipelago Ecozone is as productive, or more ( were hunted almost to extinction. While numbers productive than the adjacent terrestrial surfaces. ( have rebounded somewhat in the western Arctic, Canadian Inuit find most of their traditional food the eastern stock is still severely depleted. ( in this ecozone, so hunting and fishing are ( Large schools of small Arctic Cod exist across significant human activities. Arctic char and the ecozone supporting populations of seals, Greenland Halibut (turbot) support commercial <: beluga whales and narwhals. It has been fisheries in Baffin Bay. Oil and gas exploration ( estimated that 148 000 tonnes of these fish are and development continue to be major sources of ( consumed annually by seabirds and marine potential ecological stress in the ecozone, ( mammals in Lancaster Sound alone. Arctic char especially in the Beaufort Sea. As mineral are plentiful in the Queen Maude Gulf. Shrimp prospectors gain more experience operating in ( live in the south Baffin and Hudson Strait waters, the north, large new mineral deposits may be ( and scallops are found off south Baffin Island found, raising questions about mine waste and ( and in Hudson Bay. tailings that may find their way into the sea. To ( the south, it seems inevitable that hydro-electric Important herds of the endangered Beluga whale development will continue on the rivers which ( spend their summers along the west coast of drain into . Changes in water flows, Hudson Bay. The largest population of polar t salt content, and the presence of heavy metals ( disturbed by dam construction ( will create unpredictable impacts on the marine ecology C of the southern portion of the ( ecozone. As human ( populations continue to grow, ( the impacts of urbanization will also continue, especially C in the more southerly reaches ( of the ecozone. The long­ ( range transport of pollutants ( into the Arctic, such as PCBs, mercury and DDT is a serious ( problem here, as in other parts ( of the Arctic. l ( ( ( 74 ( Arctic Basin Ecozone

Most of Canada's Arctic is defined by the Arctic Basin Ecozone. It extends from the southern edge of the pennanent ice-pack in the Beaufort precipitation ranges from 100 to 200 mm - sparse Sea north and east over the Canada Basin of the compared to Canada's wettest place on land, Arctic Ocean. It skirts the Queen Elizabeth St. John's, Newfoundland with its 1 500 mm a Islands of the Arctic Archipelago, touches the year. And yet, against these most strenuous of coast of Ellesmere Island, and reaches almost to extremes, there is life in Canada's Arctic. the northwest coast of Greenland. The overwhelming ecological characteristic of this Plants ecozone is its pennanent 90 - 100% cover of The icy conditions in this ecozone provide a pack ice, the giant ice cap floating on the ocean daunting habitat. Because of the constant ice at the top of the world. The entire ice pack cover, and almost no tides, the waters of the slowly rotates in a counter-clockwise pattern Arctic Basin are not mixed, so there is no roughly centered around the North Pole. The opportunity for nutrients to arrive from other rotation is driven by the Arctic Ocean Gyre, one places. In fact, the biological productivity of the ~f the ~ain Arctic Ocean currents. The heavily ecozone is only 1% of the well-mixed Atlantic ndged Ice reaches a thickness of 2 meters and Ocean. But despite the rigorous conditions, ice more. Islands of ice, several kilometers square, algae grows on the underside of sea ice in the are common. summer. Biological "hotspots" consisting of Landforms and Climate blooms of microscopic plants called Phytoplankton occur in spring and summer along The Arctic Basin Ecozone is a true oceanic the edges of the pack-ice, or in places called ecozone in that it touches almost no land except Polynyas where currents are strong enough to at the north coast of Ellesmere Island. The keep the water from freezing. These blooms undersea geography is dominated by the deep provide the basis of the Arctic food chain. water of the Canada Basin, which plummets to an average depth of about 3 600 meters. The Wildlife Canada Basin extends from the Beaufort Sea Thanks to the Phytoplankton and algae blooms almost to the North Pole, where it is bounded by higher animal species survive in this hostile ' the Lomonosov Ridge, a submarine mountain environment and are adapted to life on or near range rising to 1 000 meters below the ocean the pennanent ice pack. Along the edges of the surface. Near the southern margin of the ice pack live walrus, polar bear, beluga whales, pennanent ice pack, the Mackenzie River narwhals, and bearded, harp, ringed and harbour discharges a considerable plume of fresh water seals. Migratory birds pass through the ecozone, into Mackenzie Bay in the neighboring Arctic and the hardy and aggressive ivory gull lives Archipelago ecozone. year-round along the edges of the ice pack. This The climate is extremely cold and dry. In scavenging bird will eat fish, crustaceans, dead January, mean daily temperatures range from whales and seals. A polar bear kill provides a -30 to -35°C. In summer, the mean daily rare bonanza. temperature only rises to a chilly 5°C. Annual

75 ( Beneath the ice, life is present, ( but sparse. About 130 fish ( species occur across the Arctic. The greatest numbers occur in the west and south, t with schools of Arctic cod and ( ogac, Arctic char, sculpin, ( eelpout, and snailfish being the most common. It is estimated ( that 50% of the living ( creatures in the Arctic are ( benthic organisms like ( anemones, clams, sea worms and sea stars. Even today, there ( has been little research so ( almost nothing is known about these creatures Toxic chemicals have spread through the food ( except that they are crucial players in the Arctic chain in the Arctic. Substances, such as PCBs ( food web. and mercury, are released in cfistant industrial centers and are transported to the Arctic by ( Human Activities global weather systems. These dangerous ( Most of the Canadian Arctic remains unexplored. substances tend to build up in the bodies of the ( Since the Arctic Basin Ecozone touches almost marine mammals upon which Canada's ( no land, human presence is limited to small-scale aboriginal peoples depend as a major source of hunting expeditions along the edges of the pack food. PCBs are a known contaminant of human ( ice and to adventurers who risk the ice. In recent breast milk in the Arctic. Commercial over­ ( years, aircraft and ice-breaking ships have been harvesting of mammals and birds has endangered ( used to transport scientists, and tourists into the the wildlife populations, especially the bowhead ( area. Scientific studies have largely concentrated whale. Subsistence hunting by Canadian Inuit on finding areas of potential oil and gas has also been affected by commercial { development inshore along the edges of the ice exploitation of traditional country foods. ( pack, however the permanent ice pack offshore C poses formidable obstacles to petroleum ( exploration and drilling. ( ( C ( ( C ( ( ( ( l ( ( ( 76 Northwest Atlantic Ecozone

The Northwest Atlantic Ecozone and the Atlantic Marine Ecozone encompass almost the entire eastern Canadian continental seaboard, from the cliffs, and bald rock created by repeated Arctic to the Gulf of Maine - some glaciation. There are over 440 000 islands along 52 000 kilometers of coastline, representing the coasts. Offshore, the continental shelf about 21 % of all of Canada's coasts. Early extends to a distance of about 150 kilometers, explorers to Canada's Atlantic coasts returned to with water depths ranging to 200 meters. Within Europe disappointed that they had not found a the ecozone, tidal fluctuations range from 9 to route to Asia. However, their stories of fish so 12 meters. In parts of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, plentiful·they could be scooped up in baskets led tidal action is. much smaller, with average to further exploration and eventual settlement. fluctuations of less than one meter. However, The east coast ecozones contain some of tides to challenge the Bay of Fundy occur in Canada's richest and most imperiled ecosystems. UngavaBay. The consequences of overfishing in the Atlantic ecozones are now well known, but further M<;ljor ocean currents flow through the ecozone. understanding of the ecology of these areas is The Labrador current transports cold water from essential if there is to be hope of restoring the north. Near the Grand Banks, this cold-water sustainable commercial fisheries in the region. flow merges with the warmer flow of the Gulf Stream from the south. Like the Pacific Marine The Northwest Atlantic Ecozone begins in Ecozone, the Northwest Atlantic Ecozone forms Canada's far north at the mouth of the Nares a transition between the cold northern waters Strait between Ellesmere Island and Greenland. and the more temperate southern waters. Average It continues south along the western edge of the temperatures differ by more than 20°C between permanent ice pack, then touches Baffin Island at the Arctic waters and the Gulf Stream. In Cape Dyer. It takes in the remaining coast of August, surface temperatures vary between 3 and Baffin Island rounding Resolution Island and SoC. Below the ocean surface, temperatures then west to the Hudson Strait. Arcing eastward remain below O°C all year round. Sea salt keeps again, the ecozone follows through Ungava Bay. the sub-surface waters from freezing. In the Gulf It takes in all of the Labrador Coast, the west and of St. Lawrence, salt levels are lower due to the north-east coasts of Newfoundland, and the fresh water flowing from the St. Lawrence River. entire Quebec, New Brunswick, P.E.!. and Nova Scotia coasts of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Depending on the season and latitude, sea ice is a Offshore, the ecozone follows the line of the feature throughout much of the ecozone. In underwater continental shelf, descending south November or December, sea ice begins to form from the permanent ice sheet near the Davis in the Labrador Sea. By February or March, the Strait to come ashore at Newfoundland's Avalon sea ice regularly reaches the northeast coast of Peninsula. Newfoundland and onto the Grand Banks, accompanied by thousands of icebergs. Most Landforms and Climate years, the St. Lawrence River freezes, closing Much of the coastline contained in the Northwest shipping. In Mayor June, the ice begins to clear, Atlantic Ecozone is characterized by fjords,

77 ( ( and by July, the coasts are ice-free well north on The steep, rocky cliffs and thousands of islands the coast of Labrador. in this ecozone, provide excellent habitat to some ( of the largest sea bird colonies in the world. Plants Concentrations occur on the Gannet Islands off ( In the northern reaches of this Ecozone, sea ice the southern Labrador coast, and on the Funk t predominates, limiting botanical productivity to Islands off Newfoundland's northeast coast. ( species of algae and benthic plants like Large colonies are also found in the Gulf of St. ( anemones. Further south, conditions are Lawrence on Anticosti Island, Bonaventure favorable for many varieties of Phytoplankton, Island, and the Magdalen Islands. Colonies often algae, kelp and sea weeds. Coastal intertidal include puffins, petrels, cormorants, thick-billed ( zones are especially productive. The intertidal mUITes, and many varieties of gull. ( zones provide shelter and food for a diverse Human Activities ( community of marine animals that include mussels, lobster and crab. The richness of the Atlantic Ocean lured 16th r century Europeans in search of wealth. ( Wildlife Legendary quantities of fish were scooped out of ( The waters over the continental shelf of the the waters off the east coast. It became a ( Northwest Atlantic Marine Ecozone are famous comfortable, and lucrative notion that there were ,,~ for their prolific range of marine mammals, more fish in the sea than could ever be taken out. ( birds, and fish. This ecozone is home for part of The sea provided a sometimes meager living for ( the year to the endangered Northern Cod. fishing families, while enriching merchants and ( Twenty-two species of whale, and six species of financiers. But by the 1990s, commerce and ( seal occur in the ecozone. Pods of humpbacks, politics, mixed with uncertain science practically bluefins, and minke whales feed near shore, and wiped out Canada's cod stocks. A way of life ( sperm whales can be found further offshore. that had supported the people of eastern Canada ( Killer whales, porpoises and dolphins also occur, for 400 years was seriously undermined. In ( but are not common. Millions of harp seals live 1992, the Government of Canada imposed a ( along the coasts. There is debate as to whether moratorium on cod fishing in most Atlantic harp seals are partially to blame for the decline Canadian waters. It is hoped that eased fishing ( of the cod stocks. pressure will allow the stocks to rebuild. ( The northern reaches of this ( ecozone are sparsely ( populated. Small towns and ( villages are dotted along the (. Newfoundland and Labrador coasts and Baffin island. ( Human activities in the ( ecozone include seal hunting, ( subsistence fishing, resource ( exploration and burgeoning tourism. But offshore factory­ ( freezer trawlers still fish the ( ecozone taking their official ( quotas, and sometimes more, ( of any commercially valuable fish they can find. Concern is ( C ( \ 78 ( now emerging about the ecological impact of Endangered marine mammals, such as beluga exploitation of the giant mineral deposits that whales are sensitive to toxins in the water. Urban have been found at Voisey's Bay near Nain, on sprawl along the banks of the St. Lawrence the northern coast of Labrador. River, and around coastal cities has destroyed much wildlife habitat. Municipal garbage dumps Further south in the ecozone population density have encouraged gull populations to rise, forcing increases dramatically along the shores of the out other species. Gulf of st. Lawrence. Industrial pollution and municipal sewage flow into this ecozone.

79 ( (

( Atlantic Marine Ecozone ( f ( With the exception of the Grand Banks and the ( Scotian Shelf, the Atlantic Marine Ecozone is ( defined by deep water. About half of the ecozone water temperatures can vary between 10 and ( is located well out to sea, the remainder extends 230C. However, like the Northwest Atlantic to the east coast. The Ecozone's offshore ecozone, winter and early spring ice can be ( boundary extends along the edge of the eastern plentiful along the east coast of the Avalon ( continental shelf. It begins in the Davis Strait, Peninsula, and in the Cabot Strait between ( then follows the Labrador Shelf south around the Newfoundland and Nova Scotia. Icebergs are a ( Flemish Cap seamount, taking in the Grand common sight in late winter and spring off the Banks, and coming ashore at the north-eastern tip Newfoundland coast and on the Grand Banks. r of Newfoundland's Avalon Peninsula. The . The mainland coast of Nova Scotia and the Bay ( inshore boundary takes in all of Newfoundland's of Fundy (except for its northernmost reaches) ( south coast, Nova Scotia's east coast, extends are essentially ice-free. Off Newfoundland, { into the Bay of Fundy, and south to the Gulf of mixing of the warm currents from the south and Maine. Icebergs as big as small mountains, with the Labrador current from the north creates 90% of their mass underwater are not uncommon conditions favorable for famously dense fogs. ( in the ecozone and have been feared by mariners ( for centuries. Because of the danger of collisions Plants with icebergs, sailors named the stretch of ocean ( Phytoplankton blooms that can tum the water from Greenland to south of Newfoundland green with life every spring are the first link in C "Iceberg Alley". r the food chain of the Atlantic Marine Ecozone. \. Landforms and Climate Other marine plants, such as seaweeds and kelp ( are prolific, especially in intertidal zones. Off the coast of Labrador, The Atlantic Marine ( Extensive salt marshes occur throughout the Ecozone essentially begins at.the drop-off of the ( zone, particularly in New Brunswick, Nova continental shelf and extends on eastward out to Scotia, and Prince Edward Island, less so in ( sea. But east and south off Newfoundland lie the Newfoundland and Labrador. These tidal ( relative shallows of the Grand Banks, the trailing wetlands are home to the highly salt resistant edge of the North American tectonic plate. ( saltmarsh cord grass (Spartina altemiflora) and Whereas average water depths outside the shelf ( marsh meadow grass (Spartina patens). The salt can range down to thousands of meters, depths marshes can also support a variety of other on the Grand Banks are 150 meters and less over plants, including spike grass, wild barley, sea ( broad areas. Tidal ranges within the ecozone are lavender and sea plantain. normally one to two meters, but the Bay of ( Fundy is the exception with its famous tidal Wildlife ( bores which can top 12 meters. The Grand Banks are among the most ( The ecozone is generally temperate due to the biologically productive marine areas in the ( influence of the Gulf Stream. Prevailing winds world. The confluence of the Labrador Current ( from the west and southwest also serve to and the Gulf Stream, and the tidal mixing of the ( moderate the ocean climate. In August, surface water column on the shallows of the continental l ( ( 80 (' shelf provide ideal feeding and spawning The low-lying beaches, salt marshes and tidal conditions for thousands of species. flats of the Upper Bay of Fundy, and the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence, are dominated by Benthic communities are diverse with a huge burrowing crustaceans, such as Corophium and variety of invertebrates such as barnacles, sea annelid worms. These are extremely abundant at stars, crab, lobster, sponges, scallops, clams and or just below the surface of the tidal mudflats, jellyfish, just to name a few. Common fish and are fed upon by migratory birds and other populations historically included cod, halibut, shorebirds. This habitat is the product of the redfish, herring, silver hake, and turbot. The huge tidal fluctuations in the Upper Bay of northern cod spends part of its life-cycle Fundy, which reach over 12 meters. migrating between the Atlantic and the Northwest Atlantic Marine Ecozones. Chronic Estuaries, where fresh river waters mix with overfishing by Canada and other nations has seawater, are productive habitats. They serve as reduced many of these species to below "nursery areas" for the planktonic larvae of many commercial productivity, and there are fears that benthic invertebrates such as mollusks and the once-rich Grand Banks cod fishery may not crustaceans, as well as for juvenile fish. For recover to commercial levels. example, the estUaries of the Gulf of Maine are thought to be vital to about 70% of the fish Common marine mammals in this ecozone species of commercial importance along the Gulf include harbour and grey seals, harbour Coast (Van Dusen and Johnson Hayden 1989). porpoises, and dolphins. Several species of whale are indigenous or migratory in the Human Activities ecozone, including northern bottlenose, blue, The Grand Banks of Newfoundland lie within pilot, beluga, fin, minke, and humpback. the Atlantic Marine Ecozone. The Grand Banks Significant proportions of the North American or were world renowned for their seemingly world populations of several species of seabird limitless populations of cod. But humans reached live within this ecozone. Large numbers of the limits in the early 1980s. Four hundred years seabirds overwinter on the open ocean off of relentlessly evolving technology driven by Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, only coming steadily increasing demand created a pressure on ashore to breed. Among them can be found the cod stocks that could not be sustained. northern fulmar, greater shearwater, dovekie, and Canadian and foreign fishing fleets depleted the common and thick-billed murres. Breeding colonies for Leach's storm petrel, kittiwakes, puffins, and common murres can be found on Newfoundland's Baccalieu Island and Witless Bay islands. Cape St. Mary's hosts gannets, kittiwakes and common murres. Machias Seal Island in the Bay of Fundy supports large colonies of puffins and Arctic terns. And there are large populations of shearwaters, gulls, eiders and cormorants throughout the region.

81 ( ( ocean of fish. With the commercial extinction of families. Aquaculture is starting to become more ( cod a grim possibility, Canada banned cod widespread with experiments in salmon, scallop ( fishing in 1992 in hopes the stocks would and cod farming happening in New Brunswick, recover. The cod moratorium, a political solution Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland. But the real ( to an essentially ecological problem, put hope for future economic development in this f 40 000 people out of work in Atlantic Canada. ecozone now lies with offshore oil and gas ( Sharing endangered status with the cod, the production. The immensely rich Hibernia and people of Atlantic Canada cope with the loss of Terra Nova oil and gas fields lie within this a traditional way of life. ecozone, as do lesser discoveries off Nova Scotia ( along the Scotian Shelf. Fishing for other species such as lobster, shrimp ( and crab still provides a livelihood for some ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( C C ( ( C ( ( c ( ( ( l ( L ( 82 ( Section 4

CONCLUSION

How do we encourage a more integrated effective strategies and policies have often been understanding of ecosystems? How do we skin deep, the CCEA has been very effective in protect representative samples of Canada's critiquing past approaches and proposing new ecosystem diversity? There are many barriers in ones. Both looking back to what has been applying an ecosystem approach. It is typical to problems and issues, and forward to what is find that the science is lacking, monitoring emerging are critical. This isn't an abstraction of systems are inadequate, information is wanting, thought but a reality in Canadian life. Generation and assessment capabilities are youthful (Wiken, by generation, everything we do is overshadowed 1995). Organizations like the CCEA and by ecosystem relationships and characteristics. Canadian Society for Landscape Ecology and Having protected places ensures that there will Management (CSLEM) have been effective in not be a loss of future benefits from native promoting a new type of synergy amongst ecosystems nor will there be a lost opportunity to professionals and agencies. Where mandates in understand the carrying capacity of nature. government departments have been barriers, Canada needs to further advance its strategic where many university leadership in understanding ecosystems. Many disciplines have narrowed down the scope of other countries have become a victim of not thinking, where the artificial boundaries of acquiring and applying this ecosystem jurisdictions have been impediments, and where knowledge.

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ECOSECTION Assemblages of Families or Plant associations large order River reaches, Specialized habitat 1 :250 000 to 1:50 000 local landforms associations or assemblages micro to small lakes and within a community or a local landform thereof thereof ordcr micro shoreland or a lower order community

ECOELEMENT A 10callandfofDl Phases of soil Parts of a plant Small order Sections of 1:10000 TO 1:2500 or portion thereof series or a soil association or micro small streams series sub-association * Map scales should not be taken too restrictively, as they will vary with the setting and objectives of the survey. ** More so than others, this level is frequently subdivided into phases to indicate a passing or temporary state (e.g., seral).

~ Legend ~ ~ ~ Terrestrial· and Marine Marine Terrestrial ~ ~. Ecozones Map Pacific Marine D Arctic Cordillera N • Arctic Archipelago Northern Arctic Arctic Basin • Southern Arctic • Northwest Atlantic Taiga Plains • Atlantic Marine Taiga Shield Taiga Cordillera D Hudson Plains ~ Boreal Plains Boreal Shield • Boreal Cordillera • Pacific Maritime • Montane Cordillera n Prairies III Atlantic Maritime • Mixedwood Plains

...... \0 I

~ '1S ~ Legend 5. Terrestrial Ecozones Map ~. I'..I.l Terrestrial Arctic Cordillera Boreal Plains ~ Northern Arctic Boreal Shield Southern Arctic • Boreal Cordillera Taiga Plains • Pacific Maritime I~mi III Taiga Shield • Montane Cordillera Taiga Cordillera D Prairies Hudson Plains III Atlantic Maritime • Mixedwood Plains

~ ~ "ti ~ Marine Ecozones Map S.l-i. ~ Legend ~ Marine Pacific Marine • Arctic Archipelago Arctic Basin • Northwest Atlantic • Atlantic Marine

;:5;