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Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t713424660 Social and religious factors affecting Muslim-Christian relations Thomas Michel a a Office of Ecumenical and Interreligious Affairs, Federation of Asian Bishops' Conferences, Bangkok, Thailand

Online Publication Date: 01 March 1997 To cite this Article: Michel, Thomas (1997) 'Social and religious factors affecting Muslim-Christian relations', Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations, 8:1, 53 - 66 To link to this article: DOI: 10.1080/09596419708721106 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09596419708721106

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Downloaded By: [University of Notre Dame] At: 19:59 13 February 2008 studies havetreateddiplomaticrelationsbetweentheVaticanandpredominantlyMuslimstates Historical studieshavetracedtheshiftsandchangesinplacesocietyofChristians ABSTRACT ThequestionofChristian-Muslimrelationscanbeapproachedinvariousways. Muslim-Christian Relations 0959-6410/97/010053-14 ©1997CSICandCMC U this century,confessiona l tensionandstrife intheMiddlEastandAsia hasrarelybeen national connectionsandeconomi c stabilityusualllieatthhearofproblems.I n factors ofdemographicstatu s amajorityorminority,accestpoweandinfluence , what ismeanbytheintrusivfactorthacomplicatan d notinfrequentlydamage have causesandunderlyingmotivationwhicharnotreligious . ChristiansandMus- become aclichtosaythaconflictsbreakdownalon g religiouslinealmostalway Politics andReligiousRelations or haveanalyzed,compared,andcontrastedthepoliciesofchurchesonpoliticalissuessuch other minoritygroupsintheMiddleEastandAsiageneralspecificcountries.Other THOMAS MICHEL Islam andChristian-MuslimRelations,Vol.8,No.1,199753 ethnic andculturaldifferences , groupidentificationconceptsofcitizenshipinter - cal partiesandlaws.Inyanalysi s ofconflictandtensions,onequicklydiscovertha t did notinterfere.Thiswidespreaperceptiondemandclose r attentiontoseeprecisely tensions andconflicttodayifintrusiveforces,generall denotedbythetermpolitics, the twocommunitiesarharmonious;problemaris e from'polities'. lims livinginthesamregiofrequentlystatthatnormal , day-to-dayrelationsbetween structures andpolicieimpingeonrelationbetweeMuslim s andChristians.Itha and thisialsothecasnMiddlEastAsia.Politicalissueawelnationa Obviously, Christian-Muslimrelationsdonotexisinavacuuanywherethworld Religion andConfessionalIdentificatio recent andmoredistantpast,thosewhichpresentchallengesyettoberesolved. and workingrelationsbetweenthetwocommunities,thosethathaveraisedtensionsin communities ofChristiansandMuslims,outliningboththefactorsthatfavourpositiveliving approach thesubjectfromviewpointofreligiousandhumanrelationsbetween relations inthetwentiethcentury,particularlyMiddleEastandAsia.Iintendto mutual understanding. theological controversiesbetweenMuslimsandChristiansaswelleffortsatdialogue as thePalestinequestionandstateofIsrael.Stillotherworkshavetreatedpolemical Social andReligiousFactorAffecting Christian-Muslim relations. communities havehistoricallynotfoundidifficuloliv together,norwouldthereb The term'polities'indicatessomethin g broaderthangovernments,politicianspoliti- This reflectthecommonperceptioibothgroupthat , leftothemselvesthetw In thispaper,thefocusisonfactorsandissuesthathaveaffectedChristian-Muslim Downloaded By: [University of Notre Dame] At: 19:59 13 February 2008 a Christianchurch , orfaChristianfathe whohaskilledhidaughterbecaus e shhas instances ofaMuslimbeingkille d byadistantcousinbecausehhaslefIslamojoi n type ofconfessionaltreasonpunishable , inextremecasesbydeath. in mostpartsoftheMiddlEasandmanyregionAsia , leavingthegroupthrough religion ortheprofessiofimpliesdisloyalt y orbetrayalfone's implying nocommunalparticipatioiadistinctivesocieta l group,changingone's misunderstood. Conflictsbetweenconfessionalgroupar e toosimplydismissedassign where religiousprofessiondoenotusuallycarrimplication s ofconfessionalbelonging usually non-violently,butwithrecourseoviolencinhighlpolarizedsituations extended familyrelationsan d neighbours,ratherthantothestate.Oncadocumen t conversion, intermarriageor failuretoworkforcommunalgoals,canbconsidered a confessional relations.Wherethidentificationwith l groupisstrong,a of primitivefanaticism. or ethnicidentity,thefactofconfessionalattachmen t tendsobeunderratedan If havetendedtobelabourthispoint,ibecausbeliev e thatinpartsofthworld professed religions.Aquickreviewofsupposedlyreligiousconflictintheworltoday, defend thecommunalcause. nearest ahand,eveniftheybepersonallinnocenothoffencerstruggle the enemyandtovenone'sangeragainsthosmemberfcommunitwhar perceives itselftobethreatenedrundervalued,ieasysethoffendinggroupa worship, orthemoralinstructionfanyreligiowiloftefeestronglthathsh usual senseofthterm.ApersonwhhaslittlrinterestiGod,sacredbooks Personal IdentityandConfessionalLoyalty solidarity cangiveaobserverthimpressiothatinterconfessionalconflictsarmainl case. such asSriLanka,NorthernIrelandBosniaAzerbaijan-Armeniashowthitobeth about religion,whereasinrealitytheusuallhavelittlodwiththcontenf is aMaroniteorCopt,SunnShflMuslimDruzMandaean.Whenthgroup make-up ofethnicidentity,evenforthosewharnotparticularly'religious'ith is recognizedanenhanced. outraged. Ifthegroupisrespectedanhonoured,personalstatuoindividua the group.Ifreligiousgroupiinsultedormaltreated,individualpersonally recognizable groupinsocietywhoshartagreaterlesseextent,commohistor groups, intheMiddlEastandAsiaselsewherebecausreligiodenotenoonly When thepartiesiagiveconflictaligthemselvealonglineofconfessional way thatgroupsperceivethrelativstatuandidentitofother. The SignificanceofConfessionalIdentity and identity.Theindividual'spersonalstatuwell-beingarseenatietothaf a systemofbelieandpractice,butalsformsthebasiidentificationwith about theologyorreligiousbeliefandpractice,buhaalmosinvariablarisenfromthe 54 ThomasMichel Enforcement ofsocialostracis m isleft,moreoftenthanottothnetworkf In societiesthatconsiderreligiouadherenceobapersonal , individualdecision The usofreligioussymbolandterminologytreinforcagroup'self-identit Studies ofethnicityhaveshownthatreligioubondformapowerfulelemenith Downloaded By: [University of Notre Dame] At: 19:59 13 February 2008 where therisnoclearlydominan t majorityandsocietisshapebthecompetin g bottom ofthesocialscale.Thesfactorsinfluencrelation s betweentheChristia majority andMuslimminorit y inthePhilippinesandbetweeMuslimmajorit d numerous, powerfulwealthyorinfluentialandthecommunit y inrelativeweakness perception. claims andcoalitionbetwee n variousconfessionalgroups,analysiofMuslim - of onerthothereligionaridentifiedwithgroupsconsidere d tobeathtopr countries andIran. positive andnegativrepercussionsonMuslim-Christia n relationsimanyArab greater economicoprofessionalinfluencebeyonditsnumbers , afactorthathasboth minority areoftencomplex.Ongroupmabmornumerous , whileanotherhas Relationships MarkedbyImbalances they regardthoseofthotherreligion.ThismeanthatinanalyzingChristian-Muslim that, 'Inthiscountrytherearominorities;wallequacitizens,'iofte their statusamajorityominority,accestpowerandperceptionfself-sufficienc better othefactorsthatinfluencerelationbetweenChristianandMuslims.Afacto With anawarenessoftheimportancconfessionalidentification,oncaappreciat Majority-Minority Relations or vulnerability. that complicatesChristian-Muslimrelationaroundtheworlifacalmos maintained overalongperiod.Thisinot,ooftenstatedsimplytheresultf Christian relationsbecomeeve n morecomplicated. Christian minorityiPakistan . IncountriessuchaLebanon,Malaysia,andNigeria , dependent uponthegoodwillofstronger.Moreover , relationshipsofpowerand can neverforgetthatheiwell-being—political,socialo r economic—isinsomeway In theMiddlEastandAsia,eitheronoothegrou p isalmosteverywheremor relations onecannotdismisairrelevanquestionofnumbers,powerandself- enter intothewayconfessionalgroupsregardthemselveanthatthecolou law. However,thereisnodenyingthatquestionfminoritypowerandinfluenc repeated. Thisifrequentlycorrectinsofaradescribetheoreticalequalitbeforeth everywhere thtwocommunitieslivinrelationshipcharacterizedbyimbalance societal belonging. reflects, ratheradifferentunderstandingofthelinkbetweenreligiousprofessioand secularization process,noristuniquelyacharacteristicofsecularizedsocieties.I much ofWesternEurope,andgenerallyiNortAmericarelationsbetweeChristian identification isrelativelyweak,apartofEastandSoutheasAsiaWesAfrica and Muslimstentobelesmarkeyconflict,goorelationcanmoreasil as whenitcalledupoojudgethaccusedmurdererthroughlegalprocedures. entered IslamtomarryaMuslim.Thestate'srolinthesaffairusuallsecondary, In somecases,factorsofethnicityandsocialstatucom e intoplay,wherfollowers In discussionsofinterconfessionalrelationitheMiddlEastandAsia,claim In thosesocietieswherthlinkbetweereligiouadherencandconfessional Social andReligiousFactorsAffectingMuslim-ChristianRelations5 Downloaded By: [University of Notre Dame] At: 19:59 13 February 2008 Jewish stateofIsrael.Inallthesplaces,wherbotChristiansandMuslimar the historicalaffinitybetweenSunnIMuslimsandOrthodoxChristianiLebanon, within themajorityandfollowersofotherreligions.Thshareexperiencbeing between thetwoisnorm,conflictarfewandco-operatioquiteasyt found inthepatterofrelationsamongPalestiniaChristiananMuslim Evidence forthimportancofimbalancesinpolitical,economicandsocialstatuthat 56 ThomasMichel a thirdreligiousorideologicalsystem.ThiiparticularlyevidentnAsia,countrie or nationswhereMuslimandChristianarbothminoritieinsocietiedominateby overshadow andaffectotheraspectsoftherelationshipcanbfounithosregion Sharing MinorityStatus Any discussionofChristian-Musli m relationsinvolveathirdpartytothedialogue , Aside fromthosaforementionedcountrieswherboth ChristiansandMuslimare Muslims inmainlyChristiaorpost-ChristiasocietietheWest,andhowthear individuals orasocialgroups. limited tostrategicalliances,budevelopovertimeinttrufellow-feelingan and defendingtherightsofMusliminpredominantlyCatholicItaly,Spain the consistentleadershiptakenbyProtestanchurchesistandingsolidaritwith Orthodox countriessuchaGreeceandallthnationofformerYugoslavia,not and RomanCatholicsiPresbyteriaScotland,orbetweeMuslim the goodrelationsofChristianwithShfaPakistanrBahrain,Alawi as possiblethreatbuprospectivally.Oncanpoinomanyexamples,such with abusesofpowerdirectedagainstanyminority,viewtheotheminoritno outside thcentresofpowerhelpminoritietsecommoninterests,sympathiz establish. minorities andoutsiderinrelatiotothecentrefpower,communalharmony such asHinduIndia,BuddhistBurmaThailandandSriLankanConfucia only Bosnia,butalsoCroatiaSerbia-MontenegroandMacedonia.Onemighcit of SyriartheAlevisTurkey,specialrelationshipobtainingbetweenMuslim Singapore andofficiallyatheistChina.InthMiddlEast,agooexamplcab that is,thestate.Insomcases , thestatconsciouslyintervenestoregulatrelation s government. according totheprinciplesandregulationfShaii'a. Thus,ourfocusheremustb governed byMuslimgovernmentsinnationwhichidentif y themselveseitherasecula minorities, inallthesestatesexceptIsraelLebanonan d thePhilippines,citizensar in theMiddlEastandAsia,majorityofwhospopulation s areusuallyMuslims. religious goals.However,thetopicinthipaperconcern s Muslim-Christianrelation striving, togetherwithsympatheticChristianstoachiev e theirrights,dignity,and do notseparatethem,findidifficullivanworktogethereitheras co-operation showsthatMuslimandChristians,wheissueofpowerinfluence Philippines. Christians andtheMuslim State on ChristiansiaminoritystatuwhereMuslimarth dominantforceinsocietyand states, orasstatewhoseofficialreligioniIslam r asIslamicstategoverned The State:thethirdpartyin dialogue A similarsituationapplieswheonetreatofrelationbetweeaminoritygroup That thesegenerallyeasrelationsbetweenminoritieorrelativarno It isessentialforscholartodayofocunthedifficultieandchallengefaceb Downloaded By: [University of Notre Dame] At: 19:59 13 February 2008 1 Maghrib—have inheriteda400-yearoltraditionofthdistinctivmilletsystem,which problematic ofapplyingtheSharl'asnalternativtWestern-stylterritoriallega Western conceptofacommoterritoriallawmeanapplyindiscriminatelall those whichregulatmattersofpersonallawreferringtmarriage,divorceand legal traditions.Inthiscentury,ithemoderstateofTurkeyandArabic-speaking regulated theinternalgovernmentofconfessionagroupsaccordingtheirrespectiv between confessionalgroups,tooutlinetheirrespectivobligationsanddefin non-religious, secularprinciplesonthegroundthatthiwouldremovthemfro nationalism, generallywelcomeddefinitionsofcitizenshipanlegalsystembasen With theemergencofmodernindependentnationsiregioaend Muslims andChristians. the Sharfa.ThimplicationsofexpresslypersonalnaturIslamiclaw, individuals amemberofparticularconfessionalgroup,rathethantypically inheritance. countries oftheMashriq,elementmilletsystemhavbeenretainedparticularly Ottoman state—whichincludeTurkey,almostthentirMashriqandmosof rights andprivileges.Itmusberememberethathosareaswhichwerparofth maintain reservedseatsiparliament . minorities wherebythewoul d voteforthgeneralslatofcandidatesanals o which theyfearwouldredefinethconceptofcitizenshi p ormarginalizethemwithin minority groupsmoregenuinopportunitieforsocialan d politicalequality. parties andregimetranscendetheprinciplofconfessiona l adherence,thusoffering gies, onthegroundsthatconceptfnationhoodan citizenshipprofessedbythose nineteenth centuryandearltwentiethabeenactivepromotersofpan-Arab based onsecularWestermodelscameintforce.ChristiaArabs,whithlat structionist approachothemilletsystemaralreadybeingstudiedandiscusseb systems inreligiouslypluralsocieties,andthepossibladvantageofamoderrecon- minority communitiesinmoderIslamicstatecharacterizedbthecivilapplicatioof either ChristiansoMuslims,irelevantfodeterminingthelegalstatufmajorityand citizens withinaparticulararea.Thidistinction,whichinotoftefullyrecognizedb of Palestinean d theircorrespondinganxietie s aboutHamas.Ican beseenith such asthePalestinLiberatio n OrganizatioortheNationalFrontfoLiberatio n expressed inChristiasuppor t forandinvolvemeninnationalist-basemovement s currently consideringalaudableproposalof'duavote' forMuslimandnon-Musli thereby guaranteedparliamentarrepresentationwhichthe y wouldprobablnothave in nationssuchatheIslamicRepublicofIraandPakistan , eventhoughtheyare the bodypolitic.ThisexplainChristianoppositiotosystem s ofseparateelectorate status ofminorityoutsiderandmakethemequalpartnerinmoderpluralistnations. Second WorlWarthenotionofnationalcitizenshipansystemsterritorialaw Christian SupportforNationalistMovements obtained inasystemofsingle-electorateelections.Th e governmentofPakistanis The milletsystemreflectsatraditionallyIslamicconceptofpersonallaw,applicablo After independence,theysupportedregimesbaseonsecularoftesocialistideolo- On thecontrary,theyhavtendedtoviewwithapprehensio n Muslimmovements Christian concernsaboutthei r placeinthmainstreamofnationalpolityar Social andReligiousFactorsAffectingMuslim-ChristianRelations57 Downloaded By: [University of Notre Dame] At: 19:59 13 February 2008 c politics.' Wherea s modernChristiapolitica l philosophywidelaffirms thenecessityof God. InIslam,otheotherhand , religioncoverseveryaspectofhumalifeincludin g is separationofChurchand State.Religionisaprivateaffairbetweepersoan d In debatesaboutpoliticalmatters , oneoftenhearsthbromide:'IChristianityther e Western prejudiceswhichpresumethatonlyasecularinterpretatio n oftheseparatio prerogatives. MuslimsrespondthatChristianareunde r theinfluencofliberal ration willresulticommunamarginalizatioandsuppressio n oftheirreligious of religionandstatecabth e properbasisfoamodernpolity. countries. Christiansassumethatpoliticalsystemandprogramme s ofIslamicinspi- motivated bytheIslamicrevivalisarecurrentsourc oftensionianumber nationhood. tion ofsecond-classstatuiabhorrentthem,andthe y judgethSharfaconcepto rights, duties,privilegesandopportunitiesthataccompan y fullcitizenship.Anintima- have religiouspersonnelandtoofferinstructiontheiadherents. rights ofChristianshavebeenlimitedtdemandforfreedomworship,thright When itcomesoclaimingreligiousrights,wemusdistinguishbetweestatewher and clergytoperformtheirliturgicalrites.Thedesir e nothinglessthanallth foreign workers.Ithelatter,whichincludesnationofArabiapeninsulaand Indigenous andMigrantMinorities generally strongsupportersofthemonarchy. policies, whetherenlightenedorepressiveftheruler.Whermonarchyis Asia, onecanfindChristiansgenerallysupportingreligiouslneutralpoliticapartiei 'protected peoples'tobeincompatiblwithamodernunderstandin g ofcitizenshipand Christians arenotcitizenandtheirpresencigenerallytemporarvoluntary,th countries oftheNorthAfricanMaghrib(Libya,TunisiaAlgeriaMorocco)wher Syria, TurkeyIranPalestineandJordanthosewherthChristiansarmainly such asinJordan,OmanmostoftheEmiratesBahrainandMoroccoChristianar committed toabroaapplicationftheprinciplesreligioutolerancanfreedom, the Ottomanstati1920s,Turkeywasdeclaredasecularnationwhero unique. WithAtaturk'sestablishmentoftheRepublicTurkeyanddissolution Muslims bothfeelthreatenedbyHinduextremistmovementanparties. Orthodox—are furtherregulatedbythLausannTreatof1923. the populationofRepublicTurkeyisMuslim.Thprerogativecertai that sincethpopulationexchangbetweeTurkeyandGreeci1926,over99%of religion wouldtakeprecedencorhavprivilegesoveanyother.Thiidespitthfact Indonesia, Malaysia,andBangladeshaswellinIndiawhereChristian 58 ThomasMichel Christians arepartofthindigenoupopulation,suchainEgyptIraqLebanon Christian confessionalgroups—theGreekOrthodox,GregoriaArmeniansandSyria corresponding lackofsympathyfortheFrontIslamiquduSaluinAlgeria,an Christian backingfor'secular'politicalpartiesiTurkey,EgyptSudanandJordan.I GamalAbd al-NasserinEgyptantheBa'athPartiesofSyriaIraq,alongwit support givenbyChristiansgenerallothesocialist,Aranationalisideologief The reluctancoflocalChristiansandotherminoritie s tobackpoliticaloption Cliches commonlyrepeatedb y bothChristiansandMuslimoftendistorttheissue. The expectationsofindigenouChristiangfarbeyondpermissionthavchurche In thetraditionalmonarchies,Christianslikothershavbeesubjecto Historical developmentsmakethrelationshipofChristianteachMuslimstat Downloaded By: [University of Notre Dame] At: 19:59 13 February 2008 viewpoint, animpossibletask . Christiansask,whatitheusoftryingenterinta n put forwardbyotherMuslimsaIslamic.IiobviouthatheIslamicRepubliof understanding orarriveat n agreementwithagroupofMuslimswhicwillnob e between thetwocommunitie s wouldseemtobe,frothecommonlyhelChristia n Muslims inthatonecaneverdomormeewit h acircumscribedgroupof misunderstanding, frustrationandalienationbetweeth e twocommunities. Turning fromissuesofthepoliticalorderthatinfluencMuslim-Christianrelation Problems ofDialogue The UmmaandthChurch:communitarianlif munities ofthiview.TheexperienceChristianinShara-guidedcountriea inadequate understandingofIslam,butratherispresumedanpromotebyth that thisdiversityofpoliticalsysteminoduehumanstubbornnesra Kingdom ofSaudiArabia,andthepoliticalprogrammesMusliBrotherhoo Iran hasaverydifferentconcepoftherolIslamipublicliffromtha by theSharfatheriswiddiversitoopinionconcerningplacreligio Muslim countriestodaytestifies.Amongthosewhopropospoliticaloptioninspired there isacorrespondingaffirmationofthlinkbetweefaithandpolitics.Committe Muslims whoexpresaparticula r viewpoint.Anytypeofunderstandingsaccord s sents orspeakfoanotheMuslim.NMuslimorganizatio n orentity,atleassinceth complain thatthereisocorrespondingstructuramon Muslims.NoMuslimrepre- the equallyhierarchicallstructuredOrthodoxcommunio n ofsisterchurches,ofte of Muslims.Alackconsciousawarenesthesedifference s canbethcausof tions lieinthedifferencestructurofchurch,understoodasocially- those thatpertainmorspecificallyocommunitarialife,afactorfsweepingimplica- impasse toMuslim-Christianrelationsibresolved. respecting theirrightsandstatuafullcitizens.Thereithunurgentneefo the possibilitythatanIslamicallguidedpoliticalsystemwoulipracticsuccee organized communityofChristians,antheIslamicumma, orinternationalcommunity dialogue betweenChristialeadersandthosofIslamistpoliticalprogrammes,ithi diverse asSaudiArabia,IranandPakistanmaklocalChristianunwillingtoconsider according totheSharfa,butheyhavfailedconvincmoslocalChristiancom- status ofChristianandotherminoritiemustwillberespecteinstategoverne Shari'a itself. are dissimilarfromthosofJamiatiIsland.ScholarsIslamicjurisprudenchold Islamically guidedstate,anMuslimthinkerscanbequitcriticalofproposal as thewiddiversityofpoliticalsysteminIslamichistorandpredominantl shaping ofthepolitical,aswelleconomicandsociaorder. accepted byothers? umma. suppression ofthecaliphate,isindisputablyrecognizeda s representativeofthwhol Christians areeverywherurgedtobringtheirreligiouconvictionbeauponth a separationofchurchorganizationalstructuresandleadershipfromthosethstate, Christians consequentlyoftenexpresfeelingoffrustratio n iencounterswith Muslim proponentsofIslamistpoliticaloptionhaveoftenarguedthathrightan Christians, especiallythehighlcentrallorganizedRoma n CatholicChurchandi On theotherhand,Muslimsdonotformamonolithicblockipoliticalmatters Social andReligiousFactorsAffectingMuslim-ChristianRelations59 Downloaded By: [University of Notre Dame] At: 19:59 13 February 2008 together withMuslimcounterparts . Ontheirside,Muslimswillhavetodevelop r represented indialogueencounters—t o takethleadershipinmeetingandworkin g people, businessleaderswomen , andyouths—thosegroupsthathavbeenunder - representative ofitsconstituencies . Theneedtoday,onthChristiasideisforla y promise thattheraralternativesoconflicandviolence . Theyoperateonthhop Nevertheless, dialogueeffortsofbothMuslimandChristia n initiative,holdoutthe together, buttheneedfelbybothsidesforconscioueffortobringrepresentative Muslim-Christian relations.Certainly,ChristiansandMuslimdowthroughthe problems ofdrugs,violencecorruptionandneighbourhooorganization. club, itmusreflectherea l concernsofthecommunityandstrivtbtrul y that yetunforeseenconflictsithefuturcabavoide d bythetwocommunities experience ofsmanyMuslimandChristianLebanestestifie d duringtherecentwar. search togetherfomutuallyacceptablesolutions. together onissuesfcommoconcerandwho,imoment s ofcrisirtension,can the dialogumovementhasproducedpalpablresultincreatinganetworkofMuslim of thetwcommunitiestogetheriarecentphenomenon.Althoughstillnitinfancy, centuries hadalwaylivetogetheranoftendiscussed,studiedworke Dialogue encountersarcharacteristicofadistinctlymodernunderstanding Dialogue asaModemPhenomenon of womenandmen,ecologyarmamentshumadevelopmenttspecificlocal issues relatedtofamily,religioueducationbusinesethicspovertyinjusticetherole Muslims. academic questionsofhistorical,philosophicalandscientifiinteresttbroasocia ings anddelineatingpointofconvergencedivergencbetweenthtwfaiths,t range oftopics.Theyfromstrictltheologicalissues,clarifyingmisunderstand- local, nationalandinternationallevelstostudydiscussworktogethernawide In thepastthirtyyears,MuslimsandChristianhavvoluntarilcomtogethera success orfailurefwhaticalledorganizedialogubetweenChristiananMuslims. whose structuralorganizationandpatternsofleadershiparmorsimilartthos between theseMuslim'lay'leadersandrepresentativeofthProtestantchurches, religious convictionitoday'world.Itshouldbenotethathermoraffinity jobs andwho,atthesamtimearstrivingoresponcomplexdemandsf believers, payingoffhousinandeducationloanstryintorubusinessesrkeepthei immersed intheworlofearningaliving,raisinchildretbuprightGod-fearin the clergyandhierarchy. coming tobetterunderstandinandco-operationtoday . and Christianleadersarountheworlwhoknowtrus t oneanother,whocanwork encounters withChristians,theircounterpartaremoreoftenthanotmemberof leaders whoare,atthesamtimedeeplyinvolvedbelieverfindifrustratingthan 60 ThomasMichel 'consensus theology'intostronge r nationalandinternationarepresentativestructure s of thewholcommunity.Muslimprofessors,doctorscivilservantsandbusiness small groupofhighlycommitted,usuallcelibateclergwhclaimtspeakinthnam These respectivfrustrationsmustbkepinmind,atheyarcertaioaffecth However, ifdialoguestoremaincredibleandnodevolv e intoanelitistdiscussio Dialogue cannotsolvallproblemsorbringconflict toanend,stheunhappy They wouldliketodiscusstheverydaproblemfreligioubelieverwhar On theotherhand,MuslimsofteregardChristiachurcheadominateby Downloaded By: [University of Notre Dame] At: 19:59 13 February 2008 We havdiscussedfactorstha t influenceMuslim-Christianrelations:confessiona l play apowerfulroleindeterminin g thewaysinwhichChristianandMuslimrelate . urging allgovernmentstograntruefreedomfworship toallsubjects. they manotperformsaldt.Thislackofunderstandin g ofonethprinciples told thattheyarefreoreathQur'ananpraform s ofdevotionaldu'd'buttha saldt canchooseontobimamandperformthprayer. Muslim communitarianlife,iwhichanygroupofMuslimswhgathertperfor further needotheyhavefpriests?Thisresponsmakessenswithinthcontext pression ofChristiaworship.IndigenouscommunitieitheMiddlEast An aspectoftheorganizationallifIslamicandChristiacommunitiesthaha characteristics ofIslamandChristianity , thanwithuniversalhumachallengesan d It haslesodwithpolitics , sociologyanddemographyorevenwiththeparticula r community. Thereisafinalse t offactors,thoughnebulousanddifficuldefinetha t identification, majority-minorit y status,politicalstructuresandthenaturof e Human Factors:theburdeofhistory elements intheirreligioandwishthatMuslimwoulstan d insolidaritywiththem that theyaredealingwithacommunitdoesnorespec t oneofthfundamental Muslim relationsnotonlyathelocalbualsointernationa l level.Christiansfee religious obligation,toworshipGodiafactorthacontinue s tocolourChristian- religious dutytoworshipGodaccordingtheirfaith.IiathoughMuslimwere receive thimpressionthattheydonosereligiouscrisiforChristianinvolvei mainly comprisedofexpatriateworkers,suchasOmanthEmiratesBahrainLibya reflects wellonMuslimthatalMuslimgovernmentbuonepermithifulex- Muslim relationswhereverChristianliveinpredominantlycountries.It Muslims oftenfailtoappreciatethfacthaforfullesanddeepesexpressiof ritual prayer,thesaldt,anyMuslimwhoknowsproperforcanactaimam. been asourceoftensiobetweeChristiansandMuslimlieithdivergentrole Differences inOrganizationalStructure the ChristianpriestandMuslimimam.WheMuslimsgatheroperfortheidaily like-minded associates. in ordertohaveleaderswhcacrediblyspeakthnamfmorthagroup is oftenthatChristians,likeothersarfreopraythprivacftheirhomes.Wha a prohibitionofclergy.Whethequestiofreedomworshipisraised,respons Christian clergyisnotpermitted.IspeakingwithMuslimSaudArabia,ofte Christians, mainlyofFilipinandIndianoriginliveworkthpresenc and Morocco,havemadgenerousprovisionforthdemandofChristiaworship. and Asiacanworshipfreely,mostMuslimstateswhoseChristiacommunitiear catechetical instruction,andpraytogethertherecanboMass. Orthodox traditions,withoutapriestalthoughChristianscanreadtheBiblegiv and Christianworshipcafunctiowellwithoutthembut,aleasitheCatholic Catholic traditions,haveneedofordaineclergy.Churchbuildingsarnotnecessary Christian worship,theEucharisticcelebrationChristiansatleasiOrthodoxand This basicdifferencebetweenIslamiandChristiafaithirelevantforChristian- For Christiansthiprohibitionresultitheiinabilitytocarrouafundamental The exceptionisthKingdomofSaudArabiawhere,althoughseveralmillio Social andReligiousFactorsAffectingMuslim-ChristianRelations61 Downloaded By: [University of Notre Dame] At: 19:59 13 February 2008 Although individualmissionaries—loca l clergywerenotencouraged—protestedagains t remaining standininthepresencofDutchofficials.Secondly , inthenearbyPhilip- was dismissedfromhicivilservicepositionforadoubl e offence:wearingshoesand As recordedinhiauto-biography,theIndonesianationalis t leader,Tjokroaminoto many, usuallybthesam nationsthatcreatedanpromotetheEnlightenment , many ofthemordegradin g aspectsofthecolonialsystem,theytowerofte n co-opted intotherulingelite . individual whims,partandparceofcoloniaruleintende d tocreateacultural to kneelinthestreewheSpanishbishoppassedby . Thesewerpolicies,not pines, wellintothiscenturyalFilipinoswhetherChristia n orMuslim,wererequired unforgotten indignities.IwillmentioonlytwofromAsia n experiencesofcolonialism. rule andeven,throughthhumiliating'capitulations'affecte d independentnations memories thatpowerfullyaffecthewayMuslimregardChristiantoday. the paternalisticideologiesof'whitman'burden'and'lamissioncivilatrice', new andallegedlysuperiorcodesofgovernment,lawpersonalconducteducation period whenformoretha200yearsvirtuallythentirMuslimworlwagoverne Although theyoccurredalmost1000yearsago,Muslimhavenoforgottenthoutrag those whoinvadanddestroyunderthbannefcross,incontradictiot tions ofChristians.ThoseopposedtthmassivAmericantrooppresenciArabia Muslim Burdens vacuum. ItisequallytruethathearnodetachedfromtheirhistoricalcontextAn apartheid, expressasenseofEuropeansuperiorityand showwherethpowerlay. such astheOttomanandQajarstates. Particularly hardtoforgeistheintroductionfmissionariethaaccompaniecolonial economic exploitation,andthereductionofIslamta'pagan'religionarresonan that period—thereplacemenofindigenousandtime-honourewaybehaviourwith Of morerecentmemory,andperhapsforthareasongallingithcolonial Colonial InjusticesandIndignities express sourceandsignificancofthatsymbol. European languages,fromthewordfor'cross'carriesiArabicironiweightof to theAmericanforcesbytermsalibiyyiin,Crusaders.Thterm,takenai of theCrusades,andemotivpowerthesmemoriesstillcolourtheipercep- community ofpeoplecandrawupalonglistthtimesandwaythehavsuffere must speakofsomeunpleasanmatters. ment, frustrationandfearhowereactosuspicionprejudicearriv and controllebyahandfulofChristiannations.Themultiplindignitiessufferei at thetimofGulWaroftenreferred,ispeeches,articlesandradibroadcasts and riseupagainilatergenerationsacauseopretextforeprisals. and arestillsufferingatthhandsofothers.Indignitieinjusticenoforgotten at forgivenessandreconciliation.Ifwearoconfrontheshumanfactors,imean the future.Itinvolvescommonhumaproblemofhowdealwithanger,resent- failings. Itconcernstheburdenofhistory,distanandrecentapprehensionabou 62 ThomasMichel Recalling suchindignities,impose d inourowcentury,thelivingmemoryof Muslims fromnationoftheMiddlEastandAsiacan providemanyexamplesof We havnotedthatChristian-Muslimrelationsonoexisinasociological Downloaded By: [University of Notre Dame] At: 19:59 13 February 2008 mere lip-service.Israelissee n astheunilateralimplantatioofWesterpeoplan d new governmentshowedtha t theircommitmenodemocracyinMuslimregionswa s that followed,thereformersclaime d thattheWesternpowers'readyacceptancof e these hopeswerdashedbyth e militarycoupandseverrepressionofactivistMuslim s weaponry. TheAlgerianelectionsprovedtomanyMuslim s thatagrass-rootIslamic was seenarfocontrolof'Muslim'oifields,wage d byaWestern-assemble Bosnia. leaders awellthemanandwomaistreet,toevent s thatoccurredduringthe The convictionthatIslamicfaithandMuslimcultur areunderattack,imperiled If thisseemoverstated,itreflectawidespreadfeelingthroughou t theMuslimworld. Post-Colonial Onslaughts reformist politicalmovemen t couldsucceedinbeingdemocraticallyelected.Whe n coalition attackingapredominantlyMuslimpeoplewith vastlysuperiortechnological Gulf War,aftertheAlgeriancoupd'etat,andtocontinuin g dramasinPalestineand threatened, explainsmanyofthereactionamongMuslims , bothpoliticalandreligious Reading EventsintheLightofHistory to beadmired,imitatedandmosimportantlybought. music, films,housefurnishingrelationsbetweensexes—arpresentedasuperioran The attackisculturalnthatalthingWestern—education,clothinglawmanners novels—as abackward,fanaticviolentxenophobicfaithunabletolivwitothers. presentations ofIslam—infilm,globaltelevisionetworks,newmagazinesandspy threatened ortakentensurecontrolfresources.Iisreligiouthcontinuamedia the outside,politicalleadersboughtoffbyinternationaindustryandmilitaraction colonial regimeshavebeenreplacedbyeconomiccontrol,marketmanipulatefrom frozen assets,recoursetoairattacksandotheco-ercivactions—armorreadily bloc hadbeenisolatebefore1989.Itismilitarythatacticofwar—blockades, Muslim worldaimeatisolatingIslamiccountriesmuchinthewaythacommunis North America,isoutodestroyIslam.Thionslaughperceivedbecarrie It istooeasyforChristiansathathiallnthepast;todawlivadifferen hesitate toexpressthiindignation,knowthatheyarputtingintwordthdeep- that causedsufferinganviolatethedignityoftheirpeople.Muslimleadersadivers Muslims cannotpossiblyrelateoWesternChristiantodawithouthintrusiof directed againstMuslimnationsthanothers.Iieconomictheol colonialism hasreplacedit.ManyareconvincethatthWest,i.eWesternEuropan more blatantformsofcolonialrulhavended,asubtlandpervasivformneo- over anddonewith.ButthperceptionofmanyMuslimstodaithawhil era. Thecolonialerawouldbeasiertoforgivifwersimplyparthpast, seated sentimentsofmany. as MuhammadMahatir,Mu'ammarQadhdafianHasanal-Turablwhonot feelings, evenwhewell-concealedofangerandresentment.Muslimscannotview contributing elementinacomprehensivesystemofoppressioandculturaldestructio Christianity todasimplastheteachingofholprophetJesus,burather on manyfronts:political,militaryeconomicreligiousandcultural. Each ofthesetragediesiinterpretednthlightpreviou s history.TheGulfWar The campaignispoliticalthformatioofainternationaalliancagainst Social andReligiousFactorsAffectingMuslim-ChristianRelations63 Downloaded By: [University of Notre Dame] At: 19:59 13 February 2008 the ancientculture,traditions , andreligionoftheplacadoptedalongwith e reminder ofthecolonialproject . Theyareseenascommunitiewhohavabandone d Muslims, likeHindusandBuddhists , tendtoregarthemascontinuingunwante d posts ofleadershipinthechurchandregularlyrefuseadmissio n toreligiousorders.I condemned asparticipation inpagarites.ChristiansAsiaareconscioutha t was notuntilthe1930thaprominenreligiouorder s inthePhilippineaccepted 'European' religion,aEuropea n wayoflife,valuesandexpectations. and wearnationaldress;followinglocacustomscelebratin g popularfestivalswere centuries. Inmissioschoolstheywerefrequentlforbidde n tospeaklocallanguages Filipino members,althoughthecountryhadalreadbee n predominantlyCatholicfor such aspromiseoffood,landbettereducationhealt care,andsocialstatus. those whoacceptedChristianfaithbyconviction,oftea t greahardship,bualsof make upyoungerchurchesexposedtothweighfadifferen t history.Thesechurches Except forSouthIndia,whoseChristiantraditioisveryancientChristianAsia Cultural AlienationinAsia perhaps moredestructive,SackofConstantinoplbyarmieEuropeanco-religionist become MuslimsandservthSultan,ofatrocitiecommitteduringGreekWar are rootedinthmissionaryeffortsofcolonialperiod . Theyaredescendantsof their fellowChristianbelieversoftheWest. powers, andaslocalpromoterofmodernliberalismMiddleEastChristianarals unjustly bMuslimsaallieofEuropeaninvaders,collaboratorwiththecolonial Eastern ChristiansawellMuslimwerebutcheredithHolyCity,anfirst, If ChristiansremembertheeventinwhichtheywervictimoMuslimgovernment Mediterranean andthedevirmepolicywheChristiaboyswertakeforceto Just astheburdenofhistorybearnwathaMuslimrelatChristians,als 'rice Christians'whosChristiancommitmentwascompromise d bymaterialbenefits conscious ofthemanywaythehavbeendismissed,disregardedandpatronizeb in 1204.Feelingthat,throughsharinthesamreligiontheyhavoftebeeregarded and armies,theyrememberalsothe1099SackfJerusalembCrusaderswhen Southeast EuropeandthEasternMediterranean. of independenceandelsewherinthBalkans,massacresArmenians Muslims basedonhistoricalfact.Memoriefthe1453FallConstantinoplan Muslims retainvividmemorieoftheCrusadeanexpulsiofrom destruction ofsomethworld'smostbeautifulChristiaart,Saraceraidi Iberian peninsulaaftertheReconquista,Christianspreservtheiowimageof local ChristianattitudestowardMuslimareformedanshapebyhistory.If Muslim-dominated nation,nomatterhowprogressivetexisiEurope. Christian MemoriesintheMiddleEast Christian Burdens Europeans. BosniaisviewedevidencethatthEuropeanpowerwillneverpermi ideology intheheartofIslamicworldassuagguilanothergroup 64 ThomasMichel 1861 slaughterofChristiansinLebanon,areallpartChristiaheritagSouthand Becoming Christiansdidnotsavethemfromultiplindignities . Theyweredenied The ChristianhistoricalmemoryithMiddlEastsacomplexunhappy. Downloaded By: [University of Notre Dame] At: 19:59 13 February 2008 When welistetothconcernsfChristianiMiddlEasandAsiacleartha freely?' may ornotagreewithsucpoliciesandwho,in anycase,havenopowert protest againsAmericanpoliciesdirectedIraan d Iraq.LocalChristians,who beyond theirreach,buttowardslocalChristians.Examplewithinthepasdecad public opinionisindignantatheactionofonranotheWesterpower,theiange be cautiousaboutanycriticismofIslarMuslims?Canblasphemlawused,a preachers getawaywithpublicdiatribeagainstChristianity,whileChristianhavo by whom,inmancasesthearegoverned.Theirconcernsmoroftethanot followers ainAsia. have beenithvanguardofdialoguwithMuslimsanfollowerotherreligions. both culturallyvalidanauthenticallChristian.Forthisreason,thechurcheofAsia their Christianfaithintonationalculturesandtraditiontcreatesomethingwhici nation? 'HowcantheVatica n permittheconstructioofahugmosquandIslami c the WestwhenChristiansipredominantl y Muslimareasmeetwithcontinualdiscrimi - the West.IndiscussionswithrepresentativeofVatica n andtheWorlCouncilof country whenChristiansoftha t countryaredeprivedofthrightexpressthemselve s Saudi Arabia?''Howcanyou enterintodialogueandco-operationwithonanothe r centre inRomwheChristian s arenotallowedeventhsmalleschurchbuildingi n Europe andAmericagrantMuslimsfullreligiourights d assistancetoMuslimsin own societiesareoftedirectedbyMiddlEastChristian s attheirfellowbelieverin innocent andoverwhichtheyhavenocontrol. influence them,arangrythattheusedasscapegoat s foreventsofwhichtheyare could begivenofchurchesiPakistaanEgyptthawer e burnedbyangrmobsin is frequentlydirected,notathosedistanChristiannationofthWeswharsafel of Muslimmajoritiesandgovernments.Intimeinternationalcrisis,whe towards Muslims. role inthshapingofsociety,rartheymereltb'tolerated'and'protected'?Thes community, ratherthanasisolatedindividualstoplayfullactiveanconstructiv superseded, corruptformofpropheticreligion?IsipossibleforChristiansa textbooks thatpresenIslamathefinal,completreligionandChristianity this year,tosettlescoreandappropriatproperty?ArChristianforcestudyfrom many ChristiansbelievetohavbeenthcasiwidelpublicizedPakista jobs, universityseatshousingpositionsinthecivilservicandmilitary?CaMuslim revolve aroundthbasicnecessitiesofeverydaylife.IpreferencgiventMuslimi it swithsomeapprehensionthatheyregardthMuslimwhicwhomlivan It canbesafelysaidthaioparfthworlhavChristiansdevotemuchtime, more vibrantandactive.ForthesChristians,thchallengisofindwayintegrat profess afaithwhicideepntheregionfromtwabrought,andofte Churches, questionslikethfollowingarrepeatedlyraised : 'WhydoChristiansin are issuesthatlocalChristiandiscusamongthemselveandcolourtheiattitude Christian Concerns expense, trainingandexpertisetothstudyfotherreligionsencountewiththei Anger atbeingtreatedssecond-clascitizenanfeeling s ofinsecuritywithintheir No matterwhattheioriginsmayhavebeen,thChristianchurchefAsiatoda Christians intheMiddlEastandAsiafeelvulnerable,dependenupogoowil Social andReligiousFactorsAffectingMuslim-ChristianRelations65 Downloaded By: [University of Notre Dame] At: 19:59 13 February 2008 NOTE Japanese, ofIrishtowardstheEnglishblackAfricanbotAraband ways tolivetogether,firstly,ifwdnominimizthproblemandsecondlyboth possible tolivtogetherbetteinthtwenty-firscenturythawoftehavpas powers towithstandrovercome.ChristianityanIslam,howeverbothteacthawe how canvictimsandvictimizerbothmovebeyonthpast? solemnly giventoChristiansandMuslimbtheSeconVaticaCouncil,whichstates: good ofallistoimportantbethwarteyolgrievanceansuspicions. tians canaccomplishtogetherbylivingiharmonandco-operatinfothe and thanwehavithiscentury.ButtheraroeasyanswersIpossiblfind peace withEuropeanChristians.ThangerofKoreansandChinestowardth communities arewillingtolookself-criticallyaourpasts.WhaMuslimandChris- are notprisonersofthpast,rhostageoupresensituationandthusi spirit, eatingawayatnindividualorcommunituntiicaseemgreatethaou ance ofothers.Wallknowthatadeeplyfelinjurcanbecomlikcancerth complicating andhinderinChristian-Muslimrelations.Putsimply,theprobleis a universalhumanphenomenon,butisforthireasoolesimportanfacto Europeans, ofRussiansandPoletowardGermanshowthatcollectiveresentmeni weight ofthehistorywrongswhichJewmusfacithearforgivandlivn ation thaforpeopleofothereligions.Onneedonlythinkth concerns ofthepresentarrivastagmutualtrust,forgivenessandreconcili- difficult forChristiansandMuslimomovebeyonthinjusticefpas good Muslim-Christianrelationsithetwenty-firstcentury.Iomorrles most difficuloovercome,andwillthusbethstrongesobstacleestablishing In myopinion,itsthese'humafactors'whichbeingthmosdeeplyrootedar Reconciliation: auniversalhumanchallenge 6 ThomasMichel 1. CfTayyibZAl-Abdin,theimplicationsofSharfah,Fiqh,an d Qur'aninaIslamicstate,an Qur'an andtheBiblarfilledwithexhortationstocompassion,pardonaccept- By waofconclusion,ImaaddasCatholicChristianthatthiithetask Christians andMuslimarecalletomercyforgivenesbtheirfaiths.Bothth c discussion, ed.TankMitri(Geneva,WorldCouncilofChurches Publications),51-69. Bert F.Breiner,ShariahandreligiouspluralisminReligion,Law andSociety:aChristian-Muslim Although inthecoursofcenturiesmanyquarrelandhostilitiehavarise humankind, letthemmakecommoncausofsafe-guardingandfostering the pastandostrivsincerelyformutualunderstanding.Onbehalfal between ChristiansandMuslims,thimostsacreSynourgealloforge social justice,moravaluespeaceandfreedom.(Nostra aetate,3)