Nahdlatul Ulama – Traditional Islam and Religious Tolerance

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Studies & Comments 12 Richard Asbeck (ed.)

Religious Pluralism Modern Concepts for Interfaith Dialogue

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Richard Asbeck Introduction ...... 5

Philipp W. Hildmann Faith and reason – requirements for an interreligious dialogue between Christians and Muslims ...... 7

Erdal Toprakyaran The changeability of Islamic principles using the example of pluralism ...... 19

Günther Beckstein Christianity and Islam: opportunities and limits of interreligious dialogue ...... 25

Ahmad Syafii Maarif Pancasila: the coexistence of religions in Indonesia ...... 31

Ulrich Klingshirn Nahdlatul Ulama – traditional Islam and religious tolerance ...... 37

List of authors ...... 45

Introduction

Richard Asbeck

Religious pluralism can be viewed from a strengthen the foundation of religious plu- dogmatic as well as a political perspective.1 ralism. But also the actual application, As an applied dogma, it provides a founda- resulting in an increased social harmony, tion for social harmony among religions. needs to be brought to a wider public. Christianity and Islam have succeeded in this respect to a large extent. As with many The present publication intends to draw at- dogmatic principles, the actual application tention to recent developments, with an em- can result in modifications. In the case of phasis on the interfaith dialogue in Ger- Christianity and Islam, notable dogmatic th many and the modernist Islamic concept of changes were introduced in the 20 century. religious pluralism in Indonesia. It begins On the one hand, the Second Vatican Council with a study by Philipp W. Hildmann on the provided a broad understanding for coexis- requirements for an interreligious dialogue tence between Christianity and Islam. On between Christians and Muslims. Arguing the other hand, modernist Islamic concepts that both religions are inherently intolerant, like the Indonesian Pancasila similarly con- since each faith claims to be the true divine tributed to religious coexistence from the revelation, he proposes to shift interfaith Muslim point of view. These dogmatic dialogue to the domain of secular rational- changes are even more evident, if the long ity. Secular rationality may hence be the time span and the geographic expansion of vehicle of understanding among different both monotheistic religions are taken into faiths. Such an approach has been recently consideration. manifested in mutual declarations by the

The encounter between Christianity and Islam Vatican and Iranian Shiite clergy in 2008, has expanded considerably in a globalized which have concluded that "Faith and ration- world. Demographic growth as well as an ality do not contradict each other, but faith ever increasing flow of individuals and in- can sometimes stand above rationality, formation sustains this development. The although it never is in opposition". multitude of exchange and togetherness are hence a persistent test of reality for the two These thoughts on the limitation of an en- monotheistic religions. How inclusive and tirely theological discourse are followed by functional are their concepts, given the a study by Erdal Toprakyaran, who focuses growing interaction between followers of on "The changeability of Islamic principles" both faiths? How adaptable are their con- with respect to religious pluralism. Compar- cepts with respect to societal disparity and ing different historical settings, he sees a variety? Despite the evolutionary trends to- certain relativity of the Islamic dogma and wards modernization and adaptation, we are argues that politically motivated interpreta- currently also experiencing opposite trends. tion had the most significant impact on a Anti-modernist and fundamentalist move- pluralistic reality. Especially the expansion ments have recently begun to question the of Islam to the East, where for instance the principles of religious pluralism in a way that Mogul Emperor Akbar subjected numerous inhibits peaceful coexistence. For this reason, Hindus and Buddhists under Islamic rule, it is important to identify those dogmatic resulted in a rather flexible interpretation of developments which can uncontestedly the concept of ahl al-kitab.2 6 Richard Asbeck

Günther Beckstein, who participated in the not only cooperate among themselves, but German-Islam Dialogue as the then Bavarian should also be ready to coexist with and ac- Minister of the Interior, continues on similar commodate non-believers and even atheists, lines. He finds that interfaith harmony lies and vice versa". Again, it is the appraisal of much more "with the people themselves, the "courage to re-think and re-examine the in the willingness of the majority to live to- Qur'an more contextually and freshly", which gether in peace and to engage in a peaceful assures progress for Islamic civilizations, dialogue". Beckstein also sees a promising according to Maarif. Next, Ulrich Klingshirn development in the increasing number of expands the portrayal of Indonesia by depict- interfaith marriages in Germany, which are ing the positive role of the Nahdlatul Ulama in a sense the very fruitful breeding ground (NU) as the largest Islamic mass organiza- for interreligious dialogue. Nevertheless, there tion in Southeast Asia. The focus here lies will always be some problem areas of dis- also with the role of NU as a political player agreement and incompatibility, but these can in Indonesia, which assures the implementa- be overcome by a sense of cooperation and tion of the Pancasila throughout the country. togetherness, as illustrated by the famous But even despite the success of the Pancasila, "Parable of the Three Rings" in Lessing's play which culturally and socially amalgamates "Nathan the Wise". To agree to disagree may Islamic, Javanese and Indonesian traditions, seem to be a quite reconciling attitude, not hardline extremist groups are challenging the only in interpersonal relationships. status quo by striving for an anti-modernist and archaic social order of a bygone era. The remaining two contributions deal with Indonesia. Ahmad Syafii Maarif describes the genesis of Pancasila, which has been The experiences in Indonesia may be an developed over a long period of time as the interesting aspect which could enrich the ideological basis of religious pluralism in current dialogue between the civilizations Indonesia. Coexistence is hereby assured for and the Islam Dialogue in Germany. But Catholics, Protestants, Hindus, Buddhists even if the dogmatic discourse does not and Confucianists in the 235 million strong progress, the interpretation of the sources nation in Southeast Asia. Maarif even goes constitutes an ample opportunity for attaining so far as to conclude that "believers should social harmony in a multi-religious society.

Notes

1 The publication contains papers presented at a Ulrich Klingshirn have been added as contribu- roundtable discussion on the topic "Religious tions from additional project work by the Hanns Pluralism – Islam and Christianity in the 21st Seidel Foundation in Germany and Indonesia. Century" that was held by the Hanns Seidel ICC is grateful for the publication of the papers Foundation, Institute for International Contact in the series Studies & Comments. and Cooperation (ICC), on 29 July 2010 in Mu- nich. The papers of Philipp W. Hildmann and 2 Monotheistic religions accepted by Islam.

Faith and reason – requirements for an interreligious dialogue between Christians and Muslims

Philipp W. Hildmann

1. Europe at the crossroads it has to take place on different levels. In this context, the dialogue between the state Relations between the different religious and its Muslim population is a priority. For communities in Europe are of crucial signifi- Germany, this means that the Muslim popu- cance both for the peaceful coexistence of its lation has to acknowledge the constitution people in its democratic structures and for of Germany; a constitution that lays claim the continent as a whole as it grows together. to be the basic legal order of the country's The dialogue between Christians and Mus- community and to be the legal framework lims plays a prominent role in this context. of state life.

The religious map of Europe is still over- Up to now, this acknowledgement does not whelmingly Christian: today, about 80 % of seem to be a matter of course. In the year the European Union's population adhere to 2007, a study initiated by the Ministry of the Christianity while only about 2 % are Mus- Interior with the title "Muslims in Germany" lim. However, in the medium term, the lat- revealed some worrying results: 40 % of the ter constitute a population group which is adult Muslims interviewed and 44 % of growing at a rate above the average. There Muslim students stated that they adhere to a are currently between 3.8 and 4.3 million fundamentalist interpretation of Islam and Muslims living in Germany. This corresponds that they reject Western values. More than to 4.6 % and 5.2 % respectively of the total 21 % of these students also stated that the population. In the year 2030, there will be use of violence is justified when it serves an estimated seven million Muslims. As the spread and enforcement of Islam. Ac- Germany's population is both decreasing cording to the study, more than 44 % of the and aging, this will amount to 10 % of this country's total Muslim population shares the migration country's total population. In large opinion that Muslims dying in the course of and middle-sized urban areas, they will armed struggle for their faith will go to constitute up to a third of the area's popula- heaven. A quarter of the young Muslims tion. Given this development, the setting of show anti-Semitic and anti-Christian preju- Germany's and Europe's political agenda in dices as well as a strong opposition to the future will be marked by the self-image democracy. More than 10 % would welcome of Islam and its attitude towards other reli- the implementation of corporal punishment gions and non-Muslim state communities. for certain crimes, as in Islamic law. How The clarification of issues relating to this is compatible are these views with the free an indispensable requirement for the suc- and democratic system of the Federal cessful coexistence between Christians and Republic of Germany? Muslims and also for the social integration of fellow Muslim citizens into the European community of values. On the part of the Muslims who are organized in associations (with 22 % only a minority, The dialogue with Islam comprises different but an important dialogue partner for the problem areas and in order to be successful, government), the acknowledgement of the 8 Philipp W. Hildmann

constitution is also not as clear as it is claims to organize the representation of the desired by the government. The 2009 report Muslims in Germany and to be the major of the Bavarian Office for the Protection of point of contact in politics and society? the Constitution, for instance, classified the activities of the Islamic Community Milli These questions which constantly arise and Görüs (IGMG) and the Islamic Community which have an explosive potential particu- in Germany e.V. (IGD) as aimed against the larly in the area of demographic development, free and democratic system of the Federal make one thing very clear: it is not enough Republic of Germany. This has had an effect to simply combat prejudices and fears su- on the two major umbrella organizations, perficially in order to develop mutual trust. the Islam Council for the Federal Republic It is important to lay the foundations for of Germany e.V. (IR), whose biggest member a society where tolerance can depend on organization is the IGMG, and the Central meeting tolerance, without the danger of Council of Muslims in Germany e.V. (ZMD), being ambushed by intolerance when the which is affiliated with the IGD. The rules balance of power shifts. The interreligious of the internal procedures of the Coordi- dialogue between Muslims and Christians nation Council for Muslims in Germany can, and is obliged to, achieve decisive (KRM), the central association of the four changes. This is emphasized by the fact that largest Muslim organizations (among others all political, social and economical efforts also the one with the most members, the for a positive coexistence imply theological- Turkish-Islamic Union of the Institute for philosophical problems, both explicitly and Religion (DITIB) also give rise to doubts. implicitly. These problems are pre-eminent This document dated 28 March 2007 states in the strongest sense of the word. They are in paragraph 1, section 4: "The Coordina- rooted in the spiritual, cultural and religious tion Council acknowledges the free and guidelines of the respective faith commu- democratic system of the Federal Republic nity and must therefore be approached pri- of Germany". However, the following sec- marily on the scientific, intellectual level of tion 5 of the same paragraph states without a dialogue which is theological and philo- further elaboration: "Koran and Sunna of sophical. Whether all the other efforts will the prophet Muhammad are the foundations have lasting success will ultimately depend of the Coordination Council. This principle on success in clarifying these basic positions must not be altered or abandoned through in order to attain a successful dialogue on changes of the rules of internal procedures". an intellectual level. The requirements and preconditions for such a dialogue will be This example is paradigmatic for the impor- considered in the following sections. tance of conducting a dialogue with the Muslim population on a theological-philosophical level. It requires theological-philosophical expertise in order to fathom the 2. The dilemma of the claim to problematic area of how the unchangeable absolute truth commitment to Koran and Sunna in section 5 affects the confession for the free and Is a dialogue between Christianity and democratic system in section 4. Can the two Islam at all possible in principle? A dia- sections be at all congruent? Or does sec- logue that goes beyond the point of merely tion 5 degrade the confession of section 4 to exchanging unchangeable points of view? mere lip service? What does it mean when This question is more complex than it seems the two most important sources of Islamic at first sight. The interreligious dialogue is a law (Koran and Sunna) are declared as the dialogue between believers. Both Christian- foundation of a central association which ity as well as Islam consider themselves to Faith and reason – requirements for an interreligious dialogue between Christians and Muslims 9

be a revealed religion. One of the character- the other religion. No matter how one looks istics of a revealed religion is the claim to at it: religious confessions and convictions absolute truth with reference to God. If the cannot be seamlessly congruent. Both Chris- revealed religion ever doubted this claim, tians and Muslims will have to adhere to the this would be equal to it renouncing itself. differentiation between right and wrong and Under this premise, even compromises are to clear definitions of what they consider as excluded. There is no alternative or margin incompatible with their convictions when between acceptance and rejection. From a the believers still claim strength and depth Christian point of view, there might be for their creed. nuances in its relation towards other religions, depending on how one defines the claim Unfortunately, European history confirms to absoluteness (either the superiority of this issue of the failed dialogue. An amicable Christianity or its exclusiveness). However, coexistence of Christians and Muslims was the fact remains that the ideas of a funda- always a rare exception on this continent. In mental equality and the relativity of relig- this context, one of the most persistent ions are incompatible with the claim to myths is the legend of a peaceful interrelig- absoluteness. Truth can neither be relativized ious dialogue under the 800-year long Arabic- nor is it negotiable. In his book "The Natural Islamic rule in Spain which allegedly brought History of Religion" of 1757, the Scottish forth the occidental rationalism. This legend philosopher David Hume (and later also the is being kept alive by UNESCO, Al-Qaida, German Egyptologist Jan Assmann in a the Muslim Brotherhood as well as the brilliant manner) elaborated on the imma- Spanish government. Spanish Arabists, how- nent intolerance of monotheistic religions. ever, feel nothing but shame for their own According to Hume and Assman, these country in the face of this enthusiasm for religions have to be downright intolerant. In Arabs. However, this historic fact is being other words, they have to clearly define consistently ignored by adherents of this what they consider as incompatible with myth. their truths, if these truths are to have the life-shaping authority, normativity and obligation that they claim for themselves. Even beyond the borders of Al-Andalus, the What should be the end purpose of a dialogue norm was not coexistence, but the conflict between two revealed religions that are per of the religions – culminating in cruel wars se intolerant and each have their own claim which were led by the political interests of to absoluteness, particularly considering the the respective nations and parties. Even fact that both compete in their respective doctrinal controversies within one religion absolute, revealed and metaphysical reli- were often decided by violent means. In gious truth with reference to revelation and the Thirty Years War, a succinct inner- salvation? Christian example, about one third of the continent's population was killed in the first The frequent citation that Christianity and half of the 17th century. All these conflicts Islam are both Abrahamic religions and that were also claiming to defend the right faith. they are based on the same roots and share They were understood as a struggle for the the belief in one God does not necessarily absolute truth and hence also as a fight for offer a solution. On the contrary, the shared the one God. With reference to this highest reference to one God increases the tension: entity, all borders of humanity were torn whenever one of the two religions – in the down. Blind fanaticism was (and in some name of the shared ground – claims to repre- parts today still is) considered as a com- sent the truth of the one God, it automatically mendable doctrine both in Christianity and becomes the uncompromising competitor of Islam. 10 Philipp W. Hildmann

3. Secular rationality as a religious dialogue. In Catholicism, Pope basis for relations John Paul II had already set the course with the publication in 1998 of his encyclical So what could be a possible solution for the "Fides et Ratio". In this opus, he stated that dilemma of the dual claim to absolute truth? the Catholic Church adheres to its convic- The solution has to be found extra muros, in tion that faith and rationality can mutually a neutral location outside of the strongholds aid each other by conducting a critical self- of the respective faiths. If a fruitful dialogue examination as well as by encouraging each between the different religious convictions other on the path to a deeper understanding. of Christians and Muslims is to take place at His successor, Pope Benedict XVI, has no all, a mediating position is required. This less a clear opinion on this matter, as could mediating position must be free from all be witnessed during his speech in Regens- religious ties and obligations and accepted burg, Germany, on 12 September 2006: and respected by all partners in dialogue. "Not acting rationally is against the nature This basis for relations can only be secular of God". rationality. As result of the quotation of Emperor Thus, before any other individual issues of Manuel II Palaiologos, this speech in Re- interreligious dialogue can be considered, gensburg created quite a stir in the Muslim the basic question must be this: how can a world. However, at the same time it revealed religion be compatible with secular promoted the process of an interreligious rationality? In this context, there is no need dialogue which led to a common statement to worry about the revealed religions. The by Catholics and (Iranian) Shiites on 1 May adherents of a faith community usually 2008. The first three basic principles of this never fundamentally question the revealed interreligious document, written with im- truth of their respective faith. Instead, the pressive clarity, are: "1. Faith and rationality autonomy of the natural rationality com- are both gifts from God to mankind. 2. Faith pared to the supernatural revelation is much and rationality do not contradict each other, more important; since a philosophy which but faith can sometimes stand above ration- has adapted itself to the respective religion ality but never stand against it. 3. Faith and and been absorbed by it is worthless from a rationality in itself are not violent. Neither theological standpoint. Only an independent rationality nor faith should be abused for and autonomous philosophy can have the acts of violence; unfortunately, both occa- role of a critical instance to a revealed relig- sionally are abused for this end". Pars pro ion. Only such a philosophy can offer the toto, the signs for an integration of a critical religions a neutral venue for dialogue extra rationality in the interreligious dialogue on muros, thus enabling them to take part in the Muslim side seem to be promising. More- the dialogue. The interreligious dialogue over, between the 10th and the 12th century, requires the reflection of the respective faith the Muslim world already experienced a towards its own relation towards rationality. philosophical empowerment of the faith, A faith which does not reflect on itself and its even though these approaches at that time own relation towards rationality (which can could not develop further, and a sustainable only happen with reason), a faith which is process of a spiritual debate and a scientific unwilling to be questioned and to justify it- differentiation could not be established. self, will inevitably lead to a fundamentalism which is unable to take part in the dialogue. For Europe, this only leaves the Protestant position on the Christian side. It has always There are some positive indications for the had a highly reflected and rather relaxed emergence of secular rationality in the inter- attitude towards rationality. Here too it was Faith and reason – requirements for an interreligious dialogue between Christians and Muslims 11

the Regensburg speech by the Pope (which out any damage to society) without the need radically criticized the Protestant theology; to arrive at any definite conclusions. Theo- however, due to the Muslim frenzy of in- logical-philosophical problems of a highly dignation this criticism was not particularly explosive socio-political nature are being noticed), which provoked an answer by the debated. then President of the Council of the German Protestant Church. This answer once more With reference to the questions outlined gave a clear position on the relation be- at the beginning of this article and the tween faith and rationality from a Protestant expected demographic developments, the point of view. It proposes an alliance of result of these reflections will not be limited faith and rationality which lives on both the to theology. They will lay the groundwork differentiation between faith and rationality for the peaceful coexistence of Christians as well as the readiness to relate to each and Muslims in Germany and Europe, and other, rather than to play off against each will also guarantee the continuation of this other. "From the very beginning, the con- coexistence after a shift in power. Or the nection between faith and rationality has opposite will happen. In this case, they will been a significant characteristic of Protes- show the limits of our coexistence and sub- tantism. A rationality which has not been il- sequently force the government (regardless luminated by faith remains inexperienced of its sense of freedom and openness) to and unenlightened because it does not ac- create barriers which will prevent the Mus- count for outside its borders. A faith which lims from stepping directly or indirectly out has not been enlightened by rationality of their position as a minority within the bears the risk of becoming barbaric and vio- state. lent. Instead, it is imperative to frequently unfold anew the interdependence of ration- A central focus for these considerations ality and faith." This was stated by Wolfgang could very well be the concept of the fun- Huber in his Berlin speech on 20 November damental value of human dignity which is 2007. enshrined in the German Constitution and the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the So secular rationality could be both respected European Union. Furthermore, there are at and accepted as a neutral venue for dialogue least three crucial topics which will at the extra muros by Christian and Muslim dia- outset play a decisive role from a theologi- logue partners. At least, this is suggested by cal-philosophical standpoint as to whether the expression of a positive basic attitude interreligious dialogue will take place or not towards rationality as a critically cleansing take place: the question concerning the examiner of the faith, and as a divine gift to human being, God, and hermeneutics: the mankind. Thus, the common ground is interpretation of texts. defined. But what are the issues that we have to focus on when it comes to the basis for relations? 4. The question concerning the human being In the context of these thoughts on the requirements for an interreligious dialogue, it The answer to the question about the human becomes clear that it is primarily not a mat- being has its ultimate reference point in the ter of arbitrary inner-religious issues with a concept of personhood. Is the human being strictly theological character. Neither is it a to be understood as a person, which means matter of theological-philosophical exercises that he is inviolable in his uniqueness and in a scientific ivory tower of intellectual dignity and, due to his freedom of con- vanities, which could be deliberated (with- science, has to be acknowledged as a moral 12 Philipp W. Hildmann

subject? Or is the human being a mere of the human being in the sense of the specimen of the human species and there- Christian-Jewish tradition. According to fore subordinate to the general population this tradition, the individual human being even to the extent that society can deny him does not just randomly exist. His individu- his right to exist? The answers to these ality is desired by God and for this reason questions have a direct effect on each indi- he contains the meaning of his existence vidual's position within a faith community: within himself. He is not (at least not pri- if the human being is a person, then faith is marily) a functional element in a superior an act of personal freedom and must there- community, but he exists for his own sake fore not be enforced. and, according to this definition, is free of any instrumentalization. The possibility of A glance at the course of the debate regard- personal completion beyond death is based ing this topic shows that there are no apparent on this divine purpose of creation. The compelling reasons for interpreting the human being is capable of such completion human being the one way or the other. The because he does not just exist, but he is also conviction that the human being holds a aware of himself through reflection. This privileged and higher position is by no knowledge of oneself deeply justifies the means self-evident and has slowly evolved possibility of personal completion. The fact through the differentiation and dissociation that the human being acts on his own initia- from other species in the course of the his- tive and on his own responsibility has its tory of mankind. The mere existence of the origin in this thought. Ontologically, that is human being does not provide us with any why being a person and subjectivity are the information about human nature. To be highest-ranking attributes of the whole reality human generally leaves room for various of the human being. interpretations. However, this freedom of interpretation is not synonymous with an In ethics, the self-referentiality of the person arbitrariness that does not permit further has its pendant in the teachings of the free questioning. Secular rationality offers a conscience, and also in the freedom of the distinctive feature – insofar as the human is conscience to err subjectively, as the last in- able to make this freedom of interpretation stance of moral action. As a finite subject, a part of his contemplations. The human the human being will not be measured by an being is a creature that can and does question absolute dimension which cannot be grasped himself. He is able to reflect critically upon by him. His finite rationality and his finite himself. The human being differs in this volition are related to each other. His morality ability from all that surrounds him. Beyond is measured by the quality of this relation. the sensual experience, this mental recogni- Volition must follow the insight, even if tion opens a new horizon and, along with there is the risk that this insight finds itself that, new possibilities for interpreting what in an unavoidable error. This is why the it means to be human. human being (particularly when it comes to faith issues) must not be subjected to any However, an absolute clarity about how the kind of coercion. God has irrevocably linked characteristics of the human being are the human being to his conscience. In the determined cannot be reached solely by eyes of God, the human being constitutes these means. In additional to reason-based himself as a moral subject, and from this reflection, religious experiences also have relation stems his inviolable dignity. to be integrated into the thoughts. From a Christian point of view, the ontological At this point, the crucial and fundamental position of personality and subjectivity has significance of the human being for politics its ultimate justification in the apprehension and society becomes clear. The question Faith and reason – requirements for an interreligious dialogue between Christians and Muslims 13

whether the human being is a person or just truth by both monotheistic religions, have a specimen of the human species has a already been mentioned. Furthermore, a direct effect on the question of the conditions potentially far more serious difference for a democracy, of the scope of human emerges concerning the understanding of rights, and of freedom of conscience and God from both the Christian and Muslim religion. What answer does Islamic theology point of view, one with far-reaching conse- give to the question about the human being quences well beyond the theological dis- in Europe in the beginning of the 21st cen- course. tury? The term person, which stems from Christian tradition, is still a rather strange In Christian tradition, the nature of the Triune one to Muslims even today. Despite this, God as Creator, Redeemer and Sustainer is will Islamic theology be able to accept the often characterized as love, with reference idea of secular rationality – as the basis of to 1 John: 4. In Christian belief, God is love, relations – in order to define its perspective or to be more exact: unconditional and im- on personhood and the subjectivity of the plicit love. It is regrettable that this central human being? message has gone unnoticed for centuries in both words and deeds. However, this is not an argument against the joyful message or 5. The question of God against this Gospel in the best sense of the word. The response to the love from God A second issue that is essential for an inter- towards the human being cannot be en- religious dialogue from a theological-philo- forced. The human being has to – in a posi- sophical point of view is the question of tive or negative way – answer for it inde- God. Who or what God is, and whether and pendently and freely before God. For this how He can or must be understood and reason, we can rightfully use the term of the grasped as such, determines what the world theonomic autonomy of the human being. and the human being are in principle. The image of God in Islam appears to be The fact that the question of God plays a more ambiguous in this regard. There are central role in interreligious dialogue is self- distinct approaches according to which the evident. In this regard, there seem to be no monotheism in the Koran is to be under- significant differences at first glance be- stood as a monocracy. This view has serious tween Christianity and Islam. Both Christ- consequences for the independence of the ians and Muslims share the common basic human being because under these circum- belief that the world is not eternal, but that stances, it is impossible for him to exist as it was created by God. Both Christians and an autonomous entity. All personal initia- Muslims are monotheists, meaning that tives of the human being de facto are lost both only believe in the one God – whereas under the monocracy of God. All powers of it should be a matter of course that the decision and leading remain exclusively Christian doctrine of the Trinity does not with God who is also responsible for the question belief in only one God, as it is often decisions made by the human being. In this assumed from the Muslim point of view in case, the appeal to one's conscience appears the references to Sura 4, 171 and Sura 5, 73. to be an open contradiction of God, whose commands have to be followed uncondi- This, then, is a first glimpse that reveals the tionally. God is the master of the worlds, commonalities as an important basis for and the human being finds himself in the communication on controversial issues. The position of His servant who is expected to problems that arise at a second glance, surrender to His will. Therefore, the fact namely the immanent and absolute claim to that Islam focuses on right action (oriented 14 Philipp W. Hildmann

towards the positive revelation) rather than of themes: the question of hermeneutics, i.e. on the right insight is internally consistent. the branch of theology that deals with exegesis, the interpretion of sacred texts. In the face of this significantly different emphasis in the concept of God, the pro- posed Abrahamitic commonalities of the 6. The question of hermeneutics Christian and Muslim monotheism lose more of their binding and sustainable power. The Sooner or later all the revealed religions socio-political consequences which arise have had to face the issue of the right inter- from this image of God should be consid- pretation of the revealed truth and how the ered very carefully, as this theological religious truths were presented in writing. approach may influence social structures Therefore, the question as to how binding because the self-image of the human being are its sources for Islam appears to be a is directly affected by this approach. The rather unoriginal but nevertheless very dif- demand for a theocracy, for the identity of ficult one. Islam claims three sources for its religion and politics, is merely the last but religion: Koran, Sunna and consensus. After entirely consistent stage in this scheme. being only one of many sources in the early days, the Koran today without doubt has the However, this does not mean that this image prime position within the hierarchy of of God, the human being and the state from sources. For the religious Muslim, the proc- an Islamic point of view must necessarily lamations and the teachings of the prophet be so. In this regard, the Pakistani scholar Muhammad are documented in this holy Daud Rahbar undertook in his book "God book. The Koran contains the immediate of Justice" published in 1960 an attempt at a word of God, unaltered by any authority. It systematic redevelopment of the theology is identical with the original text which is which derives immediately from the Koran preserved in heaven, and for this reason it and which describes the God in the Koran must claim absolute authority. The literal as an entirely ethical entity that holds the comprehension of the Koran is widespread free human being morally responsible for in the Islamic world. Such an understanding his actions. However, the afore-mentioned of divine revelation naturally poses problems mainstream image of God in Islam still has for its relationship to human rationality, as to be taken seriously as a danger, particularly it denies any kind of interpretation. Difficul- in regard to democracy. For this reason, ties arise not only for Islamic theology in from the Islamic point of view, the question consequence of this understanding of the whether Islamic theology today still un- Koran, but also for the dialogue partners of swervingly clings to a monocratic monothe- Islamic theologians. This is why hermeneutics ism – with all consequences for freedom of plays an important role in the interreligious conscience and faith as well as for religion dialogue. and politics – has to be answered before the interreligious dialogue begins. In this case, A literal interpretation of the Koran con- the question must be allowed as to the end tains – and there is no other way to describe purpose of an interreligious dialogue in it – an absolute rejection of Western values. the framework of our free and democratic When considering a literal and verbally system. Also, the question must be posed inspired understanding of the Koran as the whether Islamic theology is inherently word of God, one finds many statements capable of defining a much broader image which are inacceptable, both from the point of God. This possibility too seems to be of view of Christian theology and from the permitted by the Koran, given the appropriate point of view of an enlightened and democ- exegesis. This leads us to the third complex ratic state. For instance, the generalized Faith and reason – requirements for an interreligious dialogue between Christians and Muslims 15

condemnation of infidels (from an Islamic 7. The ultimate reference point: point of view) and the command to kill them human dignity wherever they are encountered can never be subject to debate. The question about the human being, about God, and about hermeneutics – the answers However, this situation appears in a com- to these three questions will decide whether pletely different light when the historico- it will be at all possible to initiate a critical method is applied also to the nor- meaningful interreligious dialogue between mative texts and the binding traditions – a Christians and Muslims from a theological- method of interpretation which is already philosophical perspective. In other words, practiced by several significant Islamic only those Muslims who can answer these theologians such as the thinkers Fazlur questions in the way outlined above can be Rahman or Muhammad Arkoun, to mention reasonably expected to be partners in dia- just two. And today, for instance, the logue for the Christian side, if this dialogue theological faculty of Ankara University is is to be more than a mere exchange of known for its time-sensitive and contextual viewpoints which are set in stone. interpretations of the Koran. And so there does exist a position within the Islamic The importance of such a dialogue for the world which states that in order to retain the peaceful coexistence of the people in substance of the faith, one does not have to Germany and Europe does not require any propagate literal interpretations, but the further justification in the light of the substance of the faith can be linked to a demographic developments mentioned above. contemporary translation of the Koran. How- Everything depends on a positive outcome ever, the fact that this approach does not of this dialogue. Today's coexistence of (yet) meet acceptance among the prevailing Muslims and Christians in Germany and majority of Muslim intellectuals cannot be Europe, which is mostly characterized by overlooked. Nevertheless, the Muslim world mistrust, must be overcome in the interest faces the challenge of developing a new of maintaining social peace. The current theory of the Koran. In this regard, the situation contains a conflict potential, the opportunity lies in a readiness to base one's political consequences of which can be criticisim of the wording of the holy book scarcely imagined today. It is a matter of on an understanding of the spirit behind it. urgency that this situation be changed. The The resulting debate within the actual com- interreligious dialogue can contribute munity is inevitable and has to be conducted significantly to this cause. However, it can productively. only show us paths and bridges. But it is up to the individual whether these paths are The fact is that only interlocutors who share followed or bridges crossed. "The dialogue this hermeneutic basic attitude can lead is open and indeterminate in its nature", such a dialogue which is both useful and stated Christian Wulff, who in the mean- oriented to the future. A step in the right time has become President of Germany, direction in this area is the prevously cited during a speech on 14 January 2005, "in the common declaration of Catholics and same way that the core of every religion is Shiites of 1 May 2008, which closes with the indefinable, intangible, even inexpressible, seventh paragraph as follows: "Religious and as such simply mysterious, sacred, and traditions cannot be evaluated on the basis transcendent in its nature. And yet the dia- of a single verse or passage of the respec- logue which takes place in society still tive holy book. Both an overall view and an strives to find solutions which are politically adequate hermeneutic method are required and legally acceptable for our everyday life for a fair comprehension". and circumstances". 16 Philipp W. Hildmann

The ultimate reference point for all of the is an opportunity which has to be taken considerations in this respect must be the freely and brought to realization in freedom. fundamental central value of human dignity. However, this very same freedom means that The success of the entire dialogue project such an opportunity can also be rejected. will depend (also socially and politically) on whether both sides agree without any There will always be individuals among reservation and on the basis of their respec- Christians and Muslims who, by rejecting tive theological self-understanding on at rationality, will claim that their faith is the least this one point: the inviolability of the greater one, and will feel obliged to follow dignity of the human being, regardless of the word of God literally and without reserva- nationality or faith, must be accepted and tion. It is not every believer who has arrived permanently guaranteed, with all the result- at the insight that reason and faith need not ing consequences. mutually exclude and contradict each other since both have their origin in God.

The constitutions of the individual Euro- Although such a synthesis is reasonable, pean states must safeguard this, as must the it is often the case that people who are respective religious communities as well as searching for an understanding of the their members living in these countries. The revealed truth find themselves confronted unconditional acceptance of the central by tendencies which refuse to allow any fundamental value of human dignity is the questioning of revelation. For this reason, precondition for the possibility of a humane there will always be some believers for whom coexistence of all peoples. All other at- the relationship of religion and rationality tempts and efforts are doomed to failure if cannot be reconciled and will remain con- the religious communities in Europe do not flicted. However, this section of the reli- manage to reach a common position on the gious community should not be considered basis of their respective theologies. an obstacle but rather an incentive for all the others to persevere in searching and Nevertheless, it must be stated objectively leading the interreligious dialogue between that the only possible option is a dialogue Christians and Muslims. between Christians and Muslims which is founded on secular rationality as the basis This is the only way that Europe will be for relations. However, the line of argument able to grow together and that its peoples in favour of this does not necessarily imply will be able to coexist in peace within the that this path will be followed, even though framework of the democratic structures of reason would suggest that it should. Dialogue this continent. Faith and reason – requirements for an interreligious dialogue between Christians and Muslims 17

Reference list und Islam, hrsg. von Richard Heinzmann u. Ausgabe, Stuttgart 2007 (= Interkulturelle und interreligiöse This article is based on: Heinzmann, Richard: Zu den Symposien der Eugen-Biser-Stiftung 1), S. 88-123. Voraussetzungen interreligiösen und interkulturellen Einwanderungsgesellschaft 2010, Jahresgutachten Zusammenlebens aus philosophisch-theologischer 2010 mit Integrationsbarometer, hrsg. vom Sachver- Sicht, in: Dialog aus christlichem Ursprung, Fünf ständigenrat deutscher Stiftungen für Integration und Jahre Eugen-Biser-Stiftung, hrsg. von der Eugen- Migration, Berlin 2010. Biser-Stiftung, Limburg 2008, S. 245-256. Franz, Albert: Gott, in: Lexikon philosophischer Albayrak, Halis: Rolle und Funktion des Korans in Grundbegriffe der Theologie, hrsg. von Albert Franz muslimischer Auffassung, in: Menschenwürde. Grund- u. Ausgabe, 2. korrigierte Fassung der Erstauflage, lagen in Christentum und Islam, hrsg. von Richard Freiburg / Br. 2007, S. 178-180. Heinzmann u. Ausgabe, Stuttgart 2007 (= Inter- kulturelle und interreligiöse Symposien der Eugen- Härle, Wilfried: Gewissen. IV. Dogmatisch und Biser-Stiftung 1), S. 30-43. ethisch, in: Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, Handwörterbuch für Theologie und Religionswissen- Assmann, Jan: Die Mosaische Unterscheidung oder schaft, Band 3, 4., völlig neu bearbeitete Ausgabe, der Preis des Monotheismus, München 2003. hrsg. von Hans Dieter Betz u. Ausgabe, Tübingen Belafi, Matthias: Kirchen und Religionsgemein- 2000, Sp. 902-906. schaften, in: Jahrbuch der Europäischen Integration Haug, Sonja / Müssig, Stephanie / Stichs, Anja: Mus- 2009, hrsg. von Werner Weidenfeld und Wolfgang limisches Leben in Deutschland, hrsg. vom Bundes- Wessels, Baden-Baden 2010, S. 321-326. amt für Migration und Flüchtlinge, Nürnberg 2009. Benedikt XVI.: Glaube, Vernunft und Universität. Herms, Eilert: Vernunft. IV. Dogmatisch, in: Religion Erinnerungen und Reflexionen, in: Apostolische Reise in Geschichte und Gegenwart, Handwörterbuch für Seiner Heiligkeit Papst Benedikt XVI. nach München, Theologie und Religionswissenschaft, Band 8, 4., Altötting und Regensburg, 9.-14.9.2006, Predigten, völlig neu bearbeitete Ausgabe, hrsg. von Hans Dieter Ansprachen und Grußworte, hrsg. vom Sekretariat Betz u. Ausgabe, Tübingen 2005, Sp. 1042-1043. der Deutschen Bischofskonferenz, Bonn 2006 (= Verlautbarungen des Apostolischen Stuhls 174), Isensee, Josef: Integration als Konzept: Die Grenzen S. 72-84. der Toleranz, in: Blätter für deutsche und internationale Politik 3/2010, S. 79-90. Blume, Michael: Islam in Deutschland 2010. Erstel- lung einer begründeten Prognose, Seminarbericht, Johannes Paul II.: Enzyklika Fides et Ratio über das Tübingen 2006. Verhältnis von Glaube und Vernunft, 14.9.1998, 6. Ausgabe, hrsg. vom Sekretariat der Deutschen Bobzin, Hartmut: Der Koran. Eine Einführung, Bischofskonferenz, Bonn 2008. München 1999. Der Koran. Aus dem Arabischen neu übertragen von Böckenförde, Ernst-Wolfgang: Der säkularisierte Hartmut Bobzin unter Mitarbeit von Katharina Bob- Staat. Sein Charakter, seine Rechtfertigung und seine zin, München 2010. Probleme im 21. Jahrhundert, München 2007. Massarrat, Mohssen: Islam und Demokratie: Ein Böhr, Christoph: Das Bild vom Menschen und die Widerspruch?, in: Blätter für deutsche und internati- Ordnung der Gesellschaft. Zur Politik des Pluralis- onale Politik 4/2010, S. 56-62. mus und ihrer Gründung in einer Anthropologie aus dem Geist der Metaphysik, Anmerkungen aus Sicht Oechslen, Rainer: Stellungnahme aus evangelischer der politischen Philosophie, in: Europäische Men- Perspektive, in: Islam mit europäischem Gesicht. schenbilder, hrsg. von Hanna-Barbara Gerl-Falkovitz Impulse und Perspektiven, hrsg. von Benjamin Idriz, u. Ausgabe, Dresden 2009 (= Religionsphilosophie. Stephan Leimgruber und Stefan Jakob Wimmer, Diskurse und Orientierungen 1), S. 119-131. Kevelaer 2010, S. 119-143. Brettfeld, Katrin / Wetzels, Peter: Muslime in Deutsch- Projekt Europa 2030. Herausforderungen und Chan- land. Integration, Integrationsbarrieren, Religion cen, Bericht der Reflexionsgruppe über die Zukunft sowie Einstellungen zu Demokratie, Rechtsstaat und der EU 2030 an den Europäischen Rat, Luxemburg politisch-religiös motivierte Gewalt, Ergebnisse von 2010. Befragungen im Rahmen einer multizentrischen Stu- Ringleben, Joachim: "Was ist der Mensch, dass du die in städtischen Lebensräumen, Hamburg 2007. seiner gedenkst?" Grundgedanken evangelischer Düzgün, Şaban Ali: Die Möglichkeit einer theologi- Anthropologie im Anschluss an Psalm 8,5, in: Was schen Grundlegung der menschlichen Vollkommen- ist der Mensch?, hrsg. von Norbert Elsner und Hans- heit, in: Menschenwürde. Grundlagen in Christentum Ludwig Schreiber, Göttingen 2002, S. 271-287. 18 Philipp W. Hildmann

Schavan, Annette: Die Läuterung des Glaubens Verfassungsschutzbericht Bayern 2009, hrsg. vom durch Theologie. Bildungsministerin Annette Schavan Bayerischen Staatsministerium des Innern, München über die deutsche Tradition des Religionsunterrichts 2009. und Universitätszentren für islamische Studien, in: Neuer Zürcher Zeitung, Internationale Ausgabe 235 Vroom, Hendrik M.: Absolutheitsanspruch des vom 9.10.2010, S. 25. Christentums, in: Religion in Geschichte und Gegen- Schwöbel, Christoph: Gott. V. Dogmatisch. 2. Sys- wart, Handwörterbuch für Theologie und Religions- tematisch-theologisch, in: Religion in Geschichte wissenschaft, Band 1, 4., völlig neu bearbeitete Ausga- und Gegenwart, Handwörterbuch für Theologie und be, hrsg. von Hans Dieter Betz u. Ausgabe, Tübingen Religionswissenschaft, Band 3, 4., völlig neu bear- 1998, Sp. 82-85. beitete Ausgabe, hrsg. von Hans Dieter Betz u. Aus- gabe, Tübingen 2000, Sp. 1119-1126. Wieland, Rotraud: Gott. X. Islam, in: Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, Handwörterbuch für Thielmann, Jörn: Vielfältige muslimische Religiosi- Theologie und Religionswissenschaft, Band 3. 4., tät in Deutschland. Ein Gesamtüberblick zu den Er- völlig neu bearbeitete Ausgabe, hrsg. von Hans Dieter gebnissen der Studie der Bertelsmann Stiftung, in: Betz u. Ausgabe, Tübingen 2000, Sp. 1138-1141. Religionsmonitor 2008. Muslimische Religiosität in Deutschland, Überblick zu religiösen Einstellungen Wimmer, Stefan Jakob / Leimgruber, Stephan: Von und Praktiken, Gütersloh 2008, S. 13-21. Adam bis Muhammad, Bibel und Koran im Vergleich, Thomas, Johannes: Al-Andalus. Christlich-islamische Stuttgart 2005. Synkretismen – Quellen europäischer Menschenbilder, in: Europäische Menschenbilder, hrsg. von Hanna- Wulff, Christian: Der interreligiöse Dialog als Aufga- Barbara Gerl-Falkovitz u. Ausgabe, Dresden 2009 be unserer Gesellschaft, in: Dialog aus christlichem (= Religionsphilosophie. Diskurse und Orientierun- Ursprung, Fünf Jahre Eugen-Biser-Stiftung, hrsg. von gen 1), S. 249-262. der Eugen-Biser-Stiftung, Limburg 2008, S. 104-113. The changeability of Islamic principles using the example of pluralism

Erdal Toprakyaran

1. Pluralism in the Qur'an that there are other religious communities which enjoy a special relationship with The Qur'an contains many verses that Muslims because they share a common tie support religious pluralism.1 If asked by the to both monotheism and divine revelation Christians and Jews what they believe in, that is believed to come from the same tran- the Muslims in Mecca should say to them: scendent "Mother Book" (umm al-kitab). The "We believe what has been sent down to us, Qur'an recognizes the potential for salvation and we believe what has been sent to you. for these followers of other religions, e. g. Our God and your God is one, and to Him in verse 2/62, which states: "Those who we submit" (29/46). In another verse God believe – the Jews, the Christians, and the says: "We have sent revelations to you as Sabaeans – whosoever believe in God and We sent revelations to Noah and the prophets the Last Day and do good works, they shall who came after him; and We sent revela- have their reward from their Lord and shall tions to Abraham and Ishmael and Isaac and have nothing to fear, nor shall they come to Jacob and their offspring, and to Jesus and grief" (see also 5/44-46, 5/69 and 29/46). Job … and to Moses God spoke directly" (4/163-164). The Qur'an states that God There are also negative statements about deliberately made humanity into different polytheists, Christians and Jews in the religions, races and tribes so that they may Qur'an. But an analysis of the historical know one another (30/22-29 and 49/13) and context of these passages shows that these compete with one another (2/148 and 5/48). verses are always revealed in times of hos- tility and are therefore not decisive for times Rather than abolishing diversity, those pas- of peace. The passage which is probably the sages encourage Muslims to accept differ- most cited is the beginning of verse 2/191, ences and to handle them peacefully. Many which states: "And slay them wherever you Muslim scholars also point to two Qur´anic catch them". But the previous verse: "Fight titles given to all people as a sign that God in the cause of Allah those who fight you, confers dignity on all of humanity: one title but do not transgress limits; for Allah does is "Children of Adam" (17/70) and the other not love aggressors", makes it obvious that title is "deputy" (khalifa, 2/30), which means this verse is the result of a warlike situation, that every human being has the potential to namely a conflict between the Muslims and become a deputy of God on earth. Further- the polytheistic leaders of Mecca in the year more, the Qur´an forbids religious oppres- 628. In that year the Muslims wanted to do sion of any kind, for example in verse 2/256 the pilgrimage to the Ka'ba and were hin- where God says that there is no compulsion dered by the Meccans. The Muslims expected in religion (see also verse 10/99-100). a fight, but that was prevented through a treaty which allowed the Muslims to return The Qur'an contains the expression "People / without doing the pilgrimage that year, but Family of the Book" (ahl al-kitab), a term gave them the right to do it the following which is crucial for the understanding of the year. Apart from these times of aggression, idea of Islamic pluralism. The Qur'an states the Muslims always have to strive after peace: 20 Erdal Toprakyaran

"God may change the animosity between freely their own religion; it included also you and them into love. God is Omnipotent. the right to have their own religious civil God is Forgiver, Most Merciful. God for- law and civil law courts. There are many bids you not, with regard to those who fight sayings (hadith) of the Prophet Muhammad you not for your faith nor drive you out of concerning the dhimmis, for example the your homes, from dealing kindly and justly one delivered by Abu Dawud: "Whoever with them: for Allah loves those who are harms a dhimmi, will be my enemy". After just". In the verse 16/125-127 it is men- a while, in addition to Christians and Jews, tioned how the Prophet Muhammad should other religious groups not mentioned in the speak with people of other faiths: "You shall Qur'an also came to be regarded as protected invite to the path of your Lord with wisdom minorities, e. g. Samaritans, Zoroastrians, and kind enlightenment and debate with and later after the death of the Prophet even them in the best possible manner" (see also Hindus and Buddhists.4 17/53).2

3. Changeability of 2. Practice of the Muslims religious principles

From early times on pluralism has existed It must be emphasized that it is not the main in the Muslim community because of the Islamic source – the Qur'an – that has very clear regulations of the Qur'an. But changed over the centuries, but the many from the viewpoint of modern times and interpretations of its texts. And the interpre- standards, these practices seem to be lim- tations are always dependant on the historical ited. At this point, for example, the constitu- context, whether political, social, financial, tion of Medina must be mentioned. It was or other. There were and still are many dif- initiated by the Prophet Muhammad after ferent law schools like the Hanafiyya, Shafi'i- his migration from Mecca to Medina in the yya, Malikiyya, Hanbaliyya or Ja'fariyya; year 622. This document is one of the first theological schools like the Salafiyya, known political documents in the world which Mu'taziliyya, Ash'ariyya or Maturidiyya; mentions religious freedom. It arranged the mystical brotherhoods like the Qadiriyya, cohabitation of Muslims, Jews and polythe- Chishtiyya, Naqshbandiyya or Mawlawiyya ists, who are defined there as one commu- and hundreds of political dynasties like the nity (umma).3 Umayyads, Abbasids, Ayyubids or Ottomans. It is possible to ascertain tendencies, but it From the time of the Prophet, the non- is not possible to say that these schools and Muslims were expected to be loyal to the dynasties were as a whole pluralistic or as a Muslim government and to pay a special tax whole anti-pluralistic. It did not depend (jizya) if they could. In return, they were primarily on the existing theoretical concepts freed or respectively excluded from military of the Islamic scholars but on the historical service. On the other hand, if they could do context whether an actor, a school or a so, the Muslims had to pay a special tax for dynasty was more or less pluralistic.5 Muslims (zakat), so there was no financial disadvantage for the non-Muslims. Four examples will be presented which illustrate that Muslim history – as every The Muslims guaranteed the basic rights of history – is process-like, complex and the non-Muslims, whom they called pro- multifaceted. tected religious minorities (ahl al-dhimma or dhimmi). These rights included the right The first example is the case of the Mogul to live, to have property and to practice sultans in India, who were all Sunni Mus- The changeability of Islamic principles using the example of pluralism 21

lims, following the Hanafi school of law. Islamic history is full of examples of mys- Although the religious minorities (or in the tics who had nevertheless an anti-pluralistic case of the Hindus: majorities) had for attitude and were involved in worldly and many centuries their basic rights regarding political actions and trends. But on the other pluralism, each sultan had an individual at- hand, there were and still are many Sufis titude.6 We see that the famous sultan Akbar who correspond to their widespread positive (d. 1605) was a radical pluralist in the reli- image of being very open-minded and tol- gious sense, who not only tolerated other erant. Examples of such mystics include religions and even atheists, but also respected Mu'in al-Din Chishti (d. 1230), Ibn al-Arabi them. His opponents accused him of going (d. 1240), Jalal al-Din Rumi (d. 1273), Hajji too far and argued that he was trying to create Bayram Veli (d. 1429) or Hazrat Inayat a new syncretistic religion. Khan (d. 1927).8

The third example is the case of the Arme- The next two sultans, Jahangir (d. 1627) nians in the Ottoman Empire.9 Well inte- and Shah Jahan (d. 1666), were much less grated and very successful, the Armenians interested in other religions, maybe because had enjoyed their basic rights for many cen- of the growing anti-pluralistic tendencies in turies, as had all minorities in the Ottoman the Muslim population. This changed with Empire. They were even called the "trust- Dara Shikoh, the son of Shah Jahan, who worthy people" (millet-i sadıka) by the again – like Sultan Akbar – can be called a Turkish government. But the misrule of the radical pluralist. Unfortunately his brother Ottoman sultans and governments, many Aurangzeb (d. 1707) was supported by those wars, a financial crisis and nationalistic who believed that an excessively intense trends in Europe and the Middle East desta- interest in other religions would be a danger bilized the Empire in the 19th century. This for Islam. As a result, Aurangzeb was re- situation led first to the characterization of sponsible for the execution of his radical the Armenians as the "unwanted traitors" pluralistic brother Dara Shikoh in 1659, and then to the appalling deportation and who was accused of being a heretic. This massacre in 1915 during World War I. It case shows that even father and son or two was not religious fanaticism or the changing brothers could have different attitudes in of religious concepts, but complete political regard to pluralism. failure and collapse which culminated in this disaster. This example shows that within a The second example is substantially inter- few decades or centuries a limited pluralistic related with the first example. In this case it system can turn into a fanatic system, and concerns two famous Muslim mystics vice versa. (Sufi), both Hanafi Sunnis, who seem to be totally opposed characters. Muhammad The fourth example is again intrinsically Ghauth Gwaliori (d. 1562) went very far connected to the previous example. When with his respect and interest for Hinduism, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (d. 1938) and his became himself a vegetarian, farmed cows companions founded the Turkish Republic and practiced yoga; unlike Ahmad Sirhindi in 1923, many secularist reforms followed. (d. 1624), who participated in the conquest The reformers wanted to create a modern of a Hindu region, turned a temple there state that had to "turn its face from the East into a mosque and sacrificed a cow in front to the West". Atatürk succeeded in a very of the new mosque.7 Unfortunately, the atti- short time with his reforms, which included tude of Ahmad Sirhindi, who is one of the banishing the sultanate and caliphate, the most prominent Sufis of the Muslim world, mystical brotherhoods, the Islamic courts is not an exception. and the full-body veil; abandoning the Ara- 22 Erdal Toprakyaran

bic language as the "dominant" language of attitudes towards traditionalism, modernism religious teaching; and the replacement of or secularism depended more on their own Arabic script with Latin script. individual life experiences and historical, social, political, or economic circumstances, At first glance these reforms may seem to than on theoretical concepts. be anti-Islamic. But upon closer examination it becomes clear that the reforms were seen by many religious scholars as absolutely compatible with Islamic principles.10 4. Contemporary situation and Atatürk was always concerned to have the discussion approval of the religious establishment, through such measures as positive expert There have been and there still continue to reports (fatwa). For this reason, he was aided be innumerable different perceptions, con- by numerous Islamic scholars in order to cepts, voices and interpretations of pluralism provide the reforms with an Islamic funda- in the Muslim world. ment. More progressive contemporary Muslim The reforms would not have been possible scholars like Fathi Osman and Nasr Hamid without the support of such eminent Mus- Abu Zaid from Egypt, Farid Esack from lim scholars as Mehmet Seyyit (d. 1925), South Africa, Nurcholish Majid from Indo- Rıfat Börekçi (first president of the depart- nesia, Asghar Ali Engineer from India, or ment for religious affairs, d. 1941), Şerafettin Süleyman Ateş and Salih Akdemir from Yaltkaya (second president of the department Turkey argue that the Qur'an supports the for religious affairs, d. 1947), Kamil Miras development of universal relations and (d. 1957) and Şemsettin Günaltay (later be- global pluralism and justice, including not came Turkish Prime Minister, d. 1961) who only Jews and Christians, but also Hindus, explained to the people why issues such as Buddhists, and people of other faiths and democracy, secularism, pluralism, the Latin even people without a faith.12 alphabet, or modern clothing did not contradict Islam in any way. For them, pluralism is a Qur'anic obligation. But God's original vision of a peaceful plu- The secularist reforms also took place under ralism for humanity has been corrupted over the patronage of such eminent Turkish Sufis time by scholars and rulers who sought to as Mehmet Ali Ayni (d. 1943), Remzi promote and legitimize their own interests Akyürek (d. 1944), Neyzen Tevfik (d. 1953), and the exploitation of the people. They Veled Çelebi (d. 1953), Kenan Rifai believe that the honour and dignity of man (d. 1950), Hasan Ali Yücel (d. 1961), Süheyl must be assured through guarantees of free- Ünver (d. 1986) and Samih Rıfat (d. 1988), dom of faith and expression for all people. even despite the fact that Atatürk had also Most of these scholars consider that the abolished the organized Sufi Brotherhoods.11 early Muslim practices such as the dhimmi status and the jizya tax, however advanced This last case makes clear yet again that they may have been at the time of the historical actors (whether sultan, scholar, Prophet, are no longer appropriate for modern farmer or mystic) – even if they belong to times because they constitute second-class the same school of law, brotherhood or citizenship and a limited form of pluralism family – can be found on both sides of two and tolerance. Many of them argue that the competing parties like the Islamic Ottoman word Islam (surrender) does not only sultanate and the secularist reformers around denominate the historical religion which Atatürk. The choices they made and their started with Muhammad but also the one The changeability of Islamic principles using the example of pluralism 23

superordinate meta-religion, which is the It is important to realize that even the radical essence of all religions. groups here mentioned never say that they are fighting against Christians and Jews As a result of this line of argument, all the because they are Christians and Jews. They prophets including Adam, Noah, Abraham, always argue that they are fighting them be- Moses, Jesus and Muhammad are called in cause they are oppressors of the Muslims. the Qur'an Muslims, that is to say: followers This shows that even these radicals know of Islam. Since the Qur'an recognizes that that the Qur'an allows no hate and violence true faith can exist in forms other than the against peaceful followers of other religions. historical Islam which started with Muham- mad, those scholars argue that the important In conclusion, it can be appropriate to cite issue of faith is whether a person is sincere a quintessential episode from the life of in his or her faith and engages in righteous Ahmad Syafii Maarif, the former leader of conduct, not whether he or she believes in the Indonesian Muhammadiyah movement. the prophecy of Muhammad. In his autobiography he writes that he used to be a fundamentalist, keen to convert non- Unfortunately, there are also radical voices Muslims to Islam. But after studying with such as those of the Taliban, Hizbullah, the eminent scholar Fazlur Rahman he was Hamas or Al-Qaida, who instrumentalize able to depart from "the path of fundamen- and exploit the negative verses about Jews talism which was filled with flaming spirit and Christians in the Qur'an, without any but empty of deep, contemplative thoughts".13 consideration for the historical context of these revelations. But it is a known fact that Ahmad Syafii Maarif is today one of the these groups are the result of the historical, major champions of Islamic pluralism in the that is to say, the political and economic cir- world. This wonderful transformation story cumstances of their region. If, for example, offers hope that it is possible to convert the political and economic circumstances in many especially young fundamentalists to a countries such as Palestine, Afghanistan, or peaceful Islam. But this requires scholars Iraq could be stabilized, the influence of like Fazlur Rahman, and policy-makers with these groups and the hatred against the US courage and a profound sense of responsi- and Israel would certainly decrease. bility. 24 Erdal Toprakyaran

Notes

1 For a detailed treatment of the topic of plural- Sirhindi see also Tosun, Necdet: İmam-ı Rab- ism, see Moussalli, Ahmad: The Islamic Quest bani, Ahmed Sirhindi. Hayatı, Eserleri, Tasav- for Democracy, Pluralism, and Human Rights, vufi Görüşleri (Imam Rabbani, Ahmad Sirhindi, Gainesville 2001. See also Safi, Omid (Ed.): Life, Works and Mystical Views), Istanbul 2005. Progressive Muslims. On Justice, Gender, and 8 From among the many publications containing Pluralism, Oxford 2003. the lectures of Hazrat Inayat Khan, the book 2 This example makes clear the importance of a "The Unity of Religious Ideals" (Geneva 1949) historical-critical reading of holy texts. Contrary seems to be the most relevant regarding the idea to the widespread opinion that there is no his- of pluralism. The view that it is also the follow- torical-critical tradition in Islamic theology, the ers of Hazrat Inayat Khan who are convinced majority of Muslim scholars beginning at the representatives of a pluralistic world view is time of the Prophet himself always used to ask presented in: Toprakyaran, Erdal: Sufismus als for the historical context of the Qur'anic revela- Integrationsfaktor in Europa? (Sufism as a Factor tions. This was the reason for the emergence of of Integration in Europe?), in: Wiener Zeitschrift a secondary genre of Qur'anic exegesis called zur Geschichte der Neuzeit, 2/2005, pp. 112-117. "occasions of revelation" (asbab al-nuzul). For 9 See Lewy, Guenter: The Armenian Massacres this genre see Serinsu, Ahmet Nedim: Tarihsellik in Ottoman Turkey: A Disputed Genocide, Utah ve Esbab-ı Nuzul (Historicity and the Occasions 2005. of Revelation), Istanbul 1996. But it is true that 10 Sarıkoyuncu, Ali: Atatürk, Din ve Din Adam- there are also literalist trends claiming that each ları (Atatürk, Religion and Religious Scholars), verse of the Qur'an is universal and therefore Ankara 2005. independent of the historical context. 11 Kılıç, Rüya: Osmanlıdan Cumhuriyete Sufi 3 Tuğ, Salih: İslam Ülkelerinde Anayasa Hare- Geleneğin Taşıyıcıları (The Transmitters of the ketleri (Constitutional Movements in Islam), Is- Sufi Tradition from the Ottoman Empire to the tanbul 1969. Tuğ assumes that there were also Turkish Republic), Istanbul 2009. Christians living in Medina who must have been 12 Some pluralism-related publications of these part of this community. scholars are: Osman, Fathi: The Other: A 4 Schimmel, Annemarie: Der Islam im Indischen Restructuring of the Islamic Concept, Walnut / Subkontinent (Islam in the Indian Subcontinent), California 2008; Abu Zaid, Nasr Hamid: Voice Darmstadt 1983, pp. 5-7. Schimmel writes that of an Exile: Reflections on Islam, Connecticut / the Muslim commander Muhammad b. al-Qasim London 2004; Esack, Farid: Qur'an, Liberation on conquering a great part of the Indus valley and Pluralism: An Islamic Perspective of Inter- after the year 711 recognized the Hindus and religious Solidarity Against Oppression, Oxford Buddhists as dhimmis, although they were no 1997; Majid, Nurcholish: In Search of Islamic monotheists. Roots for Modern Pluralism: The Indonesian Experiences, in: Mark Woodward (Ed), Towards 5 For the processuality of the theory and practice a New Paradigm. Recent Developments in Indo- of Islamic law, see Toprakyaran, Erdal: Das nesian Islamic Thought, Arizona 1996; Engineer, osmanische Petitionswesen (mezalim) seit dem Asghar Ali: Islam in Contemporary World, New 18. Jahrhundert am Beispiel von Stadt und Delhi 2007; Ateş, Süleyman: İlahi Dinlerin Ruh Provinz Trabzon (The Ottoman Mezalim Sys- Birliği (The Spiritual Unity of Divine Religions), tem since the 18th Century using the Example Istanbul 1998; Akdemir, Salih: Kur’an ve Laiklik of the City and Province Trabzon), Frankfurt (Qur'an and Laicism), Istanbul 2000. It is no ex- 2007. aggeration to say that at the many faculties of

6 Divinity in Turkey, for example, it would hardly Schimmel, Annemarie: Ibidem, pp. 60-75. be possible to find scholars who reject religious 7 Schimmel, Annemarie: Die mystischen Dimen- pluralism. sionen des Islam (The Mystical Dimensions of 13 http://muhammadiyahstudies.blogspot.com/ Islam), München 1995, pp. 486-526. For Ahmad 2010/03/ahmad-syafii-maarif-odyssey-of.html

Christianity and Islam: opportunities and limits of interreligious dialogue

Günther Beckstein

1. Significance and parameters of Interreligious dialogue is indispensable for interreligious dialogue sustainable and successful policy-making in Germany, Europe and the world and so it is The German poet Christian Morgenstern nothing less than one of the foundations for once observed with considerable insight social life. Interreligious dialogue pre- that language – including speech and hence supposes awareness: self-awareness as well dialogue – "is a tremendous, continuing as awareness of one's counterparts. invitation to aspire to higher development". When the mind is directed towards the pos- One of the major difficulties in the dialogue sible limits as well as the great potential of between Christianity and Islam is obvious: interreligious dialogue, the individual it concerns the issue of diversity in the accepts the invitation to aspire to higher denominations of both these religions. Christ- development. This is then about a shared ianity is experienced in its various facets process of higher development, as well as and denominations: there are Catholics and higher development in a spirit of mutual Protestants, orthodox worshippers and other benevolence and respect. groupings that have developed over the centuries. Similarly, in Islam, a careful distinc- And it is in three crucial fields that this tion also needs to be made between Shiites higher development is of enormous political and Sunnites – and the Alevi are also very relevance: important, especially in the case of Ger- many. − it is of domestic political relevance, because intercultural and interreligious In interreligious dialogue, it is of the utmost dialogue brings together the different importance to be aware of this denomina- cultures and religions; tional diversity. Some aspects of doctrine are not even accepted by Christianity as − it is of European political relevance, a whole. And an even greater degree of because the only way European integra- heterogeneity is perhaps present in Islam, tion can work is through intercultural which has not seen the emergence of institu- and interreligious dialogue; tions teaching doctrine, such as the Papacy or the Vatican Council in the Roman Catholic − and it is of global political relevance, Church. Therefore, one should be cautious because a not insignificant proportion when speaking of Christianity or Islam as of the conflicts in the world are caused such. by an interreligious dialogue which is proving unsuccessful or has not even In particular, interreligious dialogue also started – and this does not pertain only to reveals what defining influence can be ex- the conflict between Israel and Palestine, erted on people and civilizations by a religion the 11 September 2001 terror attack or that has prevailed for centuries in a given the war in Afghanistan. region.

26 Günther Beckstein

An examination of the particular character- hopes for shared Holy Communion or the istics of a culture may well lead to question- Lutheran-Roman Catholic Joint Declaration ing many aspects that have hitherto been on the Doctrine of Justification. Rather, the taken for granted. Culture will be seen as objective is to reach a position of genuine the result of a defining religious influence. tolerance with a view to bearing with others – For that reason, it seems obvious that the although they are different, and maybe even first consequence of interreligious dialogue because they are different – and to tolerate is, and must be, to attain greater knowledge convictions that are fundamentally divergent. and certainty about one's own faith. Sub- sequently, dialogue with followers of other All the same, interreligious dialogue is religions will lead to recognition, as if through more than just an informative discourse. It a magnifying glass, of what is specific to is about presenting specific guidelines that one's own religion. both religions subscribe to. It is important to seek clarification of the statements dating Despite all the different directions and from the past, and perhaps even of the defining influences in Christianity and prejudices that have found their way into Islam which further complicate inter-religious the Koran and the Holy Scriptures, on the dialogue, both religions are nevertheless grounds that their authors were also only religions based on inspired books and with human. For Christianity, the historical- a common written foundation. This can be critical approach to research has become an used as a basis to establish and build up a important tool for filtering out the original dialogue. At this point, theologians will Christian messages from the Holy Scrip- immediately raise the objection that the tures. Much would be gained if the Koran study of sources among both Christians and were to be treated in the same way in Islam. Muslims has indeed brought some very different roots to light. But this is not the It is not conducive to good dialogue to have object of the current analysis as it considers partners on both sides who are fanatics. On various aspects of the political motivation the other hand, people with a fixed and of interreligious dialogue. well-founded point of view are certainly good dialogue partners. Fanaticism and a fixed viewpoint constitute entirely different 2. Beyond discourse: the objectives attitudes. It is especially those who are of interreligious dialogue ready to engage in conversation from a firm religious footing who will lay the founda- Each of the two religions, Christianity and tions for genuine dialogue. Islam, lays an exclusive claim to verity, a claim which at first sight does not appear to The objectives of dialogue are to show particularly encourage dialogue. But true respect for the other religion as well as dialogue takes the individual's own view- regard for the faith and the believers of the point just as seriously as that of the other other religion. In doing so, one should al- party. So a superficial "multi-culti" approach ways be extremely cautious in establishing can never genuinely satisfy the requirements the areas where the notion of God is the of interreligious dialogue. same, where it is similar and where it is entirely different. It is important to elimi- But interreligious dialogue is not about nate any misunderstandings. These are often finding a common, uniform religion. Unlike caused by both sides attributing completely ecumenical talks, interreligious dialogue is different meanings to specific terms. Most not driven by a possibility of unity – as was people are able to translate the term "jihad" the case, for instance, with Christianity's straightaway. The "Holy War" has provoked

Christianity and Islam: opportunities and limits of interreligious dialogue 27

many fears and phobias. Discussions on how Finally, it is essential to be aware of what best to lead a holy life will immediately both sides have in common in interreligious produce corresponding analogies. dialogue, and what separates them. It needs to be borne in mind that even in our secular world, belief in one God is one of the ele- 3. Church and state ments creating a sense of community. This community is often more influential than The question of the relationship between many other communities – professional religion and politics, church and state is an communities for instance, or nationality- especially important one, and one that is based communities. Only through this joint marked by tension. In the history of Europe, awareness, only when all believers share a it is well known that the confrontations sense of belonging can a differentiated view between crown and altar have left their of the other religion be successful. It is solely mark on the events of centuries. While real- on this basis that is it possible to recognize izing that religion is something personal, that the Christian West is not a cesspit of sin Christians today are well aware that it also and decadence, or that Islam does not pri- extends far into the political realm. For dec- marily mean extremism, Shari'ah and the ades, this system of interrelations has de- suppression of women. liberately been overlooked, for fear of giving rise to suspicions of religious intolerance. Partners in dialogue who are able to make But the fact is that there is no need for any- this distinction, and who are aware of what body else to know what religion people have they have in common and what separates or choose. On the other hand, the peaceful them, will be able to recognize and identify handling of these religious decisions within the limits of interreligious dialogue, clearly our society is something that concerns every and without unnecessary emotionality. They individual. will have the capacity to tolerate these limitations. It should be borne in mind that interreligious dialogue has very much in common with trustfulness and respect. The 4. Human rights term 'dialogue' refers to partners talking to one another as equals, and recognizing their Respect for universal human rights is not respective characters and opinions as being only an important goal for dialogue but also equal in value. It implies that partners will the primary condition for dialogue to take be ready to carefully compare and recon- place at all. sider positions. In a world where it is becoming increasingly What is more, this need for trust and respect easier to cover long distances, where wars, also extends to such practical issues as pro- economic hardship or other events have viding Muslims in Germany with appropriate caused migrations of entire populations, prayer rooms, which are, first of all, no religions have drawn geographically closer to longer relegated to the back yard and sec- each other. The importance of the individual ondly, are set up in harmony with the local means that many norms are questioned in population. But in return, there is of course the process of individual decision-making. an obligation, a strong wish and a duty to Pluralism is called for on a scale that would call for religious freedom for Christians. It have been inconceivable a few decades ago. is a depressing fact that Christians can even For a state to function properly, it is therefore risk life and limb, especially in Islamic coun- absolutely essential to respect and protect tries. Converts are even more at risk. the rights of the individual.

28 Günther Beckstein

The crucial and basic foundation for any place, they will no longer have to live with and all interreligious dialogue in Germany the conflicting demands imposed on them must therefore be that everyone who lives by different value systems. in Germany, whether Christian, Muslim or atheist, identify with the existing democratic system of rights and values. A democratic 5. The issue of fanaticism pluralistic state cannot afford a pluralistic approach to basic principles, if it intends to As already mentioned, fanatics are incapa- uphold its democratic pluralism. Germans ble of dialogue. Religious fanaticism is the are very sensitive in this respect. In the number one killer of any and all inter- twentieth century, the people of Germany religious dialogue. It renders differing views twice experienced what it means for a irreconcilable. Rather than bringing people person to be denied respect for individual closer together, it leads to violence and dignity, and for totalitarianism to obliterate counter-violence. The fanaticism shown all the achievements of humanism that a by some people in connection with their society was able to create. religion is a really puzzling phenomenon, and completely alien to a Christian's sense Consequently, one conclusion is therefore of charity. quite clear: that interreligious dialogue must be based on consensus. But democracy and And quite frankly, it is dismaying to read human rights, open-mindedness and an open the study "Muslims in Germany" published attitude to the world, tolerance and freedom in 2007 on behalf of the German Federal of religion – none of these are negotiable. In Ministry of the Interior. In the survey, 40 % this respect, the equality of men and women of adult Muslims and 44 % of the school- is of great importance. Banning Muslim children who were interviewed claimed to girls from taking part in sport and swimming believe in a fundamentalist interpretation of classes, forced marriages, honour killings: Islam and to reject Western values. More all these are not acceptable. Those who rela- than half of the people interviewed fully tivize on these issues by claiming a higher agreed with the statement that Islam was the system of rights or values are jeopardizing only true religion. The ties linking them to the peaceful coexistence of human beings. their country of origin and culture of origin were very strong; among the group of school- Furthermore, interreligious dialogue can play children questioned, only 28 % showed any a trailblazing role here and show the extent willingness to adapt while 20 % were in to which respect for democracy and human favour of social segregation. rights can be derived from Islam as well. This is also a condition for the introduction of Islamic religious instruction in state 6. Opportunities and prospects for schools in Germany: it must be clear that interreligious dialogue there is also respect and support for the constitutional basic order. The limitations facing interreligious dialogue as a result of fanaticism, the absence of any One claim can be made with confidence: willingness to embrace democracy and the Muslims living in Germany will become rejection of human rights can be clearly seen. firmly convinced of their integration in this But the opportunities are just as obvious. country only when Islam and the requirements of the German Basic Law and the Firstly, these opportunities lie in following Bavarian Constitution are brought into line the principles outlined above for a success- with one another. Because when that takes ful interreligious dialogue. And secondly,

Christianity and Islam: opportunities and limits of interreligious dialogue 29

they lie with the people themselves, in the the need for interreligious dialogue on a life- willingness of the majority to live together long basis, hour after hour, day after day. in peace and to engage in a peaceful dia- There is no escaping this, as there is no logue. escaping many other issues in a marriage. So this offers a superb opportunity for inter- In denominational and cultural terms, Europe religious dialogue, and is a fact of life and is now more heterogeneous that it has ever of the actual living conditions for many been. There are thousands of areas which religious believers all over the world. bring people of different religions together in everyday life – in sporting activities, at clubs, in the workplace, at local festivals. In conclusion, the notion of religious toler- The number of marriages and partnerships ance can best be illustrated by the well-known between people of different religions is still and familiar play "Nathan the Wise" by on the increase. Today, every one in five Lessing. When Nathan the Wise tells the marriages entered into in Germany already sultan Saladin the famous Parable of the involves two nationalities. The partners are Three Rings, Saladin is both ashamed and most often of Turkish extraction, and so moved. He recognizes how infinitely close Muslims. Roughly one and a half million to each other are the three great religions of children grow up in these relationships. Judaism, Christianity and Islam, and that Interreligious partnerships have long since they are like brothers. And he feels how become the norm in Germany and their fruitful dialogue could be – despite all that number will continue to increase. The same separates them, or indeed because of all is also true of the rest of Europe. that separates them. In the end, he dismisses Nathan the Wise with words which concisely Marriage and partnership are very fertile sum up everything that interreligious dialogue ground for the success of interreligious should really be. He says to him: "Go! – dialogue. Both partners are confronted with Go! – But be my friend".

Pancasila: the coexistence of religions in Indonesia

Ahmad Syafii Maarif

1. Introduction ritual ceremony, the religious expressions of Indonesian Muslims have certainly varied, What does Pancasila in Indonesia stand for? ranging from syncreticism to puritanism. Pancasila stands for the five basic philosoph- The same phenomena can also be observed ico-ideological principles, that is: belief in in other Muslim countries. Drawing on two the one and only God, a just and civilized major sources, the Qur'an and the examples humanity, the unity of Indonesia, democracy of the Prophet, Muslim thinkers, theologians, guided by the inner wisdom in the unanimity philosophers, sufis, and political theorists arising out of deliberations among rep- have for centuries built up and developed resentatives, social justice for all of the people diverse, complicated, and even contradictory of Indonesia.1 It took lengthy and heated interpretations of the two in dealing with debates to gain acceptance by the majority many issues, including the issue of interfaith of the Indonesian people as the sole philos- relations and dialogue. ophy of the state. There is currently only a very small minority of Muslims who still In the case of Islam in Indonesia, reinforced want an Islamic state for Indonesia instead as it is by the principles of Pancasila, the of Pancasila. country has been fortunate because the great majority of Muslims are in favour of wag- Under the umbrella of Pancasila, all the ing peace through interfaith dialogue and religious minorities – Catholics, Protestants, cooperation. There is no doubt that peaceful Hindus, Buddhists and Confucianists (to- religious coexistence in Indonesia is now is gether around 12 %2 out of a population of a true historical reality. There is only a 235 million) – have felt secure in their reli- small minority of Muslims who still oppose gion as an inseparable part of the Indonesian it and say that the endeavour is futile. This people. For them, the threat of an Islamic sort of attitude probably derives from their state has been eliminated once and forever. limited, subjective and ad hoc understand- As a common platform fully accepted by ing and interpretation of the same sources. the people, Pancasila has effectively proven The militant and radical splinter groups which and demonstrated its binding power for may have bred terrorists are actually a new maintaining the edifice of different religious and disturbing brand in Indonesian Islam. coexistence in Indonesia, as will be dis- Albeit in the minority, they are extremely cussed below. vocal and harshly aggressive. They are trying to monopolize the truth of Islam on the basis of bizarre interpretations. 2. The sociological phenomena of Indonesian Islam These types of phenomena can also be found in certain parts of the world where religious Although Indonesia is well known as fundamentalists or the most extreme wings having the largest Muslim population in the (terrorists) have fertile soil in which to world, Indonesian Islam as a cultural, intel- survive, though in the past two years the lectual, and political expression has never territory over which they can move freely been a monolithic faith system. In terms of has increasingly narrowed. The Indonesian 32 Ahmad Syafii Maarif

counter-terrorism squad Special Detach- problem and have failed to confront this ment 88 of the Indonesian National Police question. What Indonesia currently needs, is constantly on the alert to observe the and what it sadly lacks, is the presence of changing tactics and strategy of terrorists. visionary statesmen at various levels who These special forces police have been in- are ready to defend the unity and integrity credibly successful in conducting their job of this nation at all costs. of hunting down terrorists. Even so, some outsiders have come to the false conclusion that these terrorists are the true representative and real face of Indonesian Islam. Here 3. The protective umbrella role lies the danger in observing complex socio- of Islamic mainstreams religious phenomena from afar. One definite conclusion can be drawn from Of course, there have been horizontal and the author's own experience and many years' vertical conflicts between people in certain involvement in promoting and fostering peace parts of Indonesia, as in Ambon, central through interfaith dialogue and cooperation Kalimantan, central Sulawesi, and Aceh. But in Indonesia. And that is, that creating a these conflicts were originally triggered by sincere brotherhood between different faiths political and economic interests; then reli- is not only possible but necessary and sur- gions were forced to enter the arena, and prisingly beautiful. The intimate and warm made things complicated and even bloody. friendship with non-Muslim minorities, be they Catholic cardinals, bishops, and laymen,

Protestant fathers and priests, Buddhist and As an archipelagic country consisting of Hindu monks, and Confucian top figures, more than 17,000 islands, Indonesia still has has led to a deep conviction that humanity far to go in the process of national integra- is really one. tion, an ongoing process which remains far from complete. If Indonesia as a multi-ethnic Moreover, another important and more nation is able to survive for centuries to striking point to note is that believers should come, one may interpret this as a miracle not only cooperate among themselves, but of history, and only hope that it will indeed should also be ready to coexist with and ac- happen. commodate non-believers and even atheists, and vice versa. The only condition required The national experiences of more than six for this peaceful coexistence is that each decades have shown beyond doubt that the party must have mutual respect and no hidden efforts to make this nation-state intact were agenda to eliminate each other. painful and involved risks. Unfortunately, not many political elites are really aware of Concerning the issue that atheism should be this problem. They consider this new-born accommodated, certain Indonesian 'ulamā' nation to be a given entity that has been (Islamic traditional scholars) and intellectu- historically solid and stable. The factual als were initially angry and then questioned reality does not support this perception. the author's theological position as a Mus- This sort of ahistorical attitude is dangerous lim. One of them was deeply disappointed and may undermine the nation-building and restless, and was even ready to request process which is still critical and badly needs through his friend a religious advice (fatwa) serious care and full attention. from the Central Board of Muhammadiyah regarding the author's statement on atheism. Again, many pragmatic political elites in But after hearing an explanation of the Indonesia today have not taken heed of this Qur'anic background to this view, both he Pancasila: the coexistence of religions in Indonesia 33

and his friend became silent, and have The Qur'an states firmly that killing one remained so. single human being means killing all humanity. To quote: '… if anyone slays a The implication of this is that he and many human being – unless it be as [in punish- others like him have minimal and limited ment] for murder or for spreading corrup- knowledge of the Qur'anic texts in relation tion on earth – it shall be as though he had to the theological recognition of human free slain all mankind; whereas, if anyone saves will and free choice. According to this a life, it shall be as though he had saved the author's reading of the Qur'an, God in fact lives of mankind.'5 To be fair, not only certain offers freedom to all human beings to believe helpless Muslims monopolize the practices 3 or not to believe, and the risk becomes of suicide bombings; other religious disci- their business with God here and in the ples have also done almost the same. The hereafter. In other words, one who claims to feeling of humiliation and acute despair ex- be an atheist or an apostate cannot be perienced by certain people may be respon- brought before the court to face a religious sible for these kinds of wrongful acts. punishment, as many classical Muslim fuqahā' (legal theorists) claim. As they move strategically towards a hu- In Indonesia, this issue is still far from manistic understanding and interpretation of reaching any definite religious solution. It Islam, the Muslim mainstreams in Indone- seems that there are not many 'ulamā' who sia, represented by Muhammadiyah and NU have the religious courage to re-think and (Nahdhatul Ulama), will face a great his- re-examine the Qur'an more contextually torical challenge in the near future. The and freshly. The progress or otherwise of non-Muslim minorities, in particular, have Islamic civilization will largely depend on the sincere and serious hope that Muham- the ability of Muslims themselves to crea- madiyah and NU will continue their impor- tively respond to the challenge of the day. tant role to become an umbrella for all people Any interpretation of religious texts is always in the country, regardless of their faith, time-bound. Because of this, even a scholar creed, and other spiritual denominations. of high calibre has no right to monopolize Indonesia as a nation and even the world at the truth. The Qur'an strongly prohibits large should show their gratitude to these mankind from being a blind follower of major streams that are moderate, open- anyone, including the 'ulamā'.4 minded, and modern in their worldview, sharply distinctive from their counterparts The militant and radical groups are, how- in many other Muslim countries. ever, ready to die in bloodshed to defend the fatwa of classical Muslim jurists at all costs. Not to mention whether the 2002 Bali In hunting terrorism, for example, they give and the 2009 Jakarta Marriot hotel bombers, full backing to the Indonesian police so that blood-thirsty personalities who deliberately they can effectively accomplish their work. killed innocent people, would feel upset Though the Indonesian archipelago remains once the right of punishment on atheists and fertile ground for terrorist activities and non-believers is totally abrogated from attacks, the space in which they are able to Muslim classical legal documents. For these move freely has become increasingly lim- terrorist groups, killing other people who ited and narrow, due to the tight and shrewd differ ideologically from their religious view strategy of the police to immediately end is in some cases their way of earning money. domestic terrorism. The police strategy in Therefore, what really happens here is noth- dealing with terrorism will be more effective ing other than a misuse of religion for the if the whole population, including govern- lowest worldly interests and purposes. ment officials, are obliged to give it support. 34 Ahmad Syafii Maarif

Some anti-terror police have voiced com- province was destroyed by the dreadful wave plaints that the support they expect from the of the tsunami in December 2004, interfaith government is not adequate. Nevertheless, top figures led by Cardinal Julius Darmaat- what they have done so far to barricade terror- madja, S. J. visited the area soon after. They ist territory has been successful. International provided some financial aid to the families observers have acknowledged the great affected by the tragedy, including a tradi- achievement of Indonesian police in coping tional Muslim boarding school (pesantren) with these dangerous and uncivilized actions. that had been destroyed by the tsunami. One can imagine how happy a small and poor In the meantime, one cannot ignore the fact pesantren must have felt when they were that rampant corruption and other social ills visited by a cardinal accompanied by other undermining the basic principles of Pancasila interfaith leaders to console the santris and poisoning Indonesian contemporary (pesantren pupils) and their kiyais (teachers) culture contribute to the terror activities who survived the calamity. The visit to this among the poor and less-educated Muslims predominantly Muslim province indeed sym- who are the real victims of a corrupt political bolized the interfaith leader's real cooperation system. In Indonesia, it is a valid observation and commitment to show deep sympathy that corruption also breeds terrorism. Once and empathy to those who were suffering corruption is successfully and effectively extremely from a serious natural disaster. eradicated and the principle of social justice as strongly commanded by Pancasila be- The Good Governance Project is another comes a reality, the territory available for on-the-ground effort that lasted three years terrorism will surely disappear within a until 2008. It was organized by the Maarif relatively short time. Institute and funded by the Ford Foundation.

This project was launched in three local dis- Of course, external factors such as the tricts located in three different provinces: plight and suffering of the Palestinians, Lampung, Jogjakarta, and Central Java. The Afghans and Iraqis are also responsible for interfaith leaders also acted as keen observers triggering terror activities in Indonesia in monitoring the progress and development of order to show solidarity, but in the wrong the project. Its purpose was to establish hard way. However, domestic factors seem to be facts as to how local governments performed more dominant. Non-Muslim colleagues and efficiently and effectively in serving people friends always regard Muhammadiyah and in their own territories. Three categories NU as their protectors from any religious were used by the Project to measure and extremism, though many of the Muslims evaluate the success or failure of the work themselves have become the victims of ter- of local governments in executing their rorism. The statement has often been made function as public servants: transparency, that terrorism in all forms is the true enemy accountability, and efficiency as a prerequi- of human civilization. site for creating good governance. That pro-

ject ended with great success, a success that

could not be separated from the significant

and crucial role played by the interfaith 4. From dialogue to concrete action leaders in the vital stages of monitoring the

project. The Indonesian interfaith leaders are not only actively involved in religio-moral intellectual dialogues, but they are also In the future there will be various dynamic working on the ground to help enlighten activities in many provinces in Indonesia, people at the grass-roots level. When Aceh organized by local interfaith leaders to serve Pancasila: the coexistence of religions in Indonesia 35

and help the needy, regardless of their 5. A concluding reflection socio-religious background. If this positive and constructive trend continues, Indonesia Although the echo of the suicide bombings might well become a good example for still reverberates in this country's domestic other nations to follow. The true function of situation, one thing is quite clear: Indone- faith is to bind, not to divide people because sian soil is not fertile enough to let terrorists of their different religious backgrounds. operate here for too long. The authentic Once this can take place freely in many Pancasila culture never provided space for parts of the world, peace will no doubt be any extremism, radicalism, and terrorism. part of our future. When philosophy fails to Interfaith dialogue and cooperation has now provide the answer to the true meaning of been deep-rooted and well developed in In- human life, religion can come to the fore to donesia for more than a decade. It has stood give us the final word. Spiritual understand- up firmly and effectively to combat any de- ing of the meaning of life and death is not viation from the original state philosophy of solely the domain of philosophy. The more this great nation. Here lies a great hope for meaningful and true essence of life and all religions to coexist and flourish peace- death is enshrined in the realm and province fully forever in this beautiful archipelago of religions. called Indonesia.

Notes

1 The original formula of Pancasila was first pro- 2 See Leo Suryadinata, Evi Nurvidya Arifin, and posed by Sukarno, the first president of Indonesia, Aris Ananta: Indonesia's Population: Ethnicity on June 1, 1945, in his oral speech to establish a and Religion in a Changing Political Landscape, state philosophy for an independent Indonesia, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore with its consecutive sila (principles) as follows: 2003, p. 103. This figure was based on the na- Indonesian Nationalism, Internationalism, Con- tional census of the year 2000. sultation or Democracy, Social Welfare, and 3 See, for instance, the Qur'an (Q) 10: 99, 2:256, Belief in God. The present form of Pancasila and many others. was the result of modification on August 18, 4 1945 initiated by Vice President Mohammad Q 17: 36. Hatta as the constitutional response to the demand 5 See the Qur'an chapter 5 verse 32. The transla- of Christian leaders from the eastern part of the tion by Muhammad Asad, The Message of the country. Qur'an, Dār al-Andalus, 1980, p. 147.

Nahdlatul Ulama – traditional Islam and religious tolerance

Ulrich Klingshirn

1. Introduction the local traditions and values of the faith which had been previously practiced. A This article deals with the history of further reason for the peaceful acceptance Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) as the largest of Islam was the equality of the individual Islamic mass organization and as a political before Allah and the ensuing abolishment of force in Indonesia. In particular, NU inte- the Hindu caste system. Last but not least, grates specific aspects of the Javanese cul- the economic and cultural dominance of tural region into its basic theological beliefs Islam during that era was also a crucial and it was therefore able to develop its very factor, as conversion to Islam was equal to own characteristics. Despite its traditional advancement to a higher civilization.1 approach, NU today has an open mind about contemporary issues such as the interfaith The peaceful spread of Islam in Indonesia dialogue or the protection of natural re- was decisive for the further development of sources, which the organization also pro- Indonesia, which was marked by a tolerant motes at the international level. coexistence of Muslims and people of different faith. This also applied to believers whose faith was based on a syncretism of

different religions. Up until the end of the 2. The spread of Islam in Indonesia the Dutch colonial era, Indonesia was a

strongly heterogeneous nation in terms of The first time Indonesia made contact with religion, which was mainly expressed by Islam was in the 15th century when Muslim the several different manifestations within seamen passed Java and Sumatra on their Islam. Clifford Geertz has identified the fol- way to trade with India and Southern China. lowing religious groups in Javanese society By that time, Indonesia was mostly popu- ("aliran"):2 lated by Hindus and animistic believers. The spread of Islam in Indonesia was slow-paced th the "santri", which represents a rather and came to an end in the 18 century. A − orthodox interpretation of Islam, simi- crucial factor for the spread of Islam in lar to the Islam in Arabic countries. Indonesia was the downfall of the mighty Devotees of this group mostly live in Hindu kingdom Majapahit in Central Java, urban areas; which was defeated by the rising sultanates in West Java. As a result, many Hindu kings − the "abangan", which comprises ele- converted to Islam and founded sultanates, ments from Islam, Hinduism and even among which for instance are Yogyakarta Buddhism. This form of belief is closely and Solo. connected with the Javanese values and traditions ("kejawen"), which accept However, despite the violent conflicts, the supernatural powers, and is based on new faith was accepted in most parts of the the Javanese theory of harmony; country by voluntary choice. The majority of the missionaries were Sufi preachers who − the "priyayi", which consists of members practiced a Sunni Islam. At the same time, of the former elite Hindu caste and is these preachers were also tolerant towards inspired by Hindu-Javanese traditions. 38 Ulrich Klingshirn

These three mainstreams mingled at the Islam, the two biggest Islamic mass organi- beginning of the 19th century. In particular, zations in Indonesia, Nahdlatul Ulama and rising resistance against the Dutch colonial Muhammadiyah, which belong to the Sunni power facilitated an upswing of Islam in denomination, appear as rather moderate. Indonesia. During that time, various organi- Yet there are significant differences between zations were founded with the objective of the two organizations, as detailed below. strengthening the Islamic faith within the population and rising up against the colonial Founded in 1912, the Muhammadiyah today power. comprises more than 30 million followers and can be described as an Islamic organi- After Indonesia became independent, its zation with modernistic concepts. The reli- first president, Sukarno, developed a state gious perception of this organization defines ideology which defines the following five itself through the propagation of a pure Islam religions as equal: Islam, Protestantism, which is based on the Koran (Al-Quran) Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism; and and the written tradition of the life of the recently also Confucianism. Due to the Prophet Muhammad (Al Hadith). The Mu- compulsion to choose one of the above- hammadiyah claims a practice of religion mentioned faiths, the majority of "abangan" which is free from the impact of local beliefs people chose to commit themselves to and traditions. Although the Pancasila as Islam, whereas others chose Christianity or the basis of the Indonesian faith community Hinduism as their religion. has long been rejected by the Muhammadi- In spite of this technical determination to yah, nowadays the organization accepts the one specific faith, the various Islamic main- state as an important frame of reference streams are still existent in Javanese society which should also regulate questions concern- today. The traditional forms, which are based ing Islamic law. That specifically applies to on "kejawen", are particularly dominant in the superior union of the Indonesian Islamic Indonesian rural society. Among these are scholars (Majelis Ulama Indonesia), who the belief in supernatural powers, the cult of claim that Islamic decrees (fatwas) should saints as well as the belief in ghosts. These regulate almost every aspect of the communal traditional forms are accepted as a cultural life of a Muslim. characteristic of society's values and norms by the Indonesian state philosophy under the These decrees have recently gained growing term "adapt".3 influence within the national legislation. Since its founding as a reform movement, Today, this group of culturally influenced Muhammadiyah has promoted the social Muslims is more and more opposed by an and economic development of the country increasing number of followers of the "pure" mainly through the development of an edu- Islam, the roots of which are in the Wahhabi cation and healthcare system in Indonesia. doctrine. The followers of this stream object Today, almost 6,000 schools, various uni- to the integration of Javanese-Indonesian versities and several hundred hospitals and elements into Islam and demand the estab- healthcare centres in Indonesia are run by lishment of a Sharia state with Saudi Arabia the Muhammadiyah. as its paradigm.4

In response to the formation of the Mu- hammadiyah as a modernistic Islamic mass 3. NU's Islamic basic orientation organization, the idea came up to form an Islamic movement which acknowledges In contrast to the above-mentioned charac- particularly the characteristics of Islam in teristics of the culture-oriented and puristic Java and Indonesia. Within this context, the Nahdlatul Ulama – traditional Islam and religious tolerance 39

Islamic movement Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) − faith in the Koran and the tradition emerged on 31 January 1926 under the guid- of the work and deeds of the Prophet ance of the founding fathers Wahab Chas- (Al Hadith). Inclusion of the scriptures bullah and Hasym Asy'ari, who was a highly of the four Islamic schools of law esteemed Islamic scholar (Kyai) in East Java (Madh'hab), whereby particularly the at that time. Translated as "Resurgence of school of Shafi'i regularly serves as a Islam", this organization can be described source of law since it allows the incor- as a traditional Islamic alignment affiliated poration of customary traditions into the with the religious orientation of the "Ahlus jurisdiction; Sunnah wa Al-Jama'ah" (Sunnis). Its ap- proximately 40 million adherents live pre- − integration of Sufism, according to dominantly in the rural areas. which every Muslim has to find his own path to God, in the religious prac- In its traditions, NU refers to the "Nine tice of NU. The above-mentioned reli- Saints" (Wali Songo) who brought Islam to gious scriptures serve as an exclusive Java in the 15th century. These bearers of source. Due to this spiritual approach, Islam were Sufis from India and the Arabian the holy struggle (jihad) is considered Peninsula who searched through forms of an internal fight of each individual meditation and transcendence for the true which aims to help the individual to be path to reach God. The graves of these nine a good Muslim. This interpretation founding fathers who initiated the spread of contrasts strongly with the concept of Islam in Indonesia are still frequently visited Wahhabism which defines the holy by pilgrims and are revered by believers. struggle as an external struggle against everything that poses a threat to Islam, Islamic boarding schools (Pesantren) in particularly threats by the non-Muslim which scholars are taught the ways of Islam population; constitute another pillar of the NU faith. The orientation of these boarding schools − belief in the power of the Islamic originates from the perception of the respec- scholars (Kyai) who attain their own tive founders of the schools, who in most interpretations of Islam through spiritu- cases belong to a Sufi brotherhood. Even alism and knowledge. Therefore altera- today these schools are not subject to gov- tions and innovations are not excluded ernmental control. In addition to the Islamic if they can contribute usefully to the boarding schools, NU has established an traditions; immense network of social facilities in rural areas which contribute to the alleviation of − acknowledgement and inclusion of tra- poverty. ditional Javanese practices and beliefs such as the pursuit of harmony, cos- The integration of Islam in the history of mology and the view of the world as a Indonesia illustrates that the doctrines of natural unity. Nahdlatul Ulama vary distinctly from the the modernistic concepts of the Islamic As a result of these perceptions and the organization Muhammadiyah. The majority practice of Sufism, which promotes an indi- of NU Islamic scholars agree that the tradi- vidual approach to come closer to God, a tional Javanese spirituality can coexist with variety of religious practices occur within the doctrines of Islam as long as these prac- the constituency of Nahdlatul Ulama. These tices do not contradict the prescriptions of perceptions occasionally lead to a high the Koran and the Sunnah. The following degree of tolerance and recognition of NU religious perceptions characterize the faith towards other trends within the Islamic of the adherents of Nahdlatul Ulama: community.5 40 Ulrich Klingshirn

4. NU as a political power and party block with the National Party of Indonesia. Due to the narrow majority in the Assembly, Although it claims to be an Islamic mass an amendment of the constitution could not movement without any political ambitions, be induced, and mid-1959 former President the history of the NU shows that it can also Sukarno decided that the original constitution be defined as a political force which aims to of 1945 should remain valid. enshrine traditional Islam in Indonesia and to represent its adherents in an efficient In 1973, the NU was forced to merge with manner. Therefore the establishment of NU the Islamic party PPP (United Development can be considered a reaction to the forma- Party), since under the authoritarian regime tion of Muhammadiyah and to the theological of Suharto only one Islamic party could be differences between the two organizations. listed. The merger took place in 1973, and During the subsequent period, substantial already nine years later the NU resigned from tensions marked relations between the two this union. The reason for this resignation organizations. These tensions were only was a number of issues concerning the partly settled after the successful struggle staffing of executive positions. At the same for independence from the colonial power. time, the Islamic mass organization NU decided to keep aloof from the specific In order to strengthen Islam and to introduce party politics – a step back to the founding Islamic law (Syari'a Islam) in Indonesia, mission of the organization, also known as NU and Muhammadiyah jointly founded "Kembali ke Khittah 1926". the Masyumi Party (Partai Majelis Syuro Muslimin Indonesia). In consequence of In the same year, the most famous represen- dissent concerning the staffing of executive tative of NU, "Kyai" Abdurrahman Wahid – positions in 1952, a breach occurred repeat- better known as Gus Dur – was elected edly between the two organizations and Head of the NU. This decision was sup- animated the NU to found the political party ported by the then president Suharto and the NU. In 1955, after the first free and public representatives of his government. The general elections during the Sukarno era, this backing of his election related particularly party was able to poll 18 % of the votes. to the resolution of the NU acknowledging Hence the outcome of the election revealed the Pancasila as the single valid state phi- that the party ranked third after Sukarno's losophy. Hence the attitude of the Islamic leading party (National Party-Partai Nasional party PPP, which later on claimed the intro- Indonesia), which had gained votes mainly duction of the Islamic law, drew criticism from Muhammadiyah adherents. The NU by the NU. In this context, Gus Dur played achieved a similar result during the election an important role as an a prominent mentor for a constituent assembly with the aim of of a moderate Islam who shaped the profile legitimizing Sukarno's constitution from the of the NU to this day. year 1952. During the turmoil in 1998, Gus Dur sup- A controversial constitutional subject was ported the students' claims for reform and the ensuing implementation of the Pancasila so he can be justly called the father of Indo- state philosophy, which promotes the equal- nesian democracy. In 1999 the Islamic party ity of the five (today six) religions in Indo- coalition in parliament constituted him nesia. The Islamic parties elected to the president. His three-year presidency was constituent assembly together held 45 % of marked by distinct efforts in the social and the seats and built the coalition which pro- cultural sector. However, his weaknesses moted the implementation of Islamic rule in revealed themselves in a rather erratic style Indonesia. This coalition faced the nationalist of leadership. He was dismissed from his Nahdlatul Ulama – traditional Islam and religious tolerance 41

duties as president by parliament on the "conservatism vs. moderate Islam" and basis of as yet unproven accusations of "traditionalism vs. modernity". bribery. His successor was the vice president and daughter of former president Sukarno, Megawati Sukarno Putri. The National 5.1 NU decree allows marriage of minors Awakening Party (PKB), originally founded by Gus Dur, continued to take part in par- Within the framework of the 32nd NU con- liamentary elections in the following period gress in Makassar, several Islamic decrees but could only poll 5 % of the votes in (fatwa) were released which aim to regulate 2009. In view of this, the NU at its 32nd life in the Islamic community in Indonesia. national conference in Makassar 2010 One particular decree dealing with marital (Muktamar XXXII) decided once again to law from an Islamic point of view attracted withdraw from politics and to focus its a great deal of attention: according to the activities on social projects.6 committee on religious issues, there is no legal age restriction for marriage, as no such restriction can be found in the holy Koran. 5. Examples of Nahdlatul Ulama's As a result, the marriage of minors is justified positions and practices today according to this decree.7

As already highlighted, the original intention The release of this fatwa sparked harsh of the NU founding fathers not to actively criticism from both secular and Islamic intervene in politics could not be maintained. organizations alike. Indonesian politicians In the course of time, it has established and human rights activists emphasized that various parties, which in terms of their poli- the marriage of minors below a certain age tics are closely linked to the organization. breaches applicable law. A spokesperson of However, it is doubtful whether these parties the Indonesian Commission on Violence have been successful. Against Women (Komisi Nasional Per-

For instance, institutional difficulties and lindungan Anak dan Kekerasan terhadap internal conflicts concerning how leadership Perempuan) highlighted that the established 8 positions are to be filled have led to negative marital law from 1974 requires male and election results for the respective party. Of female spouses to be at least 18 and 16 years far more significance for the development of age respectively. Unexpected criticism of Islam in Indonesia has been the change in was voiced by two other leading Islamic the NU's basic religious principles as a mass organizations in Indonesia, the Indonesian organization. Abdurrahman Wahid, accred- Ulema Council (Majelis Ulema Indonesia / ited chairman of the NU and later president MUI) and Muhammadiyah. Both organiza- of Indonesia, initiated the transformation of tions pointed out that the theological justifi- the organization into a moderate Islamic cation of this fatwa is based exclusively on movement which up to this day promotes a very literal interpretation of the Koran and tolerance and the equality of the religions. does not take today's circumstances into This is also evidenced by the fact that the consideration. They also underlined the ne- National Awakening Party (PKB) frequently cessity of considering the overall develop- cooperates with the nationalistically oriented ment of a young woman when it comes to Party for Democratic Struggle (PDI-P) on a the marriage of minors. They too referred to regional level. the existing marital law which clearly defines the minimum age of the spouses. This law The following examples reveal the current is currently being revised; however, the profile of the NU Islamic mass movement definition of the minimum age will remain which is marked by the two contrasts: unchanged. 42 Ulrich Klingshirn

However, from the NU point of view as a Already in 2007, NU released a resolution representative of traditional Islam, this de- on the protection of the environment and cree seems to make sense: not only does it the development of ecological relationships correspond to the Koran, but also to real-life between humans and nature.10 This reso- practices in today's Javanese (and Indone- lution highlights environmental issues in sian) rural life. It is not uncommon for girls Indonesia and particularly human interven- to be promised to a spouse at the age of ten tion, such as illegal deforestation, intensive to twelve. For the time being, they still live land use and habitat loss and damage caused at their parents' house and will be married to by the overuse of available land. In a further their promised spouse by the time they reach development, measures have been put puberty. This traditional form of marriage forward as to how natural resources can be organized by parents derives from an eco- used sustainably to protect the environment nomic background. Through the choice of a and human well-being. To achieve these spouse with sufficient financial security, objectives, NU calls for a kind of "holy war" both families' belongings remain untouched (jihad) which should be performed by any and in case of a divorce, the wife can fall back individual and the community.11 on a dowry. Naturally, the marriages are executed only in accordance with Islamic Consequently, Nahdlatul Ulama has its own laws, for which acknowledgement by the branch, the Department of Agriculture, Natu- state is not required.9 ral Resources Management, Rural Devel- opment and Environment (LPPNU), which deals with issues of sustainable development and environmental protection. In col- 5.2 The development of a "green NU" laboration with the Forestry and Agriculture Ministry, it realizes NU's various projects Right from the start, NU acknowledged the for sustainable development, particularly in relevance of the environment as an impor- rural areas in Indonesia. Additionally, a tant part of Islamic spirituality. According collection of sermons for the Islamic Friday to the understanding of most Sufi preachers, prayer ("Qutbah") was created to encourage a holistic concept exists which emphasizes in particular the integrity of creation.12 the circuit of relations between God, man and nature. In general, the aim is to find a balance between these components. This balance can only be found through medita- 5.3 The peaceful mission of the tion and spiritual activity. According to the International Conference of Sufi perception in dealing with the environ- Islamic Scholars (ICIS) ment, the following components should be considered: NU is also a leading organization in another field of activity. It organized the first Inter- − Islamic spirituality and cosmology; national Conference of Islamic Scholars, or ICIS, in Jakarta in 2004.13 This conference − preservation and protection of natural was attended by representatives of various resources; Islamic nations from the Middle East, − "preservation of traditions concerning Northern Africa and Southeast Asia. The nature", as well as permanent secretariat of this conference is located in the NU headquarters in Jakarta. A − transfer of knowledge through appro- main concern for the organization's repre- priate "spiritual teachers" (Kyai) to the sentatives is peace-keeping and conflict population and the students. prevention in areas troubled with inter- Nahdlatul Ulama – traditional Islam and religious tolerance 43

religious conflicts.14 ICIS took impressive Within this framework, Western concepts initiatives in the conflict areas Southern such as respect for civil rights (civic educa- Thailand, Mindanao in the Philippines and tion), gender equality and pluralism are also on Ambon and Central Sulawesi in Indone- being discussed openly and supported by sia. In the latter regions, violent conflicts many representatives of this organization. between Christians and Muslims could The existence of such openness certainly be stopped through mediation at grass roots derives from Sufism and the inclusion of level; and subsequently, a sustainable peace traditional values and religious beliefs. As a process was successfully initiated. result, a considerable pluralism of opinions and ideas are being discussed and accepted These examples demonstrate that NU, not within NU. That is also one of the reasons least because of its diverse organizational why it is not surprising that minority groups structure, is also capable of initiating inter- with different beliefs and values are, to a faith dialogues at a regional level. In all of certain extent, met with tolerance. In this Indonesia's districts and cities, committees respect, NU also plays an important role in with representatives of different faiths were international peacekeeping and conflict pre- established.15 This form of dialogue is crucial vention, particularly when tensions between for preventing conflicts and settling differ- Muslim and non-Muslim populations threaten ences peacefully in advance. Unlike some to arise. Wahhabi groups, NU distances itself clearly from the use of violence, and passed a reso- However, the heterogeneity within NU also lution at international level which outlaws has its downsides, since the large number of terrorism.16 various trends and directions leads to significant internal differences concerning the organization. A prominent example is the effort of NU to develop a political force. 6. Summary Despite an initially high approval rate among the population, the experiment to become Nahdlatul Ulama as the largest Islamic mass politically active eventually failed. For this movement in Indonesia has changed con- reason, it seems reasonable for the organi- siderably in the course of the last decades. zation to withdraw from the political stage Starting out as a movement that aimed to and to focus on returning to its core areas preserve the traditional form of Islam in such as the spread of Islam and the repre- Java and Indonesia, the organization has sentation of its followers. opened itself to new assignments and topics. Especially the charismatic leader and Despite various attempts to modernize, NU later president, Abdurrahman Wahid, has can still be described as a traditionalist Is- shaped the current image of NU as a mod- lamic movement according to its belief that erate organization that is open for new topics draws its strength from a conservatism of such as the dialogue between religions and values. These values are based on Islamic, the protection of natural resources. NU has Javanese and Indonesian traditions. As a accepted the Indonesian state philosophy result, a distinctive characteristic of Islam Pancasila which postulates the equality of has been developed in Indonesia which is religions, and propagates it fully in society based on harmony, tolerance and conflict and politics. prevention. 44 Ulrich Klingshirn

List of References Notes

Books 1 Schuck, Christoph: Die Entgrenzung des Isla- mismus – Indonesische Erfahrungen im globalen Barton, Greg: Abdurrahman Wahid: Muslim Democ- Kontext, Baden-Baden 2008, pp. 129-135. rat, Indonesian President – A View from the Inside, 2 Geertz, Clifford: The Religion of Java, 1960. Sydney 2002. 3 Van Bruinessen, Martin: Global and Local in Barton, Greg / Fealy, Greg: Nahdlatul Ulama – Tra- Indonesian Islam, Kyoto 1999, pp. 1-10. ditional Islam and Modernity in Indonesia, Clayton 4 Schuck: Die Entgrenzung des Islamismus, 1996. pp. 168-190. 5 Van Bruinessen, Martin: Origins and Development Bush, Robin: Nahdlatul Ulama and the Struggle of the Sufi Orders in Southeast Asia, Jakarta 1994. for Power within Islam and Politics in Indonesia, Singapore 2009, pp. 27-33; Turmudi, Endang Central Council of NU (Ed.): Hasil-Hasil Muktamar st (Ed.): Jejak Langkah NU dari Masa ke Masa,. XXXI Nahdlatul Ulama (Results of the 31 National Jakarta 2008. pp. 27-56; Mun'im DZ, Abdul: Congress of the NU), Jakarta 2004. Understanding NU as School of Thought: Pre- Central Council of NU (Ed.): Pidato Iftitah (Speech serving Tradition, Empowering Relevancy, in on Islamic Law), Makassar 2010. Afkar Tashwirul Journal on Reflection of Reli- gious and Cultural Thought – Nahdlatul Ulama Geertz, Clifford: Islam observed. Religious Devel- and Transformation of Islam, Jakarta 1/2008, opments in Morocco and Indonesia, Chicago 1971. pp. 42-58. Jauharudin, Adien: Gerakan Nahdlatut Tujjar 6 Barton, Greg: Gentle, Friendly Face of Indone- (Movement of the Nahdlatut Tujjar), Jakarta 2008. sian Islam, Singapore 2010; Bush: Nahdlatul Ulama; Turmudi: Jejak Langkah NU dari Masa Magnis-Suseno, Franz: Minority-Majority Relations, ke Masa, pp. 75-120. in: The Habibie Center and HSF: Ethics and the Reli- 7 gious Dialogue in a Globalized World, Jakarta 2010. NU Online: Draft Mukhtamar NU: Tidak Ada Batasan Usia Pernikahan dalam Islam, Jakarta, Muzadi, Hasyim: Pidato Harlah NU ke-82 (Speech of March 2010. the former NU Head Dr. Hasyim Muszadi), Jakarta 8 Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia No. 1 Tahun 2008. 1974 tentang Perkawinan, Jakarta 1974. Nafis, Cholil: Masalah Garis Perbatasan Nahdlatul 9 Klingshirn, Ulrich: Islamischer Erlass (Fatwa) Ulama (The Limits of the NU Ideology), Jakarta erlaubt Verheiratung von Minderjährigen, Jakar- 2008. ta, April 2010, homepage of the Hanns Seidel Foundation. Sutarto, Ayu: Menjadi NU Menjadi Indonesia (Realiza- 10 tion of NU-Realization of Indonesia), Surabaya 2008. Faishal, Pituduh Imam (Ed.): Green Book of Nahdliyin, Jakarta 2007, pp. 5-10. Wahid, Salahuddin: Buku Pintar Warga NU (Guid- 11 Tim Kerja LPPNU (Ed.): Field School Based ance for NU Followers), Jakarta 2010. on Spiritual Approach to Protect the Natural Zada, Khamani (Eds.): Nahdlatul Ulama and Trans- Resources and for Sustainable Development, formation of Indonesian Islam, Jakarta 2008. Jakarta 2010, pp. 12-19. 12 Mahmudi, Ali / Nugroho, Fajar / Waidl, Abdul: Kumpulan Naskah Teks Khutbah Peduli Ling- Further Publications (Manuscripts, Newspapers, kungan dan Hutan (Compilation of Friday Prayer Website-Articles) Sermons on Protection of the Environment), Jakarta, undated. Van Bruinessen, Martin: Islamic State or State Islam?, 13 NU Team: Nahdlatul Ulama (Conference papers), Hamburg 1996. Jakarta 2009, pp. 76-77. 14 NU, Upholding Islam As Rahmatan Lil Alamin Antara News Agency: Discourse to Promote (Conference papers), Jakarta 2009. Peace-Loving Islamic Values, Jakarta 2008. 15 Rumadi (Ed.): Membangun Demokrasi dari NU-Online: NU Fatwa declares underage girls can Bawah – Isu-Isu Demokrasi dalam Pendidikan marry to build family values, March 2010. Agama Islam, Jakarta 2006. Zehetmair, Hans: Premises of interreligious dialogue 16 NU Online: Muslim Scholars Reject Militants' – remarks from the European point of view, (Speech) Reading of Medieval Jihad Fatwa, Jakarta, April 2010. 2010. List of authors

Asbeck, Richard Klingshirn, Ulrich, Dr. Head of South- / Southeast Asia Department, Head of Hanns Seidel Foundation, Jakarta, Institute for International Cooperation, Indonesia Hanns Seidel Foundation, Munich Maarif, Ahmad Syafii, Prof. Dr. Beckstein, Günther, Dr. Maarif Institute for Culture and Humanity, Member of the Bavarian Parliament, Former leader of Muhammadiah (Islamic Former Minister President of Bavaria mass organization in Indonesia), Jakarta, Indonesia Hildmann, Philipp W., Dr. Head of the Office of Executive Affairs, Toprakyaran, Erdal, Dr. Hanns Seidel Foundation, Munich Eugen Biser Foundation, Munich, Germany

Editor of Publications Series: Prof. Dr. Reinhard Meier-Walser Head of the Academy for Politics and Current Affairs, Hanns Seidel Foundation, Munich, Germany

Editor: Richard Asbeck Head of South- / Southeast Asia Department, Institute of International Cooperation, Hanns Seidel Foundation, Munich, Germany

"Studies & Comments"

In print copies of the Studies & Comments series can be ordered free of charge from the website of the Hanns Seidel Foundation or by telephone: +49-89-1258-263. The series is also available in PDF format on www.hss.de/mediathek/publikationen.html

No. 1 Migration Policy and the Economy: International Experiences

No. 2 Christian-Democratic and Center-Right Parties in Europe and North America: Selected Perspectives

No. 3 Integrating Regional and Global Security Cooperation

No. 4 India's New Dynamics in Foreign Policy

No. 5 International Labour Standards and the Social Dimension of Open Trading Regimes

No. 6 European-Chinese Security Cooperation: Possibilities and Limits

No. 7 European and Transatlantic Armaments Cooperation

No. 8 Interventions for the Best Interest of the Child in Family Law Procedures Interventionen zum Kindeswohl

No. 9 Security in South Asia: Conventional and Unconventional Factors of Destabilization

No. 10 The Influence of Intelligence Services on Political Decision-making

No. 11 Implications of Nuclear Disarmament for Global Security

No. 12 Religious Pluralism – Modern Concepts for Interfaith Dialogue