Trauma E Narrazione

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Trauma E Narrazione Alma Mater Studiorum – Università di Bologna DOTTORATO DI RICERCA IN Letterature classiche, moderne, comparate e postcoloniali Ciclo: XXIX Settore Concorsuale di afferenza: 10F4 Settore Scientifico disciplinare: L-FIL-LET/14 TITOLO TESI Per-formare il trauma: la narrazione post- traumatica tra i conflitti mondiali e il terrorismo Presentata da: Aureliana Natale Coordinatore Dottorato: Relatore: Prof.ssa Silvia Albertazzi Prof. Massimo Fusillo Correlatore: Prof. Maurizio Ascari Esame finale anno 2017 A Giovannella Fusco Girard 2 What kind of idea are you? Are you the kind that compromises, does deals, accomodates itself to society, aims to find a niche, to survive; or are you the cussed, bloody-minded, ramrod-backed type of damnfool notion that would rather break than sway with the breeze? – The kind that will almost certainly, ninety-nine times out of hundred, be smashed to bits; but, the hundredth time, will change the world. Salman Rushdie, The Satanic Verses 3 Indice Introduzione: Raccontare per immagini: il trauma ‘rimediato’ nella cultura di massa 1. Trauma pop……………………………………………………………………. p. 6 2. Psicoanalisi e letteratura…………………………………………………. p. 16 3. La performance del trauma……………………………………………… p. 22 Prima parte: Dal terrore della guerra alla guerra del terrore 1. Scrivere il trauma della guerra………………………………………. p. 26 2. La nascita di una nuova memoria: testimonianze della Grande Guerra………………………………………………………………………….. p. 32 3. Il mémoire tra ricordo e strumentalizzazione…………………. p. 41 4. Testimonianze dirette…………………………………………………… p. 47 5. Testimoni dalla parte del male ……………………………………… p. 53 6. Testimonianza indiretta: testimoni di testimoni…………….. p. 64 7. Disegnare il silenzio………………………………………………………. p. 84 8. Trappole per topi………………………………………………………….. p. 89 Seconda parte: 9/11: Nuove estetiche post-traumatiche 1. L’ombra dell’attacco……………………………………………………… p. 100 2. Trauma latente, terrorismo agente………………………………… p. 106 3. Figure che cadono………………………………………………………… p. 112 4. Ricostruire ………………………………………………………………….. p. 130 5. Prospettive…………………………………………………………………... p. 133 6. Decade………………………………………………………………………… p. 151 Terza parte: Dal post-traumatico al pre-traumatico: l’Europa tra migrazioni e fondamentalismo 1. C’era una volta l'Europa ……………………….…………………….. p. 169 2. Madrid, 2004……………………………………………………………….. p. 176 3. Londra, 2005………………………………………………………………. p. 185 4. Parigi, 2015………………………………………………………………... p. 195 5. Un’altra storia…………………………………………………………….. p. 205 Conclusioni: Europa Futura ............................................................................................... p. 208 Bibliografia……………………………………………………………………….. p. 211 Sitografia……………………………………………………………………………. P. 215 Ringraziamenti…………………………………………………………………… p. 216 4 Introduzione Raccontare per immagini: il trauma ‘rimediato’ nella cultura di massa 5 1. Trauma Pop The origin of a story is always an absence Jonathan Safran Foer, Everything is Illuminated La sempre più fiorente produzione di testi nell’ambito dei Trauma Studies restituisce immediatamente l’idea di quanto siamo immersi in una contemporaneità fortemente familiare con il concetto di trauma. L’esperienza traumatica da faccenda privata sembra davvero essere diventata «tutto ciò di cui si parla».1 Il trauma collettivo ha conosciuto, parallelamente alla sua copiosa teorizzazione, una nuova propagazione garantita dai mezzi di comunicazione di massa. La nascita e l’evoluzione di questi ultimi non a caso è parallela, talvolta addirittura funzionale, ai grandi traumi storici del ‘900, secolo in cui lo stesso internet nasce in ambito militare. Le immagini e le notizie di guerra vengono diffuse, spesso anche con intenti strumentali, fino a creare quei giganteschi mediascapes di cui parla Arjun Appadurai in Modernity at Large. Mediascapes fatti di connessioni e antagonismi tra comunità culturalmente, linguisticamente e geograficamente differenti che talvolta si incontrano e talvolta si dividono sotto nuovi vessilli diffusi dalla rete. I canali mediatici attraverso cui un evento traumatico trova eco e acquisice risonanza fanno si che il loro effetto scioccante si propaghi e assuma quella caratteristica che oggigiorno maggiormente ne ridimensiona la portata: la latenza. Nell'epoca di internet è l'immagine ad aver acquisito un ruolo decisivo nel coinvolgimento del fruitore. Gli stati di rabbia, terrore, eccitazione, tenerezza sono veicolati da fotogrammi incisivi, che fanno 1 D.GIGLIOLI, Senza Trauma. Scrittura dell'estremo e narrativa del nuovo millennio, Macerata, Quodlibet, 2011, p.8. 6 leva sui meccanismi di immediata riproducibilità e diffusione per la creazione di un’opinione pubblica. Come noto Susan Sontag in Regarding the Pain of Others si interrogò su quale fosse l’effetto della proliferazione di tali immagini a ridosso di grandi traumi collettivi: “WHO ARE THE “WE” at whom such shock-pictures are aimed? That “we” would include not just the sympathizers of a smallish nation or stateless people fighting for its life, but-a far larger constituency- those only nominally concerned about some nasty war taking place in another country. The photographs are a means of making “real”(or “more real”) matters that the privileged and the merely safe might prefer to ignore.2 I meccanismi di appropriazione mass mediale del trauma, partendo dalle news, passando per Hollywood, i canali satellitari e Youtube, aiutano a comprendere come si sia diffusa una vera e propria estetica del catastrofico. La portata traumatica dell’evento diventa paradossalmente anche garante di visibilità e nutre parte del mercato morboso di parte della stampa, del grande e del piccolo schermo, del web. Momento decisivo nello sviluppo di questo fenomeno è senza dubbio il 1962, quando Andy Wharol propone la sua serie di opere sul tema Death and Disaster che segna l’entrata nel mondo pop delle icone traumatiche. Le sessantadue opere che la costituiscono, infatti, hanno come soggetto morti famose o spettacolari, incidenti aerei e automobilistici, strumenti di tortura, il tutto riproposto in forma di serigrafia dopo essere stato collezionato da giornali e archivi fotografici. L’evento traumatico fa sempre più audience, tanto se veicolato dall’immagine di una sedia elettrica, che Wharol sostiene sia arrivata a 2 S. SONTAG, Regarding the Pain of Others, New York, Piscador, 2003, p.7. 7 rappresentare gli Stati Uniti quanto il marchio Coca Cola, quanto se rievocato semplicemente dalle facce postume e sorridenti di Marylin o dalle infinite riproduzioni degli allora frequenti e documentatissimi suicidi dai grattacieli. Immagini che finiscono per generare una sorta di assuefazione di massa da consumo di immagini macabre. Cercare di combattere le ansie della precarietà contemporanea attraverso un controllo morboso degli eventi, favorito dal voyerismo mediatico, mostra quanto siano ancora attuali le descrizioni del massimo esponente della pop art, quando in un’intervista sul crescente utilizzo nell’arte di questo tipo di immagini risponde: I guess it was the big plane crash picture, the front page of the newspaper: 129 Die. I was also painting the Marilyns. I realized that everything I was doing must have been Death. It was Christmas or Labor Day—a holiday—and every time you turned on the radio they said something like “4 million are going to die.” That started it. But when you see a gruesome picture over and over again, it really doesn’t have any effect.3 Quando si riflette sul trauma collettivo nel XX e XXI secolo c'è l'esigenza dunque di riconfigurarlo tenendo conto della sua pervasività in forme, generi e linguaggi diversi. Prendendo in esame ad esempio la seconda guerra mondiale e l’Olocausto nel contemporaneo si insiste molto non solo sulla ricerca delle testimonianze o sulla loro rielaborazione in chiave narrativa, ma c’è un grandissimo interesse anche per le documentazioni fotografiche e le ancor più rare riprese cinematografiche. Le immagini riemerse dei campi di sterminio, delle vittime, degli squadroni nazisti sono circolate fino a diventare icone traumatiche facilmente riconoscibili, tanto da generare la figura del ‘telespettatore di guerra’ di 3 A. WARHOL, intervista su http://www.warhol.org/education/resourceslessons/Death-and- Disasters--Newspaper-Activity/ . 8 cui parla Antonio Scurati nella sua riflessione sulla creazione dell’opinione pubblica a livello mediatico a ridosso di un conflitto. La fama dell’immagine dell’ingresso di Auschwitz ne è un esempio, così come quella della Bahnrampe, la rampa dei treni che conduceva all'interno del campo di Birkenau: simboli imprescindibilmente legati all’immaginario collettivo sulla Shoah. Se è vero che durante il Vietnam e la prima Guerra del golfo si hanno i primi veri e propri reportage in tempo reale, per arrivare alle più recenti forme di documentazione, la diffusione di questa pratica ha aiutato anche un lavoro sulla memoria riguardante i conflitti precedenti. Il cinema ovviamente ha molto contribuito alla diffusione di questo immaginario collettivo attraverso le sue ricostruzioni per il grande pubblico, così come a questo fenomeno contribuisce oggi la progressiva evoluzione del graphic memoir, ed è grazie a questa unione tra narrazione letteraria e narrazione visiva, vista la sempre maggior permeabilità della letteratura e l’altrettanta pervasività delle arti performative, che si sta costruendo un nuovo modo di parlare dei grandi traumi storici. La contraddizione che però si genera consiste nella difficoltà del distinguere ciò che aiuta una memoria storica, fondamentale ad evitare nuove tragedie, e ciò
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