A Probabilistic Model of Phonological Relationships from Contrast to Allophony Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Kathleen Currie Hall Graduate Program in Linguistics The Ohio State University 2009 Dissertation Committe: Elizabeth Hume, Advisor Mary Beckman Chris Brew Cynthia Clopper Abstract This dissertation proposes a model of phonological relationships, the Probabilistic Phonological Relationship Model (PPRM), that quantifies how predictably distributed two sounds in a relationship are. It builds on a core premise of traditional phonological analysis, that the ability to define phonological relationships such as contrast and allophony is crucial to the determination of phonological patterns in language. The PPRM starts with one of the long-standing tools for determining phonological relationships, the notion of predictability of distribution. Building on insights from probability and information theory, the model provides a way of calculating the precise degree to which two sounds are predictably distributed, rather than maintaining the traditional binary distinction between “predictable” and “not predictable.” It includes a measure of the probability of each member of a pair in each environment they occur in, the uncertainty (entropy) of the choice between the members of the pair in each environment, and the overall uncertainty of choice between the members of the pair in a language. These numbers provide a way to formally describe and compare relationships that have heretofore been treated as exceptions, ignored, relegated to alternative grammars, or otherwise seen as problematic for traditional descriptions of phonology. The PPRM provides a way for what have been labelled ii “marginal contrasts,” “quasi-allophones,” “semi-phonemes,” and the like to be integrated into the phonological system: There are phonological relationships that are neither entirely predictable nor entirely unpredictable, but rather belong somewhere in between these two extremes. The model, being based on entropy, which can be used to understand the cognitive function of uncertainty, provides insight into a number of phenomena in synchronic phonological patterning, diachronic phonological change, language acquition, and language processing. Examples of how the model can be applied are provided for two languages, Japanese and German, using large-scale corpora to calculate the predictability of distribution of various pairs of sounds. An example of how empirical evidence for one of the predictions of the model, that entropy and perceptual distinctness are inversely related to each other, could be obtained is also provided. iii Dedication Dedicated to all of those who have made my years in graduate school so wonderful. iv Acknowledgments There are many people who helped create this dissertation. First and foremost is my advisor, Beth Hume, who has provided guidance, support, ideas, encouragement, and many “free lunches” during my time at Ohio State. Though there is explicit acknowledgement of much of her work in the dissertation, I would be remiss if I failed to mention that she sparked many of the insights in this dissertation. The number of times we “independently” came to very similar conclusions is too large to count . The other members of my committee have also provided exceptional assistance. Mary Beckman is truly an inspiration; her tireless dedication to all of her students and her knack for putting together the pieces floating around in one’s head in a meaningful way are invaluable. Cynthia Clopper has been the voice of common sense and reality that made writing a dissertation actually possible—the person I turned to not only for excellent advice on experimental design and analysis but also to get me back on target whenever I ventured too far off into an endless academic vortex. Chris Brew was wonderful in his willingness to dive into a project he had little hand in conceiving, and his insightful questions and Socratic conversational style helped guide much of the discussion of corpus studies, information theory, and statistical analysis. v Several people volunteered time, energy, and expertise to help collect the data used in this dissertation. I am indebted to all of you: Meghan Armstrong, Anouschka Bergmann, Jim Harmon, Stef Jannedy, Dahee Kim, Yusuke Kubota, Laurie Maynell, and Kiyoko Yoneyama. My thanks go also to all of the people who welcomed me so warmly and provided me with space, equipment, participants, and advice at the Zentrum für Allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft and Humboldt University in Berlin. I am also grateful to the National Science Foundation, the OSU Dean’s Distinguished University Fellowship, and the Alumni Grants for Graduate Research and Scholarship for providing funding for this dissertation. A number of other people have played a vital role in the development of the ideas in this dissertation. My thanks go especially to Eric Fosler-Lussier, John Goldsmith, Keith Johnson, Brian Joseph, Bob Ladd, Dave Odden, and Jim Scobbie for their patient discussion (and often re-discussion) of many of the concepts involved. The OSU phonetics and phonology reading group, Phonies, has provided an enthusiastic and helpful audience over the years, and special thanks are due to Kirk Baker, Laura Dilley, Jeff Holliday, Eunjong Kong, Fangfang Li, Dahee Kim, and John Pate. My time in graduate school has been amazing. Truly, it has been the best time of my life. Much of that is because of the kindness, friendship, generosity, and collegiality of a number of people (many of whom have been mentioned above and aren’t repeated below, but who should not feel slighted by that). In the linguistics community, I am particularly grateful to Joanna Anderson, Tim Arbisi-Kelm, Molly Babel, Allison Blodgett, Adriane Boyd, Kathryn Campbell-Kibler, Katie Carmichael, Angelo Costanzo, Robin Dodsworth, David Durian, Jane Harper, Ilana Heintz, DJ Hovermale, Kiwa Ito, vi Eden Kaiser, Jungmee Lee, Sara Mack, Liz McCullough, Julie McGory, Grant McGuire, Jeff Mielke, Becca Morley, Claudia Morettini, Ben Munson, Crystal Nakatsu, Hannele Nicholson, Julia Papke, Nicolai Pharao, Anne Pycha, Pat Reidy, Mary Rose, Sharon Ross, Anton Rytting, Jeonghwa Shin, Andrea Sims, Anastasia Smirnova, Judith Tonhauser, Joe Toscano, Giorgos Tserdanelis, Laura Wagner, Pauline Welby, Abby Walker, Peggy Wong, and Yuan Zhao. In the “other half” of my life, the part that keeps the academic side from going crazy, I owe a debt of gratitude to the Columbus Scottish Highland Dancers, especially Mary Peden-Pitt, Leah Smart, Beth Risley, and my Monday night crew; to the Heather ‘n’ Thistle Scottish Country Dancers, especially Laura Russell, Sandra Utrata, Elspeth Sawyer, Steve Schack, Jim & Donna Ferguson, and Jane Harper; and to Bill & Liz Weaver and the Weaver Highlanders. Last but certainly not least, my deepest thanks go to those who got me to grad school in the first place and those who saw me through with love, encouragement, support, and advice. Chip Gerfen, my undergraduate advisor at UNC-CH, was instrumental in getting me started on the laboratory phonology path and making me believe I was cut out for academia. Sandy Kennedy Gribbin has been a long-time friend and champion, and the source of many good times and diversions. E(lizabeth) Allyn Smith had the tenacity to break through my outer shell and forge a deep friendship that has made grad school worthwhile, helping me to maximize my potential as an academic and providing encouragement in all areas of my life. I treasure the moments of joy and inspiration we have shared, and look forward to many more years of productive collaboration and amazing travel adventures. vii My brother, Daniel Currie Hall, was the first person to teach me German, computer programming, phonetics, and phonology, thus clearly shaping this dissertation from the time I was seven, and has continued to be a source of inspiration and information, my general linguistic guru, and of course big-brother-extraordinaire. My mother, Carolyn Park Currie, not only edited the whole dissertation but has also provided care and assistance in far too many ways to list here. My father, John Thomas Hall, has supported my academic endeavors, my addiction to Graeter’s ice cream, and, well, everything I’ve ever done. Both of my parents have been phenomenal at letting their children be themselves and forge their own paths, providing unwavering love and support throughout our lives. They should not be held responsible for the fact that we both wrote dissertations on phonological contrast. And lastly, my thanks go to Mrs. Cook, because you can never have too many marshmallows. viii Vita 2003 . B.A. with Distinction in Linguistics with Highest Honors, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill 2007 . M.A., Linguistics, The Ohio State University 2005-2006 . Graduate Teaching Assistant, The Ohio State University Publications Boomershine, Amanda, Kathleen Currie Hall, Elizabeth Hume, and Keith Johnson. (2008). The influence of allophony vs. contrast on perception: The case of Spanish and English. In Peter Avery, B. Elan Dresher and Keren Rice (Eds.), Contrast in phonology: Perception and acquisition. (pp. 145–171). Berlin: Mouton. Hall, Kathleen Currie. (2007). Pairwise perceptual magnet effects. In Jürgen Trouvain and William J. Barry (Eds.), Proceedings of the 16th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences (pp. 669–672). Dudweiler, Germany: Pirrot GmbH. Bergmann,