The Conception of Samsara'

Esho Yamaguchi

By the word of samsara (the transmigration of the soul), in my paper, is meant the unlimited repitition of birth and death of sentient beings (sattva). This idea of samsara (transmigration of the soul) which was handed down in ancient India is well-known to us through Buddhism1). Is such a concept of samsara that every sentient being transmigrates from the past world to the present world and from the present world to the future world floating in the ocean of srnsara (unlimited repitition of birth and death), generally accepted ? When one accepts the transmigration of the soul, one must accept the self-identification and the rebirth of every sentient being which trans- migrates from the past to the present and from the present to the future world. But can one accept such a thing without enough explanation ? Nowadays the unnecessarity of funeral rites gives rise to discussion among the intelligentsia, the educated class or the cultured men. The meaning of the unnecessarity of funeral rites seems to be that farewell ceremony which takes place for the dead by friends and relatives should be in various senses simplified and that all the showy rites should be omitted. But is the fact that farewell ceremony is held for the dead by friends and relatives related with the transmigration of the soul (atman) and meant perfect religion ? Is holding farewell ceremony, in itself, though not being one of particular religious sect, not admitting the transmigration of the soul which transmigrates from the past to the present and from the present to the future world? Sakyamuni Buddha, the founder of the Buddhism, gave the words "dharma of two lights (pradipa), two saranas (taking refuge in faith) and effort of non-

1) Though transmigration is a very important concept which is characterizing Indian thought, it is not peculiar to India. It was, also, accepted by Phytha- gorean school in old Greece, and Plato is said to have been effected by this theory.

-1062- The Conception of Sarimsara' (E. Yamaguchi) (2) retrogression (avinivartaniya)" to his students when he died at eighty years old. His students of bhiksu, when Buddha died, did not take part in the farewell ceremony for Him. The ceremony was performed courteously by the faithful of upasaka. It is said that Buddha was cremated, and that His bone was brought to every country by the faithful so as to be means of worshipping Buddha. Such a fact of worshipping Buddha who annihilated perfectly the cause of pain of avidya (ignorance of the true nature of existence) and klesa (obstacle of illusion), was saved from worldly bonds before died and manifested asamskrta (that which is not created, the eternal, unchanging, and pure)-nirvana (extinction), generally shows the characteristics of tradition of Buddhism. And this, being related with the question whether the funeral rites are necessary or not, is noteworthy in Buddhist theory which persuades people into salvation (vimoksa) through the right knowledge of transmigra- tion (samsara). If the souls of sentient beings continue to exist in the present only and do not exist any longer in the future (after death), it is not neces- sary to hold the funeral rites. And if one is to be free from the worldly bonds and get into extinction (nirvana) in the present, the funeral ceremony is unnecessary, too. The idea that the souls of sentient beings in the present do not continue to exist in the future (after death), cuts the future world of sentient beings off from the present world, and this may be said to be the doctrine of annihilation (uccheda-drsti). The idea that one is to get into, sal- vation (vimoksa) and extinction (nirvana), also cuts the future world off from the present. In this case, the present world in which one gets into salvation and extinction involves both worlds, the past and the future, and we say it is the eternal present or eternal now. But in the two above cases, when the friends and relatives who hold the farewell ceremony for the dead admit the immortality of the soul, the ceremony becomes necessary. For it makes the farewell, ceremony significant that the immortality of the soul is admitted either autonomously or heteronomously. It is not my purpose to explain the immortality of the soul in relating with the question whether the funeral ceremony is necessary or not. I'd rather like to invite attentions to the fact that the immortality, of the soul

-1061- (3) The Conception of Samsara' (E. Yamaguchi) is related with the possitive mean of the lives of sentient beings. That is, the lives of sentient beings in the present world can not only be signified through presupposing the immortality of the soul, but also be possitively signified in relation to the lives of the future world. Now the immortality of the soul must mean not only that the soul con- tinues to exist after death, but also that it continues to exist from the past to the present. Because the immortality of the soul means in itself, that the soul is eternal and unchangable in the past, present and future world. That is, the immortality of the soul of A's means that the soul of A's is eternal and unchangable through the three worlds, and possitively signifies the whole life of A's. And even if it does not possitively signify the whole life of A's, it inevitably signifies the whole life of A's. The whole life of A's is inevitably provided through directing from the past to the present. It is necessary for the life possitively signified that the achievements or contri- butions through the whole life are very great and praised by the followers or general people. In this case the soul (atman) becomes mahatman, and the present becomes eternal present or eternal now with the great, eternal and immortal achievements or contributions. The fact that Gotama Sramana was called Sakyamuni Buddha as the founder of Buddhism suggests that the achievements or contributions of the whole life of Gotama's was great as the preacher for salvation of sentient beings and His atman became mahatman which was always present, eternal and immortal. But what does it mean that atman becomes mahatman ? Is it utterly difficult for atman of sentient beings to be such a mahatman? Admitting that the immortality of atman signify the whole lives of sentient beings, is it possible for atman of sentient beings to be mahatman and posi- tively signify the lives of sentient beings? It is said in Jataka that Gotama Sramana, before appearing in this world, when He was a Bodhisattva in the past world, did many good conducts for salvation of sentient beings. He did many charitable acts for sentient beings by disguising himself as a king, brahmana, merchant, woman or animal. Apart from whether this story was really told by the Buddha Himself or

-1060- The Conception of Samsara' (E. Yamaguchi) (4) not, it is noteworthy that, in this story, Gotama Sramana's becoming Buddha presupposes His gaining the position of Bodhisattva who will become a Buddha in his next life (i. e. Maitreya-bodhisattva). The whole life of Buddha is truely worth admiring and praising in succeeding in difficult matter of preaching salvation for sentient beings. It is neither a limited matter which can be measured by human scale nor done in one time, but causes (pratyaya) of Bodhisattva which stocked in the past world is ripening, manifesting the position of Buddha of Gotama Sramana and realizing the preach for salva- tion of sentient beings. Now why can sentient beings not attain the position of Buddha just like Gotama Sramana? Because, it is said in Jataka, the lives of sentient beings in the past world was not worth a Bodhisattva who will become a Buddha in their next life. Unless our lives in the past world was worth a Bodhi- sattva who will become a Buddha in our next lives, we can not attain the position of Buddha in present world, and can not realize the preach for salvation of sentient beings. And when we do many charitable acts and make efforts for salvation of sentient beings in the present world, it is possible to attain a Bodhisattva who will become a Buddha in our next lives though not worth such a Bodhisattva in a true sense. It is suggested in Jataka that as Gotama Sramana consistently got the position Bodhisattva which continued through his various lives in his past worlds, we sentient beings, if we make efforts to benefit others to save sentient beings from suffering, become to worth a Bodhisattva who will become a Buddha in our next lives, will attain the position of Buddha in the future, and preach orally or by other means to save sentient beings2). In this case, to benefit others to save sentient beings from suffering is meaning- less when it is only during the period of one life, but it is worth a Bodhi- sattva who will become a Buddha in his next life when the position of Buddha is gained in many lives. And it must be very difficult to continue

2) Cf. Dhammapada, 183: sabbapapassa akaranam kusalassa upasampada/ sacittapariyodapanam etam buddhana sasanam//

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and complete thoroughly benefit others to save sentient beings from suffering. Of course in our lives we sometimes benefit others to save sentient beings from suffering, but it is very difficult or rather impossible for us to continue constantly during our lives and complete it throughly. Because in our lives though it is relatively possible for us to benefit others to save sentient beings from suffering, it can not be pure in being mingled with self-benefit (seeking enlightenment for our own benefit). Without noticing our essence, niratman or mahatman, we always cling to atman in general. We, therefore, cannot devote throughly ourselves to benefit others to save sentient beings from suffering and cannot avoid mingling with self-benefit. What on the whole signifies such a situation of lives? It is just what on the whole signifies the past world followed by the present world. That is, what signifies the whole past world signifies the present world. Our present world comes from the past world, last and develope in the future. In this fact rebirth, wandering of the soul and transmigration are founded. Our past world may not be said to have existed because none of us has never seen it. When we admit this, then we must doubt the origin of the present world of ours. Therefore, signifying the present world, we inevitably signify the past world followed by the present world. Fallacies and pains we suffer from in the present world are based in our past world, and we have always been suffering and in pain since the past world. The mergent, subtle body, -formed primevally, unconfined, permanent, composed of Buddhi and the rest down to the primary elements,-mi-

grates. is without enjoyment, and is invested with dispositions3). This Karika shows us that sentient beings, before appearing in the present world with having bodies given by parents, transmigrate as a linga (subtle body) of mahadadi. The subtle body of mahadadi is, as it were, self-identi- fication constantly from the past to the present world, and the subject of transmigration of sentient beings. We sentient beings had already begun to

3) Samkhyakarika (=SK), 40: purvotpannam asaktam niyatarn mahadadisuksmaparyantam/ sarhsarati nirupabhogarh bhavair adhivasitam lirigam//

-1058- The Conception of Sathsara' (E. Yamaguchi) (6) transmigrate as subtle bodies, when we joined with prakrti for the experience of purusa of our own's in the past world. Our present world is based upon the intentional combination of purusa and prakrti. And in this case the subject of transmigration is a subtle body (liege). A subtle body which occurs in the combination of purusa and prakrti, is experienceless and transmigrating from the past to the present world effected by every being (bhava). Being effected by bhavas is an important factor of transmigration. Bhavas mean eight elements in mahat (buddhi). That is, dharma, jnana, vairagya and ais- varya in sattva; and adharma, a jnana, avairagya and anaisvarya in tamas. The subtle body inevitably transmigrates based upon these eight elements. Transmigration of the subtle body is, therefore, established by the inevitable causality of these eight elements. By virtue (is obtained) ascent to higher planes; by vice, descent to the lower; from wisdom (results) beatitude; and bondage from the reverse. From dispassion results absorption into prakrti; from passionate attach- ment, transmigration; from power, non-impediment (of desires); and from the reverse, the contrary. In these Karikas4), noteworthy is four inevitable causalities described in former half. For, we see there the way of transmigration of a subtle body (lirnga) in three (upper, middle and down) worlds and the way to be saved from the three worlds. The subtle body ascends with the help of dharma of yama, niyama and so on, and transmigrates in heaven; that is, the cause of ascension of subtle body is dharma. It descends with adharma which is against yama, niyama and so on, and transmigrates in the world of beast; that is, the cause of descent is adharma. And from a jnana come bonds of three worlds (自 性 縛, 布 施 縛, 変 異 縛), that is, cause of lihga's bonds of three worlds is a jnana-prakrti-laya, rajo-raga-samsara, aisvarya-vighata and

4) SK, 44-45: dharmena gamanam urdhvam gamanam adhastad bhavaty adharmena/ jnanena capavargo viparyayad isyate bandhah// vairagyat prakrti-layah samsaro bhavati rajasad ragat/ aisvaryad avighato viparyayad tadviparyasah//

-1057- (7) The Conception of Samsara' (E. Yamaguchi) anaisvarya-avighata. In this case, three worlds where the subtle body cransmigrates are not separated (avivekin) from the subtle body itself which transmigrates in three worlds, and are samanya and acetana as objects (visaya). For three worlds, just like the subtle body, consist of triguna (sattva, rajas and tamas) because it is a result of parinama of prakrti which consists of triguna, and whatever consists of triguna must be avivekin, samanya and acetana as the objects5). Generally speaking, sentient beings transmigrate in the present world as lingas (subtle bodies) which are effected by ajnana, and cannot escape from transmigration (non-salvation and attachment) in three worlds. Among three worlds, in upper world is sattva and sukha, in middle world (human world) is rajas and duhkha and in down world (beast world) is tamas and moha. But difference between three worlds is rather comparatively and three worlds are, generally speaking, samanya and acetana as what consists of triguna; this is called bhautika-sarga. In above are described conditions from upper world of brahman to down world of beast6>. Such a world of transmigration is, in fact, chosen by ourselves. That is called the theory of karma-phala in Buddhism; one must take consequences of one's own deeds. And it is also understood by noticing that the combi- nation of purusa with prakrti is aiming at experience (bhoga). Purusa means only ourselves that exist in the present. The world of transmigration is only ourselves, because parinama of prakrti i. e. transmigration of lirnga (subtle body) begins when such a purusa combines with prakrti aiming at

5) SK, 10-11: hetumad anityam avyapi sakriyam anekam asritam lingam/ savayavarh paratantrarh vyaktam, viparitam avyaktam// trigunam aviveki visayah samanyam acetanam prasavadharmi/ vyaktam tatha pradhanam tadviparitas tatha ca puman// 6) SK, 53-54: astavikalpo daivas tairyagyonas ca pancadha bhavati/ manusas caikavidhah samasato bhautikah sargah// urdhvam sattvavisalas tamo visalas ca mulatah sargah/ madhye rajovisalo brahmadistambhaparyantah//

-1056- The Conception of Sarhsara' (E. Yamaguchi) (8) experience of prakrti. But when we limit our worlds in human world only and differenciate other worlds from human world, we are to stay in three worlds and cannot see three worlds as those are. This state is called the bonds of three worlds which come from ajnana. To escape from three worlds and save ourselves, we must see every state in transmigration as samanya and acetana; that is, we must see whole the three transmigrating worlds. And to do so we must examine the transmi- gration by tracing back to its origin?).

7) SK, 21-22: purusasya darsanartham kaivalyartham tatha pradhanasya/ pangvandhavad ubhayor api sarhyogas tatkrtah sargah// prakrter mahams tato 'hankaras tasmad ganas ca sodasakah/ tasmad api sodasakat pancabhyah panca bh-atani// In these two karikas Samkhyacarya explains why the union of the two chief principles, purusa and prakrti, and describes the particulars of all the products of prakrti. In this case, one must examine every state in transmigration as samanya and acetana, in order to escape from transmig- rating worlds and save onself (moksa, purusa-kaivalya). Cf. SK, 3 and 65ff. SK, 3: mulaprakrtir avikrtir mahadadyah prakrti-vikrtayah sapta/ sodasakas to vikaro na prakrtir na vikrtih purusah// prakrti, the root of all beings, is no production, seven principles (mahat, ahankara and 5-tanmatras) are productions and productive; sixteen (11- indriyas and 5-mahabhutas) are productions (unproductive); purusa is neither a production nor productive. In this karika the three principal categories (the perceptible, imperceptible, and thinking one) are briefly defined, chiefly with regard to their relative characters. Existent things, according to one classification, are said to be fourfold: 1. prakrti; 2. vikrti; 3. prakrti-vikrti; and 4. neither prakrti nor vikrti. The object of Sarnkhya- karika is to define and explain these things, the perfect knowledge of which is of itself release from worldly bonds by final separation of soul (purusa-kaivalya).

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