From Yak H erderstO Ya rtsa Traders．．． 9 5

F r o m k H e r d e r s to r tsa T r a d e r s

T ib eta n N o m a d s a n d N e w M a rk e t O p tio n s in Q in g h a i's Y u sh u R eg io n

A n d re a s G ru sc h k e

D iscu ssin g th e situ atio n o f T ib e ta n n o m ad s w ith in a fra m e w o rk th at su g g e sts th at m o re a n d m o re p asto ral p eo p le are left w ith o u t p a stu re s，a n d th ere fo re w ill g ra d u a lly fa il to su b sist fro m th e rap id ly d e c rea sin g n u m b e r o f th e ir a n im a ls ，it se e m s so m eh o w o b so le te tO scru tin iz e o n th e ir rela tio n sh ip tO th e m a rk e t，n o t tO sp ea k o f th e w o rld m a rk e t．O n th e o th e r h a n d ，w e h av e tO ad m it th at e v en w ith o u t th e p o licie s o f in te g ratio n a im e d at th e o n c e far —o f n o m ad s liv in g in th e c o re o f th e T ib e ta n H ig h la n d ，th o se p a sto ra lists w o u ld al re ad y h av e b e e n to u ch e d b y c ircu m stan ce s w h ic h ev o lv ed fr o m g lo b al iza tio n ，fro m ch anges on th e w orld m arket to w h ich ev en d istan t no m ads h ave been related once and again．A m ajor problem of an assessm ent of the pastoralists relationship w ith the w orld m a rk e t su rely is th at th e re is，SO fa r，n o se riou s g e n e ral a sse ssm en t o f th e ir liv e lih o o d s in m o d ern tim e s．Y et，w ith o u t a so u n d u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e cu rren t liv elih o o d sy ste m s in T ib e ta n n o m ad are a s ．it w il1 b e h a rd tO a sse ss w h ich p ro d u c ts o f th e p r e se n t—d a y ’S p astoralists are of m ajor im p ortan ce for their w ell-b ein g，su bsistence or survival，and w ill th e re fo re b e relev an t in an e x a m in atio n o f th e ir m ark e t rela tio n ． C o m p are d tO o th er p arts o f th e T ib e tan P latea u ，p a sto ra list reg io n s in ea ste rn T ib et 专业提供学术期刊、学位论文下载、外文文献检索下载服务m ay b e c o n sid 购买地址:e re http://wxfw.taobao.comd a s h av in g fa v o u r ab le co n d itio n s fo r m a r k e tin g a n im a l h u sb a n d ry p ro d u c ts ．H o w e v e r，a n ap p re c iab le d e v e lo p m e n t o f lin k s b e tw e e n th e ir e c o n o m y a n d m ark et rela tio n s se e m s n o t tO h av e ta k en p la ce ．S u b siste n c e e c o n o m y is still，o r ag a in ， p re v a ilin g ．T h e re a so n s fo r th is n e e d to b e sh o r tly d is c u sse d b e fo re th e b a sis o f th e liv e lih o o d s o f T ib e ta n p a sto ra lists is a sse sse d ，e x em p lifi ed b y th e c u rre n t situ atio n in the eastern T ibetan Y ushu region．T his autonom ous prefecture of Q inghai province in the P R C h in a is a ty p ic al h ig h lan d reg io n w h ere th e tra d itio n al liv e lih o o d s o f th e in h ab ita n ts d ep en d o n an im al h u sb an d ry ,c o m p le m e n ted b y v e ry little ag ricu ltu re an d so m e trad e ． W h ile in fra stru c tu ra l d e v e lo p m e n t ta k e s p lac e a n d re sh ap e s th e a d m in istra tiv e 9 6 China Tibetology N o ，M arch 2011

ce n tres o f Y u sh u ，th e ru ra l p a sto ra l are as re m a in m a in ly o n a p re c a rio u s su b siste n c e lev e 1 ． U n lik e n o m a d a re a s o u tsid e H ig h lan d A sia T ib eta n p a sto ra lists h av e ， h ow ev e r，a u n iq u e re so u rce w h ic h e n a b le s m a n y o f th e m to h av e a c o n sid erab le sh a re at m o d ern c o n su m p tio n a n d m a k e s th e m ap p e a r ric h e r th a n th eir p re ca rio u s p asto ra list liv elih o o d situ a tio n w o u ld a ctu ally a llo w th e m to b e ．T h e re so u rce is a m ed icin al p lan t c al le d c aterp illa r fu n g u s w h ic h b rin g s sig n ifi c a n t am o u n ts o f c ap ital an d a sse ts in to th e Y u sh u reg io n as w ell a s in to its rem ote n om ad h ou seh old s．It h as b ecom e on e o f, if n ot th e m ajor com m o d ity of m any h o u seh o ld s in T ib eta n n o m a d are a s． T h e d ig g in g fo r a n d tra d in g w ith c a te rp illa r fu n g u s m a rk e d ly c h a n g e d p a sto ra l stra teg ies in Y u sh u ’S ru ra l a re as an d e sta b lish e s m ark e tin g ch a in s w h ich o b v io u sly re ac h b e y o n d tra d itio n a l trad e re latio n s o u t o f th e reg io n ．It o f ers m an y p a sto ra list h o u seh o ld s to w id e n th e ir ra n g e o f e c o n o m ic ac tiv itie s an d to d ev elo p n ew fo rm s o f so cia l m o b ility ． T h e u se o f m o d e rn m ea n s o f c o m m u n ic a tio n s fo r m a rk etin g th is co m m o d ity h as b e co m e a m a tte r o f c o u rse ，w h ile a t th e sa m e tim e th e e a sie r acc e ss to fo r m erly re m o te reg io n s in T ib et h a s cre ate d n e w are a s o f co n fl ic ts o n re so u rc e s．H ow p eo p le o f Y u sh u re a ct an d d e al w ith th e c o n fl icts，h o w th ey m an ag e th e ir d if e ren t re so u rce s a n d e sta b lish m ark et re latio n s b ey o n d th e reg io n a l fra m ew o rk w ill b e d iscu ssed in th is p a p e r． H e re w e m a in ly d raw o n tw o so u rce s：first th e 1ite ratu re av a ilab le in C h in e se a n d E n g lish ，a n d se c o n d o n m y o w n em p ir ic a l k n o w led g e ．T h e latte r in c lu d e s e x p e rien c e s in a lm o st al l T ib e tan re g io n s g a in e d d u rin g th e la st tW O d ec a d e s，a n d sp e c ifi c re se a rch ex p e rien ce in n o m a d ic a rea s o f th e T A P Y ru sh u ．a k ey reg io n in e aste rn T ib e t's n o rth ern K h am a rea ，startin g in 20 o 4 ．

F ig ．I From Yak H erdersto Yartsa Traders．．． 9 7

1 ．T h e liv e lih o o d s itu a tio n o f p a s to r a lis t s in Y u sh u

W h ile th e h u g e T ib e ta n p la teau ex ten d s ac ro ss th e v ast a re a o f ap p ro x im a te ly 2 ．5 m illion square km s，only a sm all portion of this land is arable．(Fig．i) T he bulk is fit for m o b ile p a sto r a lism ．T h e ex e m p la ry re s e a rch reg io n ，th e Y u sh u T ib e t an A u to n o m o u s P refectu re (T A P )，on e o f six autono m ou s p refectu res o f Q ing hai provin ce，exten ds alm ost e n tire ly w ith in t h e p u re ly p a sto ra list sp h e re o f th e T ib e ta n h ig h la n d ．S o m e 3 o o ．0 0 0 in h ab ita n ts p o p u la te th is re g io n ，o f w h o m 6 8 ．3 p er c en t a re p a sto ra lists ，o r m o re th a n 8 0 p e r c en t o f th e ru ra l p o p u latio n in Y u sh u T A P ．T h e p re fe c tu re b e lo n g s to th e p o o re r an d le a st d e v elo p e d p ro v in ce s in C h in a ， lag g in g b eh in d in b o th p ro d u ctiv ity a n d in c o m e ． W ith in Q in gh ai Y u shu T A P is con sid ered to b e o ne of the least develop ed an d p oorest a r e a s ． T h e d istrict covers an area o f 197，0 0 0 k m ，m ore th an a q uarter o f Q ingh ai p rovin ce． R a n g e la n d u se d b y p a sto ra lists m a k es u p fo r 5 6 ％ o f th e e n tire p rov in c e ’s a n d 7 8 ％ o f Y u sh u ’s su rfa ce ．4 It th e re fo re is slig h tly sm alle r th a n G re a t B r ita in ，w h ile its p o p u latio n o f 2 9 7，O O O in h ab ita n ts o n ly co m p a re s to a m ed iu m —size d E u ro p e an city．Y u sh u p re fe c tu re in c lu d e s th e te rrito ry o f th e so u rc e s o f th e Y e llo w R iv e r in th e n o rth ，th e u p p er re a ch es o f th e Y an gzi an d M ek ong (D ri C h u ，D za C hu) in th e w est and south ，an d th e b order areas to th e neighb ou ring T ibet A u tonom ou s R egion (T A R ，C h i．X izang) in the south an d to Sichu an p rov ince in th e east．It consists of six cou nties — Q u m arl~b (cbu dm ar leb)，Z h id oi ('bri stoW)，Z adoi (rdza stoW) ，C h in du (khri ‘du)，Y ushu an d N an gq ~n (nang cben)，w ith th e p re fec tu ra l c ap ita l G y ~g u lo c ate d in Y u sh u co u n t~ T h e c o u n tie s d if e r co n sid e rab ly in size ， w ith Z hidoi covering m ore than 8o，000 km and N angq~n only about 12，7oo km ．T hree of th e co u n tie s a re c o m p le te ly p asto ralist，w h ile th e o th e r th ree fe atu re ag ric u ltu re o n a v e ry lim ite d sca le ：In 2o o 4 ，th e cu ltiv ate d la n d in th e p refe c tu re a m o u n ted to le ss th a n th re e per cent of the cultivated land in Q inghai province． T h e terra in g ra d u ally rises fro m th e so u th ea st，w h ere it n ev e r falls b elo w 35 IO m a b o v e sea lev el，to th e n o rth w e st，th e av erag e a ltitu d e b e in g 4 ，20 0 m to 4 ,50 0 m ．T h e clim ate o f Y ushu is on e o f extrem es：average ann ual tem p eratu res lie b etw een -4 ．3。C (Q ing sh uihe) an d 5．2~C (N an gq~n)．In w inter tem p eratu res can drop as low as -4 3。C (I975，Q ingshu ihe) w h ile in su m m er,tem peratu res can rise to +28。C (Y u sh u an d N angq 6n ) during the d ay．T h e p re c ip ita tio n d e c rea se s fr o m so u th e a st to n o rth w e st ，w ith N a n g q ~n a n d Z a d o i co u n tie s receiving 550—635 m m annuall~ Z hidoi and Q um arl~b only 380—500 m m ． N ot only are the w ea th e r co n d itio n s u n p re d ic tab le ，b u t th e clim ate v ariab ility also is e sp e cia lly h ig h ．

W in te r p astu re s an d w in te r h o u se s in Y u sh u c an b e fo u n d o n a ltitu d es o f u p to 4 80 0 m ． A b ov e th is le v el，b u t in m o re fav o u rab le lo c atio n s a lso at low e r a ltitu d e s，lie s th e n o m a d s’ sum m er area of activity．T here they set up their tents and use the adjacent m eadow s up to 5000 m altitude as pastures．A rable field cultivation is only possible in the zone below 4 0 0 0 m ．T o d ay, th e h ig h e st fi e ld s in Y u sh u are situ a te d n o t h ig h er th a n 3 9 0 0 m ab ov e sea le v e1． A lim ite d p o p u la tio n o f farm ers a n d se m i-n o m a d s h av e fi e ld s an d p e rm a n e n t h o u ses th e re ．O n th e w h o le ，a n im a l h u sb a n d ry is th e p rev a ilin g sec to r o f p ro d u c tio n ，w h ile le ss 9 8 China Tibetology N o J，M arch 2011 th an a fi fth o f Y u shu ’S po pu lation is involved in field cu ltivatio n (Tabk ，the extent o f w h ic h v a rie s re g io n ally． TableI：Populationof T ushu TA P in 2005 H o u s eh o ld ty p e N u m b e r o f h o u se h o ld s N u m b er o f p e o p le P ro p o r tio n

P a sto ra list 4 7 ，52 2 2 0 2 ，78 7 6 8 ．3 ％

P e a sa n t 2 3，28 8 4 8 ，9 2 I 16 ．5 ％

N o n -ru ra l 4 5，29 6 15．2 ％ T o ta l p o p u la tio n 7o ，8 1o 2 9 7 ，0 0 4 10 0 ．0 ％

N o n -reg iste red ap p ro x im ate ly 5o 一6 o ．O O O + I7一I8 ％

Sou rces：Y Z T (2o o 6：63f) and local info rm ants 。 T h e la rg e st p art o f th e reg io n is ch ara cte riz e d b y ro llin g h ig h la n d step p e s a s k n o w n fro m th e n o rth T ib eta n C h a n g th a n g ．T h is ste p p e is in te rru p ted b y a d e ep ly d isse c te d m o u n tain ou s terrain a rou n d th e tW O m ajo r riv ers D z a C hu a n d D ri C h u an d th eir trib u ta rie s．W ith p e rm a fro st so il a n d m a rsh e s e sp e c ia lly in th e w e ste rn a n d n o r th e r n se c tio n s，a lp in e m e a d o w s stre tc h a lm o st ev e ry w h e re in th e p refe ctu re ．T h ey are su ite d for m obile anim al husbandry T hese are regions w here the m ajority of people still depend o n p a sto ra l liv e sto c k k e ep in g ．T h eir liv in g sp a c e is ch a ra c teriz ed b y h ig h in te ra n n u a l v a riety o f p rec ip itatio n ，w ith o cc a sio n al y ea rs o f ，d ro u g h t’an d irre g u lar “sn o w d isasters’’in in term e d iate te rm s．9 T h is is tO say th at p asto ralists h av e to co p e w ith c o n sid e rab le c lim a tic risk s at co m p a rativ e ly sh o rt in terv a ls．

D e c re a s in g liv e lih o o d s o f Y u s h u n o m a d s

D u rin g th e last 50 y e ars Y u sh u h a s se en co n sid e ra b le fl u c tu a tio n s in b o th p o p u la tio n and livesto ck nu m bers (Table 2)．T h e ru ral hu m an p op ulation h as m o re th an dou bled ， 。 an d fu rth erm o re p ro b le m s o f e n v iro n m en tal d eg rad atio n a re a g ree d tO b e in cre a sin g ．L ik e in n eig h b o u rin g G o lo g n o m ad s b la m e d ro u g h t a n d ra p id ly g ro w in g ro d en t p o p u latio n (especially of th e plateau p ika，ochoton a cu rzon iae) fo r in creasin g the extent an d severity o f ran g ela n d d eg rad atio n ． Tabk 2：D evelopm entofp opulationand livestock in Yusbu T o tal P op ulation N on -ru ral L ivesto ck (in m illio ns) Y _ear (T P ) p o p u latio n 场 k s S h e ep T 0 tal

19 5o 123 ，I10 I4 ．4 4 ％ 0 ．8 32 0 ．9 74 1．8 4 4

19 59 16 8 ，0 0 5 7 ．74 ％ 0 ．379 O ．6 4 5 I．0 3 2 I9 6 9 123 ，o 7 1 6 ．9 9 ％ I·17 1 2 ．7 81 3 ．9 7 7

19 7 9 17 8 ，9 35 10 ．5 ％ 1．6 56 3 ．8 4 8 5．57 4

I9 8 9 2 24 ，O 7 I 12 ．4 ％ 1．57 8 2 ．30 I 3 ．9 63 19 9 9 2 52 ，6 9 6 I3 -89 ％ 0 ．8 9 5 I．74 2 2 ．6 8 9

2 0 0 4 28 3，14 4 I ． 6 ％ 0 ．8 6 8 I．9 4 9 2 ．853 2 0 0 5 2 9 7，o o 4 TM 15 ．2 ％ O ．9 0 8 I．9 50 2 ．8 59 Sou rces：Y Z T (20 0 0 ，PP ．66一lO 9)，Y Z T (20 0 6，PP ．64-88)，Q P SB (20 0 5，PP ．6 8，223) From Yak H erdersto Yartsa Traders．．． 9 9

E v en th o u g h issu e s o f n a tu ra l d isasters，g rassla n d ‘c arry in g c ap ac ity ’ an d th e im p ac t o f clim a tic a n d e co lo g ic a l c h an g e s“ c a n n o t b e d isc u sse d h ere ．th e d ev e lo p m e n t o f th e p o p u la tio n - liv e sto ck ra tio in Y u sh u T A P e lu c id a te s th e d im in ish in g l~ e lih o o d b a sis o f th e p asto ra lists ．In o rd er to co n sid er th e ir liv elih o o d situ atio n ，w e co m p u te th e so c alled sh eep u nit 5 (su ) p er p erso n ，a m easu re w h ich h elps to un derstand the living situ ation of th e p asto ralists a n d th e n ee d e d su p p ly o f p a stu res a s w e l1．A cc o rd in g to M iller 2 0 0 I，ab o u t 25 S h ee p U n its p e r p e rso n is th e g en era lly a cc ep te d b rea k -o f p o in t fo r p ov erty in T ib e ta n n o m ad a re as．F a m ilie s w ith le ss th a n 25 S h e ep U n its w o u ld n o t b e a b le to m e e t th eir b a sic n e ed s i6 In I9 5O th e a v erag e ru ra l h o u seh o ld in th e Y u sh u T A P o w n e d 17 a n im als o r 4 8 ．75 S U (horses an d goats n ot cou nted)”per ind ividu a1．Ev en if th e total p opu lation (in clud ing the non —ru ra1)is con sidered ，th e rate still accou nted fo r 4 1．7 SU (see Table3)． Table3：D evelopm entof livestock distribution in Yushu R u ra l Y ak s p e r p erso n S h e ep p e r p erso n SU p e r p erso n Y e a r P o p u la tio n T P R P T P R P T P R P

I9 5O IO 5 ，3 33 6 ．7 6 7．9 o 7 ·9 1 9 ．25 4 1·71 4 8 ．7

19 8 9 I9 6 ，2 86 7 ．o 4 8 ．o 4 Io ．27 iI．72 4 5 ．4 7 5 1．9 2

19 9 9 2 17 ，59 6 3 ．54 4 ．II 6 ．8 9 8 ．o I 2 4 ．5 9 28 ． 6

2 0 0 5 25 7，8 59 3 ．o I 3 "5 2 6 ． 7 7 ．5 7 21．6 2 2 ．I7 C alculated from data in Y Z T (20 0 0 ，20 0 6) T P = on th e basis of the total pop ulation R P = o n th e b a sis o f th e ru ra l p o p u latio n F o llow in g th e d isb a n d m e n t o f th e p e o p le 's co m m u n e s a n d th e b eg in n in g o f a c erta in ‘re —n o m a d iza tio n ’，th e la rg e liv e sto c k n u m b e rs c o n tin u e d to e x is t fo r a w h ile ， 。w h ile certain ly th ere w ere and still are co nsiderable fl uctuation s du e to n atural co nd ition s (e⋯g sn ow d isasters，drou ght)．T h e year 1989 rep resents a situ atio n in w h ich an averag e ru ral in d iv id u al in Y u sh u o w n e d a lm o st 52 S U a n d th u s a liv esto c k n u m b e r w h ic h w a s tw ice a s h ig h a s th e p o v er ty lev e l m e n tio n e d a b o v e ．It w a s a le v el slig h tly h ig h er th an in th e 19 5 o s，ev e n th o u g h th e re w e re tw o serio u s sn o w d isa sters in Y u sh u d u r in g th e I9 8 O S．I T en y ea rs late r，th e n u m erica l v a lu e o f S U ／p erso n h a d a lre ad y d e cre a se d to 2 8 ．56 a n d h as p lu m m ete d ，in th e m e a n tim e ，to su c h a n ex te n t th a t to d ay , ev en o n th e av e ra g e ，all th e ru ral in h ab itants o f Y u sh u live ju st sligh tly above “the g enerally accep ted break-o f p oint fo r poverty in T ibetan n om ad areas”(25．17 SU ／person)．N oneth eless，th e grassland of Y ushu is stresse d m u c h m o re th a n b e fo re ：In I9 5O th e re w e re o n th e w h o le ．I35 m illio n S U ，in 2 0 0 5 alre ad y 6 ．4 9 m illio n SU fo r th e e n tire d istric t．H e n ce th e th ere w a s a n ee d fo r 25 ％ m o re h ay to b e p ro d u c ed fro m th e g ra ssla n d ，alth o u g h at th e sa m e tim e th e b a sis o f th e (rem ainin g) p asto ralists’susten ance w as reduced b y alm o st 5o p er cent — a viciou s circle c lo sely c o n n e cte d to m o d ern T ib e ta n p a sto r alism ： T h e n atu ral d e c rea se o f th e c arry in g ca p ac ity in co n se q u e n c e o f c lim atic d e sic catio n d o e s n o t re g u la te th e h e rd size a n y m o re w h e re se d en ta rism a n d su p p le m e n tatio n o f fe ed a re o f ere d ．O n th e c o n tra ry, n a tu ra lly sh rin k in g p a stu re s fac e rap id ly in cre a sin g h e rd s o f p eo p le w h o in cre ase in n u m b er an d w elfa re ? 。 I O 0 C h in a T ib etolog y N o 』 ， M arch 2 0 11

T h is d o e s n o t m ea n th at ev e ry h o u se h o ld 's h e rd w as g ro w in g b u t rath er th e e n tire ． d istric t’s liv e sto c k n u m b er．It h a s to b e n o te d th a t m o st h erd e rs in Y u sh u w ith m e d iu m — siz e d o r la rg e r h e rd s a re c o m p la in in g a b o u t th e sh o r tag e o f g ra ssla n d ． M o re a n d m o re p a sto ral p e o p le a re le ft w ith o u t p astu re s，th e re fo re w ill g ra d u ally fail to su b sist fro m th e rap id ly d ec re asin g n u m b er o f th e ir a n im a ls．S o w h y scru tin ize o n th e ir re latio n sh ip to th e m ark e t，y e t ev e n to th e w o rld m a rk e t? C h a n g in g F e a tu re s o f T ib e ta n N o m a d ism Y u sh u 's in fra stru c tu re ，w h ic h is e sse n tial fo r th e c h a n g e o f a c tiv itie s a n d d e v elo p m e n t o f n e w liv elih o o d s w ith in th e ru ra l a rea s，is in th e c o u rse o f b e in g fu rth e r d e v elo p ed B y ． I9 9 9 th ere w e re 2 ,5 6 2 k m o f ro a d s in Y u sh u p re fe ctu re ． M e a n w h ile ． th e in v e stm en t in ro a d in fra stru c tu re h a s in c re a se d tre m en d o u sly ．T h e c o u n ty sea ts o f th e p refe ctu re a re co n n e c ted by m e talle d ro ad s，a ll c o m m u n ity to w n sh ip s w e re co n n ec te d to a n e tw o rk o f im p ro v ed g rav e l ro ad s．T h e refo re th ey h av e b etter acc e ss to m ark e ts an d p u b lic in stitu tio n s n o w ．C o m p are d to o th er p arts o f th e T ib eta n P la te au ，p a sto ralist reg io n s in ea ste rn T ib e t m ay th u s，d u e to sh o rter d ista n ce s to th e b ig m a rk e ts o f C h in e se c itie s ， b e c o n sid e re d as h av in g fav o u ra b le c o n d itio n s fo r m a rk e tin g a n im a l h u sb a n d ry p ro d u c ts ． H o w ev er，a n ap p re c ia b le d ev elo p m en t o f lin k s b e tw e en th e ir e co n o m y an d m a rk e t rela tio n s se em s n o t to h av e ta k e n p la ce ．S u b siste n c e e co n o m y is still，o r ag a in ，p rev ailin g ． T h e re aso n s fo r th is n ee d to b e sh o rtly c o n sid ere d b efo re th e b asis o f th e liv e lih o o d s o f T ib e tan p a sto ra lists is a ssesse d ． State p o licies o f in tegration in to th e n atio nal (an d h en ce th e w o rld ) m ark et aim a t d ev e lo p in g ，o r ra th er tra n sfo rm in g th e h ab itu a l n o m a d ic p a sto ra lism in to a m o d ern liv e sto c k fa rm in g a n d th u s o f e rin g th e m b e tte r liv elih o o d s ． G o v e rn m en t o f ic ia ls ．b o th C h in e se a n d T ib e ta n s，w h o in g en era l w ere n o t a t all fam iliar w ith p a sto ra list liv e lih o o d s a n d th e ir c o e rc io n s ，b e liev e th e a im o f v ita liz in g T ib e ta n liv e sto c k p ro d u c tio n c a n b e re ac h e d b y th e m a rk e t’s p u sh —fa c to rs．F o re ig n o b se rv e rs ，h o w e v e r ， a p p e a r to b e m o re sce p tica 1．T h e ir situ atio n asse ssm e n t ra th er critic iz e th e in teg ra tio n p o lic ie s as d a m a g in g ， if n o t d e stro y in g tra d itio n al stru ctu re s ad ap te d to a d ifi c u lt e n v iro n m e n t．a n d co n se q u e n tly see them as m ajor challenges fo r the pastoralists’livelihoods Y e t，ev e n w ith o u t th e p o licie s o f in teg ratio n aim e d at th e o n c e fa r—o f n o m ad s liv in g in th e co re o f th e T ib eta n H ig h la n d ，th o se p a sto ralists w o u ld alre ad y h av e b e en to u c h e d b y circ u m sta n c es w h ich ev o lv e d fr o m g lo b a liza tio n ，fro m c h an g e s o n th e w o rld m a rk e t to w h ich ev e n d ista n t n o m ad s h av e b e en re late d o n c e a n d a g a in ．A s a ty p ic al h ig h la n d re g io n w h e re th e trad itio n a l liv elih o o d s o f th e in h ab ita n ts d ep en d o n a n im a l h u sb an d rB Y u sh u 's e co n o m y h a d alw ay s to b e co m p lem e n te d b y trad e a n d w as th u s c o n n e c te d to su p ra reg io n a l m ark e ts．H ab itu a l m erc h an d ise o f th e n o m ad s w e re w o o l，fu r，h id e s ，y ak a n d sh e e p sk in s and h orses；in m odern tim es m eat (1ive yak s an d sh eep)，w oo l and leath er h ad w on m ore im p o rta n ce ． T h e liv e sto c k m a rk et，h o w ev er，p lay s a m in o r ro le fo r T ib e tan p asto ralist n o w ad ay s． T h e sa m e is tru e fo r co m m o d itie s p ro d u c e d fro m a n im a l h u sb an d ry ．T h is w a s d if er en t d u rin g th e I9 8 o s w h en ，a fte r t h e sta r t o f e c o n o m ic lib e r a liz a tio n p o lic ie s，n o m a d s F rom Yak H erders to Yartsa Traders．．． I O 1

w ith th e ir e x c h a n g e co m m o d itie s m e a t，d a iry p ro d u c ts，w o o l etc ．co u ld o ffe r rela tiv ely h ig h ·。p ric e d p ro d u c ts —— a s c o m p a re d to T ib e ta n fa rm e rs w h o h a d to co m p e te w ith th e agricultural products of the w hole of C hina，a m ajor agricultural producer．Furtherm ore， th e I9 8 O S still o f e red a m a rk e tin g in fra stru ctu re u p k ep t b y th e sta te ，b e it p ro fi tab le o r n o t．T h e p riv atiz atio n p u sh starte d in th e I9 9 O S w h ich en d e d in th e c lo sin g d o w n o f m an y a state b u sin e ss fo r m a rk etin g an d p ro c e ssin g ．W h e th e r th is e n ta ile d th e d eterio ra tio n o f th e n o m ad s’m ark e tin g p o ssib ilities，o r th e la ck o f en o u g h su p p lie rs in v o lv ed th e clo sin g d ow n o f th e m ark etin g a n d p ro ce ssin g in stitu tio n b o d ie s n ee d s to b e fu rth e r e x a m in ed ． A lth o u g h th ere is n o sp a c e to d isc u ss th is h e re ，it sh o u ld b e m en tio n ed th a t th ere is a c erta in lik elin e ss o f d e cre a sin g d e liv e rie s o f p ro d u c ts．W h ile ，tim e a n d ag ain ，B u d d h ist v alu e s a re g iv e n as th e m ain ratio n ale ，th ey se em ，m o re o fte n th a n n o t，to b e p re te x ts in c a se s w h ere p e o p le e ith e r c an a f o rd n o t to se ll，o r c a n n o t af o rd to se ll a n im als．”T h e re is， ce rta in ly, a co m p lex o f rea so n s w h y tra d itio n al p a sto ra list p ro d u c ts a re m a rk ete d to a le sser extent than before —‘at least intraregionally．A m ong the m ajor explanations w e have to co n sid e r th at⋯ m e at a n d d a iry p ro d u c ts ‘a re in c rea sin g ly co n su m e d in th e p a sto ra lists’h o u seh o ld s：fo rm e rly h a rd ly an y m e at w a s ea te n in su m m er，w h ile m ea n w h ile it h as b e co m e v e ry c o m m o n to e at m e a t th ro u g h o u t th e e n tire y ea r； ‘m eet a h igh er dem an d on th e local m ark ets in Y u sh u (G ~gu and coun ty seats)； 。a re p ro d u c e d in lo w e r q u an titie s a s th e p ro d u c tiv ity h a s d e c re a se d b y 2 0 to 3o p er ce n t d u rin g th e la st tw o d e ca d e s；

⋯ w o o l p ric es h av e se rio u sly d ro p p ed 。d u e to th e o p en in g o f C h in a to th e w o rld m ark e t an d th e d ro p o f w o o l p rice s in g e n era l， ‘d u e to th e co arse stru ctu re o f th e T ib e tan sh e ep 's w o o l a s c o m p a re d to th e h ig h q u a lity m e rin o w o o l o f A u stralia 。5 a n d N ew Z e ala n d ． F u rth e rm o r e ，w e h a v e to a c k n o w le d g e th a t th e m a rk e tin g o f a n im al h u sb a n d r y p ro d u cts in “rem o te a re as”lik e Y u sh u m e e ts a n u m b e r o f in trin sic d iffi c u lties ： 。In m o re re m o te y ak -ra isin g a re as，th e m a rk etin g o f y ak p ro d u cts is v ery lim ite d —d u e to o n ly a fe w m a rk e t o u tle ts w h ic h lie at a g rea t d ista n c e a n d d u e to w e ak c o m m u n ica tio n s m ak e tran sp o rt co st h ig h ． ’T h e re lian ce o n in d iv id u al trad e rs w ith p o o r m a n ag e m e n t an d fi n an cia l cap a b ilitie s d o e s n o t p ro v id e a g o o d b a sis fo r la rg e—sca le m a rk e tin g ． ‘W ith o u t m a rk e t in te llig en c e fo r y a k p ro d u c ts，it is a lso d iffi cu lt to ev alu ate tren d s in th e m a rk et o r p rice c h a n g e s． 。T h e m ajo r o b stacle fo r T ib etan p asto ralists，h ow ever，is th at th e p op u lation is g row ing ，but th e pastu re area h as seriou sly d ecreased (by ap p rox ．20 to 25 per cen t sin ce 195o) as h as th e g rass yield per area u nit? 。C o n se q u en tly , in d iv id u a l p a sto ra list fam ilie s h av e — o n th e a v e rag e — a sm a lle r sto c k o f an im a ls a n d th u s a w e ak e r b a se o f su b sisten c e，en tailin g th a t n o t e n o u g h an im a l p ro d u cts are left to b e m a rk e te d ． 1 0 2 C h in a T ib etolo gy N o J ， M a rch 2 0 11

。T h e su b seq u e n t h ig h er lo c al d e m a n d fo r a n im al p ro d u c ts th u s o b stru c ts th e a im o f in teg ra tio n g th e p a sto ra lists liv esto c k ec o n o m y in to a su p ra reg io n a l m ark e t． T h is list is n o t ex h au stiv e ，ye t in d ic ate s th e c o m p lex ity o f fac to rs co n trib u tin g to th e d if ic u lty o f T ib e tan n o m ad s in ta k in g ad v an tag e o f m a rk e tin g th e ir liv e sto ck p ro d u c ts ．

T h e larg e r p art o f Y u sh u is n e v erth e less a reg io n w h e re p a sto ra l liv esto ck k e e p in g p ersists． A n d a s w e sh a ll se e ，th is is o n a cc o u n t o f a ce rtain in teg ra tio n o f th e p a sto ra lists in to th e w o rld m a rk e t，y e t o w in g to a n ic h e e co n o m y b u ilt o n a u n iq u e reso u rce ：th e c ate rp illa r fu n g u s．I t is th is re so u rc e th a t a llo w s m a n y T ib e ta n p asto r alist s to su b sist w ith th eir liv e sto c k rath e r th a n g iv e u p a n im a l h u sb a n d ry ．

C a te r p illa r fu n g u s —- a n e w n ich e e c o n o m y w id e n in g th e e c o - n o m ic s p a c e o f Y u sh u p a sto r a lists?

W h ile in fr a str u ctu r al d ev e lo p m e n t ta k e s p lac e a n d re sh a p e s t h e ad m in istrativ e ce n tres o f Y u sh u ，th e ru ra l a re a s rem a in la rg ely o n a p re c ario u s su b siste n c e le v e1．U n lik e n o m ad a re a s o u tsid e ‘H ig h A sia’m a n y T ib e ta n p a sto ra lists h a v e ，h o w e v e r，a u n iq u e resou rce —th e m edicinal p lan t called caterpillar fu ngu s ~ o rdycep s sin en sis)． 。T h e access to th is tra d itio n a l re so u rc e n o t re lated to an im a l h u sb an d ry h a s b ec o m e m o re re lev a n t fo r m o st Y u sh u T ib e tan n o m a d liv elih o o d s th an a ny o th e r in c o m e o p p o rtu n ity ．It e n ab les m a n y o f th e m to h a v e a co n sid er ab le sh a re a t m o d e rn c o n su m p t io n ，a n d th u s m a k e s h o u seh o ld s o fte n a p p e ar b e tter—o f th an th e ir v u ln e rab le p a sto ralist liv elih o o d situ a tio n w o u ld a c tu a lly allo w ．B rin g in g sig n ifi c a n t am o u n ts o f ca p ital a n d a sset s in to th e Y u sh u region as w ell as into its rem ote nom ad households，it has becom e one of,if not the m ajor c o m m o d ity o f p a sto ra list h o u seh o ld s，n o tab ly in th e n o rth —e a ste rn p a rt o f th e T ib e tan p la teau ． T h is caterp illar fu ngu s，k n ow n as yartsa g um bu (d byar rtsw a dgu n ’bu) in T ibetan is a fu ngu s p arasitizing th e larv ae of a m oth of the g en us T h itarodes (H epialu s)，w h ich lives in a lp in e g ra sslan d s o f th e T ib eta n P lateau ⋯ ，b u t th e m a rk e t is d riv e n b y C h in e se c o n su m e rs， w h o k now it as ch ongcao (d ongch ong xiacao)，a h igh ly valu ed ton ic in T rad ition al C h in ese M e d icin e ．29 W h e n th e ec o n o m ic lib e ra liz atio n sta rte d o f in th e I9 8 O S，th e p ric e o f ca terp illar fu n g u s b e g a n to rise ，a t fi rst o n ly g ra d u a lly ,y e t d u e to th e g ro w in g d e m a n d in In n e r C h in a ， S outheast A sia an d Jap an ，th e p rices of th is com m o dity w ere pu sh ed up du ring th e last

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F ig ．2 From Yak H erdersto Yartsa Traders．．． 10 3 years (F ig ．2)．T h e d ig ging for，collectin g an d trad ing of caterp illar fun gu s thu s allow ed e v en th o se p a sto ra list h o u seh o ld s w h o d u e to th eir sm a ll sto c k o f an im als w ere o r are at a p re c ario u s liv e lih o o d le v el to sa feg u a rd th eir liv e lih o o d ，an d ev e n h av e so m e in co m e le ft fo r c o n su m p tio n th at g o e s b ey o n d th e ir h a b itu a l liv in g sta n d a rd ． C a te rp illa r fu n g u s b u sin e ss a s a n ic h e m a rk e t is q u ite a p p ro p ria te fo r T ib e ta n p a sto ra list s to p a rtic u la rly a lle v ia t e th e ir p re c a r io u s s itu a t io n ．W ith t h e d e f in ite e stab lish m e n t o f a c ash e c o n o m y o n th e h ig h lan d ，a n d co n cu rren tly th e d ec re asin g su rp lu s o f liv e sto ck p ro d u c ts a s d e sc rib ed ab ov e ，th e c o lle c tio n o f trad ab le p la n ts an d fu n g i，a s m e d ic in e ，to n ic o r fo o d ，h a s g a in e d m o re an d m o re w eig h t —— e sp e cia lly fo r ru ra l p o p u la tio n s w h o u n til rec en tly h a rd ly p a rticip ate d in th e n ew c a sh ec o n o m y ．T h u s，it e n ab les o th e rw ise im p o v e rish e d h o u seh o ld s to p ay fo r co n su m er g o o d s，m e d ica l trea tm e n t，tra n sp o rt o r h ig h sch o o l fe es．3。o r ev en in v e stm e n t in b u sin e ss v en tu res ．C o lle c tio n o f m e d icin al p lan ts h a s a n ag e —o ld h isto ry in T ib e tan c u ltu re ，b e it fo r p e rso n a l u se o r fo r trad e ，e sp ec ia lly w ith th e C h in e se in la n d p ro v in ce s．A lth o u g h th is to n ic se e m s also to b e o f sig n ifi ca n c e w ith in th e trad itio n al T ib e ta n m e d ic in e ，th e n o m ad s th e m selv e s d o n o t re v ert to it．L ik e in th e p a st ce n tu rie s，w h en it w a s a n im p o rta n t b a rte rin g g o o d to o b ta in te # a n d o th er g o o d s fro m C h in a ，it is ag ain tra d e d o u t o f th e re g io n to th e ad h e ren ts o f trad itio n a l C h in e se m edicine — in C hin a prop er,b ut also to in ternation al m ark ets in Sou th E ast A sia (T h ailand ， Sing ap ore，M alay sia)，Jap an ，K orea an d th e U SA ． A s a su rv ey o f 296 h ouseh olds3 (H H ) in sum m er and w in ter 20 0 6／20 0 7 has show n 。 th e in co m e th a t th is reso u rce b r in g s to p a sto ra list h o u se h o ld c a n h a rd ly b e o v ere stim ated ．

· A lm o st 8 5 p e r ce n t o f a ll h o u se h o ld s u se d th is reso u rce ，ev e n th o u g h le ss th a n 6 0 p er cent still ow n ed an im als (I7I H H )．T h is is du e to th e circum stance th at the su rv ey a lso in c lu d e d fam ilies w h o h ad a cce p te d state p ro g ram m e s fo r re settlem e n t in th e co u n ty to w n ．A c c o rd in g to th e co n tr ac t co n d itio n s，re se ttle rs h av e to w aiv e th e u se o f th eir p a stu re lan d fo r fi v e y e a rs a n d th e re fo re h a d to se ll th e ir h e rd s ．It b ec a m e c le a r，h o w ev e r, th at th is c o n trac t d o e s n o t au to m atica lly d e p riv e th e m o f th e ir lan d ，a t le a st n o t，if th ey h ad leasehold con tracts．A m ostly u n k now n righ t，yet a righ t of m ajor im p ortan ce o f th e re settled p asto ra lists is th e ir ac ce ss to th e p astu re s to c o llec t c aterp illar fu n g u s T h e situ atio n is fu rth er a g g rav ate d b y th e fac t th at m a n y liv esto c k o w n e rs d o n ’t ev e n o w n en o u g h an im als to su b sist o n th e m ．I f a m o n g th e su rv ey e d h o u seh o ld s liv e sto c k w o u ld b e th eir on ly m ean s of sub sisten ce．62 ％ p er cen t o f them (Io 6 H H )w ou ld not b e able to m a in ta in a liv elih o o d ．A p a rt fr o m a n im al h u sb a n d ry an d c o lle c tin g ca te rp illa r fu n g u s，th e district do es n ot o f er m any job and in co m e op p ortu nities．T rad ition ally, th ere are also other m edical herbs w hich can be collected，and eight v!llages in N angq~n county can m in e sa lt in m in e ral sp rin g s．A rab le far m lan d is so ra re in Y u sh u ，th a t se m i—n o m ad s w h o d isp o se o f fi e ld s，ca n h ard ly p ro d u c e su ffi c ie n tly fo r th eir o w n co n su m p tio n ，let a lo n e fo r m ark etin g a n y c ro p s ．O n ly g e n u in e fa rm e rs m ay u se th is o p p o rtu n ity ．T ra d itio n ally , trad e p layed a co nsiderable role fo r nom ad s，y et th e d oo r to bu sin ess g en erally rem ain s closed to th o se w h o d o n 't g et en o u g h in co m e to in v est in g o o d s a n d tran sp o r ta tio n ．T h e liv in g sp ac e o f th e p asto ralists is d istan t fro m to w n s w h ere c o n stru c tio n site s a n d re tail tra d e o ffe r Io 4 China Tibetology N o J，M arch 201I som e job opportunities，yet w ith com paratively low w ages．Figure 3 show s how little use of su c h o p p o rtu n itie s c an b e m a d e in th e su rv ey a rea s．an d h ow w id esp re ad the re so rtin g to th e u se o f th e re so u rc e c ate rp illa r fu n g u s is．

F ig ．3 T he w id e sp rea d u se is n o t y e t a g u a ra n tee fo r a su b sta n tial in co m e ·W e th ere fo re h av e to take a glinlpse on earnings from caterpillar f_ungus sales．T he m ajority of the househoIds in 叫 r sa m p le s d o n o t liv e in th e m o st re n o w n e d p la ce s o f c ate rp illa r fu n g u s e c0 v e T hose are m 0stly distributed in the prefecture’s southw est，notably in Z ado i coum y and a few parts of N angq~n and Z hidoi．(See m ap in Fig·4)

0 n th e o the r h an d ，th e few d istric ts in Y u sh u w h ich w a iv e the fu n g u s reso u rce ，a化 a1so h ard ly rep re sen te d in ou r sam p le ．T h a t m ay n o t p rov id e U S w ith a p e rfe ct m e an v a ， b u t to a11 ap p e a ran c e s e a rn in g s w ill m o re lil ly b e co m p a rativ e ly , if n o t m u ch h ig h e th an w h at w e c a lcu la te fro m o u r sa m p le d a ta ．T h a t im p lies：o u r sam p le c an b e ta g g e d a s o n e o f w h ich th e h 0 u seh 0 Id s’ea rn in g s fro m ca te rp illa r fu n g u s a re — o n the av erag e — o n a rath e r F rom Yak H erders tO Yartsa Trad ers．．． Io

m ed io c re lev e 1．Y e t，as w e c a n se e fro m F ig u re 5，ev e n in o u r sa m p le ，th e av e ra g e in c o m e th is re so u rc e p ro d u ce s is m o re sig n ifi c a n t th an a n y o th er lo c a lly y ield e d p ro fi t —。w ith th e ex c ep tio n o f th e trad e sec to r．T h is se c to r，h o w ev e r，w o u ld n o t b o a st su ch h ig h ea rn in g s if th e b re e d in g an d d ea lin g o f a c erta in k in d o f d o g s，th e T ib e tan m a stiff, w o u ld n ’t b e 一∞ c _， c I) -■量§ ．．- 芒．孟 in clu d e d ．33 If th e th r e e c a se s o f d o g b re e d in g h o u se h o ld s w h o st ate d th e ir p ro fits are d e ta ch e d fro m th e tr ad e a n d sh o p c a te g o r y, e v e n th is in c o m e ty p e rem a in s b e lo w th e c ate rp illa r fu n g u s av erag e e arn in g s． c o rn p a ris o n a f e a rn in g s fro m d iffe re nt kin d s o f in co m e (in Y ushu s ple 2006／2oo7)

一

F ig ．5 W e sh o u ld fu rth e r a d d in th is c o n te x t th a t，ac co rd in g to a se m i—o fi cia l w eb site ，3 Q ing hai provin ce yield s b etw een 20 and 5o to ns of caterp illar fu n g u s p er y ea r．A c co rd in g to th e p ric es at th e tim e o f th is su rv e~ th is y ield e d a n a n n u a l tu rn o v e r o f o n e to 2 ．5 b illio n Y u a n in to p a sto ra list h o u se h o ld s in reg io n s w h e re ca te rp illa r fu n g u s ca n b e fo u n d ．M o st o f th e re sp e c tiv e reg io n s a re situ a te d in th e T ib et an p re fe c tu re s o f G o lo g a n d Y u sh u ． In te restin g ly e n o u g h ，o f ic ial p ro v in c ia l a n d p re fe c tu ral sta tistic al y ea rb o o k s d o n o t ev e n m e n tio n c ate rp illa r fu n g u s ． W e c a n th u s say , in all p ro b a b ility , th a t th e c a sh in c o m e locally earned from caterpillar fungus in these tW O m ajor C F yielding prefectures is roughly fi v e tim e s h ig h e r th a n th e o fi cia l an n u al b u d g e t o f th e en tire Y u sh u T A P ．su b sid ie s fr o m Beijing and X ining included．D ue to the high vulnerability of present—day's pastoralists，as w as d em o n strated ab o v e ，a n d d u e to th e p o litica l sen sitiv ity o f T ib eta n are a s，p a sto ra lists in Q inghai—’unlike other prim ary producers in C hina ——are not taxed in the m ajority of th e ca se s．A ll th is is q u alifi e d to ex p la in th e o u tstan d in g sig n ifi c an ce o f c ate rp illar fu n g u s in T ib eta n n o m a d a re as． T h e im p o rta n c e o f th e in c o m e fro m co lle c tin g c a te rp illar fu n g u s is also re flec te d in th e p e o p le ’S v iew s o n w h at are th e b e st strate g ie s to sec u re th eir liv e lih o o d ．，6 T h at th e m ajority believes that to get m ore anim als w ould be the best strategy reflects the fact that m o st o f th e h o u seh o ld s d o n ’t h av e en o u g h liv e sto c k ．B e sid e s th at，th e n ex t m o st im p o rta n t strategy is “to co lle c t ca te rp illa r fu n g u s”，a n an sw e r g iv e n b y m o re th a n tW O th ird s o f all h o u se h o ld an d ev e n 6 2 p er ce n t m o re o ften th a n “to g e t m o re p a stu rela n d ”．T h re e tim e s a s m any believe th is as com p ared to th ose w ho th in k to get a regular job w ou ld b e th e b est， 10 6 China Tibetology N o l M cb2 011 and six tim es as m any as p ro spective bu sin essp eop le ．(C p ．T ab ．3)

A n s w e rs P e r ce n t o f c a s e s S tra te g ie s N P e r ce n t N

to g e t m o re liv e s to c k 2 0 8 3 1 ．8 ％ 7 4 ．O ％

to g e t m o re p a s tu re la n d 1 2 3 1 8 ．8 ％ 4 3 ．8 ％ to c o lle c t c a te rp illa r fu n g u s 1 9 6 2 9 ．9 ％ 6 9 ．8 ％ to get a job (regular or irregular) 67 10．2％ 23．8％ to d o b u s in e s s 3 2 4 。9 ％ 1 1 ．4 ％

O th e r 2 9 4 ．4 ％ 1 0 ．3 ％ T 0 ta I 6 5 5 1 0 0 ．0 ％ 2 3 3 ．1 ％ N = 28z (valid an sw ers 94．9 ％，m ultip le an sw ers p o ssible) O n th e w h o le ，th is sh o w s th a t b esid e s th e d e cre a sin g lw elih o o d o p p o rtu n itie s o f th e a n im a l h u sb a n d ry se c to r，b o th in fac t an d in th e v ie w o f th e p a sto ralists th e c ate rp illar b u sin e ss o f e rs th e m th e w id e st e co n o m ic sp ac e ．T h is ，o f co u rse ，ca n o n ly h a p p en b ec au se 。it is a re so u rce ty p ic ally fo u n d in m a n y p a rts o f th e ir p a stu rela n d o n ly ； ‘it n ee d s th e e x p e rie n c e to fi n d th a t re so u rc e w h ic h is m o re o fte n fo u n d am o n g n o m a d s th a n am o n g o th e r p eo p le；" 。to u se th is re so u rce le ss in v e stm e n t o f fi n a n ce s is n ee d e d th an sp e n d in g tim e a n d e f o rt in th e p a stu re are as． T o m ake a lon g story sho rt：th e id eal set of circum stances given ，th e p asto ralists just g o to th e ir p a stu re s，o r p astu re s o f th e ir c o m m u n ity , a n d d ig fo r it．I n m any c ase s th o u g h ， th ey n ee d to trav e l to n eig h b o u rin g a re a s w h ich m ig h t b rin g th em in to c o n fl ic t w ith o th e r h erd sm en ．A fte r th e e n d o f th e se a so n ，co lle c tin g is fo llo w e d b y trad in g th e c ate rp illa r fu n g i to m id d le m e n o r c o n su m e rs．It h a s th u s b e co m e th e m o st im p o rta n t m o b ile re so u rc e and sou rce of cash incom e fo r th e m ajo rity of p astoral T ibetan hou seh olds in Y u sh u ．T h is is convincingly pointed out by the percentage of households in the investigation area —— th o se u se ca te rp illa r fu n g u s a s re so u rc e fo r c a sh in co m e o u tn u m b e r th e sto ck -ra isin g fam ilies by 46 p er cent．(Table4 ) Table4．"O vervk w of livestock ow nership and caterpillarfungusresourceinbouseboM survey in T usbu (2006／20o7) S tilI o w n liv e s to c k U s e c a te rp illa r fu n g u s a s N u m b e r o f H H re s o u rc e fo r ca s h in c o m e N = 2 9 6 H o u s e h o ld s P e r c e n t H o u s e h o ld s P e r c e n t

Y e s 1 7 1 5 7 ，8 2 5 0 8 4 ，5 N O 1 2 5 4 2 ，2 4 5 1 5 ，2 N o in fo rm a tio n 0 0 1 0 ，3 S o u rce ：o w n su rv ey in 2 0 0 6 ／20 0 7 M a rk e t r e la tio n s B e sid e s re —sh ap in g th e h ab itu a l p a sto ra l ex c h an g e p a tte rn s o f th e d ev elo p m e n t o f F rom Yak H erdersto Yartsa Traders．．． IO 7 th is n ew n ich e e co n o m y , th e c aterp illar fu n g u s in co m e e n ab les th e p asto ralists o f Y u sh u to a d ap t to th e c o n seq u e n c e s o f n atu ra l，d e m o g rap h ic a n d e c o n o m ic c h a n g e s in th e ir liv in g sp ac e a s w ell as b y serv in g a n o u tsid e d e m a n d ．It o f e rs m a n y p a sto ra list h o u seh o ld s to w id en th eir r an g e o f e co n o m ic a c tiv itie s a n d to d e v elo p n ew fo rm s o f so c ia l m o b ility ． I n th is ，th e u se o f m o d er n m e a n s o f c o m m u n ic at io n s fo r m a rk e tin g th is c o m m o d ity h a s b e co m e a m a tte r o f co u rse — b e it th e u se o f m o d e rn tra n sp o rt，m o b ile p h o n e an d in te r n e t．T h u s，th e d ig g in g fo r an d tra d in g w ith c ate rp illa r fu n g u s m ark e d ly ch a n g e d p a sto ral stra teg ie s in Y u sh u 's ru ra l are as a n d e stab lish es m a rk e tin g ch a in s w h ich o b v io u sly re a ch b e y o n d th e reg io n a l fra m ew o rk ．A p ar t fro m sa fe g u a rd in g th e ir h a b itu al p asto ra l liv elih o o d ，th is allo w s th e n o m a d s to · do inve stm ents in to sm all p rivate en terprises (1ik e m in i b u ses／taxis，tru ck s fo r transp ort and trad e，d og raisin g)； · p articip ate in the interm ed iate trad e an d th us start to tak e control of (p arts of) the m a rk et c h ain ； · op en up for them selves to h ave a (1im ited) sh are in th e “big trade”an d re—sh ap e p art o f th e m a rk e t ch a in s． S o w h a t a re th eir m a rk et p e rsp e ctiv e s? W h ile th ere is o n ly a slig h t p ersp e c tiv e o f a n in teg r atio n in to th e w o rld m a rk e t fo r th e T ib eta n y a k a n d sh e ep m ea t m a rk e ts as a su p p lie r o f "g re en fo o d “，th e m ed iu m -term p e rsp e c tiv e o f th e p a sto ralists’ca te rp illa r fu n g u s is，so fa r，m o re fav o u rab le．T h e e co lo g ic al b a sis o f th is c o m m o d ity is to ta lly ro o te d in T ib e tan n o m a d are a s a n d th e refo re p u ts th e m in a position to profit fr om an all but m onopo~ situation ’。as long as they gain control of, o r p a rtic ip a te su b sta n tia lly in th e m a rk e t ch a in s． T h is h a d n o t b e e n th e c a se in th e m e a t m a rk e t c h a in s b e fo re th e a d v e n t o f th e c a te rp illar fu n g u s b u sin e ss ．B e fo re th e d isso lu tio n o f th e c o m m u n e sy ste m ，m e at，w o o l a n d o th e r p a sto ralist co m m o d itie s w ere alm o st e x c lu siv e ly m ark e te d th ro u g h th e sta te ． E c o n o m ic a l lib e ra liz atio n a p rio ri en ta ile d so m e su rp lu s w h ich su b se q u e n tly w e re so ld th ro u g h a sy stem o f m o stly reg io n al an d in trareg io n a l m a rk et ch a in s．W ith th e ex a m p le o f liv e sto c k sa le s，fo r th e Y u sh u ca se ，w e c an ro u g h ly d e sig n th e fo llo w in g m e at m a rk et c h ain s： I． ru ral — ru ral (1ocal an d reg io na1)：livestock d elivery fr om p astoral com m un ities to th e ru ra l d istric t c en tre s lik e Z a d o i o r N an g q ~ n co u n ty tow n ，n o t n e c essa rily b etw e e n co m m u n itie s o f th e sam e c ou n ty ； 2． ru ral — ru ral (sup raregion a1)：an ex am p le is livesto ck trad e b etw een C h ad an c o m m u n ity in Y u sh u ’s Z a d o i co u n ty a n d p a sto ra lists o f B a q ~ n c o u n ty in th e

T A R ： 3． ru ral — u rb an (1ocal an d regio na1)：th is m arket ch ain is，fo r in stan ce，b etw een Y u sh u ’s G y ~g u to w n a n d th e su r ro u n d in g n o m a d a re a s a s w ell a s fr o m o th er

c o u n tie s to th e p refe c tu ra l c ap ital； 4 ． ru ral — urb an (reg io nal and interreg ion a1)：in sparsely pop ulated areas in Y ushu ’s far w est (w estern p arts of Z adoi，Z h idoi and Q u m arl6b) an im al hu sb and ry still lO 8 China Tibetology N o 』，M arch 2011

o f er s a so u n d liv e lih o o d to m an y p a sto ra lists．A lth o u g h th e y liv e o f th e m ain c o m m u n ica tio n lin e s，th e y h av e y et g o o d m a rk e tin g ch a n c es in w in ter，w h en th e m a rsh y ste p p e s a n d th e r iv e rs crissc ro ssin g th em a re fr o z en ．T h e m ark e t c h ain for live an im als in th ose areas go against any obv iou s m ajor com m un icatio n lines an d reach as far as th e cities of G olm u d and X in in g in Q ing h ai prov ince an d L h asa in th e T A R ： 5． u rban — u rb an (in traregio na1)：livesto ck trade b etw een th e district seat of Y u shu an d th e p ro v in c ia l c ap ita l，X in in g ． T yp ical for all these m arket chains is th eir control by outsiders．A s for the p a sto ralists’relatio n to th e se co m m o d ity ch a in s w e h av e to rem ark th a t th e p a sto ra lists a re h a rd ly p re sen t a s in te rm e d ia rie s in th e co m m o d ity ch a in s — e x ce p t fo r th e lo c a l ru ral-ru ral an d ru ra l—u rb a n m a rk e t c h ain s．T h e ru ral-u rb a n a n d u rb a n —u rb a n ch a in s a re d o m in a te d b y e x tern al sto ck trad ers：th o se o rie n ted to w a rd s th e n o rth a re m o stly in th e h a n d s o f H u i M u slim s fro m X in in g ，th e p ro v in c ial c ap ita l，a n d so m e tim e s fr o m n e ig h b o u rin g G a n su provin ce．L ike in the M o ro ccan case study (cp ．th e article o f I．B reu er in th is volu m e)， m a rk etin g b e n e fi ts d eriv in g fro m tem p o ra ry a n d sp a tia l p rice d if e re n c e s，a re n o t re a lize d b y th e p a sto ralists．b u t b y th e ex te rn a l in te rm e d ia ries．A s fo r th e “so u th ern m a rk e t c h a in ” aim ing at the T A R ，n otably L h asa，b oth b uyers (w ho in the ru ral—ru ral case m igh t b e p asto ralists as w el1) an d d ealers (in terreg ion al ru ral—urb an ch ain ，L h asa city dw ellers， am ong oth er~ are T A R T ib etan s．A s th e Y u sh u no m ads ‘w ait—an d—see”sale strategies are e sse n tia lly b ase d o n th e h erd rep ro d u c tio n cy c le a n d th e ro ad co n d itio n s th ey c a n n o t re a lly b e co n sid e re d m a rk e t o rie n te d ．T h e sam e is tru e fo r o th e r an im a1 h u sb a n d ry c o m m o d ity c h ain s，lik e sh e e p 's w o o l，y a k h a ir，sk in s an d d a iry p ro d u c ts．，8 C o rre sp o n d in g ly , if w e lo o k at th e c aterp illar fu n g u s c o m m o d ity c h a in s —。d o w e h av e to fa ce th e sa m e situ atio n a s w e p rev io u sly h a d ，a n d u p to n o w h av e in th e m e at o r liv e sto c k m a rk et c h ain s? U n til recently th e an sw er w ould h ave b een a clear “yes”!Y ear after year,in M Jun e andJuly the central plazas or som e m ajor roads in Yushu’s counties，in som e areas even the com m un ity centres g radu ally fi lled u p w ith H ui M u slim s of no rth ern Q ingh ai，of G an su a n d N in g x ia ．39 F o r a d ec a d e o r tw o ，th e y a lso ca m e in b ig n u m b ers to d ig fo r ca te rp illa r fu n g u s a s w ell，b u t th o se in th e m ain stre e ts a n d o n th e m a rk e t—lik e o p e n sp a c es in to w n c am e p re d o m in a n tly to tra d e th e ‘'g o ld o f th e g ra sslan d ”，a s th e p a sto ra lists’im p o rta n t re so u rc e is m e a n w h ile c a lle d ．C ate r p illa r fu n g u s tra d e h a s g iv e n rise to th e sp e c ia l o c cu p a tio n o f sm a ll，m e d iu m a n d b ig in te rm e d ia te trad e rs w h o c o n n e c t w ith th e d a laob a n

— th e “b i譬bo sses”．T h e nu m erou s m id dlem en's task is n othing b ut b uy sing le pieces an d sm a ll se ts o f ca te rp illa r fu n g i，an d re se ll th em a cc o rd in g to th e lo ca l su p p ly an d th e ir o w n fi n a n c ial re so u rc e s．T h u s，th e fu n g i m ay b e re so ld se v era l tim e s in th e sa m e co m m u n ity a n d to w n b e fo re th ey a re tra n sp o rted to a b ig g e r p la ce an d re so ld in a b ig g er q u a n tity ． T h e “b ig b o sse s”，g en era lly re sid in g in b ig C h in e se citie s o r H o n g K o n g ，are n e v er se en in th e stree ts．a n d th ey o n ly b u y th e b ig d e a ls ．W h ile th e y are o fte n sa id to b e H a n C h in e se ， alm o st all th e m id d lem en a ctiv e in Y u sh u a n d G o lo k w e re H u i M u slim s — u n ti1 ab o u t 20 0 5． From Yak H erdersto Yartsa Traders．．． IO 9

T he year after this changed definitely．In July and A ugust 2005，about 80 per cent of th e in term ediate caterpillar fu ngu s traders on G y~gu’s big central squ are (da g uangch ang ) w e re ，b y a ll a p p e a ra n c e s，M u slim m e n ．I n su m m e r 2 0 0 6 a lre a d y ，t h is situ a tio n w a s re v e rsed ：th e M u slim trad ers sh are w a s b etw ee n te n a n d tw en ty p er c en t w ith th e re st b ein g T ib eta n s．A m o n g th o se 8o p e r c en t T ib e ta n s y o u c a n fi n d sa le sp e o p le fro m o th er im p ortant east T ib etan tow n s — like Q am do ，N gaw a，K an gd ing or Q ab qa (H ain an) an d ev e n L h a sa ．T h e b u lk ，h ow ev e r，w e re lo c a l T ib e tan s，a n d am o n g th e m m o re p a sto ralists th a n p e a san ts，4。w h o h a d m a d e th e ir w ay in to th e c ate rp illa r fu n g u s b u sin ess． W h a t en ab le d T ib e ta n n o m ad s to tak e o v er fr o m th e fo rm e rly o m n ip re sen t M u slim ag e n ts? T h e re aso n is related to th e p ro b le m o f se arc h in g fo r a n d d ig g in g o u t o f ca te rp illa r fu n g u s．D u rin g th e la st d e c ad e ，w ith ev e r—risin g p ro fi ts in th e re so u rce s tu rn o v e r，m o re an d m ore outsiders en tered Y u shu (an d other resp ective areas) du ring the collecting season

— A pril through June．A fter a num ber of conflicts had arisen locally,a m ajor escalation betw een villagers Jiduo and Sulu com m unities in 2005 led to a w eek-long clash at a bridge a cro ss C h i C h u riv e r in Z ad o i co u n ty ．T h e v illag e rs b a rred p e o p le fro m o u tsid e —’e ast T ibetans fr o m th e R and Sichu an and M uslim s fr om Q in gh ai an d G an su — to en ter th e ir p a stu re s fo r c o lle c tin g th e fu n g u s．A s th e la tte r h ad p a id a fe e to th e au th o ritie s to g et ac ce ss，th e y sta rte d a fi g h t fo r w h at th ey to o k fo r th e ir rig h t．D u rin g th e c la sh e s at le a st o n e p e rso n w a s sh o t d e ad ．4 A u th o ritie s co u ld o n ly g e t a g rip o n th e w a r—lik e situ atio n a fter a rm e d p o lice w as d ep lo y e d an d se n t o u tsid e rs b a ck h o m e ．T en sio n p ersiste d a n d 1ed to se m i-o 伍c ial b arrin g o u tsid e rs fr o m Y u sh u d u rin g th e c aterp illa r se aso n in 20 0 6 ．S in ce th e n ，ac ce ss to th e rec o v ery are a s o f th e re so u rc e in th e w h o le o f Y u sh u is re stric te d d u rin g

th e co lle c tin g se aso n — o n ly Y u sh u p e o p le are a llo w e d to g o fo r “ fu n g u s h u n tin g ’ In 20 0 6 ， m o re th an 50 c h e ck p o in ts a n d ro a d ‘‘b lo ck s w e re —‘se m i。leg a lly , a s it w ere —— o rg a n ize d b y th e c o m m u n ity p e o p le a n d th e ir le a d e rs，to le ra ted a n d la te r o n q u asi—leg aliz e d b y th e h ig h e r a d m in istratio n ． A s co lle c to rs w e re lo c k e d o u t d u rin g th e se a so n ，so w e re th e in te rm e d ia te tra d ers

w h o o rd in a rily c a m e in a s so o n a s th e tra d in g se a so n sta rted ．C o u ld a b e tte r situ atio n ex ist to le t T ib e ta n p a sto ra lists fa m ilia r w ith th e system ju m p at th e chan ce and catch h old o f th e m a rk etin g c h ain ．U n til o u tsid ers w ere allow ed in again in july 2006，a lot of the in term ed iate d e a lin g o f th e fu n g u s h a d alre ad y b e e n d o n e ．M e an w h ile ，th is in term e d ia te trad e la sts th e w h o le y e a r, at le ast in th e p refe c tu ra l sea t G y ~g u ，y e t th e h ig h est p ro fi ts g a in th o se trad e rs w h o are p re se n t in th e m o st im p o rtan t in itia l p h a se d u rin g th e c o llec tin g se a so n w h en d u e to th e larg e su p p ly p r ic e s are lo w ．C o st o f th e c o m m o d ity d o n o t e v en ly g ro w ：th ey a re a t t h e ir h e ig h t b e fo re th e se a so n sta rt s，sin c e b y th e n th e m a rk e ts a re rela tiv ely em p tB an d a t th eir low e st w h en th e n o m a d s p o u r in to th e co u n ty to w n s to se ll th e ir fu n g i，g e t c a sh a n d b e g in th e ir p ro c u re m e n t o f an n u al p ro v isio n s，co n su m e r g o o d s a n d d u rab le s．T h is tim e is a lso m o st a ttrac tive fo r o th e r m erc h an ts a n d ar tisa n s，d ea lin g

w ith and processing jew ellery,clothing and any kind of electric appliances． ． T h e p astoralists in th e c aterp illar fu n g u s co m m o d ity ch ain s d id n o t restrict th em se lv e s to th e sim p le in te rm e d ia te trad e ．A m o n g th e m a ny fu n g u s d e a lers ，ce rta in II O C h in a T ib eto log y N o J ， M arch 2 0 1 1

h ie rarc h ies ev o lv e d ，h e n c e sa le m e th o d s a n d strateg ie s g o t a lso m o re a n d m o re re fi n e d ． B e sid e s th o se w h o b u y sin g le p ie ce s a n d sm a ll q u an titie s o f c aterp illa r fu n g u s in o rd e r to re sell in b ig g er am o u n ts，m o re a n d m o re T ib eta n s co u ld d ev e lo p b u sin e ss c o n tac ts to p a rtn e rs in th e c o n su m e r m a rk ets — in th e far d ista n t C h in e se m eg a cities ．S in c e th e d a lao b a n ，th e “b ig b o sse s”，a re n ev e r p re sen t in Y u sh u ，th e ex ac t se q u en ce s o f th eir p art o f th e c o m m o d ity ch a in still n ee d s fu rth er in v estig a tio n ．Its b a sic fu n c tio n in g ，h o w ev e r， is e a sily g ra sp e d a n d w as en d o rse d b y a n u m b e r o f in terv iew s w ith in term e d iate trad ers o n to p o f th e G y 6 g u t rad e r h ie ra rc h y ．I t e sse n t ially re m in d s a w e ste rn sto c k —m a rk e t： the d ealers in Y u sh u — gen erally th ose p astoralists in bu sin ess su it at th e b ig plaza — ju st o b serv e th e h u stle a m o n g th e se llers an d b u y ers ．A rm e d w ith th eir m o b ile s th ey are in p erm a n e n t d ire c t co n tac t w ith th e ir b u sin e ss p a rtn e rs in C h e n g d u ，G u a n g zh o u ，S h e n z h e n ， H o n g K o n g o r o th e r citie s．T h o se k e e p th e m u p to —d a te ab o u t th e c a te rp illar fu n g u s p ric es th e re ．L ik e sto c k b ro k e rs，th e n ew p a sto ralist—b u sin e ssm e n b u y la rg e d e als o f th e fu n g u s if th e p rice d if e ren ce b e co m e s p ro m isin g ．F o r fa st tra n sp o rt，lo ca l c a rs a re h ire d — o rd in a rily new Japanese or joint venture landcruisers— and the freight transported to X ining w ithin o n e d ay ．F ro m th ere ，th e c o m m o d ity 's d ista n t p la ce o f d estin atio n is re ac h e d b y airp la n e． W h at w e rea liz ed h ere is a m ajo r action tu rn o f th e p asto ralists’sh are in th e c o m m o d ity c h a in o f th e ir m o st im p o r ta n t re so u rc e ．W ith in o n e o r tw o y e a rs ，th ey m an a g ed to ch a n g e th e ir o rig in a lly relativ e ly p assiv e ，at m o st se c o n d a ry ro le a s c ate rp illa r fu n g u s dealers to m ajor stakeholders of its com m odity chain w ithin and out of Yushu T h e ir fo rm e rly w e a k p re se n c e in th e m a rk e ts h a s m e ta m o rp h o se d to th e ir a b so lu te d o m in a n c e o v e r th e fo rm e rly o m n ip re se n t M u slim tra d e rs．A n d th e ir b u sin e ss c o n n e c tio n s m ea n w h ile rea ch fa r b ey o n d th e reg io n ，b ey o n d X in in g in to th e C h in e se m a g ac ities o n th e w e alth y co ast．T h e re ，as in fo rm an ts to ld sev e ral tim e s，o n e c an a lso fi n d T ib e ta n “b ig

b o sse s”w h o a re ac tiv e o n all lev e ls o f th e co m m o d ity ch a in ．T h e re a re a b o u t a d o z e n N a n g c h en p a — p a sto ralists fro m N a n g q ~ n — a m o n g th e m ．T h is is n o t u n e x p e cte d ，sin ce b u sin e ss in C h in a ，a n d a m o n g T ib eta n p asto ralists a s w e ll，d e p e n d s v e ry m u ch o n lo n g — sta n d in g p erso n al c o n tac ts．T h is g iv e s th em a n e d g e in th e d ista n t m a rk ets w h ic h are also p a rtly in tern atio n a l m ark e ts．H en ce it is n o t th e v e ry fo o tin g o f th e fo rm er an d still—n o m a d so c iety — a n im al h u sb an d ry an d its co m m o d itie s — w h ic h relate s th e m to th e w o rld m ark et．

It is th e p ec u lia r n ich e m ark e t o f a v e ry sp e c ial to n ic e n d e m ic to th e p a sto ra lists’liv in g sp a ce th at fi n a lly e n ab le d th e m to h o ld ca tc h o f a n d b e p rese n t o n all lev e ls o f a c o m m o d ity c h a in o rig in atin g fr o m am o n g st th em ．T o w ard s th e to p le v el，th ey ce rtain ly “th in o u t”，y e t

fo rm erly th ey w ere n o t ev e n n e a r to th e re ． T o e n d w ith th e co m m o d ity c h ain ，it sh o u ld b e n o te d th a t th e stro n g reg im e o f th e c ate rp illa r fu n g u s co m m o d ity c h a in is d if e re n t fr o m th e m a rk etin g o f liv e sto ck an d o ther an im al hu sb and ry p ro ducts．W ith the latter tren d ing tow ards v ariou s direction s， th e fu n g u s’m a rk e tin g fo llo w s m o re h ie ra rc h ica lly o rg a n iz ed g u id e lin e s．P a ra lle llin g th e d e liv e ry o f y a rtsa g u m b u sta rtin g o f fro m th e p a sto ra list h o u seh o ld s to in te rm e d ia te trad e rs in th e c o u n ty an d d istric t se ats，th en ，afte r ag re g a tin g fr o m G y ~g u o n to X in in g a n d ev e n tu ally to th e larg e C h in e se c o n su m e r m a rk e ts in “in n er C h in a ”an d o v e rse a s， F rom Yak H erders to Ya rtsa Traders．．． I II

a ll lev els o f th e c o m m o d ity c h a in ru n h ier arc h ic ally a lo n g sin g le ，o r at le a st b u t a few m a rk e tin g lin e s．F ro m Y u sh u th e se o rd in a rily g o th ro u g h X in in g ，in S ich u an th ro u g h

C h e n g d u ，in th e T A R th ro u g h L h a sa ．

S o c ia l im p a c t o f c a te r p illa r fu n g u s

A s h a s b ee n cle arly d e m o n stra te d ，th e su b siste n ce —o rien te d m a rk etin g sy stem o f th e an im al h u sb a n d r~ in w h ich p ro d u c tio n se e m e d to b e essen tially fo r th e p o o r an d in w h ich th e p asto ralists’co n tro l ov e r th e c o m m o d ity ch a in w as v ery lo w , h as b e en rep lac ed ，o r at le a st su p p lem en te d b y th e in te n se u se o f a n ew re so u rce en tailin g co n sid era b le c h a n g e s in th e p a sto ralists’ro le in th e co m m o d ity ch a in s．A lth o u g h th e ca te rp illa r fu n g u s tra d e is n o fi g m en t o f th e tran sfo rm atio n p e rio d sin ce th e start o f th e ec o n o m ic lib era liza tio n ，们 w h at is n ew is its d im en sio n a n d im p lica tio n o n th e n o m ad ic so cie ty ．It is ea sy to im ag in e th at a so cio ec o n o m ic c h an g e a s th e o n e d e scr ib ed h a s m an ifold e ffe c ts．S o fa r，h ow ev e r, th ere a re n o stu d ie s d ea lin g w ith th e so c ia l im p ac ts ．T o c o n c lu d e o u r c o n sid eratio n s，le t m e p relim in a rily a d d res s su ch im p a cts in a fe w ca tc h w o rd s．

B a ilo u t o f th e m o st v u ln e r a b le

D u e to n a tu ra I a n d d e m o g ra p h ic ch a n g e s．a p a sto ra list liv elih o o d o n su b siste n c e lev e l in th e h a b itu a l w ay w o u ld n o m o re b e p o ssib le fo r m o st o f Y u sh u ’s n o m ad s ．T h e sp e e d —u p o f ru ral m ig ratio n w o u ld b e in ev ita b le ．A lre a d y , th is h as g o n e b e y o n d its in itial sta te ，alth o u g h it see m s th at its e x te n t w a s n o t c le a rly ta k e n n o tice o f sin ce in v e stig a to rs rather identified the state resettlem ent program m es as m ajor source of the m igration in to th e sem i—u rb a n iz e d to w n s o f e a st T ib e ta n p a sto ra l are a s．In o u r su rv e~ h o w ev er， th e n u m b ers o f u n so licito u s m ig ra n ts h a s c le a rly b ee n la rg er th a n th o se o f re se ttled b y state p ro g ra m m e ．44 B o th m ig ra tio n an d stay in g in th e p a sto ra l co u n try sid e a re lin k e d to c aterp illar fu n g u s．P e o p le w h o w o u ld o th erw ise h av e to g iv e u p a n im a l h u sb a n d ry are ab le to co n tin u e th e ir w ay o f liv in g ，sin c e d efi c its in p a sto ra lism are c o m p en sate d b y th e fu n g u s re so u rc e ．T h u s，so cia l life in th e co u n try sid e c a n c o n tin u e in rath er in tac t v illa g e s A s fo r th e m ig ra n ts to to w n ．th e b u lk o f th e m d o n o t c o n sist o f th e im p e c u n io u s， alth o u g h w e o f c o u rse fin d stra n d e d p a sto ra lists a m o n g th e m ．M o re o fte n th ey a re th e y o u n g a n d m id d le —a g e d w h o u se th e ir in c o m e fro m ca te rp illa r fu n g u s to d ev e lo p n e w

ec o n o m ic o p p o rtu n itie s a n d ev e n life sty le s．

S o c ia l b a la n c e a n d im b a la n c e

C aterp illa r fu n g u s b u sin ess c e rta in ly en ta ils a fu rth e r d if e re n tiatio n o f th e p asto ra list so c iety , sin ce n o t ev e ry b o d y h as e asy a c ce ss to th e fu n g u s y ie ld in g p astu re s，a n d n o t a ll th e p a stu re s p ro d u ce th e sa m e am o u n t a n d q u ality ．T h e re is，h o w e v er，en o u g h re a so n to b eliev e th at th e so c ial d if e ren tia tio n in p a sto ra l co m m u n ities w h ich a re ，ev e n in th e n ew cash econ om y, ab le to sub sist fro m an im al h usb an dry is sh ap ed sim ilarly．A few ran dom sa m p le s a n d e x p e rt in terv ie w s in liv e sto c k -ric h ，b u t ca te rp illa r—fu n g u s—fre e c o m m u n itie s of Q um arl6b county hinted at this．If it is am biguous to judge w hether the resource causes II2 C h in a T ib eto lo gy N o ， M a rch 2 01 1

b ig g e r o r sm alle r in e q u ity w ith in th e co m m u n itie s，it ca n d efi n itely a sse ss th a t th e n e w b u sin e ss p re v en ts th e so cia l g ap b e tw ee n c o u n try sid e an d u rb an iz e d to w n s to b e to rn o p en to o m u c h ．

C o n fl icts a n d b r e a k -u p o f s o c ia l h a r m o n y

N o m a d a re as in T ib e t．a n d m o re so in e aste rn T ib e t’s c a te rp illa r fu n g u s y ield in g a re as，h a s w itn e sse d a g ro w in g n u m b e r o f c o n fl ic ts．W h ile in th e I9 80 S ，su ch co n flic ts w e re a d d re sse d a s d isp u te s o v e r g ra z in g site s，th e y w e re re g u la rly related to c o lle c tin g c aterp illa r fu n g u s in re ce n t y e a rs．T h is w a s le ss th e ca se in co m m u n itie s w h e re o u tp u t a n d q u ality o f th e re so u rce a re low , b u t in a re as w h ere it ab o u n d s．M o st sen satio n al w e re th e co n fl ic ts a risin g d u e to th e m a ssiv e in -ru sh o f o u tsid ers，b u t n o t a few h av e a risen am o n g st n e ig h b o u r in g v illag e s an d co u n ties ．It is th e lu c rativ ity o f fu n g u s b u sin e ss c rea tin g h o p e fo r h u g e p ro fi ts，if n o t g ree d ，th at q u ic k ly sp re ad s m a te rialism ， a n o b v io u sly in ev itab le sid e — effe c t o f c ap italist e co n o m izin g ．E n v io u sn e ss，m istru stfu ln e ss ， re c lu siv en e ss an d alco h o lism are b u t a n in c o m p le te list o f b eh av io u rs a n d attitu d e s w h ic h sh o w u p m o re c le a rly in th o se co m m u n itie s w h ic h h av e see n a q u ic k fi n a n c ia l th ru st d u e to h ig h y artsa g u m b u o cc u rre n c e ，th a n w h e re p e o p le o n ly c o m p en sate th e ir in su 伍c ien t a n im al h u sb an d ry ．S o c ial h a rm o n y v irtu ally ap p ea rs b ein g p re serv e d w h e re th e h a b itu a l p asto ra list life rem ain s m o re u n d istu rb e d b y th e n ew b u sin e ss．

S o c ia l m o b ility

N e v e r th e le ss w e h a v e to a c k n o w le d g e th a t ，a s th e u s e o f m o d e r n m e a n s o f c o m m u n ic atio n s fo r m a rk e tin g th is c o m m o d ity h a s b e co m e a m a tte r o f co u rse ，it h as b e co m e a n e sse n t ial p a rt o f th e liv e lih o o d o f m o st Y u sh u n o m a d s．F u n d s o f fo rm e rly u n k n o w n size to w h ic h p asto ra lists n o w m ay g ain a cc ess —— w ith m o st o f th e m re m a in in g o n a still p re c a rio u s fi n a n c ia l le v e l —— a llo w n e w fo rm s o f m o b ility ．S o c ial m o b ility is n o th in g n ew to T ib e ta n so c ie ty , w h ich is p ar tly ow in g to th e B u d d h ist sy stem a n d th e im p lic itn e ss o f e v ery h o u se h o ld sh a rin g in th e m o n a stic sy stem ．Y e t，so c ia l m o b ility g o e s far b ey o n d th e relig io u s sp h e re n ow ．It fo o ts o n th e h ig h sp a tia l m o b ility th e p a sto ra lists a re ac c u sto m e d to in c o m b in atio n w ith a n ew fi n a n c ia l，a n d c o n se q u e n tly e c o n o m ic m o b ility a n d a d ap ta b ility th e y try to d e v elo p fo r th e m selv e s．T h is is ce rtain ly m o re o w in g to th e w id e n in g e co n o m ic sp ac e d u e to th e c aterp illar fu n g u s b u sin e ss th a n to a n y o th er e co n o m ic o r ad m in istra tiv e d ev elo p m e n t m e a su re — b e it b y th e state o r fo reig n N G O s ． T h e h isto ry o f th e z o o m o f th e c aterp illa r fu n g u s re so u rc e is n o t a lo n g o n e y et．T h u s it is，o r th e tim e b e in g ，d if icu lt to fu lly asse ss its so c ial im p lic atio n s．T h e re m a rk s a t th is place can th u s on ly b e con sidered very p relim in ary．Scien tists w ill h ave to direct m ore atten tio n to th is p h e n o m e n o n if th e y w a n t to u n d erstan d th e o n g o in g so cia l tra n sfo rm a tio n o f th e n o m a d ic so ciety in Y u sh u a n d o th e r p asto ralist a re a s o f e astern T ib et．

B au er, K en：‘'D ev elop m en t and the E nclosure M ov em ent in Pastoral Tibet Sin ce the 0 8os”， From Yak H erderstO Yartsa Traders．．． II3

N o m ad ic P eo p le s，9 ，N o s ·I& 2 ，20 0 5 ，P P ·53—8 1· B reu er，Ingo ，J6 rg G ertel and C on stan ze H ein ig：“Z ur K lassifi k ation von G ren zen u n d L lb e rg ~n g e n n o m ad isc h er A k tiv it／iten ”，M ateria lien d e s S F B ‘．D ren z u nd In teg ra tion ’I (B erichte aus den A rbeitsgr upp en：G renzen und U bergdnge I)．H alle：O W Z ，20 0 2，P P．23—31· Cbaneine fateson In：C hina D evelopm entBrief (online 2003) C ostello，Susan：The Flow of W ealth in G olog Pastoralist Soc~ty：Tow ards an A ssessm ent of Local Financial R esourcesfor Econom ic D evelopm ent．Paper presented at the IO幽International C onference of the IA T S，O xford，Septem ber 2oo3(forthcom ing in confi renceproceedings) Foggin ，M arc：B uilding N ew Partnershipsfor Conservation & Sustainable D evelopm ent in the T ibeta n P latea u R egion：R ecent E xp eriences in th e T angtze R iv er H ead w aters．P lateau P erspectives，Q in ghai O ffice．(o nlin e 20 0 4) 一 ：Biodiversity Protection and the Searchfor Sustainability in Tibetan Plateau G rasslands (~ ngha( China)．PhD dissertation (D epartm ent of B iology,A rizona State U niversity)，A nn

A rb o r 20 0 0 ． G ertel，J6rg：“G lobalisierung，E ntankerung und M obilit／it：A nalytische Perspektiven einer gegenw artsbezogenen geographischen N om adism usforschung”．O rientw issenschaftliche H efte (Orientw issenschaftliches Zentrum H alle：M itteilungen des SFB ：D if erenz und Integr ation)， H alle ：O W Z ，2 0 0 2 ，P P ．57 —8 8 ． G oldstein，M elvyn C ．：N om ads of G olog：A R ep ort．M anuscript，I996．[dow nload A ugust 20 0 6] 一 and Cynthia M ．B ealh N om ads of W estern Tibet．H ong K ong：O dyssey Productions，

I9 9 O · G ru sc h k e ，A n d re a s：“D e m o g ra p h ie u n d E th n o g ra p h ie im H o c h la n d y o n T ib e t“， G eograp hiscb e R undscbau，49 ，N o ．5,x9 97，PP ．279—286 ．

- - m ． ‘'A rb e itslo sig k eit u n d U n terb e sch ／iftig u n g in T ib e t．P o litisc h e D ru ck m ittel o d e r Folgen sozialen W andels?”，InternationalesA sienfo rum ，34，N os．3-4，2003，PP·3o3—330· “N 0 m a d e n o h n e W eid e ? U b e r d ie W an d lu n z e n d e r G e sellsch a ft in d en S

s” d e s tib e t isc h e n H o c h la n d e E ura sisch es M ag az in o 5—0 6 ，3o ．o 5 ．2 0 0 6 ． — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — ， — — — — — — — — — — — — H e A n X ia n g a n d L i L ia n g ：“S tu d y o n th e re la tio n b e tw e en y a k p e rfo rm a n c e a n d ecological protection”．In：Z hong Jincheng，Z i X iangdong，H an Jianlin and C hen Z hihua (eds．)．Tak Production in C entralA sianH ighlands．Proceedingsof theFourth InternationalCongr ess of T ak．C hengdu：Sichuan Publishing G roup 。Sichuan Publishing H ouse of Science & T e ch n o lo g y, 2 0 0 4 ，P P ．9 3—9 5 ． M an d e rsc h e id ，A n g e la：“L ife a n d e co n o m ic p atte rn s o f n o m a d s o n th e e a ste rn T ib e t P lateau ．B rog P a and Sa M a B rog in D zam -th ang”，in D evelop m ent,Society,and E nv ironm ent in T ibet．ed．G ．E ．C lark e (P roceed ing s o f th e 7th S em in ar of th e IA T S ，G raz I9 95．V )， W ien ：O sterreich isch e A k adem ie d er W issen sch aften ，x9 98，p p ．59—6 7． ⋯ ：L ebens-und W irtscbaftsform en yon N om aden im O sten des tibetischen H ochlandes (A bh and lu ng en A nth rop og eograph ie，6I)，B erlin ：D ietrich R eim er V erlag，I99 9．

一 ：“D e c lin e a n d R e —e m e rR e n c e o f N— o m — ad is! ； ib 鱼 里垒s 鱼! ￡§ ：星 i 星墨 20 0 1，P P ．I73—82 ． 114 China T ibetology N o 』，M arch 2011

“垦：璺 垦! Q ￡ N ifestyle ：A Su rv iv aI S trateg y F or D zam T h an g ’S P a sto r a n d C ultu re in th e P ost— — — alists”，in ：T o ni H u ber (ed ．)，A m do T ibetans in Transition： M ao E ra (P ro ceed ing s o f the N inth S em in ar of T h e IA T S ，20 0 0 ， vo 1． )，L eiden ：B rill A c ad e m ic P u b lish ers，2O O 2 ：27 1—2 8 9 ． M iehe，G eorg and Sabine M iehe：E nvironm ental C hanges in the Pastures of X izang， in ：G eo rg M ieh e an d Y ili Z h ang (ed s．)，E nv ironm ental cha nges in H igh A sia (M arb u rg er G eograp hische Sch riften 135)，M arbu rg ，20 0 0 ，PP ．282—311． M iller,D aniel：H erdson theM ove．W inds of on th e T ib eta n P la tea u ．D iscu ssio n p a p er se rie s N o ．M N R 9 5／2 ．K a th m an d u ：IC IM O D ，I9 9 5 一 ：“ T ib eta n P asto ra lism ：H a — — rd T im eson the Plateau，Chinabrief,T SIN ，V o1．I，N o．2， O c t．19 9 8 ，P P ．17—2 2 ． ：“T o u z h tim e s fo r T ib e ta n n o m a d s in W e ste rn C h in a ：S n o w sto rm s．se ttlin

for P overty R eduction，P aper Prepared fo r the T ibet D evelopm ent Sym posium ：B randeis U n iversity,M ay 4-6 ，2O O 1 (onlin e)． N ori，M ichele：H oofs on the R oof Pastorallivelihood on the~ i．nghai-Tibetan Plateau．The CChengduo county,Tushuprefecture．A SIA ：20o4．[dow nload M ay 2005] O f ic e o f th e L e a d in g G ro u p fo r W e stern R eg io n D ev elo p m en t o f th e S ta te C o u n c il： O verallPlan of W este rn R egion D evelop m ent D uring the Tenth Five-T ear Plan P eriod (online， D ecem b er 20 0 2)． Q P SB = Q inghai P rovince Statistics B ureau： Statistical T earbook，B eijing： Zhongguo Tongji C hubanshe，2005． S alzm an ，P h ilip C arl an d Joh n G ．G alaty：“N om ad s in a C h ang in g W orld ：Issu es and P roblem s”．in N om adsin a Changing W orld,ed．P．C ．Salzm an and J．G ．G alaty,Istituto U n iv e rsita rio O rie n tale ，33 ，N ap le s，19 9 o ，P P ．3-2 I． S ch o lz ，F red ：“N o m ad ism u s ist to t．M o b ile T ie rh a ltu n g a ls z e itg em ~ig e N u tz u n g sfo rm der k argen W eiden des A ltw eltlichen T rockengfi rtels“，G eograp bische R undschau ，51，N o．5， I9 9 9 ，P P ．2 4 8 —2 55 ．

⋯ ：“G lo b a lisie ru n g v e r su s F r a g m e n t ie r u n g ．E in e r eg io n a lw is se n sc h a f tlic h e H erausfo rd eru ng?”，N ord-Sad A ktuell,X IV N o．2，20 0 0 ，PP ．255—271． 一 ：“N o m a d ism u s．E n d e e in e r tra d itio n sreich en K u ltu rw e ise ”，in D er bek b te P la net， e d ．M a rg o t B 6 se a n d H elm u t K e u p p S o n d e rh e ft d e r B e rlin e r G e o w issen sch a ftlich e n A bh an dlu ng en)，B erlin ：F U B erlin ，20 0 2，PP ．88—9 8． S h e eh y , D e n n is：“T h e R a n g e la n d s ，L a n d D eg rad atio n an d B lac k B e ac h ：A R e v iew of R esearch R eports and D iscussions”，in The Living Plate au：Changing L ives of H erders in 氧哆gb4i．C oncluding Sem inar of the 9d．ngbaiL ivestock D evelop m entP roject,ed．N ico van W ageningen and Sa W enjun，K athm andu：IC IM O D ，2OO1，PP．5-9． T aub e，M arku s and 0 giitqii，M eh m et：“M ain Issu es on F oreig n Investm en t In C h in a's R e g io n al D ev elo p m e n t：P ro sp e cts A n d P o licy C h a lle n g e s”，in F 0 re／g n D irect In v estm en t in F rom Yak H erdersto Yartsa Traders．．． I25

C bina 's R egionalD ev elo／}m ent．P rosp ectsand P olicy ， ed ．O E C D ，P a ris：O E C D ，2 0 0 2 ， p p · I7 — 2 · W iener，G erald；H an Jianlin and L ong R uijun (eds．)．The Yak,second edition，B angkok： F A O R eg io n a l O ffi ce fo r A sia an d th e P ac ifi c ，20 0 3／0 6 ． W in k le r，D an iel：“Y a rtsa G u n b u - C o rd y ce p s sin e n sis．E c o n o m y , E co lo g y & E th n o - M y co lo zy o f a F u n g u s E n d e m ic to th e T ib e tan P late au ”， a n d m od ern 乃 ：C o n ce p tio n s．E x p lo ita tio n a n d C o n se rv atio n ，ed ．A le ssa n d ro B o esi a n d F ra n c e sc a C ard i．M em orie de lla S ock td Ita lia n a d i S cienz e N a tu ra li e d el M useo C iv ico 兹 S toria

N a tu ra le d i M ila n o，V (I1．3 3．i 2 0 0 4 ，p p ．6 9 —8 ． N ing：E cological Situation of H igh Frigid R angeland and its Sustainability．A Case S tu d y on th e C on stra in ts a n d A pp roa ch es in P a stora l W estern S ich u a n／C h in a (A b h an d lu n g e n A n th rop ogeograp h ie，55)，B erlin ：D ietrich R eim er V erlag，I9 97． Y e h ．E m ily T ．：“G t e e n G o v e rn m e n ta lity a n d P a s to ra lism in W e ste r n C h in a ． ‘C o nverting P astu re s to G rassland s”’，N om adic P eop les，V bl_9 ，N os．i& 2，20 0 5，p p ．9 —29． Y u sh u Survey ：Y u sh u Z angzu Z izh izh ou G aiku an g B ian xiezu [Survey of th e T ib etan A utono m ous P refectu re of Y ushu C om pilation G roup]：T ushu Survey of th e Tibetan A utonom ous Prefecture of Y ushu],X ining： Q ing h ai R enm in C hub an sh e I9 8 5． Y ZT = Y ushu Z angzu Z izhizhou T ongjiju [Y ushu T ibetan A utonom ous Prefecture Statistics B ureau]：Tushu Z angzu Z izhizhou Tongjiju N ianjian O yo一0 99 [Y usbu Statistical Y earbook 0 yo-0 99),Y u sh u ：Y u sh u Z an gzu Z izh izhou T ongjiju 20 0 0 ． 一 ：T ushu Ton~ iju N ianjian 2005 [Y ushu StatisticalY earbook 2005]，Y ushu：Y ushu Z angzu Z izhizhou Tongjiju 2006． ZhongJincheng，Z i X iangdong，H an Jianlin and C hen Z hihua (eds．)，Yak Production in C entralA sianH ighlands．P roceedingsof th eFourth Intern ationM Congressof Yak,Sept．I9-26,2004．

S c ien ce ＆ T e ch n o lo g y 2 0 0 4 ． A b o u t A u th o r：A n d re a s G ru sc h k e ，F ro m U n iv e rsity o f L eip zig

i．T h e n am e Y u sh u is u sed in d if eren t co n texts：i．as th e de sig n atio n o f a su b —p ro vin cial d istrict， th e Y u sh u T ib etan A uto n o m ou s P refec tu re，2．as ／lam e o f o n e o f th e six co un ties of th at p refe ctiu 'e， an d ．as d e sign atio n fo r th e seat o f b o th th at co u n ty an d th e p refectu re ．A lth ou g h th e 1atter’s m ain e is G # cu — the old T ibetan tow n ofJyekun do ~skyergu re do)，itis com m on use to callthis m odern tow n by th e sam e n am e as th e p re fe ctu re's．In th is p ap er,Y u sh u w ill al w ay s refer to th e p re fe ctu re，Y u sh u T A P, w hi le the county w ill be called “Yushu count~ ’and the tow n “G y~gu”． 2．In 20 0 4 app rox ．95％ o f th e Y u sh u T A P ’s an n u al b u dg et (533 M il1．Y u an R M B ) w as fi n an ced through subsidies from the p rovincial or n ational governm ent．A ccording to Q P SB (20 05，p．I85)， th e p refecture 's fin an cial exp en ditu re in 20 0 4 am o u n ted to 532．81 lI山 o n R M B ．facing 26 ．29 m illio n R M B o f 1o cal reven u e (o f w h ich 75-4 ％ w ere loc al fi scal rev en u e)．W ich in on e y eat,Y ush u 's fi n an cial exp end itu re ro se b y alm ost o n e th ird (29 ％) to 6 83．83 m illion R M B (Y Z T 20 0 6 ，P ．4 6／I84 )．T h e rate o f the C hinese currency at the tim e of the field research (Septem ber 2004 through Jan uary 2007) can be cal cu la ted at 10 0 Y uan R aM B fo r io E u ro (o r ap p ro x ．78 Y u aJl fo r io U S $)． 3．Surface data fo r the Y ushu T A P var)r greatly：Yushu Survey (1985，p ．2) notes 197，0 00 m ，Q P SB II6 China Tibetology N o ，M arch 2011

(20 0 4 ，p ．4 6) 19 7,9 53 k m ，Y Z T (20 0 6 ，p ．59) 21o ．3o 0 k m ． 4．D ata for 2004，ace．to Q PSB 2005，P．42—46． 5．Q P SB 2005，P．213． 6．Y z T 20 0 0 ，P ．5o ，20 0 6 ，P ．58 ． 7．A b an do n e d fi eld s o n h illsid e terrace s n e ar th e eastern co u n ty se ats (Y u sh u ，N ang q ~n a n d C hindu) and near pastoral com m unity centres such as N angq6n s Juela xiang dem onstrate that agricu ltu re h a s b een ，at tim es，m o re ex ten siv e th an to day E sp ec ially after th e “D em oc ratic R efo rm s’’ in 1958 som e fi eld s h ave b ee n reclaim e d in are as n o t su ited fo r farm ing ．Statistic s (Y Z T 2 0 0 0 ，p ．84) show that even the entirely pastoralist counties in Yushu's w estern part (Zhidoi，Z adoi an d Q um ar l~b) h ad a n u m b er o f fi eld s．T h ey w ere u ltim ately g iv en u p after th e en d o f th e C ul tural rev o lu tio n in 1978 ． 8 ．It is in th e n atu re of a n o n—registe red p op ulatio n (th e so —cal led fl oating p o p u latio n ，liudong renkou ，i．e．，b oth lon g an d sh o rt term reside n ts w ith o u t lo cal h ou seh old registration ，hu kou) n ot to b e w ell rep re sen ted in th e statistics．A n e stim ate o f 5o一6 o ，O O O p eop le，co m m u n icated by w ell—in fcIrm e d lo cal go vern m en t em p loy ees，m atch es w h at w a s in evid en ce du rin g th e fi eld research ．A p p ro xim ately 3 o 一4 o ，0 0 0 o f th e n o n —registere d in d ividu als (T ib etan s，H an an d H u i) are said to resid e in G y ~gu ． 9 ．A s th e h ig hlan d clim ate h as ve ry d ry w in ters，th e sn ow cov er is o n th e av erag e no t to o th ick ． H al f a m eter o f sn ow co n stitu tes a c atastrop h e fo r an im al s an d th eir o w n ers，as th e livesto ck is u n ab le to ge t th e d ry g rass th rou gh th e b lank et o f sn ow ． IO ．T h e re is n o a strict fam ily p lann in g p ofi cy in T ib etan p asto ral ar eas，so p o p ul atio n gro w th is h ard ly slow in g d ow n ．In C h in a T ib etan s ar e，to ge th er w ith M u slim gr o u p s，am o n g th e n atio n alities w ith th e h ig h est b irth an d p op u latio n gr owt h rates． II．C ostello，F low of l~ a／th，200 3．A s exact scientifi c m easurem ents suggest，the T ibetan plateau undergoes，for som e tim e past，a process of w arm ing an d drying，and the increase of w ind speed and pressure greatly afects the rate of evaporation．(Sheehy 2OO I，P-5)W ith the high stocking rate an d the growi ng pika popul ation，the grassland resource is less able to recover fr om drough t pressure，though n o t al l sou rces ag ree o n th e neg ativ e in fl uen ce o f th e p ik a．(C p ．Fo g gin 20 0 0 an d Sm ith & Fo gc n ． T hep lateaup ika isa keystone sp eciesfor biodiversity on theTibetanp lateau，C hina C ouncil fo r International C o op eration on E n viro n m en t an d D evelop m en t 2O O 1) I2．T o tal liv estock n um b ers in clu d e h o rses，w hi ch trad ition al ly p layed a gr eat ro le in Y u sh u ，an d g o ats．A lth o ug h ，d u e to th e w ell—k no wn p ro blem s o f o ffic ial statistics (cp ．‘go vern m en t statistic s o n livestock popul ations fr aught wi th problem s“in C ostelo，F low of l~ a／tb，2003)，especially during the highly ideologi zed periods of C om m unist C hina，these num bers need to be read wi th caution，they al lo w —— in co m b in atio n wi th h isto rical an d na tural d ata —— in teresting in terp retation s ab o ut tim es o f p o litical d istu rb an c es，sec ularizatio n ，eco n o m ical p o licie s，n atu ral d isasters．T h e nu m b ers fo r 20 0 4 w ere adopted an d generated fr om the Q P SB's data．N um b ers fo r I999 difer slightly (betw een 2．75 an d o ．16 fr om Wi en e r, H an an d L o ng (20 0 3／0 6，p ．265)． 13．For a discussion of the controversial cari ng capacity of the gr asslan d see Long Ruijun ，‘~ lpine R an geland E cosystem s an d their M anagem ent in the Q inghai -T ibetan Plateau”，in：W iene~ H an an d L o n g (20 0 3／20 0 6 ，P P ．359-388)． I4．A s fo r clim atic an d ecologi cal chan ges cp ．W u N ing (I997)，G an d S．M iehe (zo oo，p．298 306)， an d fo r th e ef e cts an d in cre ase o f sn ow d isaste rs see N o ri (2 0 0 4 ，p ．12)． I ．T h e sh eep unit (SU ) is a re fefen ce u n it tO m ak e d ifferen t liv esto ck o n th e p astu relan d an d o f th e p eop le’s livelih o o d s co m p arab le ．T h e b asis for th e SU is o n e adu lt fem ale sh eep ．C alcu lated o n th e assu m p tio n th at o n e SU re qu ires 4 k g o f h ay p e r d o th er an im als a re u su ally con ve rted as fo llow s： I yak = 5 SU ；I h orse = 6 S U (M iller 20 0 1；Y an et a1 ．20 0 5，P ．37) o r 7 SU (G old stein I9 96 )．T h e area o f ran g elan d u se d fo r I S U d ep en d s o n th e n atu ral co n ditio n s o f th e reg io n an d th erefore var ie s gr eatly 16 ．O p ．cit．M ille r 20 0 I 17．W e o n ly w a n t to exe m p lify th e ch an g es fr o m I95O u n til to d ay H orses an d go ats are n o t sep ar ate ly d isp lay ed in T ab le 2．If th e ir fi gu res (2 73 ．9 0 0 g o ats；3 6 ．80 0 h o rse s) are in clu d ed ，th ere w ere 53，4 SU p er p erso n fo r Y u sh u ’s ru ral p o p ul ation ，an d 4 5，7 SU p er p erso n o f th e en tire Y u sh u p o p ul atio n in 195o ． From Yak H erdersto Yartsa Trade rs．．． II7

I8．It is lik ely th at th e statistics o f th e co lle ctive era ex ag ge rated th e n u m b ers fo r p o litical rea so n s．T h e live sto ck statistics w ere p ro b ab ly m o st accu rate at th e tim e w h en th e an im als w ere distrib u te d am o ng th e fam ilie s in th e early 198 o s． 19 ．A cco rd in g to N o ri (20 0 4 ，p ．13) al m o st Io ％ o f Y u shu ’s total h e rd (I，32 m illion h ead s) w ere lo st in w in ter 198 I]82，w h ile th e w in ter 1984 ／85 CO St an oth er 9 9~ ，o o o h ead s，rep resen tin g 17 ％ o f th e (rem ainin g) to tal h erd ． 2 0 ．M ieh e & M ieh e 20 0 0 ，p ．30 6 ． 2 1．Y Z T 20 0 0 ，p ．20 4 ． 2 2．T h e sam e is true fo r th e com m o n exp lan ation o f so m e T ib etan n om ad s’p ractice o f k illing a yak by su f o cation ：a le ath er b ag is b o un d aro u n d th e m ou th o f th e an im al so th at it ‘‘dies bv itse lfl ‘． W h ile it is g en eral ly sai d th at p e op le do th is in ord er to avo id accu m ulating b ad k ar m a by th e strai gh t action o f killing ，m any in form an ts in Y u sh u told th at it is d on e sin ce th is k in d o f d eath m ak es th e y ak m eat m o re tas哆 23．T his w as one of the m ajor issues during the “Fourth Yak C on ference“2004 in C hengdu． C p ．，fo r in stan ce，H e an d L i 20 0 4 ，P ．9 5．Sin ce th e start o f eco n o m ic lib eraliz atio n in 19 8o ，li vestoc k nu m b ers in Y u sh u h ave stead ily dec reased ：fro m 198 o to I9 9O b y 3o ％ ．th en m o re o r le ss lev elled o f fo r h al f a d ecad e an d after 19 95 ag ai n de cre asin g — by 27 ％ u n til 20 0 5．(C p ．d ata in Y Z T 20 0 5．P ．9 1~ ) T hi s still ad d s to th e d ec rease in p ro d uc tivity． 24．C p．"A IE C E —Prognose：W eltrohsto邱reise 2o oo／2oo1“，ifo Schn eldienst 3I／I999，http：／／w w ~ ． cesifo -g ro up ．de ／p ls／gu e st／d ow nlo ad ／F 7o 56I／S D llT E X T ．H T M 【access 12一o 9—2 0 0 7] 25．A lth o ug h C h in a h as th e larg est sh eep p op ul atio n A u stral ia p ro d u ces m ore w oo l th an any oth er c ou n try W h ile A u stralia h as th e se con d larg est sh eep p op ul atio n ，C hi n a is th e b ig ge st p u rch aser o f A u stralian w oo 1．wi th exp o rts to C hi n a val u e d a t $ I．3 b illio n in 20 0 4 ／20 0 5．C p ．w o olfacts Syd n ey： A u stral ian W o ol In n ov atio n L td ，Sep t．20 0 5，h ttp ：／／w w ~ ．w o o 1．co m ．an ／attach m e nts／E du c atio n ／A W l — W oolFacts．pdf[access 12一o9 2007】 26 ．O p ．cit．H e an d L i 20 0 4 ，P ．95． 27．Y u sh u statistics sh ow a d ecrease o f p astu re lan d b y 25 ％ (Y Z T 20 0 0 )．In th e n e igh b o urin g distric ts o f N ag q u in th e T A R an d G arz6 an d A b a in Sich u an ．th is d ecrease am ou n ts to 20 -24 ％ ．(H e an d L i 20 0 4 ，p ．9 5) 28 ．F o r d etai ls see th e article of D ．W in k ler (2 0 0 4)，p u bli sh ed in th e in tern e t at h ttp ：／／ou rw o rld ． c s．co m M an wi n k ／id 7r．h tm ?~ 29 ．O p ．cit．W in k le r 2 0 0 4 ，P ．6 9 ． 30 ．W ink ler (20 0 4 ，p ．6 9) an d o th ers still list tax es an d sch o ol fe es in g en era1 ．A t th e tim e o f ou r su rvey；lan d an d ／o r an im al tax es h ad b een ab o lish e d ，as w ere p rim ary sch o ol fees．A s fo r seco n d ary an d h ig h sch oo ls，th e reg io n al p oli cy m ay v ary；, m o st lik ely dep en ding o n th e sub sid ies receiv ed fr o m th e C h in ese cen tral g ov ern m en t． 31．W ink ler 20 0 4 ，p ．69 ． 32 ．T h e stru c tu re d h o u se h o ld in terv iew s w e re m ad e in th ree stru c tu rally d iffe re n t area s u n d er in ve stigatio n ：(i) Z ad o i is a co u n ty to tal ly sh ap ed after p asto ral e con o m y；wi th a dy nam ic ally d ev elo p in g d istrict to w n ．(2) N an g q 6n is a reg io n w ith so m e ad d itio n al ag ric u ltu re an d se m i— n o m ad ism ，w h ere by arab le lan d is ve ry lim ited to n e ar th e co u n ty seat at X an g d a an d n ear by valley s of the D za C hu (M e．rig) river and its tributar ies．(3)Yushu wi th the urban center G # gu Z hen as an ex trao rdin ar ily d yn am ic ce n tre wi th traditio n al an d m o d ern tra de con n e ctio n s． 33．T h is d og h as b e co m e a fash io n am on g rich p e op le in th e w e st an d in m ai n lan d C h in a ，w h ere th e n ew rich p u rch a se m an y o f th ese d og s to sh ow o f ．In Y u sh u ，th e d em an d fo r thi s b reed o f d og h as in itiated a k in d o f ‘'do g b ree ding fev er”sin c e ab ou t 2 0 0 4 ／2 0 0 5 ． D u e to a wi d esp read read in e ss to get in to d eb t in ord er to star t th e v ery p ro fi tab le d og b reed ing b u sin ess，co m b in ed w ith th e d og s susc ep tib ility to disea ses (diste m p er)，th e b u sin ess is ex trem ely risk y 34．h ttp：／／w w vzqh ei．gov．cn／qhly／gytc／m gyc／t2o o6o42o_2o 3261 shtm l[D ow nload A ug．2007] 35．It is lik ely th at th e fi g u re listed in th e w eb site m en tio n e d b efo re is cal cu late d fro m th e ca terp illar fun gu s p roc esse d an d p ack e d in X in in g city an d th e p refec tu ral seats o f th e p ro vin ce ． II8 China Tibetology N o ，M arch 2011

H e n ce，w e h av e to assum e th at th e actu al ou tp u t o f cate rp illar fun g us in th e p ro vin ce is m u ch h ig h er, sin ce m ean w h ile th e m id d lem en o f th e trad e (T ib e tan s an d M u slim s co m in g to Y u sh u afte r th e e nd o f th e diggin g seaso n ) are in d irect con tact w ith w h olesal ers (so calle d da laoba n ，‘B ig B o sses9 in C h en gd u ， G u ang zh o u ，Sh e nz h en an d o th er p laces． 36 ．S eve ral an sw e rs w e re acc ep te d b y th e in terview ers a s th e in terv iew ee s d id n o t w a n t to re strict th em selv es to a sing le ch oice． 37．T h e n u m b er o f C F p ie ces an in d iv id u al can fi n d ea ch seaso n v arie s g reatly by in d iv id u al an d n atu ral co n d itio n s o f th e p astu relan d ．C h ild re n are o ften said to b e esp ec ially g o o d at d in g C E In tervi ew ees in Sul u x ian g an d o th er p arts o f Z ad o i cou n ty n o ted th at 20 —50 p ieces a d ay p er indivi dual is rather norm al in Sulu，w hile in G olog Costello of l~ a／th，20 03)w as told of averages b etw een 6 0 0 an d 1,0 0 0 in a seaso n ． 38 ．A s fo r d airy p ro du cts，esp ecially ch ee se，so m e n ew tim id ef o rts h ave started in n eigh b o u rin g G o lo k ．F o llow in g th e su gg e stio n o f th e h ea d o f a n Y u sh u lo c al N G O ，th e U S -A m e ric an T race F o u n d atio n co o p erate s wi th a lam a o f R ak y a m o n a ste ry to p ro du c e a h ar d rin d c h eese ．T h e b u lk is exp o rted to th e U SA ，an d th u s an in tern atio n al c om m o d ity c h ain is o p e n ed ．(Se e h ttp ：／／w w w ． tib etch e ese ．org ／th e_ ch ee se．h tm 1 ) T h e d raw b a ck is th at it can 't b e b o ug h t lo c ally；n eith er in G o lo k ’s cap ital M aq 6n n o r in X in in g ．T h ere ar e p lan s to d eve lop so m eth ing sim ilar in Y u sh u ，ag ai n ai m in g at th e in te rn atio n al m ar ket w h ich can w o rk w ell d ue to th e “T ib e tan im age ”m ar ke tin g o f th e ch e ese ． A s for the European U nion，there ar e m ajor difficulties due to strict EU im port regulations regarding fo o d stu f A s fo r th e exp o rts to A m e ric a，th is m ar k et n ich e seem s so m ew h at p rom isin g ．Its exten t， h ow eve ~ is too sm al l to inv olv e m an y n om adic h ou seh old s，an d th e p ro fi ts ar e n o t co m p etitiv e to th e in com e g ai n ed from caterp illar fu n gu s． 39 ．W h ile M uslim s d om in ate the scen e in Y ush u and oth er Q ingh ai no m ad areas，in n eigh b o u rin g Sichu an th e in term edi ate trad ers ar e said to b e m ai n ly H an C h in e se． 4 o ．In 20 0 6 th ere w ere al so so m e m on k s an d w o m en a m o ng th e new in term ed iate trad e rs． 4 1．T h e n u m b er o f casu al tie s rep o rte d g rew Ⅵ th th e d istan ce ：in G y6gu 1w as to ld th at th re e o r fou r w ere k illed ，w h ile a X inin g taxi d riv er talk ed ab o u t tw o d o zen s．N o m ad s o f Su lu w h o w ere e ng aged in th e fi gh ts assu re d m e th at th ere w a s o n e casu al ty am on g th e ou tside rs — sh ot by p e op le’s ar m ed p o lice． 4 2．P ub licatio n o f a p ap er on th e co n fl ict is in p rep ar atio n ． 4 3．C h in ese so cio eco n o m ic inv estig atio n s o f th e I95 O S in c lu d ed lists o f th e I93O S in w h ich caterp illar fungus w as listed am ong the tw enty m ajor com m odities traded out of Yushu．(Personal c om m u n ic atio n o fT ash i G on ch ab ，Y u sh u ，A u gu st 20 0 6) 4 4 ．I kn o w th at th e re ar e o th e r regio n s，lik e in G o lo k ，w h ere fo rced resettlem en t h ap p e n ed m o re o fte n th an n o t — w h ich b y n a tu re o f th e C ：h in ese c en tra l g ov e rn m en t’s co n ce p tio n o f th e p rogr am m e sh oul d b e con sidered illeg a1 ．T h e issu e w ill b e b ro ach ed in th e con clu ding inv estigatio n rep o rt o f th e resear ch p ro gram m e A 4 th at w as real ized 、 th in th e fr am e o f th e C o llab orativ e R esear ch C e n tre S F B 58 6 “D iffe ren c e an d In teg ra tio n”(see w w ~ ．n o m ad se d ．d e) an d fu n d e d by th e G erm an R ese ar ch F 0 u nd atio n ． 专业提供学术期刊、学位论文下载、外文文献检索下载服务 购买地址: http://wxfw.taobao.com ★资源介绍★ 【中文资源】 中国知网、万方数据、维普、超星、读秀、国研、新东方、阿帕比、书生图书、博看、人大复印、北大法宝、法意、环球英语等等. 【英文资源】 IEEE、Wiley、SD、EBSCO、ProQuest、LexisNexis、Springer Link、Jstor、EI、OSA、sag、Acs等上百种全英文资源. 【顶级医学】 ovid、pubmed、md、高权sciencedirect、Emabse万方医学、中国生物医药数据库、美国医学会等. 【经济资源】 中经、中宏、国泰安、搜数、resset金融、知网统计等等. 【名校图书馆】 国内高校图书馆、地方图书馆、国外高校图书馆。授权进入，极致体验.